title: Moondram Pirai

text: "Moondram Pirai" depicts a young woman whose mental state regresses to that of a child following an accident. Sexuality and the repression of desire are dominant motifs, similar to Balu Mahendra's previous film "Moodu Pani" (1980). The film also explores the possibility of unresolved sexual tension between the protagonists. When asked about the reason amnesia was chosen for a disability, Mahendra said the disorder is used as a camouflage and as an excuse to portray relationships in the film. Film critic Baradwaj Rangan finds the sequence where Cheenu narrates the story of the Blue Jackal to Viji to be a distant echo of the arc negotiated by Cheenu: "He is, after all, a nobody [like the jackal] who, through a salubrious twist of fate, becomes the ruler of a woman's life, until he is restored, at the end, to the nobody he was, a fraudulent claimant to her emotions."


title: Moondram Pirai

text: In his book "Dispatches from the wall corner: A journey through Indian cinema", Rangan says that although Haasan is inspired by Marlon Brando, the scene where Haasan burns himself while cooking and vents his anger on Sridevi, is reminiscent of the acting style of Marcel Marceau. In another book of Rangan, "Conversations with Mani Ratnam", he states that in the scene where Cheenu enters Bhagyalakshmi's room in the brothel, there was fumbling and embarrassment, whereas in another Haasan film "Nayakan" (1987), his character, Velu Nayakar, behaves as if he has visited a brothel before. "Nayakan"s director Mani Ratnam replied that the two scenes are very different from one another and that it "can't be played the same way". Rangan called "Moondram Pirai" "The apotheosis of [Balu Mahendra's] art".


title: Moondram Pirai

text: Nandini Ramnath, writing for the website Scroll.in, noted that "Moondram Pirai" contains elements common in Balu Mahendra's other films: "realism, evocative and naturalistic cinematography, strong performances, and psychosexual themes that drive the characters to make unusual and often tragic choices." Hari Narayan of "The Hindu" said Cheenu "looks like a melange of [John] Keats' tragedy and [Sigmund] Freud's psychoanalysis." Narayan explains the idea of Cheenu keeping Bhagyalaskhmi with him not only as an act of sympathy and love, but also with the intention to preserve her like a portrait. Narayan also states that when Bhagyalakshmi recovers her memory and forgets him, Cheenu is hesitant to come back to his quiet existence, realising that in reality, dreams feel like its antithesis. Malathi Rangarajan of "The Hindu" considers the usage of a railway station in the climax scene to reflect the Tamil cinema trope of "Turning points, crucial interludes and significant twists" taking place in such places. According to S. Shiva Kumar of "The Hindu", the climax of the film was a clear allusion to Mahendra's then wife Shoba's death. Thyagarajan denied this, saying Mahendra narrated the story to him much before, and Shoba's death occurred only once the project was being finalised.


title: Moondram Pirai

text: The music of the film was composed by Ilaiyaraaja. The soundtrack was released through the record label Agi Music. The number "Kannae Kalaimane", which is based on the "Kapi" raga, was written by Kannadasan in "about two minutes" time, after listening to the film's story and the situation for the song. According to his daughter Kalaiselvi, the song was written with his wife in mind. Kannadasan was present at the recording session of the song, which took place in September 1981. It was the last recorded song which Kannadasan wrote before his death in October 1981. "Poongatru" was based on the "Sindhu Bhairavi" raga.


title: Moondram Pirai

text: "Moondram Pirai" was given an "A" (adults only) certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification. According to Anand Mathew of "The Quint", this was done so because of Smitha who "saunters into the film now and then striking Khajuraho inspired poses with Kamal."


title: Moondram Pirai

text: When the film was screened to distributors at AVM Mena Hall, they were not happy about the film; however one distributor remarked that the film affected him emotionally, giving confidence to the filmmakers. The film was released on 19 February 1982, in 45 theatres in the state of Tamil Nadu. Due to Haasan's popularity, the crowd came in during the first day of the release; however since it was "a slow-moving film", business on the second day was "only OK. The third day was better. Monday was also just OK". The later picked up due to positive word-of-mouth, it became a "silver jubilee hit in many centres" and ran for more than a year in Subam theatre in Madras. According to Sathya Jyothi Films, "Moondram Pirai" received its highest distributor share in Madras and Coimbatore. The film was also screened at FILCA, a Film Festival held at Thiruvananthapuram in September 2014.


title: Moondram Pirai

text: "Moondram Pirai" was dubbed into Telugu under the title "Vasantha Kokila". The film was remade in Hindi as "Sadma" (1983), with Mahendra again directing while Haasan, Sridevi and Smitha reprised their roles.


title: Moondram Pirai

text: "Moondram Pirai" received critical acclaim. "Ananda Vikatan", in its original review of the film, dated 7 March 1982, praised the performances of Haasan and Sridevi, Ilaiyaraaja's background score and songs and the photography by Balu Mahendra, and gave the film 53 marks out of 100. "Mid-Day" critic wrote that in "Moondram Pirai", Mahendra "does not narrate a story in the traditional sense of the term. What embellish the film are not incidents or characters as they are commonly understood. He presents a whole fascinating array of vignetes and couches them in such endearing cinematic terms that it turns out to be a significant achievement not only for himself but also for the ethos he represents."


title: Moondram Pirai

text: "Kalki" appreciated "Moondram Pirai" as a rare film where the lead actress was able to outshine Haasan in acting. The critic also liked the way the story of the Blue Jackal was incorporated into the screenplay, appreciated Mahendra's cinematography, and concluded that the film was as perfect as a full moon. The magazine "Aside" gave a less favourable review, calling the film "a neon moon" and said, "There was at one time a brooding, premonitory quality about Balu Mahendra's movies ... but (he) has now gone into the trade of picture postcards and pani puri." After a brief word of praise for Haasan's performance in the climax ("darkly luminescent, like a rain drenched monsoon night") the reviewer added, "Kamal makes a very amusing monkey, but should he not rather be playing a human character?"


title: Moondram Pirai

text: According to Thyagarajan, Sridevi was a strong contender for the National Film Award for Best Actress, but lost to Shabana Azmi because of politics: "The makers of "Arth" had lobbied for Shabana Azmi to make her win. By the time we got to know this, it was too late".


title: Moondram Pirai

text: "Moondram Pirai" attained cult status in Tamil cinema for its "unique amalgamation of high emotional quotient and film-making style". The climax scene where Haasan's character, Cheenu, runs after Sridevi's character, Bhagyalakshmi, who has recovered her memory but forgets the incidents that occur between her accident and recovery completely, and Cheenu trying desperately to make Bhagyalakshmi remember the time she spent with him, to no effect, became popular and was parodied many times. The dialogue told by Smitha's character to Cheenu, "You haave a verrry strrong physique, you know", also attained popularity. A. P. Thiruvadi, in his obituary of Balu Mahendra, called him "The "Moondram Pirai" of Indian cinema". When S. Shiva Kumar of "The Hindu" suggested to Balu Mahendra that the film's ending lacked logic, Mahendra said, "Believe me there's no logic in life."


title: Moondram Pirai

text: In March 2005, Sneha, in an interview with Rediff, listed "Moondram Pirai" among her favourite films. In July 2007, S. R. Ashok Kumar of "The Hindu" asked eight Tamil film directors to list their all-time favourite Tamil films; two of them – Mani Ratnam and Ameer – named "Moondram Pirai". In September 2009, singer Harini, in an interview with "The Hindu", said that her favourite song is "Kanne Kalaimane". In February 2010, director R. Balki, in an interview with "Forbes India", called "Moondram Pirai" as his favourite film. In February 2015, "Moondram Pirai" topped Indumathy Sukanya of "The New Indian Express"' list of "Top 5 Tamil Romances". Baradwaj Rangan opined that the film was "a superb example of how the presence of a commercially viable plot and the participation of commercially viable actors and technicians can result in art."


title: Moondram Pirai

text: In July 2011, Janani Iyer said she considered a role like Sridevi's character, Bhagyalakshmi, as "really challenging." In March 2013, S. Shiva Kumar of "The Hindu" compared the climax of "Sethu" (1999) to the climax in "Moondram Pirai". In November 2013, S. Saraswathi of Rediff included "Moondram Pirai" in her list of the "10 best Films of Kamal Haasan". In February 2014, Arundhati said she "would love to play a role like Sridevi's in "Moondram Pirai"". Sridevi's performance in the film was included in "The Times of India"s 2015 list, "Sridevi: 5 times the actress bowled us with her performance". Although no print of "Moondram Pirai" has survived, the film is still available on home video. Balki mentioned in an April 2016 interview with Indo-Asian News Service, that "Moondram Pirai" "tremendously influenced" him as a filmmaker. Writer V. Vijayendra Prasad stated that he got the idea to write the story of the Telugu film "Simhadri" (2003) while watching "Moondram Pirai".


title: Moondram Pirai

text: Balu Mahendra's Telugu film "Nireekshana" (1982) was dubbed and released in Tamil as "Kanne Kalaimane". In "Manadhai Thirudivittai" (2001), Valayapathi (Vivek) pretends to have lost both his hands. His lover then promises to take care of him. The song "Kanne Kalaimane" is heard as the background music for the scene. In a comedy scene from "Run" (2002), Mohan (Vivek) imitates Haasan's mannerisms from the climax scene in "Moondram Pirai" to make his friend Shiva (R. Madhavan) recognise him but fails.


title: Moondram Pirai

text: Mahendra described his 2003 directorial venture "Julie Ganapathi" as an inverse of "Moondram Pirai" as it was about "a mad woman who has a normal man in her house". Malathi Rangarajan, in her review of "Deiva Thirumagal" (2011) said, "Probably because the scene of action is Ooty, the main character is mentally challenged, and the story-telling sequence with Vikram and the kid is familiar, at times ["Deiva Thirumagal"] reminds you of Balu Mahendra's inimitable "Moondraam Pirai"." Baradwaj Rangan compares a scene in "Barfi!" (2012), where Barfi (Ranbir Kapoor) goes after Shruti (Ileana D'Cruz) and stumbles, to that of "Moondram Pirai"'s climax scene.


title: Ayin

text: Ayin (also ayn or ain; transliterated ) is the sixteenth letter of the Semitic scripts, including Phoenician , Hebrew , Aramaic , Syriac ܥ, and Arabic (where it is sixteenth in abjadi order only).


title: Ayin

text: The letter represents a voiced pharyngeal fricative () or a similarly articulated consonant. In some Semitic languages and dialects, the phonetic value of the letter has changed, or the phoneme has been lost altogether (thus, in the revived Modern Hebrew it is reduced to a glottal stop or is omitted entirely in part due to European influence).


title: Ayin

text: The letter name is derived from Proto-Semitic "eye", and the Phoenician letter had the shape of a circle or oval, clearly representing an eye, perhaps ultimately (via Proto-Sinaitic) derived from the "ı͗r" hieroglyph (Gardiner D4).


title: Ayin

text: The sound represented by ayin is common to much of the Afroasiatic language family, such as in the Egyptian language, the Cushitic languages and the Semitic languages.


title: Ayin

text: In Semitic philology, there is a long-standing tradition of rendering Semitic ayin with the Greek rough breathing mark (e.g. Arabs).


title: Ayin

text: Depending on typography, this could look similar to either an articulate single opening quotation mark (e.g. ).


title: Ayin

text: This is by analogy to the transliteration of alef (glottal stop, hamza) by the Greek smooth breathing mark , rendered as single closing quotation mark or as raised semi-circle open to the left. This convention has been adopted by DIN in 1982 and by ISO in 1984 for Arabic (DIN 31635, ISO 233) and Hebrew (DIN 31636, ISO 259).


title: Ayin

text: The shape of the "raised semi-circle" for ayin and alef was adopted by the "Encyclopedia of Islam" (edited 1913–1938, 1954–2005, and from 2007), and from there by the "International Journal of Middle East Studies".


title: Ayin

text: A notable exception remains, ALA-LC (1991), the system used by the Library of Congress, continues to recommend modifier letter turned comma (for Hebrew) or left single quotation mark (for Arabic).


title: Ayin

text: The symbols for the corresponding phonemes in the International Phonetic Alphabet, for pharyngeal fricative (ayin) and for glottal stop (alef) were adopted in the 1928 revision.


title: Ayin

text: In anglicized Arabic or Hebrew names or in loanwords, ayin is often omitted entirely: Iraq , Arab , Saudi , etc.;


title: Ayin

text: In Arabic, the presence of ayin in front of "u" can sometimes be inferred even if it is not rendered separately, as the vowel quality is shifted towards "o" (e.g.


title: Ayin

text: Maltese, which uses a Latin alphabet, the only Semitic language to do so in its standard form, writes the ayin as . It is usually unvocalized in speech.


title: Ayin

text: In Unicode, the recommended character for the transliteration of ayin is (a character in the Spacing Modifier Letters range, even though it is here not used as a modifier letter but as a full grapheme). This convention has been adopted by ISO 233-2 (1993) for Arabic and ISO 259-2 (1994) for Hebrew.


title: Ayin

text: There are a number of alternative Unicode characters in use, some of which are easily confused or even considered equivalent in practice:


title: Ayin

text: Other variants chosen to represent ayin as a full grapheme (rather than a sign suggestive of an apostrophe or a diacritic):


title: Ayin

text: It is worth noting that the phonemes corresponding to alef and ayin in Ancient Egyptian are by convention


title: Ayin

text: transliterated by more distinctive signs: Egyptian alef is rendered by "two" semi-circles open to the left, stacked vertically,


title: Ayin

text: and Egyptian ayin is rendered by a single full-width semi-circle open to the right. These characters were introduced in Unicode in version 5.1 (2008, Latin Extended-D range), and .


title: Ayin

text: ʿayin has traditionally been described as a voiced pharyngeal fricative (). However, this may be imprecise. Although a pharyngeal fricative has occasionally been observed for ʿayin in Arabic and so may occur in Hebrew as well, the sound is more commonly epiglottal (), and may also be a pharyngealized glottal stop ().


title: Ayin

text: Remnants can be found in the Yiddish pronunciations of some words such as /ˈjaŋkəv/ and /ˈmansə/ from Hebrew ("yaʿăqōḇ", "Jacob") and ("maʿăse", "story"), but in other cases, the nasal has disappeared and been replaced by /j/, such as /ˈmajsə/ and /ˈmajrəv/ from Hebrew and ("maʿărāḇ", "west").


title: Ayin

text: In Israeli Hebrew (except for Mizrahi pronunciations), it represents a glottal stop in certain cases but is usually silent (it behaves the same as aleph). However, changes in adjoining vowels often testify to the former presence of a pharyngeal or epiglottal articulation. Additionally, it may be used as a shibboleth to identify the ethnolinguistic background of a Hebrew-speaker, as most Israeli Arab non-Jews and some of Israel’s Mizrahi Jews (mainly Yemenite Jews) use the more traditional pronunciation, while other Hebrew-speakers pronounce it similar to Aleph.


title: Ayin

text: In Hebrew loanwords in Greek and Latin, ʿayin is sometimes reflected as /g/, since the biblical phonemes (or "ʿ") and (represented by "g") were both represented in Hebrew writing by the letter ʿayin (see Ġain). Gomorrah is from the original (modern ʿAmora") and Gaza from the original (ʿaza") (cf. Arabic غزة Ġazzah, IPA: [ˈɣazza].)


title: Ayin

text: ʿayin is also one of the seven letters which receive special crowns (called "tagin") when written in a sefer Torah.


title: Ayin

text: The Arabic letter (called ) is the eighteenth letter of the alphabet. It is written in one of several ways depending on its position in the word:


title: Ayin

text: Arabic ʿayn is one of the most common letters in Arabic. Depending on the region, it ranges from a pharyngeal to an epiglottal . It is voiced, its unvoiced counterpart being . Due to its position as the innermost letter to emerge from the throat, al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi, who wrote the first Arabic dictionary, actually started writing with as the first letter instead of the eighteenth; he viewed its origins deep down in the throat as a sign that it was the first sound, the essential sound, the voice and a representation of the self.


title: Ayin

text: In the Persian language and other languages using the Persian alphabet, it is pronounced as (glottal stop), and rarely as in some languages.


title: Ayin

text: As in Hebrew, the letter originally stood for two sounds, and . When pointing was developed, the sound was distinguished with a dot on top (), to give the letter "ghayn". In Maltese, which is written with the Latin alphabet, the digraph għ, called "ʿajn", is used to write what was originally the same sound.


title: Ayin

text: Because the sound is difficult for most non-Arabs to pronounce, it is often used as a shibboleth by Arabic speakers; other sounds, such as and are also used.


title: Cattle prod

text: A cattle prod, also called a stock prod or a hot stick, is a handheld device commonly used to make cattle or other livestock move by striking or poking them. An electric cattle prod is a stick with electrodes on the end which is used to make cattle move via a relatively high-voltage, low-current electric shock. The electric cattle prod is said to have been invented by Texas cattle baron Robert J. Kleberg, Jr. of the King Ranch around 1930, although versions were sold as early as 1917.


title: Cattle prod

text: A hotshot is typically cylindrical, and can carry an open electric current at the "shock end" when activated. The electric current at the shock end runs through two metal electrodes. Anything that touches the electric current receives a high-voltage low-current shock, not strong enough to kill a human or a large animal such as a cow or sheep from short-term exposure, but strong enough to cause significant pain.


title: Cattle prod

text: The electric cattle prod is designed to inflict a painful shock to cattle, and thus "prod" them along; the pain stimulates movement. Some higher-voltage prods can interfere with radio and CB radio reception when activated.


title: Cattle prod

text: There are various designs of electric cattle prods. Their shape is often subject to guidelines of what can easily be used and handled. They range in length from six inches (usually of a more encased rectangular prism design like a stun gun), to up to six feet. As the precursor of stun guns, cattle prods also have a wide range of voltage with enough current to operate in the same manner as a stun gun does against humans. Whether it is called a cattle prod or a stun gun, both units are shaped for easy carry and function in the same manner against animals or humans. Most are simple designs powered by 9-volt or a combination of other types of batteries. Anything out of that range is usually too heavy and unwieldy for practical use. Another typical design is a box containing a large battery (or battery pack) at the handle end and wires embedded in a fibreglass rod, ending with two electrodes in a rubber tip. This design is well-suited for use as a regular cattle prod.


title: Cattle prod

text: The use of electric cattle prods has been debated by many people. Organizations such as PETA contend that the use of cattle prods is as much mentally harmful as it is physically. Most farmers contend that the short shock is minutely felt, and soon forgotten.


title: Cattle prod

text: Cattle prods today are designed with a high range of voltages and currents. If more powerful prods are applied continuously to the skin, the current eventually causes heating, searing, burning, and scarring of skin at the contact point. Electric prods have found favour with torturers.


title: Cattle prod

text: Prior to the development of stun batons and the taser, electric cattle prods were also used on people in varying degrees. Their first common usage on people occurred during the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s; prods were first adopted by police officers in Alabama to use on protesters and agencies elsewhere followed; Hotshot later developed an electric police baton.


title: Cattle prod

text: The picana is an electric prod based originally on the cattle prod but designed specifically for human torture. It works at very high voltage and low current so as to maximize pain and minimize the physical marks left on the victim. Among its advantages over other torture devices is that it is portable, easy to use, and allows the torturer to localize the electric shocks to the most sensitive places on the body, where they cause intense pain that can be repeated many times.


title: Cattle prod

text: Electric shock devices, including cattle prods, have been used as a means of coercive control on autistic and mentally handicapped people. Famous proponents of this practice include Matthew Israel and Ivar Lovaas. The use of electric shocks in this way has been condemned as torture by the United Nations special rapporteur, and the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban on all such electric shock devices in 2020.


title: Cattle prod

text: On August 14, 2013 in Lakewood Township, New Jersey, gang leader Mendel Epstein told two undercover Federal Bureau of Investigation agents that he used a cattle prod to coerce Jewish husbands to grant religious divorces to their wives, leading the press to nickname him "The Prodfather". The cattle prod had been favored as a torture device by Epstein due to its effectiveness when used on cattle. He was convicted of conspiring to commit kidnapping, and sentenced to 10 years in prison.


title: Cattle prod

text: Cattle can be difficult to move and direct for a variety of reasons. Prods can be useful for moving stubborn or aggressive animals, but often cattle will not move forward when they are fearful of something they see, hear, or smell. Removal of these distractions or hiding them, such as with solid wall partitions, can greatly reduce animal handling problems, however, cattle handlers cannot completely overcome the animal's decision not to move forward.


title: Cattle prod

text: By studying the psychology of the animals and redesigning the working environment it is possible to handle the animals without the need for brute force and causing pain and suffering to the animal in many, but not all, cases. Significant work in this regard has been done by Colorado State University professor Temple Grandin to study how cattle perceive the environment around them and to design better livestock slaughterhouse handling systems that do not induce fear into the animal.


title: Cattle prod

text: In the Martin Scorsese film "Casino", a cheating gambler is shocked with a cattle prod by a security guard, which is passed off as a heart attack. As an example of "cheater's justice," he is threatened with a circular saw and has his fingers broken with a hammer.


title: Cattle prod

text: In "Fargo", a television crime series based on the film of the same name, a cattle prod is used on numerous occasions as a weapon against humans in season 2.


title: Cattle prod

text: In the 1991 PBS American Experience episode on Coney Island, in the early 20th century, guests were subjected to a dwarf clown who would shock guests with an electric cattle prod.


title: Cattle prod

text: In "Pretty Little Liars", a popular television series, a cattle prod was used to torture one of the leading characters Hanna Marin.


title: Cattle prod

text: In Ridley Scott's 1979 horror film "Alien", Ellen Ripley and her crew attempt to capture an escaped Xenomorph with the help of a cattle prod.


title: Cattle prod

text: In Margaret Atwood's 1985 novel "The Handmaid's Tale" and the 2017 Hulu TV series adaptation, cattle prods are used by the Aunts to control the Handmaids, a class of fertile women who serve as surrogates for the ruling Commanders.


title: Cattle prod

text: In the early 90s, WWE wrestler The Mountie would use a cattle prod aka shock stick on opponents. In WCW, wrestler Scott Hall would use a cattle prod on wrestler Bill Goldberg in his match against Kevin Nash in Starrcade 1998.


title: Cattle prod

text: In "Bottom", a British television sitcom, in Season 3 Episode 2 ("Terror"), a homemade cattle prod device is used to convince people to hand over money during Halloween.


title: Cattle prod

text: Cattle prods feature as usable weapons in the video games Fallout, Fallout 2 and , the latter themed around agricultural society in the American Southwest.


title: Cattle prod

text: In the 2017 film "The Shape of Water", a cattle prod features prominently. It is the weapon of choice used by the primary antagonist, Col. Strickland, who carries it with him constantly. Strickland uses the cattle prod to torture both a captive amphibian man and a Soviet spy.


title: Cattle prod

text: In the world premiere for the 2022 film "Jackass Forever", Johnny Knoxville uses a cattle prod to kick Sami Zayn out of the premiere, whilst in the midst of their kayfabe feud on WWE.


title: Cattle prod

text: In the massive multiplayer online computer game "Runescape", a "cattleprod" is used as part of a members-only quest to move sheep to specific locations.


title: Belted Galloway

text: The Belted Galloway is a traditional Scottish breed of beef cattle. It derives from the Galloway cattle of the Galloway region of south-western Scotland, and was established as a separate breed in 1921. It is adapted to living on the poor upland pastures and windswept moorlands of the region. The exact origin of the breed is unclear, although the white belt for which they are named, and which distinguishes the breed from black Galloway cattle, is often surmised to be the result of cross-breeding with the similarly-coloured Dutch Lakenvelder breed.


title: Belted Galloway

text: Belted Galloways are primarily raised for their quality marbled beef, although they are sometimes milked or kept for ornament.


title: Belted Galloway

text: The Belted Galloway derives from the traditional Galloway cattle of the Galloway region of south-western Scotland, which in turn form part of a broader group of traditional Scottish cattle including the Aberdeen Angus and Highland breeds. Galloways are most often black, but other colours occur; the white-belted or white-middled Galloway being one of them. The origin of the white belt is unknown; it is thought to have resulted from some cross-breeding with Dutch Lakenvelder cattle in the seventeenth century.


title: Belted Galloway

text: From 1852, both Aberdeen Angus and Galloways could be registered in a herd-book for polled cattle. A separate Galloway herd-book was established in 1878. In 1921, a group of breeders set up the Dun and Belted Galloway Association, which – as the name suggests – registered both belted and dun-coloured Galloway cattle; its first herd-book was published in 1922. In 1951 registration of dun cattle was discontinued, and the society changed its name to the Belted Galloway Society.


title: Belted Galloway

text: In the twentieth century, Belted Galloways were exported to many countries including Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the United States. Breed societies were started in New Zealand in 1948, in the US in 1951, and in Australia in 1975.


title: Belted Galloway

text: Like other breeds, the Belted Galloway suffered heavily during the epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease in the British Isles in 2001, and a substantial part of the total population was lost. By 2007, numbers had recovered to the point where it could be removed from the endangered native breed watchlist of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust; in the same year the global breed population was listed by the FAO as "not at risk". In 2012, there were approximately 3,500 registered breeding cows in the United Kingdom.


title: Belted Galloway

text: It is listed by the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy as a "recovering" breed, which means there are more than 2,500 annual registrations in the United States and a global population greater than 10,000, but they were once on the "watch" list. About 18,390 cattle were registered in the US in 2015.


title: Belted Galloway

text: Galloway cattle are naturally polled (without horns). The most visible characteristics are its long hair coat and the broad white belt that completely encircles its body. Its coarse outer coat helps shed the rain, and its soft undercoat provides insulation and waterproofing, enabling the breed to spend winter outside. Black Belteds are the most prominent, but Dun and Red Belteds are also recognised by breed societies, the latter being comparatively rare and sought after. A female Belted Galloway cannot be registered in the Herd Book if it has white above the dewclaw other than the belt, but can be registered in the Appendix. A bull can only be registered in the Herd Book if it has no other white than the belt.


title: Belted Galloway

text: The dun colour is caused by a mutation in the "PMEL" gene, the same mutation that causes dun and silver dun in Highland cattle. The black and red coat colours are caused by the same alleles of the "MC1R" gene, E for black and e/e for red, as in most other breeds of cattle.


title: Belted Galloway

text: Bulls weigh from , with the average being around . Cows weigh from , with the average being around . Calves generally weigh around for females and for males at birth. Belted Galloways are generally of a quiet temperament, but still maintain a maternal instinct and protect calves against perceived threats.


title: Belted Galloway

text: They are well-suited for rough grazing land and will use coarse grasses other breeds would shun. They are able to maintain a good condition on less than ideal pasture, and produce high-quality beef on grass alone. They have on occasions attacked people.


title: Belted Galloway

text: The Belted Galloway is reared mainly for beef; it may also be used for vegetation management. An old strain is listed as the "Original Belted Galloway Cattle" in the Ark of Taste of the Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity.


title: Osteophyte

text: Osteophytes are exostoses (bony projections) that form along joint margins. They should not be confused with enthesophytes, which are bony projections that form at the attachment of a tendon or ligament. Osteophytes are not always distinguished from exostoses in any definite way, although in many cases there are a number of differences. Osteophytes are typically intra-articular (within the joint capsule).


title: Osteophyte

text: A range of bone-formation processes are associated with aging, degeneration, mechanical instability, and disease (such as diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis). Osteophyte formation has classically been related to sequential and consequential changes in such processes. Often osteophytes form in osteoarthritic joints as a result of damage and wear from inflammation. Calcification and new bone formation can also occur in response to mechanical damage in joints.


title: Osteophyte

text: Osteophytes form naturally on the back of the spine as a person ages and are a clinical sign of degeneration in the spine. In this case, the osteophytes are commonly not the source of back pains, but instead are a sign of an underlying problem. However, osteophytes on the spine can impinge on nerves that leave the spine for other parts of the body. This impingement can cause pain in both upper and lower limbs and a numbness or tingling sensations in the hands and feet because the nerves are supplying sensation to their dermatomes.


title: Osteophyte

text: Osteophytes on the fingers or toes are known as Heberden's nodes (if on the distal interphalangeal joint) or Bouchard's nodes (if on the proximal interphalangeal joints).


title: Osteophyte

text: Normally, asymptomatic cases are not treated. Non-steroidal anti inflammatory drugs and surgery are two typical options for cases requiring treatment.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: Sweet Valley High is a series of young adult novels attributed to American author Francine Pascal, who presided over a team of ghostwriters to produce the series. The books chronicle the lives of identical twins Jessica and Elizabeth Wakefield, who live in the fictional Sweet Valley, California, a suburb near Los Angeles. The twins and their friends attend Sweet Valley High.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: The series began in 1983, and concluded twenty years later after the publication of 181 books. The books are generally classified as young adult or children's fiction and belong mostly to the genre of soap opera, romance novel or fantasy-adventure. The series quickly gained popularity and spawned several spin-off series, including "Sweet Valley Senior Year" and "Sweet Valley University", as well as a television adaptation. In July 2017, a film adaptation was also announced.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: The novels "Sweet Valley Confidential" and "The Sweet Life", which follow the characters as adults, were published in 2011 and 2012.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: The twins are seven-year-old second graders at Sweet Valley Elementary School in this series, which included several Special Editions and "Super Snooper" mystery books.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: The Sweet Valley Twins series features the twins as sixth grade students attending Sweet Valley Middle School. Though the series focuses primarily on Elizabeth and Jessica, it also features stories of their friends and classmates. Some relationships from "Sweet Valley High" have changed, such as Amy Sutton being a good friend to Elizabeth rather than Jessica, as they are in high school. The series was succeeded by "The Unicorn Club" and "Sweet Valley Jr. High".


title: Sweet Valley High

text: The Unicorn Club is a spin-off of "Sweet Valley Twins", featuring the Unicorn Club introduced in the "Twins" series. The series takes place when the twins are seventh graders, still at Sweet Valley Middle School. This series focused on the club members in general, not specifically the twins.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: This series occurs when the twins are eighth graders. Elizabeth and Jessica are rezoned to Sweet Valley Junior High, where a number of new characters are introduced. Elizabeth adjusts quickly to the new school and becomes popular among her peers. Jessica does not adapt to Sweet Valley Junior High as quickly as Elizabeth, especially as she struggles to establish some semblance of the popularity she enjoyed in middle school.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: Following the conclusion of the original "Sweet Valley High" series, the twins' final year of high school was depicted in "SVH: Senior Year". After the devastating earthquake that claimed the lives of their friends and destroyed their homes, the damage to the El Carro High forces a redistribution of its students to local high schools in Sweet Valley and Big Mesa. Elizabeth and Jessica find their senior year to be as emotionally tumultuous as the last as new relationships are formed, old ones are changed, and they must look forward to life after high school.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: After graduating from Sweet Valley High, Jessica and Elizabeth attend Sweet Valley University, where they begin a new chapter of their lives.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: Chronologically this is the final chapter in the series and the only spin-off that did not feature Jessica directly. It continues from the plot that occurred at the end of "Sweet Valley University"; Elizabeth flees to London, intending to continue her schooling. The series has six books.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: "Sweet Valley Confidential" was published on March 29, 2011. The story was entirely written by creator Francine Pascal, and is set 10 years following the conclusion of the previous novel. Prior to the novel's release, Pascal stated, "I can tell you that what you thought was going to happen to those people doesn't happen. Different things happen. Ten years, from 16 to adulthood, has made very different people. And I'm having kind of a good time writing it, doing what I want to do with these people." Most reviews by professional critics were negative. One review from "Entertainment Weekly" stated, "Make no mistake: This is a very bad book, bloated and silly and, worst of all, often quite boring."


title: Sweet Valley High

text: Fans of the series have given mixed-to-negative reviews, citing many inconsistencies and canonical errors. For example, near the beginning of the book, Elizabeth's ex-boyfriend Jeffrey French is mentioned as being happily married, while in the last "epilogue" chapter, he is "still unmarried and unattached." There are many other mistakes in the epilogue as well, such as what happened to Suzanne Devlin: "Suzanne was forced to leave Sweet Valley but returned 6 months later a changed person; unfortunately, she was ill with multiple sclerosis. She apologized to everyone, then crashed her specially equipped car after taking medication with champagne." Suzanne Devlin was mistakenly diagnosed with MS in the "SVH" magna edition "Perfect Christmas", but then finds out that she was misdiagnosed, and she and Todd fall in love. In describing what became of Roger Collins, Pascal states that after having been accused of molestation by Suzanne Devlin (book 11, "Too Good to be True"), he "felt too uncomfortable being a teacher and left to become a nonfiction writer." "SVHC" also says his son's name is "Sam," not "Teddy," as in all the "SVH" books. Another inconsistency is the way Jessica talks in the book, peppering her sentences with "So," and "like," which is a departure from the way she spoke in the "SVH" and "SVU" series.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: The story begins with Elizabeth in New York, where she is working on a magazine called "Show Survey", described as "a sort of Zagat for Off Broadway." Through flashbacks, we learn that Jessica and Todd had been having an affair off and on for the last five years, and that eight months ago Elizabeth discovered their duplicity, and has not spoken to either of them since. A few characters from the original series pop up, most notably Winston Egbert, who invested in a dot-com venture with Bruce Patman (also a major character in this book, Bruce's personality changed dramatically when both of his parents died, making him a more caring, sensitive person). Time, unrequited love and other negative life experiences have turned Winston into a bitter hateful Scrooge-like miser who womanizes and shows contempt for himself and all humanity. He no longer has any friends. He dies midway through the book from an "accidental" drunken fall from his 20-story balcony. Jessica and Todd still live together in Sweet Valley. Jessica has a very successful career for a cosmetics marketing company called "MYFACEISGREEN" and Todd is a successful sports columnist. They are very much in love, but haunted by what they have done to Elizabeth and by the vicious gossip that surrounds them.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: The twins are expected to attend their grandmother's eightieth birthday party. Elizabeth is torn, not wanting to see her sister and Todd again, but wanting revenge for what Jessica has done to her. She goes to the party, bringing Liam, a handsome bartender she has met in New York in order to have him flirt with Jessica and get her revenge for the affair. However, it proves to be a failure as he instead flirts with her older brother, Steven (who also comes out as gay). Liz's actions ends up causing a rift between Jessica and Todd, which escalates into a free-for-all between all the members of the family. Alice Wakefield, the twins' mother, desperately tries to keep the peace, repeatedly asking the staff to serve the cake, finally losing her cool and screaming to her husband, "Ned! Bring out the fucking cake!" After the party, Ned and Alice reprimands Elizabeth for her behavior. They blame her for not only ruining her grandmother, Marjorie's birthday party, but also Jessica and Todd's relationship. Fed up with her family for defending Jessica and not understanding where she's coming from, Liz prepares to leave for New York. Before she could leave, Bruce sympathetically talks to Elizabeth and convinces her to take a long hard look at herself by using their old friend, Winston, as an example.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: Later that night, lying in bed, Jessica realizes that in order to get her sister back, she has to give up Todd. She packs a bag and heads to New York to see her sister. Meanwhile, Elizabeth has been doing some serious thinking on the plane at Bruce's admonition. She finally comes to the realization that she and Todd weren't going to make it work a long time ago, but was too much of a "commitment control freak" to admit it to herself. Elizabeth finds Jessica on her doorstep to apologize for what happened. At first, she didn't want to forgive her, but remembering Bruce's wise words, she relents and the sisters hold each other, sobbing, and make up. Elizabeth apologizes to Jessica in ruining her relationship with Todd and convinces her that Bruce had talked to her. She accepted that she and Todd were long over, but was an extreme control commitment freak to admit it. She gives Jessica her blessing to be with him. The epilogue takes place at Jessica and Todd's wedding, which many of the characters attend. Bruce professes his love for Elizabeth, and the two of them presumably live happily ever after.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: The new series features six confirmed books and takes place a few years after 2011's "Sweet Valley Confidential". Elizabeth, Jessica and Todd are now thirty. Both Jess and Todd have a son as well. And the two have an affair and nearly divorce after their trial separation. They then get back together after they declare their love for one another. At the end of book six, Elizabeth is hoping that Bruce will propose, but instead he confesses to being in love with another woman. However, Liz soon finds her true love in the least likeliest of places, Aaron Dallas.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: A TV series based on "Sweet Valley High" ran for 88 episodes between 1994 and 1997. It starred real-life twins Brittany and Cynthia Daniel (formerly Doublemint twin models) as Jessica and Elizabeth respectively. The twins also modeled for later editions of the book covers. The show ran for four seasons.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: There were notable differences between the television series and the books. New characters were created, such as Reginald "Shred" Patman and Renata Vargas, while other characters were removed, such as Ned, Alice, and Steven Wakefield. Also, while the books are classified in the romance or fantasy/adventure genres, the television series was played out in a more humorous fashion.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: In December 2021, it was reported that a new television series adaptation titled, "Sweet Valley", is in the works at The CW. The project will be co-produced between CBS Studios, Paramount Television Studios and Fake Empire Productions with Josh Schwartz, Stephanie Savage, and Ashley Wigfield as executive producers.


title: Sweet Valley High

text: Many tie-in products were produced for this series (primarily the "Sweet Valley High" run) including a series of puzzles (4), a board game, audio book versions of selected "SVH" books (6), commercially available VHS (2) and a DVD of the "SVH" TV Series, a CD soundtrack for the TV show, dolls and doll clothing (6), a neon sign, at least one calendar (for the year 1989/90) and books that were not part of the series (including TV tie-in reprints, a trivia book, a behind-the-scenes book about the TV show, and a "Slam Book").


title: German Grand Prix

text: The German Grand Prix () was a motor race that took place most years since 1926, with 75 races having been held. The race has been held at only three venues throughout its history; the Nürburgring in Rhineland-Palatinate, Hockenheimring in Baden-Württemberg and occasionally AVUS in Berlin. The race continued to be known as the German Grand Prix, even through the era when the race was held in West Germany.


title: German Grand Prix

text: Because West Germany was prevented from taking part in international events in the immediate post-war period, the German Grand Prix only became part of the Formula One World Championship in 1951. It was designated the European Grand Prix four times between 1954 and 1974, when this title was an honorary designation given each year to one Grand Prix race in Europe. It has been organised by the Automobilclub von Deutschland (AvD) since 1926.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The German Grand Prix was held at Hockenheimring every year between 1977 and 2006 (except 1985). During this time, a separate F1 race was held in Germany at the Nürburgring most years from until 2007 under the title of the European Grand Prix. Originally intended to begin in 2007, Hockenheimring and the Nürburgring alternated hosting the German Grand Prix between 2008 and 2014, at which point Nürburgring pulled out of hosting the event in 2015, leaving Hockenheim the sole host of the race but only in alternating years until 2018. A further one-year deal placed the German Grand Prix on the 2019 calendar. , a race under the name of 'German Grand Prix' has not been run again although Germany hosted the 2020 Eifel Grand Prix at the Nürburgring.


title: German Grand Prix

text: In 1907, Germany staged the first of the "Kaiserpreis" () races at the 73-mile (118 km) Taunus public road circuit, just outside Frankfurt. The same circuit had been used three years earlier for the 1904 Gordon Bennett Cup race, which was won by Leon Thery in a Brasier, beating Belgian Camille Jenatzy in a Mercedes. Entries were limited to touring cars with engines of less than eight litres. The race itself was a tragedy; a driver and his co-driver were killed 19 miles into the lap and the Taunus circuit was never used again. There was a medical team there, but it took them two and a half hours to get to the site of the accident, of which driver Otto Göbel was badly injured and his co-driver Ludwig Faber, who was pinned under their "Adler" was already dead. Göbel died of his injuries in hospital later on. Italy's Felice Nazzaro won the race in a Fiat. The Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt was the biggest German international race which was held from 1908 to 1911 and was organized by Prince Albert Wilhelm Heinrich, These races were point-to-point races which would last a week, would start in Berlin and the competitors had to traverse varying terrains over multiple countries covering around 2,000 km (1,250 mi). Although this kind of racing had been banned in France because of multiple fatal accidents, these races were held with touring cars and the first rallies of any kind and had equal prestige of the "Kaiserpreis" races before them with drivers such as Nazzaro competing in them.


title: German Grand Prix

text: In the early 1920s, ADAC Eifelrennen races were held on the twisty 33.2 km (20.6 mi) Nideggen public road circuit near Cologne and Bonn. Sometime around 1925, the construction of a dedicated race track was proposed just south of the Nideggen circuit around the ancient castle of the town of Nürburg, following the examples of Italy's Monza and Targa Florio courses, and Berlin's AVUS, yet with a different character. The layout of the circuit in the mountains was similar to the Targa Florio event, one of the most important motor races at that time. The original Nürburgring was to be a showcase for German automotive engineering and racing talent. Construction of the track, designed by the "Eichler Architekturbüro" from Ravensburg (led by architect Gustav Eichler), began in September 1925.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The first national event in German Grand Prix motor racing was held at the AVUS (Automobil Verkehrs und Übungs-Straße (Automobile Traffic and Practice Road)) race circuit in southwestern Berlin in 1926 as a sports car race. The AVUS circuit was made up of two 6-mile straights combined with two left-hand hairpins at each end. The first race at AVUS, in heavy rain, was won by Germany's native son, Rudolf Caracciola in a Mercedes-Benz. The event was marred by Adolf Rosenberger's crash into one of the marshals' huts, killing three people. The AVUS circuit was considered extremely dangerous even back then- so the event was moved. The German "Grand Prix" became an official event in 1929. Although it was raced on in the non-championship AVUS-Rennen in the 1930s which saw some of the fastest road races ever held, the Grand Prix would not return to AVUS until 1959 for a one-off appearance. It should have had another race in 1960 but this Grand Prix was run as a Formula Two race instead at the Nürburgring on the Südschleife layout.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The "Grand Prix" moved to the new, 28.3 km (17.6 mi) Nürburgring, located in the Eifel Mountain region in western Germany about 70 miles (112 km) from Frankfurt and Cologne. It was inaugurated on 18 June 1927 with the annual race, the ADAC "Eifelrennen". This was a huge, incredibly challenging racing circuit that sped and twisted through forests of the Eifel Mountains, and had over 1000 feet (300 m) of elevation change and many spots where the cars visibly left the ground, such as the Flugplatz, Brunnchen and Pflanzgarten sections. There were two more races on the "Gesamtstrecke" (Combined circuit) combined course, which were both sportscar races, where German pre-war great Rudolf Caracciola would win his second of six German Grands Prix.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The 1930 and 1933 races were cancelled due to economic reasons related to the Great Depression. In 1931, the event began to use only the 14.2-mile (22.8 km) "Nordschleife" (North Loop), and this would continue onwards throughout the century. Caracciola would win the 1931 and 1932 events in a Mercedes and an Alfa Romeo respectively. Starting in 1934, there were often several races each year with the so-called "Silver Arrows" "Grand Prix" cars in Germany, e.g. the "Eifelrennen", the AVUS race and several hillclimbs. Yet it was only the Grand Prix at the Nürburgring that was the national "Grande Epreuve", which counted toward the European Championship from 1935 to 1939. The 1935 event was considered to be one of the greatest motorsports victories of all time. Italian legend Tazio Nuvolari, driving a hopelessly outdated and underpowered Alfa Romeo against state-of-the-art Mercedes and Auto Unions drove a very hard race in appalling conditions. After a dreadful start, he was able to pass a number of cars, particularly while some of the German cars pitted. But after a botched pit stop that cost him six minutes, he drove on the limit, made up that time and was second by the start of the last lap; 35 seconds behind leader Manfred von Brauchitsch in a Mercedes. Von Brauchitsch had ruined his tyres by pushing very hard in the dreadful conditions and Nuvolari was able to catch the German and take victory in front of the stunned German High Command and 350,000 spectators. The small 42-year-old Italian ended up finishing in front of eight running Silver Arrows. Second placed Hans Stuck was two minutes behind Nuvolari.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The 1936 race was won by German driver Bernd Rosemeyer, driving an Auto Union, who also won the Eifelrennen event at the Nordschleife in spectacular style, earning the nickname "Fog Master". The 1937 race saw Carraciola win again in a Mercedes and Auto Union driver Ernst Von Delius die after a crash near the Antonius Bridge on the main straight. Von Delius hit the back of Briton Richard Seaman's Mercedes at 250 km/h (154 mph) and he went flying through a bush and into a field. The car then ended up as a wreck on the side of the road next to the main straight. Von Delius suffered a broken leg and other injuries. He was expected to make a full recovery; but died the following night of thrombosis and other complications. Seaman crashed into a kilometre post and suffered minor injuries; but he survived. The Briton would come back to the Nürburgring to win the 1938 race, also in a Mercedes, which was to be his only championship Grand Prix victory. In 1939 a new track was built near Dresden, called the "Deutschlandring", which was intended to host the 1940 German Grand Prix. However, because of the outbreak of World War II, the race was never run and the circuit never utilised for competition. In the same year, Caracciola took his sixth German Grand Prix victory. Soon afterwards Germany was at war and the Grand Prix did not return to international status until 1951.


title: German Grand Prix

text: After World War II, Germany had been separated into Eastern and Western territories, and West Germany was banned from international sporting events until 1951. A non-championship Formula 2 race was won by Alberto Ascari in 1950 at the Nürburgring. The German Grand Prix was included as part of the new Formula One championship in its second season. The Nordschleife was to be the mainstay of West Germany's premier motor racing event for the next quarter of a century, and was to be known as the toughest and most technically challenging circuit on the F1 calendar. The expanse of the circuit allowed an average of 375,000 spectators each year to watch the very popular event. The 1951 race was one where Argentine Juan Manuel Fangio led for 14 laps; but he had to refuel his Alfa and he only had third and fourth gears left. While in the pits, he was overtaken by Ascari in a Ferrari and went on to finish second behind the Italian. Fangio won for the first time in 1954 in a Mercedes; the first time a factory Mercedes Grand Prix car had been taken part in 15 years. He won driving the new open-wheeled W196, built at Fangio's request. This event also saw the death of Argentine driver Onofre Marimón in a Maserati 250F during practice. Due to lack of knowledge of the circuit, crucial to doing well at the Nürburgring, he failed to negotiate a tricky bend near the Adenauer Bridge. He went off the road, ploughed through a hedge and down a steep slope, and the car sheared off a tree and tumbled down the slope. Once it came to a stop, Marimón was pinned underneath the 670 kg (1,480 lb) 250F, cars in those days had no roll-over bars to prevent the car from pinning and crushing the driver in the event of an accident; this is what happened to Marimón. The hapless Argentine's injuries were bad enough to kill him a few minutes after the incident. His compatriot and devastated friend Fangio went to check the wreckage of the Maserati; he found it in fourth gear of four; this corner was normally taken in an F1 car in third gear. This proved the accident to be unfortunately of driver error. The 1955 event was cancelled in the aftermath of the Le Mans disaster; all auto racing in Germany (and much of Europe) was banned until the tracks could be upgraded. Fangio would win the next two events.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The 1957 event saw a number of changes. It included a Formula 2 race which was run concurrently alongside the Formula One cars. The track had been resurfaced and the concrete road surface (which was in very bad shape) which made up the pit straight, the Sudkurve and the straight behind the pits was taken out and replaced with tarmac. The 1957 event is, like Nuvolari's 1935 victory, one of the greatest motorsports victories of all time. Fangio led for the beginning of the race in front of two Ferraris driven by Britons Mike Hawthorn and Peter Collins. Fangio planned to refuel during mid-distance; and he did. The pit stop was expected to take 30 seconds. It was a botched one and it took 78 seconds. Fangio was now nearly a minute behind Hawthorn and Collins. He began a charge where he made up several seconds on each lap. He tore huge chunks out of the lap record, breaking it nine times. On the 21st lap (the second-to-last lap) he passed Collins behind the pits, then Hawthorn late into the same lap. The 46-year-old Argentine won the race (his 24th and final F1 victory) and his fifth and final championship. 1958 saw the distance shortened to 15 laps; Briton Tony Brooks won driving a Vanwall. Vanwall was the first British constructor to win a German Grand Prix. Collins crashed into a ditch next to the track at Pflanzgarten, and was thrown out of his car and hit a tree head first. He received severe head injuries and eventually died in a hospital near the circuit.


title: German Grand Prix

text: 1959 saw the race go to the ultra-fast AVUS circuit in Berlin. This was the only Formula One race that took place there and was won by Brooks in a Ferrari. The AVUS circuit was now made up of two 2.5-mile straights, a tight left-handed hairpin at one end and a huge 43° brick banking constructed in 1937 on the other end, which was known as "Die Mauer des Todes" (English: "The Wall of Death"). Frenchman and prominent Formula One driver Jean Behra was killed during a support sportscar race driving a Porsche. He lost control and the Porsche went up and flew off the banking there, which had no safety wall or barrier of any kind. Behra was thrown 300 feet from his car and his head struck a flagpole; killing him instantly. Behra had been fired by Ferrari after an altercation in a restaurant in Reims with the Scuderia's manager shortly before his death.


title: German Grand Prix

text: For 1960 the race was moved back to the Nürburgring, but this time on the smaller 4.7-mile (7.7 km) "Südschleife" (South Loop) section. The race was held for Formula 2 rather than Formula 1, causing the race to lose its championship status, but giving the German spectators what they had missed since 1954, as Porsche had strong new cars built to the 1.5 litre regulations which were to become Formula 1 from 1961. Running the shorter circuit, and lower class, had the benefit of lowering costs in policing and starting money for the organisers.


title: German Grand Prix

text: For the rest of the 1960s saw nine Formula One events take place at the Nordschleife. The 1961 event was won by Briton Stirling Moss driving a privately entered Lotus. Moss was able to hold off the two powerful and faster Ferraris of American Phil Hill and German Wolfgang von Trips. A clever tyre choice and skilful driving in wet weather conditions helped Moss to finish 16 seconds in front of von Trips. The 1964 event saw Dutch gentleman driver Carel Godin de Beaufort die during practice after he went off at Bergwerk corner. His orange Porsche went through bushes, down an embankment and then hit a tree. He died from his injuries in a hospital near the circuit. Briton John Surtees won for the second year in a row from Jim Clark. In 1965 Clark won, his seventh Formula One victory of that season and won his second Drivers' Championship in a Lotus. 1966 saw changeable weather conditions and a battle between Australian Jack Brabham and Surtees with Brabham taking victory. Briton John Taylor was killed after he hit the back of Belgian Jacky Ickx's Formula 2 Matra MS5 near the bridge at Quddlebacher and Flugplatz. Taylor crashed and his Brabham BT11 caught fire. He received severe burns, from which he succumbed to a month later.


title: German Grand Prix

text: In 1967 a chicane was added before the pits but the cars were already matching 1965 lap times. The 1968 event was yet the scene of another great victory. This event took place in heavy rain and fog. Briton Jackie Stewart won the race by more than four minutes from Graham Hill; he was 30 seconds ahead of the second placed Hill by the end of the first lap. Stewart held the lead amid a driving rainstorm and thick fog.


title: German Grand Prix

text: Jacky Ickx won in 1969 driving a Brabham. The Belgian had made a bad start, clawed back through the field and after a long battle with Stewart, Ickx took the lead from Stewart on Lap 5. The Scot fell back with gearbox problems, leaving the Belgian in a dominant position. Stewart was able to hold on to second place, nearly a minute behind. German driver Gerhard Mitter was killed during practice driving a BMW 269 Formula 2 car after his rear suspension failed and the car went straight on at the downhill section near the very fast Schwedenkreuz bend. This was the fifth Formula One-related fatality at the 14.2-mile German circuit in 15 years, the most out of all the circuits yet used for the championship.


title: German Grand Prix

text: 1970 however was to start the demise of the Nordschleife for international motor racing. After the death of Piers Courage at the Dutch Grand Prix a few months previously, the Grand Prix Drivers' Association had a meeting at a hotel in London. Despite considerable pressure from outside parties they voted not to race at the notorious German circuit unless significant changes were made to the track safety conditions of the Nürburgring. Speeds of Formula One cars had increased dramatically as had the technology- the cars were lapping the 'Ring more than 2 minutes faster than they had in 1951, and it had become clear that the Nürburgring, which was essentially a rough, unprotected road that went through forests and valleys situated in an expansive mountain range, was too dangerous and outdated for Grand Prix racing. The changes demanded by the drivers were refused by the circuit owners and organizers and could not possibly be made in time for the 1970 event, forcing a hasty switch to the fast Hockenheimring, which had already been upgraded with safety features. The race itself proved to be an exciting one, as it was won by Austrian Jochen Rindt, resisting a charging Ickx in a Ferrari.


title: German Grand Prix

text: 1971 saw the race return to a modified Nürburgring. It was made smoother, straighter and was fitted with Armco barriers and run-off areas wherever possible. But with the layout being virtually the same as before, the circuit retained much of the character that led Stewart to call it "The Green Hell." It was less dangerous than it had been before, but the 'Ring was still by far the most technically challenging circuit on the F1 calendar. It was still dangerously rough and narrow in many areas, and even though some of the worst bumps, jumps and windy straights (particularly at Brunnchen and the Adenauer Bridge) had been smoothed over or made straight, there were still some big jumps on the track, particularly at Flugplatz and Pflanzgarten. Also, there were still some parts of the track that did not have Armco, but more of this was added through the years. The first event on the rebuilt Nordschleife saw Stewart win from his teammate François Cevert, who battled the Swiss Clay Regazzoni for 2nd with for nearly a quarter of the race. The 1972 event saw Jacky Ickx dominate in his Ferrari and Stewart crashed on the last lap after tangling with Regazzoni. The 1973 race was dominated by Tyrrell teammates Stewart and Cevert; and it was to be the 27th and last victory of Stewart's illustrious career. 1974 saw New Zealander Howden Ganley crash heavily at Hatzenbach, seriously injuring the Kiwi. Ganley had already crashed heavily at the Nürburgring the year before and he decided to end his F1 career after his 1974 accident. The race saw Regazzoni win after Austrian Niki Lauda (who had crashed and had broken his wrist at the previous year's German Grand Prix) and South African Jody Scheckter tangled on the first lap; Lauda was out but Scheckter went on to finish second. Briton and multiple motorcycle world champion Mike Hailwood crashed heavily in a McLaren at Pflanzgarten and broke his leg, his auto racing career was effectively ended by this crash. 1975 saw Lauda become the only driver ever to lap the old Nürburgring in under seven minutes; the Austrian lapped the monstrous circuit in his Ferrari in 6 minutes, 58.6 seconds at an average speed of 122 mph (196 km/h), which was good enough for pole position. But like so many years gone by, the weekend saw yet another serious accident. Briton Ian Ashley crashed his Williams FW during practice at Pflanzgarten and he was seriously injured; he did not race in Formula One again for at least two years. Argentine Carlos Reutemann took victory after keeping the lead for five remaining laps while Lauda had a puncture after leading for the first nine laps. Briton Tom Pryce ran as high as second after starting 17th in an under-funded Shadow, but he finished fourth after very hot fuel began to leak into his cockpit. Frenchman Jacques Laffite and Lauda passed Pryce. Laffite finished second which was a milestone for Briton Frank Williams's struggling team; it was the English Williams's first real taste of success in Formula One. Pryce received a medal for his efforts. The 1975 Grand Prix was the fastest race ever run on the old Nürburgring; Lauda's teammate Clay Regazzoni posted the fastest lap at 7:06.4- which was to be the lap record of the old circuit.


title: German Grand Prix

text: However, the 1976 event was one that was to go down in history. Lauda, the reigning world champion, was dissatisfied with the safety arrangements of the mammoth circuit and attempted to organise a boycott the race during a meeting at the third race of the season in Long Beach, California in the United States. Formula One in the 1970s was the beginning towards a safer kind of motor racing and the Nürburgring was considered to be something of an anachronism at that time. However, by its very nature, the Nürburgring was almost impossible to be made safe in its old configuration. It did not have enough marshals and medical support to ensure the circuit's safety- it needed five to six times the marshals and medical staff that a typical F1 race needed at the time, but Huschke von Hanstein and the German organizers were unwilling and possibly unable to provide them- it was extremely expensive; and the spectators viewing the race in the countryside would get into the track for free. In addition to the considerable expense of providing adequate support to the drivers, its geography made the modifications demanded by both the drivers and FIA also prohibitively expensive. There were several parts that were nearly inaccessible to the marshals- there were a number of places where run-off areas could not be built because they were not flat enough, there were parts that were too narrow because there was a cliff face on one side and a drop-off on another, etc. However, the Nürburgring's organizers had a three-year contract with Formula One starting with the 1974 race which included making the track safer. Lauda was outvoted by other drivers because most of them felt that they should complete the contract so as to avoid any legal difficulties; the 1976 race was the last race on that contract. Although the contract included making the circuit safer over those years (and the organizers did that) it had already been decided that the 1976 race would be the last race at the Nordschleife. In addition to safety issues, the increasing commercialisation of Formula One was a factor as well. The extraordinary length of the Nordschleife made it all but impossible for any broadcasting organisation to effectively cover a race there.


title: German Grand Prix

text: As the 1976 race started parts of the circuit were wet and overcast, and other parts were dry and bathed in sunlight, another classic problem of the Nürburgring. After pitting to change from wet to dry tyres at the end of the first lap, Lauda came out again, far behind the leader, West German Jochen Mass. While pushing hard to make up time on the second lap, Lauda crashed at the fast left hand kink before Bergwerk corner over six miles (10.8 km) into the lap, one of the more inaccessible parts of the circuit. Going through the corner, Lauda lost control of his Ferrari when its rear suspension failed. The car crashed into a grass embankment and burst into flames. During the impact, Lauda's helmet was wrenched from his head, and his burning Ferrari was hit by the cars of Brett Lunger, Arturo Merzario and Harald Ertl. Lunger, who had experience with fire during his time in the Vietnam War pulled Lauda out of the burning wreckage instead of the ill-equipped track marshals, who only arrived at the scene well after the impact. The resilient Austrian was standing and talking to other drivers right after the accident and his injuries were initially not expected to be serious. However, he had been severely burned and had been breathing in toxic fumes, which damaged his circulatory system. It took the only medical helicopter at the circuit 6 minutes to reach the accident scene from the pits area, as opposed to at most a minute at any other circuit on the Formula One calendar. Lauda later lapsed into a coma and nearly died, putting him out of action for six weeks. The event was red-flagged and restarted; long-time Grand Prix driver Chris Amon elected not to take the restart. This was the last Grand Prix the unlucky New Zealander drove in. Englishman James Hunt won this race, which turned out to be crucial for his championship chances that year. After 49 years of hosting the German Grand Prix the old Nürburgring never hosted a Grand Prix again, and the race returned to Hockenheim.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The fast, flat Hockenheim circuit near Heidelberg almost played sole host to the German Grand Prix for the next 30 years. The 1977 event was won by Lauda, but was also notable when local driver Hans Heyer competed in the race despite failing to qualify. The 1979 event was one where Swiss Clay Regazzoni in his Williams attempted to chase down his teammate, Australian Alan Jones, but to no avail. 1980 was won by Frenchman Jacques Laffite in a Ligier after Jones dropped to 3rd due to time in the pits changing a punctured tyre, but it was overshadowed by Patrick Depailler's fatal accident at the Ostkurve (which in those days, had no chicane and was flat-out) in testing for Alfa Romeo a few days before the race weekend. The 1981 event saw a tremendous battle between Jones and rising star Alain Prost in a Renault, with Jones passing Prost in the stadium due to interference by Prost's backmarker teammate Rene Arnoux. The race was won by Brazilian Nelson Piquet after Jones pitted with problems with his Williams. The 1982 race saw changes to the circuit; most notably a chicane to the ultra-fast Ost-Kurve and a slower first chicane. It also saw the end of Frenchman Didier Pironi's career; he had an appalling crash in the pouring rain during qualifying. After he hit the back of Prost's Renault, Pironi was launched skyward and then rolled for some time until coming to a stop. Pironi, who was leading the championship at the time, had such serious leg injuries that FIA doctor Sid Watkins nearly had to amputate Pironi's legs in order to get him out of the wrecked Ferrari. The way Formula One cars were designed at the time was in such a way that the drivers sat so far forward in the cockpit that their legs and feet were way in front of the front axle, leaving those human body parts dangerously exposed. They were only protected by only the chassis structure and the aluminium bodywork. During the race, Piquet physically attacked Chilean driver Eliseo Salazar after Salazar punted off the irate Brazilian at the Ostkurve chicane while leading the race. Patrick Tambay won his first race for Ferrari. The 1984 race saw Prost (now driving a McLaren) win and Toleman rookie Ayrton Senna drive very hard at the front of the field during the beginning of the race.


title: German Grand Prix

text: 1985 saw a one-off return to the new 2.8-mile (4.5 km) Nürburgring Grand Prix circuit, which had been built next the site of the old Nordschleife and hosted the European Grand Prix the year before. It was a race where a number of drivers battled for the lead; it was won by Italian Michele Alboreto.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The international motorsports governing body at the time, FISA, had instituted a policy of long-term contracts for one circuit per Grand Prix. The choice for the German Grand Prix was between the new Nürburgring and Hockenheim. It was the latter that was chosen and it stayed there for the next 20 years. The 1986 event was one where a number of the leaders ran on fumes at the very end; top three drivers Piquet, Senna and Prost were all running out of fuel and although Brazilians Piquet and Senna finished 1–2, Prost finished sixth after his car was completely drained of fuel. The 1988 race was run in wet conditions; these conditions were particularly treacherous at Hockenheim because the circuit ran through a forest and the thick moisture from the rain tended to hang in the air because of the trees that surrounded the track. Even when it was not raining, the track still did not dry. Senna (now driving a McLaren) took advantage of his skill in the wet to win over his teammate Prost. The 1989 race was near the height Prost and Senna's famous rivalry and this race was one where the two McLaren teammates drove on their absolute limits throughout the entire race. Prost's gearbox malfunctioned and lost use of sixth gear on the second to last lap and Senna passed him to take the victory. Senna won the next year's race as well from Italian Alessandro Nannini. The 1992 race saw further changes to the Ostkurve after a crash that Érik Comas had there in 1991; it was turned into a more complex chicane rather than simple left-right chicane with a tyre wall in the middle. 1994 saw a further change to the third chicane to make it slower in the aftermath of the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix.


title: German Grand Prix

text: 1995 saw German Michael Schumacher win, he was the first German to win his home race since Rudolf Caracciola in 1939. Formula One interest in Germany had peaked during the emergence of Schumacher. 1997 saw an exceptional win by Austrian Gerhard Berger. But the 2000 race was to play host to a number of problems. During the race, a disgruntled ex-Mercedes employee went onto the circuit during the race and disrupted the proceedings; and Jean Alesi had a huge accident at the third chicane and suffered dizziness for three days. And on the far side of the circuit (where the Ost-Kurve was) it was dry, but in the stadium section and the pits, it was pouring with rain. Rubens Barrichello won the race from 18th on the grid, which was his first Formula One victory. 2001 saw a huge accident at the start between Brazilian Luciano Burti in a Prost and Schumacher in a Ferrari; this race was won by Michael's brother Ralf in a BMW-powered Williams.


title: German Grand Prix

text: 2002 saw the Hockenheimring dramatically shortened and the layout altered. The forest straights were removed and more corners were added to increase the technical challenge of the circuit. The circuit went from 4.2 to 2.7 miles long. Michael Schumacher won in that year. 2003 was the year Colombian Juan Pablo Montoya won for Williams-BMW, it was the second German GP victory in three years for engines of the Bavarian car maker. That year also saw the last appearance of the British Arrows team, who had been involved in Formula One since 1978. 2004 saw Schumacher continue his domination of that season by winning the German Grand Prix and Spaniard Fernando Alonso won the following year in a Renault after his main rival Kimi Räikkönen suffered a hydraulics failure and retired. 2006 saw Renault's experimental mass damper system deemed legal by the race stewards but it was banned by the FIA. Renault did not use the system for the race and it proved to be their downfall as Schumacher won his home race in a Ferrari.


title: German Grand Prix

text: In 2006 it was announced that from 2007 until 2010, the German Grand Prix would be shared between the Nürburgring GP circuit (former home of the European and Luxembourg Grands Prix) and the Hockenheimring. The former would hold the races in 2007 and 2009 and the latter in 2008 and 2010. However, the name for the 2007 Grand Prix was later changed. While it was originally intended to be the German Grand Prix, owing to a dispute with Hockenheim over the naming rights of the race, the race was eventually held under the title "Großer Preis von Europa" (European Grand Prix). By 2009, the circuits appeared to have resolved their disputes as the Nürburgring race was held under the German Grand Prix title.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The 2010 GP, held in Hockenheim, at one stage appeared to be in jeopardy as the track owners, the city and the state of Baden-Württemberg, were not willing any more to lose money due to the high licensing costs imposed by F1 management. In addition, talks with Bernie Ecclestone were hampered by his Hitler quotes. If the track had been relieved from being the venue, the owners were intending to returning the track back to its former layout. However, on 30 September 2009, it was announced that the circuit had agreed a deal which would keep it on the calendar until 2018, under a new deal which saw the circuit management and FOA sharing the financial burden of hosting the event. This alternating pattern continued, with Hockenheim hosting the race in even years, and the Nürburgring hosting the race in odd years until 2013.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The Nürburgring went through a change of ownership during 2014, but the new owners were unable to sign an agreement to continue hosting the race in odd-numbered years. The Hockenheimring wasn't able to host the 2015 or 2017 events either and the German Grand Prix was not run. Thus the race became a biennial event, returning to the calendar in 2016 and 2018 at Hockenheim.


title: German Grand Prix

text: The deal with Hockenheim to host the German Grand Prix concluded following the 2018 event. As a result, the future of the event was put in doubt. However, a deal was reached in August 2018 to hold one more event at Hockenheim in .


title: German Grand Prix

text: No new deal was made with Hockenheim following the 2019 edition and the German Grand Prix was not on the Formula One calendar in 2020 and 2021. Due to multiple Grands Prix being cancelled as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic a race, titled the Eifel Grand Prix, was held in Germany at the Nürburgring in October of 2020 as a replacement event.


title: German Grand Prix

text: "Both non-Formula One World Championship events post World War II were run to Formula 2 regulations.<br>


title: Jennifer Lash

text: Jennifer Anne Mary Alleyne Lash Fiennes (27 February 1938 – 28 December 1993), also known as Jini Fiennes, was an English novelist and painter.


title: Jennifer Lash

text: In 1961, she published "The Burial", her first novel, at the age of 23. Lash was regarded as one of the most promising young people among England's artists at the time. Upon meeting Lash in Suffolk, Dodie Smith, who wrote "The Hundred and One Dalmatians", remarked that Lash was "almost too interesting to be true".


title: Jennifer Lash

text: Lash was born at Chichester, Sussex on 27 February 1938, the daughter of Joan Mary (née Moore) and Brigadier Henry Alleyne Lash. Lash lived in India, where her father was stationed, until the age of 6. Her uncle Bill Lash was the Bishop of Bombay from 1947 to 1961. When her family returned to England, they settled in Surrey. Raised a Roman Catholic, Lash attended boarding school at the Convent of the Sacred Heart in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, and continued on to Farnham Art School. When she was 16 years old, her studies were cut short by family problems. She discontinued her education and moved to London where she supported herself with odd jobs to support her artistic pursuits.


title: Jennifer Lash

text: In the mid-1950s, she met the lyric poet and gallery owner Iris Birtwistle in Churt, Surrey, where they were both living. Shortly afterwards, when Birtwistle moved to Walberswick, Suffolk, Lash went with her and, encouraged by Birtwistle, began work on her first novel, "The Burial". Birtwistle renamed Lash "Jini" and introduced her to her future husband Mark Fiennes,


title: Jennifer Lash

text: Lash's paintings were featured in several exhibitions in The Penwith Galleries in St Ives, The Halesworth Gallery and Westleton Chapel Gallery in Suffolk.


title: Jennifer Lash

text: In the late 1980s, Lash was diagnosed with breast cancer. While in remission from the disease, she traveled to Lourdes and Saintes Maries de la Mer in France and to Spain's sacred Santiago de Compostella. During this time, she wrote "On Pilgrimage", her only non-fiction book. Lash died on 28 December 1993 at Odstock, Wiltshire, aged 55. Her final novel, "Blood Ties", was published posthumously in 1997.


title: Central venous pressure

text: Central venous pressure (CVP) is the blood pressure in the venae cavae, near the right atrium of the heart. CVP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart to pump the blood back into the arterial system. CVP is often a good approximation of right atrial pressure (RAP), although the two terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the venae cavae and the right atrium. CVP and RAP can differ when arterial tone is altered. This can be graphically depicted as changes in the slope of the venous return plotted against right atrial pressure (where central venous pressure increases, but right atrial pressure stays the same; VR = CVP − RAP).


title: Central venous pressure

text: CVP has been, and often still is, used as a surrogate for preload, and changes in CVP in response to infusions of intravenous fluid have been used to predict volume-responsiveness (i.e. whether more fluid will improve cardiac output). However, there is increasing evidence that CVP, whether as an absolute value or in terms of changes in response to fluid, does not correlate with ventricular volume (i.e. preload) or volume-responsiveness, and so should not be used to guide intravenous fluid therapy. Nevertheless, CVP monitoring is a useful tool to guide hemodynamic therapy.


title: Central venous pressure

text: The cardiopulmonary baroreflex responds to an increase in CVP by decreasing systemic vascular resistance while increasing heart rate and ventricular contractility in dogs.


title: Central venous pressure

text: CVP can be measured by connecting the patient's central venous catheter to a special infusion set which is connected to a small diameter water column. If the water column is calibrated properly the height of the column indicates the CVP.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Herbert Brough Falcon Marshall (23 May 1890 – 22 January 1966) was an English stage, screen and radio actor who starred in many popular and well-regarded Hollywood films in the 1930s and 1940s. After a successful theatrical career in the United Kingdom and North America, he became an in-demand Hollywood leading man, frequently appearing in romantic melodramas and occasional comedies. In his later years, he turned to character acting.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: The son of actors, Marshall is best remembered for roles in Ernst Lubitsch's "Trouble in Paradise" (1932), Alfred Hitchcock's "Murder!" (1930) and "Foreign Correspondent" (1940), William Wyler's "The Letter" (1940) and "The Little Foxes" (1941), Albert Lewin's "The Moon and Sixpence" (1942), Edmund Goulding's "The Razor's Edge" (1946), and Kurt Neumann's "The Fly" (1958). He appeared onscreen with many of the most prominent leading ladies of Hollywood's Golden Age, including Greta Garbo, Marlene Dietrich, Joan Crawford and Bette Davis.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: From 1944 to 1952, Marshall starred in his own radio series "The Man Called 'X'". Often praised for the quality of his voice, he made numerous radio guest appearances and hosted several shows. He performed on television as well. The actor, known for his charm, married five times and periodically appeared in gossip columns because of his sometimes turbulent private life. A leg amputee due to injuries sustained during the First World War, he worked for the rehabilitation of injured troops, especially aiding amputees like himself, during the Second World War. Marshall received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall was born in London in 1890, as the only child of stage actors Percy F. Marshall and Ethel May Turner. Theatrical critics praised his father for his comic flair and "rich voice". In addition to acting, Percy wrote and directed some plays in which he appeared. Most popular in the 1880s and 1890s, Marshall's father retired from acting in 1922 and died on 28 December 1927 at the age of 68. Marshall later recalled: "My father was a grand actor—better than I could ever dream of being." His mother was the sister of journalist and drama critic, Leopold Godfrey-Turner (born Leopold McClintock Turner). Marshall's grandfather, Godfrey Wordsworth Turner, wrote several books and articles on art and travel. In an article about his love of the theatre, he noted that one of his uncles was an actor. Godfrey was also the grandnephew of influential businessman Edward Wollstonecraft, who was the nephew of women's rights activist and author Mary Wollstonecraft and first cousin of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, who wrote the horror classic "Frankenstein".


title: Herbert Marshall

text: As a boy, Herbert's mother gave him the nickname Bart because she feared he would be known as Bertie,"a name then in vogue that she disliked. His family, friends and personal acquaintances continued to call him Bart for the rest of his life. He was also periodically referred to by his nickname in the press. While introduced by his given name, he was usually addressed as Bart on the radio. His parents gave him the middle name Brough (pronounced ) after his godfather, comedic Shakespearean actor Lionel Brough.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: As a child, Marshall was brought up by his three maternal aunts while his parents toured in theatrical productions. During school vacations, however, they took him with them. These early experiences initially gave him a negative view of the theatre:


title: Herbert Marshall

text: I used to tour the provinces in England with my mother and father, you know, when I was a small lad. And I was often tired and cold, there seemed to me to be so much heartache and poverty and disappointment that the glamour and applause and tinsel of the theatre escaped me, quite...No, I had no reason to love the theatre...I spent most of my time trying to forget those tired faces which the footlights served only to illumine, mockingly.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall graduated from St. Mary's College in Old Harlow, Essex and worked for a time as an accounting clerk. After being sacked for the slow speed of his calculations, he took a job as an assistant business manager of a theatre troupe run by a friend of his father's. He later had a series of different backstage jobs at various theatres and acting companies. When a troupe he worked for reformed, he was laid off. He then tried his hand at acting. In a 1935 interview, he claimed that he only became an actor out of necessity because he did not know how to do anything else. To another reporter, he recollected how he had initially vowed never to go on the stage.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall had a long and varied stage career, appearing with such notables as Sir Nigel Playfair, Sir Gerald du Maurier, Noël Coward, Gertrude Lawrence, Edna Best (his second wife), Cathleen Nesbitt, Mabel Terry-Lewis, Marie Löhr, Madge Titheradge and Edmund Gwenn (his future film and radio co-star).


title: Herbert Marshall

text: While his stage debut is usually listed as "The Adventure of Lady Ursula" (1911), some sources place it in 1909. Furthermore, Marshall remembered playing a footman alongside Eric Blore in Robert Courtneidge's "The Arcadians"; his mention of Blore added an appearance in November 1910.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: In 1913, he made his London debut in the role of Tommy in "Brewster's Millions". Actor-manager Cyril Maude was so impressed with his performance that he recruited Marshall for his U.S. and Canadian tour of "Grumpy". When war was declared, the company returned to London, and the 24-year-old enlisted.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall recalled his time on the Western Front: "I knew terrific boredom. There was no drama lying in the trenches 10 months. I must have felt fear, but I don't remember it. I was too numb to recall any enterprise on my part." On 9 April 1917 he was shot in the left knee by a sniper at the Second Battle of Arras in France. After a succession of operations, doctors were forced to amputate his leg. Marshall remained hospitalised for 13 months. He later recalled in private that after his injury, he had initially over-dramatised his loss and was wrapped up in self-pity and bitterness. Before long, however, he decided he wanted to return to the theatre and learned how to walk well with a prosthetic leg in order to do so. While he was recovering at St. Thomas' in London, King George V visited the hospital. When asked to pick which of the actor's legs he thought was artificial, the king chose the wrong one. Throughout his career, Marshall largely managed to hide the fact that he had a prosthetic limb, although it was occasionally reported in the press.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall suffered from his war injury for the rest of his life, both from phantom pain common to amputees and from the prosthesis. One friend remembered that he kept holes in his trouser pocket so that he could inconspicuously loosen a strap on his prosthetic leg in order to ease sudden discomfort. The pain in his leg became more pronounced later in life, including bothering him on film shoots in ways noticeable to others and exacerbating his usually very slight limp.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Following the Armistice, Marshall joined Nigel Playfair's repertory troupe, appearing in "Make Believe" (December 1918), "The Younger Generation" (1919) and "Abraham Lincoln" (1919). In 1920, he made his first known appearance opposite Edna Best in "Brown Sugar". He also appeared in "John Ferguson" and the Shakespearean plays "The Merchant of Venice" and "As You Like It". Marshall recalled "Jacques in "As You Like It" has given me more pleasure than any part I have played". The following year, he toured North America with Australian star Marie Löhr and starred in "A Safety Match" in London. By 1922, Marshall was making regular appearances on both sides of the Atlantic, debuting on Broadway in "The Voice from the Minaret" and starring in Coward's "The Young Idea" (with then-wife Maitland) and "The Queen Was in the Parlour". Among his other successes were "Aren't We All?" (1923), "The Pelican" (1924–25), "Lavender Ladies" (1925), "Interference" (1927–28), "S.O.S." (1928) and "Tomorrow and Tomorrow" (1931). His greatest hits with Edna Best were the aforementioned "Brown Sugar", "The Charming People" (1925–26), "The High Road" (1928–29), "Michael and Mary" (1930), "The Swan" (1930) and "There's Always Juliet" (1931–1932).


title: Herbert Marshall

text: In 1927, Marshall debuted onscreen opposite Pauline Frederick in the British silent film "Mumsie" (1927). He made his first American film appearance as the lover of Jeanne Eagels's character in the first version of "The Letter" (1929), produced at Paramount Pictures' Astoria studios two years later.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: After "The Letter", in Britain once again, he notably starred in Alfred Hitchcock's "Murder!" (1930). The following year, he returned to Paramount to make "Secrets of a Secretary".


title: Herbert Marshall

text: In Britain he made three films with Edna Best: "Michael and Mary" (1931), for Victor Saville, "The Calendar" (1931) and "The Faithful Heart" (1931) again for Saville.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall returned to Broadway to star in "Tomorrow and Tomorrow" then "There's Always Juliet". He primarily made films in the United States for the remainder of his life.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: As a Hollywood leading man, the suave, gentlemanly actor played romantic roles opposite such stars as Claudette Colbert, Marlene Dietrich, Greta Garbo, Barbara Stanwyck, Katharine Hepburn, Joan Crawford and Bette Davis throughout the 1930s and into the 1940s.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: The 1932 film "Blonde Venus" brought Marshall to fame among the general American public. Later the same year, he played Gaston Monescu, a sophisticated thief involved in a love triangle in Ernst Lubitsch's suggestive, light comedy "Trouble in Paradise" (1932). In interviews, Marshall expressed a preference for playing this sort of witty comedy role. He discussed his two early films in a 1935 interview:


title: Herbert Marshall

text: I am strongly of the belief that if there had been another 'Blond Venus'—my first picture ("sic"), with the acute direction of von Sternberg—I would have been thrown off the screen! By the grace of God and Lubitsch, against the wishes of his company, I was next cast in a good role in 'Trouble in Paradise' for which Lubitsch seemed to think me peculiarly suited and would have been very unhappy if he had had anyone else.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: He was suave in "Evenings for Sale" (1932) then returned to England briefly to make "I Was a Spy" (1933) with Saville. He was in a play in London "Another Man" which flopped.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Back in Hollywood MGM cast him in "The Solitaire Man" (1933) then for Cecil B. De Mille he appeared opposite Claudette Colbert in "Four Frightened People" (1934).


title: Herbert Marshall

text: MGM used him for "Riptide" (1934) with Norma Shearer, "Outcast Lady" (1934) with Constance Bennett and "The Painted Veil" (1934) with Greta Garbo. Marshall, who often played kind and proper husbands betrayed by their wives, told several reporters that he was tired of such "gentleman" roles. Although another cuckolded husband, he appreciated his part in "The Painted Veil" (1934) with Garbo because his character was able to show "intestinal fortitude".


title: Herbert Marshall

text: "The Good Fairy" (1935) had him as Margaret Sullavan's leading man; he made "The Flame Within" (1935) with Ann Harding, "Accent on Youth" (1935) with Sylvia Sidney, "The Dark Angel" (1935) with Fredric March and Merle Oberon, "If You Could Only Cook" (1935) with Jean Arthur, and "The Lady Consents" (1936) with Harding.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: He did three films with Gertrude Michael, "Till We Meet Again" (1936), "Forgotten Faces" (1936) and "Make Way for a Lady" (1936), then made "Girls' Dormitory" (1936) with Ruth Chatterton and "A Woman Rebels" (1936) with Katharine Hepburn.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall was reunited with Dietrich and Lubtisch in "Angel" (1937). He made " Breakfast for Two" (1937), "Always Goodbye" (1938) with Barbara Stanwyck, and supported Deanna Durbin in "Mad About Music" (1938).


title: Herbert Marshall

text: By mid-decade, the press noted how popular he was as a romantic actor. Syndicated columnist Edwin Schallert wrote: "The demand for Herbert Marshall's talents continues to spread far and wide. Even the newer and younger leading women, it is felt, need to have his proficient romanticism displayed in their pictures." Another reporter referred to him as the current "vogue in leading men" and noted that the top actresses often asked for him to appear with them.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: During the 1940s, Marshall was less associated with romantic leading man parts. He supported Maureen O'Hara in "A Bill of Divorcement" (1940) and played a villain for Hitchcock in "Foreign Correspondent" (1940). Marshall had one of his more famous roles when cast as Bette Davis' cuckolded husband in "The Letter" (1940), directed by William Wyler with Bette Davis; Marshall previously appeared in a silent film version of this play.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: After making "Adventure in Washington" (1941) Marshall starred as maltreated, principled husband Horace Giddens in "The Little Foxes", again with Davis and Wyler, which received nine Academy Award nominations including one for Best Picture. The film's review in "Variety" noted "Marshall turns in one of his top performances in the exacting portrayal of a suffering, dying man."


title: Herbert Marshall

text: During the Second World War, Marshall made numerous appearances on the Armed Forces Radio Service (AFRS), hosting "The Globe Theatre" and guest-starring on "Command Performance" and "Mail Call", among other programmes. He was also one of the leaders of a Hollywood British committee that helped organise the community's contributions to British war relief. In 1940, Marshall co-starred with Rosalind Russell in Noël Coward's "Still Life" (from "Tonight at 8.30") at the El Capitan. The proceeds went to the British Red Cross. In 1943, he appeared briefly in the RKO film, "Forever and a Day". The profits from the film funded a variety of war charities. The same year, Marshall wrote a public letter of encouragement to his Hollywood colleagues serving overseas. He also performed in the short film, "The Shining Future" (1944), later condensed and renamed "Road to Victory", which was intended to sell Canadian war bonds. Marshall and twenty-five other actors each received a plaque from a representative of the Canadian government for their participation in the film.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall continued to act in films through the war, increasingly as a supporting actor: "When Ladies Meet" (1941), "Kathleen" (1941) with Shirley Temple, and "The Moon and Sixpence" (1942) where he played a character based on W. Somerset Maugham.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: He could be seen in "Flight for Freedom" (1943), "Young Ideas" (1944), "Andy Hardy's Blonde Trouble" (1944), "The Enchanted Cottage" (1945) and "The Unseen" (1945).