title: Hindko

text: The central dialect group comprises Kohati (spoken in the city of Kohat and a few neighbouring villages in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and the three closely related dialects of Attock District, Punjab: Chacchi (spoken in Attock and Haripur Tehsils), Ghebi (spoken to the south in Pindi Gheb Tehsil) and Awankari (spoken in Talagang Tehsil, now part of Chakwal District). Rensch's classification based on lexical similarity also assigns to this group the rural dialects of Peshawar District. Shackle, however, sees most of them as closely related to the urban variety of Peshawar City.


title: Hindko

text: In a group of its own is Peshawari, the prestigious urban variety spoken in the city of Peshawar and the one that is promoted as a standardised literary language. It has a wide dialectal base and has undergone the influence of Urdu and Standard Punjabi.


title: Hindko

text: A separate group is formed in the northeast by the relatively homogeneous dialects of the Hazara region, which are collectively known as "Hazara Hindko" or "Northern Hindko", with the variety spoken in Kaghan Valley known as "Kaghani", and the variety of Tanawal known variously as "Tanoli Hindko", "Tanoli" or "Tinauli".


title: Hindko

text: Hindko is also spoken further east into Kashmir. It is the predominant language of the Neelum Valley, in the north of Pakistan-administered Azad Kashmir, where it is locally known as "Parmi" (or "Pārim"; the name likely originated in the Kashmiri word 'from the other side', which was the term used by the Kashmiris of the Vale of Kashmir to refer to the highlanders, who spoke this language). This variety is also spoken across the Line of Control into Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir.


title: Hindko

text: The whole dialect continuum of Hindko is partitioned by Ethnologue into two languages: Northern Hindko (ISO 639-3 code: hno) for the dialects of Hazara, and Southern Hindko (ISO 639-3: hnd) for the remaining varieties. This grouping finds support in the results of the intelligibility testing done by Rensch, which also found out that the southern dialects are more widely understood throughout the Hindko area than are the northern ones.


title: Hindko

text: Hindko dialects gradually transition into other varieties of Lahnda and Punjabi to the south. For example, to the southwest across the Salt Range are found dialects of Saraiki, and at least one of these – the one spoken in the Dera Ismail Khan District – is sometimes also referred to as "Hindko". To the southeast, Hindko is in a dialect continuum with Pahari–Pothwari, with the Galyat region of Abbottabad district and the area of Muzaffarabad in Azad Kashmir approximately falling on the boundary between the two.


title: Hindko

text: There are Hindko diasporas in major urban centres like Karachi, as well as in some neighbouring countries. Some Hindu Hindkowans and Sikh Hindowans migrated to India after the partition of India in 1947. These Hindko speakers in India identify with the broader Punjabi community. There is also a small diaspora in Afghanistan, which includes members of the Hindu and Sikh community who became established there during the Sikh Empire in the first half of the 19th century. Most of them have emigrated since the rise of the Taliban, and the total population of Sikhs, Hindko-speaking or not, is estimated at around 300 families (as of 2018).


title: Hindko

text: There is no generic name for the speakers of Hindko because they belong to diverse ethnic groups and tend to identify themselves by the larger families or castes. However, the Hindko-speaking community belonging to the Hazara Division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are sometimes recognised collectively as Hazarewal. A large number of Hindko speakers in the Hazara Division are Pashtuns. Some of those speak Hindko as their mother tongue while others as a second language. These include the Tahirkhelis, Swatis, Yusufzais, Jadoons and Tareens. The other Hindko speakers include the Sayyids, Awans, Mughals, Tanolis, Turks, Qureshis and Gujjars.


title: Hindko

text: The most common second language for Hindko-speakers in Pakistan is Urdu and the second most common one is Pashto. In most Hindko-speaking areas, speakers of Pashto live in the same or neighbouring communities (although this is less true in Abbottabad and Kaghan Valley). The relationship between Hindko and its neighbours is not one of stable bilingualism. In terms of domains of use and number of speakers, Hindko is dominant and growing in the north-east; in Hazara for example, it is displacing Pashto as the language in use among the Swati Pathans, and in the Neelam Valley of Azad Jammu & Kashmir it is gaining ground at the expense of the minority languages like Kashmiri. In the cities of Kohat and Peshawar, on the other hand, it is Hindko that is in a weaker position. With the exodus of the Hindko-speaking Hindus and Sikhs after Partitition and the consequent influx of Pashtuns into the vacated areas of the urban economy, there have been signs of a shift towards Pashto.


title: Hindko

text: Hindko contrasts stop consonants at the labial, alveolar, retroflex, palatal and velar places of articulation. The palatals have been described as pure stops (/ /) in Awankari, but as affricates () in the varieties of Hazara. For the stop consonants of most varieties of Hindko there is a three-way contrast between voiced (), voiceless () and aspirated (). Awankari, Kohati, and the varieties of Neelum Valley of Kashmir also distinguish voiced aspirated stops (). The disappearance of the voiced aspirates from most Hindko varieties has been linked to the development of tone (see below).


title: Hindko

text: Fricatives like , and are found in loans (for example from Persian), but also in native words, often as positional allophones of the corresponding stop. Some documented instances include:


title: Hindko

text: Generally, the fricatives can be found in all positions: at the start, the middle, or at the end of the word (Tanoli Hindko: 'spoilt', 'small stick', 'branch'), with relatively few exceptions (one being the restriction on word-final in the Hindko of Kashmir). The labio-dental has been explicitly described as the fricative for the Hindko of Kashmir, and Tanawal, but as the approximant // in Awankari.


title: Hindko

text: The retroflex nasal is overall shorter than the other nasals, and at least for the Hindko of Abbottabad it has been described as a nasalised flap: . For the Hindko of Kashmir it has been asserted to be an allophone of the alveolar nasal , but it is phonemic in Awankari and Tanoli; in both dialects it can occur in the middle and at the end of a word, as illustrated by the following examples from Tanoli: 'straight', 'pride'. The velar nasal is phonemic in Tanoli: 'prayer call', 'fiancée', and in the Hindko of Kashmir, and in both cases it is found only in the middle or at the end of the word. In the main subdialect of Awankari, the velar nasal is only found before velar stops, and similarly, it is not among the phonemes identified for the Hindko of Abbottabad.


title: Hindko

text: Hindko varieties have a single lateral consonant: the alveolar , unlike Punjabi, which additionally has a retroflex lateral . The Awankari dialect, as spoken by Muslims (and not Hindus) and described by Bahri in the 1930s, has a distinctive retroflex lateral, which, however, appears to be in complementary distribution with the alveolar lateral. There are two rhotic sounds in Hindko: an alveolar trill (with a varying number of vibrations dependent on the phonetic context), and a retroflex flap .


title: Hindko

text: The retoflex nasal , for at least some of the dialects that have it, is realised as a nasalised retroflex flap .


title: Hindko

text: The vowels can be illustrated with the following examples from Tanoli: 'big stone', 'pain', 'yesterday', 'button', 'what', 'piece of meat', 'Sunday', 'thief', 'filth'.


title: Hindko

text: Length is strongly contrastive and the long vowels are generally twice as long as the corresponding short vowels.


title: Hindko

text: Varieties of Hindko also possess a number of diphthongs (like ). Which of the many (typically around a dozen) overt vowel combinations should be seen as representing an underlying single segment (a diphthong) rather than simply a sequence of two separate underlying vowels, has varied with the analysis used and the dialect studied.


title: Hindko

text: Hindko dialects possess phonemic nasal vowels (here marked with a tilde above the vowel: ). For example, in the Hindko of Azad Kashmir 'animal disease' contrasts with 'arm', and 'meat cutters' with 'hindrances'. In this variety of Hindko, as well as in the Hindko of Tanawal, there are nasal counterparts for all, or almost all, of the long vowels, but none for the short vowels. In Awankari and the Hindko of Abbottabad, on the other hand, there is contrastive nasalisation for short vowels as well: 'make one play' contrasts with 'scatter' (in Awankari), 'mixing' contrasts with 'knot').


title: Hindko

text: Peshawari and Kohati presumably follow the pattern of Awankari but have historically lost nasalisation from the round vowels (like or ) at the end of the word.


title: Hindko

text: Additionally, vowels get nasalised allophonically when adjacent to a nasal consonant. In the varieties of Tanawal and Kashmir both long and short vowels can be nasalised in this way, but only if they precede the nasal consonant: 'washing', 'crying'. In the Hindko of Abbottabad, a vowel at the end of some words can be nasalised if it follows a nasal consonant. In the Awankari dialect, vowels can be allophonically nasalised both before and after a nasal consonant, but in either case the effect will depend on the position of stress (see for more details).


title: Hindko

text: Unlike many Indo-Aryan languages, but in common with Punjabi, Hindko varieties have a system of pitch accent, which is commonly referred to as "tone". In Punjabi, pitch accent has historically arisen out of the loss of voiced aspirates (. Thus in Standard Punjabi, if a voiced aspirate preceded the stressed vowel, it would lose its aspiration and cause the appearance of a high tone on that vowel: > 'tongue'. If it followed the stressed vowel, then it would lead to a high tone and lose its aspiration and, if word-initial, its voicing: > 'horse'. The same pattern has been reported for Hazara Hindko, with a low rising tone after historically voiced aspirates ( 'horse' < ), a high falling tone before historic voiced aspirates ( 'leper' < ), and level tone elsewhere ( 'bitter'). According to preliminary observations on the Hazara Hindko variety of Abbottabad, the low tone is less prominent than in Punjabi, and a trace of the aspiration is preserved: for example 'horse' would be .


title: Hindko

text: The variety spoken to the north-east, in Neelam Valley, has preserved voiced aspirates at the start of the word, so presumably the low tone is not established there. However, there are observations of its appearance in the speech of the residents of the main villages along the highway, likely under the influence of Punjabi and Hazara Hindko, and it has similarly been reported in the villages on the Indian side.


title: Hindko

text: The southern Hindko varieties have similarly developed tone, but only when the voiced aspirate followed the stressed vowel; voiced aspirates preceding the stress have remained unchanged: thus 'more' (< ), but 'daughter'. This tone is realised as high falling in Kohati and the eastern subdialect of Awankari, but as high in the northwestern Awankari subdialect. Like Kohati, the variety of Peshawar has high falling tone before historic voiced aspirates. However, it has also developed a distinct tone on stressed vowels after historic voiced aspirates, like northern Hindko and Punjabi, with a similar loss of aspiration and voicing. But in contrast to Punjabi, this tone is also high falling, and it is distinguished by the accompanying glottalisation: 'daughter', 'congratulations'.


title: Hindko

text: Hindko is generally written in a variety of the Punjabi alphabet. It was created by Rehmat Aziz Chitrali at Khowar Academy Chitral.


title: Hindko

text: The Gandhara Hindko Board is a leading organisation that has been active in the preservation and promotion of the Hindko and culture since 1993. The board was launched in Peshawar in year 1993 to preserve and promote Hindko —the second most spoken of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. It brings out four regular publications— "Hindkowan", "The Gandhara Voice", " Sarkhail" and "Tarey" and a number of occasional publications. Late professor Zahoor Ahmad Awan of Peshawar city, the author of 61 books and publications, was the founding-chairman of the board. Now the board is headed by Ejaz Ahmad Qureshi. The board has published first Hindko dictionary and several other books on a variety of topics. With head office in Peshawar, the organisation has regional offices in other cities of the province where Hindko is spoken and understood. The organisation has arranged a number of mega events to raise awareness among the Hindkowans about the importance of their language and culture. The board seeks respect for and due attention to all the languages spoken in Gandhara.


title: Hindko

text: In 2003 the Gandhara Hindko Board published first a Hindko dictionary which was compiled by a prominent linguists from Abbottabad, Sultan Sakoon. The board published a second more comprehensive Hindko dictionary in 2007 prepared by Elahi Bakhsh Awan of the University of London. He is the author of Sarzamin e Hindko, and Hindko Sautiyat. His three booklets on Hindko phonology were published by the University of Peshawar in the late 1970s.


title: Hindko

text: The Idara-e-Faroghe Hindko based in Peshawar is another body that is promoting the Hindko. Riffat Akbar Swati and Aurangzeb Ghaznavi are main people of this organisation. The Idara has published the first Hindko translation of the Quran by Haider Zaman Haider and the first Ph.D. thesis on Hindko by E.B.A. Awan. A monthly magazine "Faroogh" is also published regularly from Peshawar under supervision of Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. In Karachi Syed Mehboob is working for the promotion of Hindko. His articles are frequently published in "Farogh" monthly. He is organiser of Hindko Falahi Forum.


title: Hindko

text: Many organisations like Bazm-e-Ilm-o-Fun Abbottabad and Halqa-e-Yaraan Shinkyari are contributing in their own way to the cause of promoting Hindko and literature. Asif Saqib, Sufi Abdur Rasheed, Fazal-e-Akbar Kamal, Sharif Hussain Shah, Muhammad Farid, Yahya Khalid, Nazir Kasalvi, and Muhammad Hanif have contributed a lot in this regard. Sultan Sakoon has written the First Hindko dictionary that has been published by Gandhara Hindko Board. Sultan Sakoon stands out for his literary contribution as he is a prolific writer and his books including those on Hindko proverbs and Hindko riddles have been published.


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: An "all persons fictitious" disclaimer in a work of media states that the persons portrayed in it are not based on real people. This is done mostly on realistic films and television programs to reduce the possibility of legal action for libel from any person who believes that they have been defamed by their portrayal in the work, whether portrayed under their real name or a different name. The wording of this disclaimer varies, and differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, as does its legal effectiveness.


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: The disclaimer for American studio films and television series is routinely included among disclaimers on other topics, such as copyright, animal welfare, adult content and promotion of tobacco use, such as:


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: The disclaimer came as a result of litigation against the 1932 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) film "Rasputin and the Empress", which insinuated that the character Princess Natasha had been raped by Russian mystic Rasputin. The character of Natasha was supposedly intended to represent Princess Irina Alexandrovna of Russia, who sued MGM for libel. After seeing the film twice, the jury agreed that the princess had been defamed. Irina and her husband Felix Yusupov were reportedly awarded $127,373 () in damages by the English Court of Appeal in 1934, and $1,000,000 () in an out-of-court settlement with MGM. As a preventive measure against further lawsuits, the film was taken out of distribution for decades.


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: The film began with a claim that "This concerns the destruction of an empire … A few of the characters are still alive—the rest met death by violence." Reportedly, a judge in the case told MGM that not only was this claim damaging to their case, but that their case would be stronger if they had incorporated a directly opposite statement, that the film was not intended as an accurate portrayal of real people or events. Prompted by the outcome of this case, many studios began to incorporate an "all persons fictitious" disclaimer in their films, to protect themselves from similar court action.


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: Although the disclaimer is routinely included as boilerplate, producers sometimes vary from it, sometimes to make a statement about the veracity of their work, for humor, or to satirize the standard disclaimer.


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: Disclaimers can occasionally be used to make political or similar points. One such disclaimer is shown at the end of the industrial/political thriller "The Constant Gardener", signed by the author of the original book, John le Carré: "Nobody in this story, and no outfit or corporation, thank God, is based upon an actual person or outfit in the real world. But I can tell you this; as my journey through the pharmaceutical jungle progressed, I came to realize that, by comparison with the reality, my story was as tame as a holiday postcard." Other examples of such variation include:


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: The familiar disclaimer is often rewritten for humor. Early examples include The Three Stooges' parody of Nazi Germany "You Nazty Spy", which stated that "Any resemblance between the characters in this picture and any persons, living or dead, is a miracle," and its sequel "I'll Never Heil Again", which features a disclaimer that states that "The characters in this picture are fictitious. Anyone resembling them is better off dead." Other examples include:


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: Variations sometimes employ irony or satire. The 1985 film "The Return of the Living Dead" features a disclaimer that reads "The events portrayed in this film are all true. The names are real names of real people and real organizations." The novel "Breakfast of Champions" by Kurt Vonnegut features a truncated version of the disclaimer: "All persons, living and dead, are purely coincidental, and should not be construed", referring to the novel's existentialist themes. The 1990 film "Slacker" ends with "This story was based on fact. Any similarity with fictitious events or characters was purely coincidental."


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: In response to controversies over cultural appropriation and the use of an indigenous term, Filipino television network ABS-CBN used a special disclaimer in the 2018 "fantaserye" "Bagani", maintaining that the series takes place in an alternate fantasy universe inspired by, but unrelated to, pre-colonial Philippines and is in no way intended to trivialize or misrepresent tribal groups: ""Ang kuwentong inyong mapapanood ay kathang-isip lamang at kumuha ng inspirasyon mula sa iba’t ibang alamat at mitolohiyang Pilipino. Ito’y hindi tumutukoy o kumakatawan sa kahit anong Indigenous People sa Pilipinas."" ("The story you are about to watch is a work of fiction and merely takes inspiration from various Philippine legends and mythologies. It does not pertain to nor does it represent any Indigenous People in the Philippines.")


title: All persons fictitious disclaimer

text: If a fictitious film is perceived to be too close to actual events, the disclaimer may be ruled null and void in court and the inspiration behind the film may be due compensation. Such was the case with the 1980 film "The Idolmaker", which was based on a fictional talent promoter who discovers a talentless teenage boy and turns him into a manufactured star. Singer Fabian, whose career path was very similar to the fictional boy's, took offense at the caricature, and the production company responded with the all persons fictitious disclaimer. As the promoter on which the fictional character was based, Bob Marcucci, was part of the production staff (and thus it could not be plausibly denied that actual events inspired the film), Fabian ultimately received a settlement granting a minority stake in the film's profits.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: Tyrannosaur is a 2011 British drama film written and directed by Paddy Considine and starring Peter Mullan, Olivia Colman, Eddie Marsan, Paul Popplewell and Sally Carman.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: In a drunken rage, unemployed widower Joseph kicks his dog Bluey to death, which he immediately regrets. After burying Bluey, he goes to the post office, where he causes a confrontation with several Pakistani employees and later attacks three men who were teasing him at his local pub. After fleeing the pub, he hides in a second-hand shop, where a compassionate employee, Hannah, offers to pray for him. Joseph later returns home and encounters his six-year-old neighbor Samuel, who is forced to wait outside his own house while his mother is inside with her abusive boyfriend. The next morning, Joseph wakes up and goes to Hannah's shop where she tends to his injuries. Despite her compassion, he begins to berate and insult her. She listens to him without commenting but her eyes fill with tears.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: Hannah returns home, drinks wine and falls asleep. When her husband James arrives and is unable to awaken her, he urinates on her. After Hannah arrives at work the next morning, Joseph comes by to apologize for his behavior the previous day, and they go for a drink. That night, James tells Hannah that someone saw her earlier that day with another man, which she denies. When Hannah comes to work the following morning with a black eye, she tells Joseph that she fell in the bath. Later on, in the back room, she drinks from a bottle of vodka. Joseph later returns to the shop once again to ask Hannah to join him to pray for his best friend Jack, who is dying of cancer. Jack dies a few days later and Joseph returns to get a suit for his funeral. James enters and finds Hannah tying Joseph's tie as he tries on a suit and quietly threatens her. Joseph hears enough of this to realize that James was the cause of Hannah's black eye. She continues to claim that she simply fell in the tub but she is visibly upset. She asks Joseph to immediately leave the store.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: After work, Hannah is afraid to go home for fear of what her husband will do to her. With nowhere else to go, she finds a bar and drinks alone. Upon discovering her location, James comes to pick her up which leads to a violent altercation back at home, in which James brutally rapes Hannah at knifepoint until she blacks out. The next day, Hannah leaves home, finds Joseph and tells him she is leaving James, asking to stay with him because she has nowhere else to go. He hesitatingly agrees, and in the course of her settling in, Joseph reveals that his heavy-set wife has been dead for 5 years due to complications from her diabetes. He also tells Hannah that he regrets using the nickname "Tyrannosaur" for his wife. He used it because it reminded Joseph of the scene in the film "Jurassic Park" where the "Tyrannosaurus rex" could be heard stomping after the children in the film, much like how his wife sounded when she was walking up the stairs of their house. At the time, he'd thought it was funny but he expresses guilt for the way he treated her. After a few days, Joseph tells her that she is not safe with him and suggests she leave. Joseph escorts Hannah back to her house to retrieve some personal items, but Hannah ends up running away, saying she is not ready to confront her husband. Later that day, after attending the wake of an old friend, Joseph decides to confront James. He takes Hannah's keys and goes to her house where he finds James's corpse propped up against the closet door. Shocked, he returns home and confronts Hannah, saying that he knows she killed her husband. At first she is confused, but then breaks down and reveals that James had been brutally abusing her for a long time.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: A year later, it is revealed that Hannah is in prison. Joseph tells her in a letter that Samuel was mauled by his mother's boyfriend's dog. In retaliation, Joseph beheaded the dog with a machete. He also admits that he had always admired her from afar, as she was the only person in town to smile at him and show him kindness, which is why he had approached her in the first place. Despite everything, they both appear hopeful for a better future.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: "Tyrannosaur" is an expansion of "Dog Altogether", a short film for Warp Films that Considine wrote and directed, which won the Best Short Film BAFTA and BIFA awards as well as the Silver Lion award at Venice in 2007. The film received a grant of £206,540 from the National Lottery fund through the UK Film Council. The remainder of the film's budget came from Warp X, Inflammable Films, Film4, Screen Yorkshire, EM Media and Optimum Releasing (StudioCanal). It depicts an environment similar to what Considine witnessed growing up on a council estate in the Midlands, although the film is in no way autobiographical. The film's title is a metaphor, the meaning of which is revealed in the film.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: The film is set in an unspecified town in the North of England, although much of it was shot on location in residential areas of Leeds and Wakefield, including Seacroft, Cross Gates, Eccup, Harehills and Alwoodley, and the accents of many of the main characters are drawn from a wide geographical area. The film makes reference to the fictional Manners Estate as an area in the town where the more wealthy inhabitants reside. Manners Estate is the name of the council estate in the parish of Winshill near Burton-on-Trent where Paddy Considine grew up.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: Many of the extras used in the film were local residents, including local busker Chris Wheat who was given a part after singing to the cast and crew on set. He performs his own original song in the film. Workers from the local St Vincent's Charity Shop used in the film were also given small parts. Several other small roles were given to members of the crew, including the film's producer Diarmid Scrimshaw, the film's make-up designer Nadia Stacey, and the production coordinator Samantha Milnes who was featured in a photo as Joseph's late wife. The film is dedicated to Considine's late mother, Pauline Considine. The end credits gives special thanks to both James Marsh and Gary Oldman.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: "Tyrannosaur" received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 83%, based on 86 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3/10. The critical consensus states: ""Tyrannosaur" is a brutal, frank, and ultimately rewarding story of violent men seeking far-off redemption." The film also has a score of 65 out of 100 based on 18 critics on Metacritic, indicating "Generally favourable reviews".


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: Stuart McGurk of "GQ" magazine called "Tyrannosaur" "The best British film of the year", whilst "Empire" said it was "Riveting, uncompromising, brilliant" and gave it 4/5 stars, as did "Total Film", "The Guardian", "Sunday Mirror", and "Evening Standard". The "Daily Star Sunday" and LoveFilm gave the film 5/5 stars and "The Sunday Telegraph" dubbed it "One of the most powerful films of 2011."


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: The American film critic and blogger Jeffrey Wells was so taken by "Tyrannosaur" after seeing it at the Los Angeles Film Festival that he started 'Hollywood Elsewhere's Tyrannosaur fundraising campaign' with the idea of raising $2,000 to cover the rental of a screening room so that the film could be shown in Hollywood with the hope of gaining recognition. Wells claimed this was the first screening financed by a critic.


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4, calling Peter Mullan's performance muscular and unrelenting. He also remarked: "This isn't the kind of movie that even has hope enough to contain a message. There is no message, only the reality of these wounded personalities."


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: Mark Kermode of BBC Radio 5 Live, hailed the film as one of the 11 Best Films of 2011. Kermode went on to award Olivia Colman Best Actress in his own Annual Kermode Awards. She tied with Tilda Swinton for "We Need to Talk About Kevin".


title: Tyrannosaur (film)

text: When the BAFTA Award nominations were announced on 17 January 2012, the omission of Olivia Colman in the Best Actress category led to global trending of both Olivia Colman and "Tyrannosaur" on Twitter.


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: Jhonen C. Vasquez (; born September 1, 1974) is an American cartoonist, animator, screenwriter, music video director, and voice actor. He is best known for creating the comic book "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac"—along with its spin-off comics "Squee!", "Fillerbunny", and "I Feel Sick"—and the Nickelodeon animated series "Invader Zim".


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: Vasquez was born on September 1, 1974, in San Jose, California. He grew up in East San Jose and attended Mt. Pleasant High School, where he often spent much of his class time drawing in sketchbooks and took part in a contest to design a new look for his school's mascot. He earned no prizes, but on the back of a preliminary drawing for the contest, he drew his first sketch of the character who would later become Johnny C who would later star in Vasquez's first completed comic book series. While Vasquez read his older brother's superhero comics as a child, but first became interested in exploring the medium through the original independent "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" comics by Peter Laird and Kevin Eastman:


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: Vasquez's high school student newspaper published a number of his comic strips featuring Johnny C, titled "Johnny the Little Homicidal Maniac". After graduating in 1992, Vasquez became a film student at De Anza College in Cupertino, California. He also created Happy Noodle Boy while attending Mt. Pleasant. Despite having little formal artistic training, he soon dropped out of De Anza to pursue a career as a professional cartoonist. He met Roman Dirge, Rosearik Rikki Simons, and Simons' wife Tavisha at Alternative Press Expo in 1995. Dirge later became a writer on Vasquez's series "Invader Zim", while Simons became a member of the show's coloring team and the voice of the title character's crazed robot sidekick, GIR. Simons also worked with Vasquez on the coloring seen in his two-issue comic "I Feel Sick". By September 1996, Vasquez announced in his introductory text to the sixth issue of "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac" that he had reached sufficient success to be able to quit his day job and focus on his art.


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: "Carpe Noctem" magazine published early one-page strips featuring Johnny in the early 1990s. In 1995, Slave Labor Graphics began publishing a series of Johnny comics after Vasquez submitted samples of his artwork to them. Vasquez's first comic, "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac", ran for seven issues and was collected as a hardcover and a trade paperback book named "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac: Director's Cut". The cover features the logo "Z?", meaning "question sleep", which appears frequently throughout Vasquez's work and relates to his characters' insomnia and his own hypnophobia. The series follows Johnny as he searches for meaning in his life, a quest that frequently leads to the violent deaths of those around him as well as, briefly, his own. A photograph of one of Vasquez's friends, Leah England, serves as the middle of a portrait collection on the cover for the second issue of "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac". England also gave Vasquez the inspiration for a filler strip about a child who was dangerously afraid of losing sight of his mother, as well as the notorious "Meanwhile" filler piece in the second issue of "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac". Vasquez's next project was "The Bad Art Collection", a 16-page one-shot comic. He stated that he did the book's art while he was in high school to discourage classmates from asking him to draw for them.


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: In 1997, Vasquez gave Squee, a supporting character from "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac", his own four-issue series. It chronicles Squee's encounters with aliens, Satan's son, and eventually Satan himself. The trade version (which features a cover image of Squee with the words "Buy me or I'll die!") contains, in addition to the actual Squee comics, the Meanwhiles that were left out of the Director's Cut of "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac", as well as comics of Vasquez's "real life" and "Wobbly-Headed Bob". Vasquez's next project was "I Feel Sick", colored by Rikki Simons. "I Feel Sick" follows a tortured artist named Devi (another character introduced in "Johnny the Homicidal Maniac") as she tries to maintain her sanity in an insane vision of society, despite conversing with Sickness, one of her own paintings. Slave Labor has published three "Fillerbunny" mini-comics, the third having been released in March 2005. The mini-comic was a spin-off of a filler comic designed to replace a vacant page usually reserved for advertising space in the "Squee!" comics.


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: Vasquez said at the 2007 New York Comic Con that the original "Fillerbunny" comics would be done in a single night and he would rush through and do whatever he could in a small amount of time. The third issue, however, broke this mold. According to the introduction, it took over nine months to complete, and he feels it is of much higher quality than the first two. At Comic-Con 2005, Vasquez mentioned that his next comic was a love story. Since this, however, he attended an event in early 2007 and stated he was not working on his "own" comics – he was collaborating on two comics in the style of "Everything Can Be Beaten", acting only as author. The first, titled "Jellyfist", was intended for release on July 25, 2007, but the initial print run of "Jellyfist" was incredibly poor, and so it was re-released in October 2007. In 2009, Vasquez collaborated with other alternative artists in Marvel Comics' "Strange Tales", issue 2 of 3, with a story about MODOK. It sold extremely well and all three issues have been collected into a hardcover trade paperback. The next year he returned for Marvel's "Strange Tales" II, issue 1 of 3, with a story about Wolverine.


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: In 2012, DC Comics announced that Vasquez joined the writing team for their digital comic "Beyond the Fringe", based on the Fox TV series "Fringe". In May 2014, Vasquez announced on his Tumblr page that he would be re-releasing his previous "Fillerbunny" comics into a new collection and additionally releasing his first new comic book in ten years.


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: At Nickelodeon, Vasquez created the animated television series "Invader Zim", which aired on the network and then later on Nicktoons. It focuses on the daily life of Zim, a naïve alien from the planet Irk who tries to conquer Earth and enslave humans, before his attempts are constantly thwarted by a young paranormal investigator Dib, who believes that Zim is an alien but no one believes him. The first episode aired on March 30, 2001. The series lasted for two seasons, before it was cancelled by Nickelodeon, saying that its main causes were low ratings, over-budget production and lack of interest in continuation of the series. The last episode before the show's cancellation, "The Most Horrible X-Mas Ever" (a Christmas special), aired on December 10, 2002. Episodes of the third season and a finale then remained unfinished. Vasquez provided the voices for Zim's computer, Old Kid, Minimoose, and various characters including himself as a background character (being credited as "Mr. Scolex"). Vasquez later returned to Nickelodeon in 2016 to write "", a TV movie based on "Invader Zim".


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: Vasquez also did character designs for the Disney XD show "", as well as wrote for an episode of the online series "Bravest Warriors". In July 2014, it was revealed that Disney Television Animation had picked up the pilot "Very Important House", co-created by Vasquez and "Rick and Morty" production designer Jenny Goldberg, who previously collaborated with Vasquez on "Jellyfist". However, on September 30, 2016, Vasquez announced on his official blog that "Very Important House" was ultimately not picked up for a full series.


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: Vasquez collaborated with Crab Scrambly to produce the storybook "Everything Can Be Beaten", published by Slave Labor in 2002. Vasquez, credited as Chancre Scolex, wrote the story and Crab Scrambly illustrated it. "Everything Can Be Beaten" is about a strange person who lives in a room in which he can do nothing but beat kittens. However, an adventure into the outside world changes his perspective, and he discovers that "everything can be beaten". The storybook inspired Urban Squall in 2008 to create the puzzle browser game "Bloody Fun Day". Vasquez did the entire artwork for the deluxe edition of the Mindless Self Indulgence album "If" as well as the digital single "Mastermind". He also directed the music videos for Mindless Self Indulgence's "Shut Me Up" and The Left Rights' "White". Jhonen made the cover art for the album "Zero Day" by MC Frontalot and also indicated that he shows his artwork in galleries from time to time. He also did an art rendition of "BioShock 2" called "The Sisters". He was quoted saying the following about the rendition:


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: He also worked on a "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" short called "Don Vs Raph", where Donatello and Raphael compete to see who is better, but the two always end up tying.


title: Jhonen Vasquez

text: Many of the characters in Vasquez's cartoons are usually highly geometric and thin, nearly to the point of being stick figures with heavy black outlines. The protagonists in his comics are typically mentally unstable characters who live in dysfunctional societies, and whose manias are able to speak through inanimate objects. His storylines tend to follow the basic black comedy formula. His art style is very edgy and eccentric, and smiley faces are often found in his artwork, trying to evoke an ironic sense of happiness in a world of chaos and darkness. Vasquez's writing often conveys misanthropic and pessimistic themes, often used for the purposes of parody and satire. Several of his works have featured goth characters or depictions of the goth subculture for the purpose of satire. In an interview on the show "The Screen Savers" in 2005, Vasquez responded to host Kevin Pereira's comment that fans considered him "a goth king", saying jokingly, "King, yeah, but not goth... I mean, that's arrogant."


title: Jay Briscoe

text: Jamin "Jay" Pugh (born January 25, 1984) is an American professional wrestler best known by his ring name Jay Briscoe. He is currently signed with Ring of Honor, where he is the current one-half of ROH World Tag Team Champions with Mark Briscoe in their thirteenth reign. He is also former two-time ROH World Champion and ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Champions.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: Jay and Mark Briscoe made their debuts for Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) at "Delaware Invasion" on January 20, 2001, being brought in to job as part of a three-on-one handicap match against Trent Acid. At the inaugural "Best of the Best" event, a show somewhat atypical of CZW in that it is a tournament spotlighting athletic junior heavyweight wrestling as opposed to violent hardcore matches, the two advanced past the first round in a three-way match with Nick Mondo where the stipulation was whoever took the fall would be eliminated. They were then matched against each other in the second round, with Jay winning and advancing further. This match was seen by fans as the best of the tournament, and seen in retrospect as having been responsible in large part for helping launch the brothers' careers, as they were new to the independent circuit and very young at the time.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: After losing in title opportunities at "Breakaway Brawl" and "A New Beginning", the brothers won the CZW Tag Team Championship on July 14, 2001, as they defeated the original H8 Club at "H8 Club: Dead?". They lost it, however, in their first defense, to Johnny Kashmere and Justice Pain on July 28, 2001 at "What About Lobo?" Mark wasn't used for several months after that, but Jay continued on as a singles wrestler in that time, even facing Justice Pain for the CZW Heavyweight Championship at "September Slam" on September 8, which he did not win.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: At the end of 2001 and into 2002, CZW's territory (that is, the area at which they held the majority of their events) was shifting from Sewell, New Jersey to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in order to hold events regularly at the old ECW arena, beginning with December 15's "Cage of Death 3". At this event, they faced Nick Gage and Nate Hatred, but wore masks and were identified as The Midnight Outlaws. This was likely to get around the fact that Jay was only 17 and Mark only 16 at the time; this meant, as they were under 18 years of age, that they could not legally work in a sport wrestling exhibition in the state of Pennsylvania. As CZW regularly began holding shows in the Philadelphia area, the Midnight Outlaws made appearances at the next four CZW events. At "A Higher Level of Pain" on April 13, 2002, Jay appeared across the ring from the Midnight Outlaws, tagging with Ruckus against Mark and someone else. By this time, he had turned 18. Jay and Ruckus were won the match, and this was the last time either Jay or Mark appeared for CZW until April 12, 2003, where Jay and Mark both returned for Best of the Best 3. Jay was a surprise entrant after being taunted by A.J. Styles, and Mark filling in for the injured Ruckus. Jay advanced to the semi finals, where he lost to B-Boy, and Mark lost his fill-in match to Sonjay Dutt. The two faced off with the Backseat Boyz for the CZW World Tag Team Championship at "Truth or Consequences" on June 14, but failed to win the belts.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: On December 11, 2010 at Cage of Death XII The Briscoes Returned to CZW challenging newly crowned CZW World Tag Team Champions Philly's Most Wanted of Blk Jeez and Joker to a title match in January. On January 7, 2011 at "From Small Beginnings Come Great Things" Philly's Most Wanted retained the CZW World Tag Team Championships against the Briscoe Brothers in a no contest. The Briscoes then challenged Philly's Most Wanted to a no disqualification rematch. On February 12, 2011 at "Twelve: The Twelfth Anniversary Event" The Briscoe Brothers defeated Philly's Most Wanted to become the new CZW World Tag Team Champions. They lost the title back to Philly's Most Wanted on May 14, 2011. The Briscoes returned to CZW again on November 10, 2012, facing Dave and Jake Crist in a losing effort.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: Jay Briscoe made his Jersey All Pro Wrestling (JAPW) debut on March 24, 2001 at "March Madness Night 2", losing to Insane Dragon and Dixie teaming with his brother Mark Briscoe. It is unclear how, if at all, JAPW's ownership and management worked around Pennsylvania's child labor law, as both brothers were underage at the time of this and two subsequent appearances in the old ECW arena. They made three other appearances in JAPW in 2001, and unsuccessful challenge for Dragon and Dixie's JAPW Tag Team Championship on June 15 at "Here to Stay".


title: Jay Briscoe

text: Jay Briscoe made his return to JAPW in 2002 On July 13, 2002 at "Unfinished Business", Jay Briscoe and Insane Dragon, won the JAPW Tag Team Championship after scoring simultaneous pinfalls on the members of Da Hit Squad. The six men went on to meet in a rematch of sorts at the next event, "Royal Consequences 2" on August 10, 2002, Jay and Insane Dragon defended the titles against Da Hit Squad and the team of Mark Briscoe and Deranged in a tables, ladders, and chairs match, which Da Hit Squad won. Two shows later, on September 20 at "Family Crisis 2", Da Hit Squad successfully retained the title over the Briscoes in a regular match.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: The Briscoes did not appear for JAPW again until late 2005, again in a tables, ladders, and chairs match for the tag team title, this time against the teams of Teddy Hart and Homicide, the Backseat Boyz, and The S.A.T. The match, which took place at JAPW's "8th Year Anniversary Show", was won Hart and Homicide. At the next show, "Fall Out", the S.A.T. defeated them and thus became number one contenders to the tag team championship. More recent JAPW appearances came in early 2006, losing along with the Outcast Killers to the S.A.T. once again at "Wild Card II" in a tag team title match, and then at "Brotherly Love" to the team of Sabu and Sonjay Dutt, a match they also lost. In October 2008, the Briscoes competed at JAPW's 11th Anniversary Show against LAX (Homicide and Hernandez). During a brawl outside the ring, Mark suffered a large gash on the side of his head.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: The Briscoe Brothers have wrestled most extensively for Ring of Honor. Jay wrestled on ROH's first-ever show, "The Era of Honor Begins", losing to Amazing Red. Mark seconded him to the ring but could not wrestle because of Pennsylvania's child labor law (most of ROH's earliest shows took place in Philadelphia). Jay wrestled each of ROH's next four shows, against Spanky, Tony Mamaluke, Doug Williams, and James Maritato, losing to all but Mamaluke. At "Honor Invades Boston", when Mark was able to perform, he defeated his brother, in the second-to-last match of the night. The Brothers went on briefly to feud against each other, during which time Jay scored a non-title win over ROH Champion Xavier at "Glory By Honor". This earned him a title shot at "All-Star Extravaganza", which he did not win. At "Scramble Madness", back in Boston, the brothers' storyline involved them picking their own partners for a tag team match. Jay picked past foe Amazing Red, whereas Mark's partner was Christopher Daniels, as he seemingly joined The Prophecy. Daniels pinned Red to win the match. The Brothers' feud against one another concluded at the "First Anniversary Show", when Jay defeated Mark in a match, and the two hugged afterward to signify their reunion. Mark never explicitly left the Prophecy, but in forming a team with his brother, he stopped teaming with them.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: Newly united as a team in ROH, the Briscoes began, in 2003, to feud with A.J. Styles and Amazing Red, then holders of the ROH Tag Team Championship, losing in title matches at "Night of Champions", "The Epic Encounter", and "Death Before Dishonor", which by stipulation was their last match for the title for as long as Styles and Red held it. Before the last match, a poll was held on ROH's website, asking the fans if they wanted to see a third match between the two teams. Over 80% of respondents voted 'yes'. At "Beating the Odds", they returned from a brief absence to score a pair of wins which were depicted in the storyline as being improbable, Mark over ROH veteran B. J. Whitmer and Jay in a Four Corner Survival match with ROH World Champion Samoa Joe, NWA World Heavyweight Champion A.J. Styles, and Chris Sabin, pinning Sabin to earn a future title shot at Joe. At ROH's Maryland debut, "Tradition Continues", Joe retained over Jay.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: The Brothers took part in the gauntlet match at "Glory By Honor 2", which was held to fill the tag team championship left vacant by Red suffering a serious knee injury. They defeated and eliminated the Special K team of Hydro and Angeldust as well as The Ring Crew Express, before being eliminated by the other Special K team in the match, Izzy and Dixie, due to outside interference from Angeldust. After Izzy and Dixie later won the tag team title, the Brothers were granted a shot at it, at "Main Event Spectacles". The reason given in the storyline was they were given the shot since they only lost in the gauntlet match because Special K cheated. In the opening segment of that event, they were aligned with Jim Cornette, because, in the storyline, Cornette wanted to create new champions. They attacked his former client, Samoa Joe, who Cornette abandoned since he already was a champion. They went on to win the belts later in the show. At "The Conclusion", "The Battle Lines Are Drawn", and "The Last Stand", which was by stipulation Joe's last shot at the tag team title for as long as the Briscoe Brothers held it, they retained the belts over Joe and a different partner each time, A.J. Styles, Bryan Danielson, and Jerry Lynn respectively. Since Joe took pinfalls at "The Conclusion" (to Mark) and "The Last Stand" (to Jay), both brothers subsequently earned shots at his world title. Both fell; Mark at "Final Battle 2003" and Jay at "At Our Best" in a memorable and bloody steel cage match.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: They dropped the tag team title to the CM Punk and Colt Cabana at ROH's Chicago-area debut, "ROH Reborn: Stage Two", working in ROH for the first time as outward heels. At the next show, "Round Robin Challenge III", the title switched three times among the teams in the round robin challenge, the Second City Saints (Punk and Cabana), the Briscoe Brothers, and the Prophecy team of Dan Maff and B. J. Whitmer. The Briscoes defeated Maff and Whitmer in the fourth match of the night to win the title for a second time, and then lost it back to Punk and Cabana in the main event. The Brothers both participated in ROH's inaugural Survival of the Fittest tournament, with Mark going over Alex Shelley in his qualifier and Jay falling to Homicide. Mark did not, however, win the elimination final. After losing a two out of three falls tag team title match to Punk and Cabana at "Death Before Dishonor II Part 1", ending that feud, they lost in separate singles matches to members of The Rottweilers the next night. Between that and their victory in tag team action at "Testing the Limit", it is likely that a feud was planned between the Briscoes and the Rottweilers.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: The Briscoe Brothers returned to ROH at the "Fourth Anniversary Show" in 2006, forcibly including themselves in a match that was at first between the teams of Tony Mamaluke, Sal Rinauro, Jason Blade and Kid Mikaze. They won in their re-debut. They then feuded for the tag team championship again, but much as they had against Styles and Red three years earlier, they lost in three shots against the champions at the time, Austin Aries and Roderick Strong, at "Ring of Homicide", "Destiny", and "Unified". As before, the storyline was that this cost them any chance at the belts for as long as those champs held them. It was around this time that the Brothers became enforcers for Jim Cornette's heel character as ROH Commissioner, fighting battles against his enemies, most notably Homicide and his partner Samoa Joe at "Glory By Honor V: Night Two" and in anything goes, falls count anywhere, elimination match at "Dethroned". During this time, they also feuded with Kenta and his partners Davey Richards and Naomichi Marufuji, facing Kenta and Richards at "Time to Man Up" and Kenta and Marufuji at "Glory By Honor V: Night One".


title: Jay Briscoe

text: At "Fifth Year Festival: Chicago", the Brothers finally reached the top of the mountain again, defeating Christopher Daniels and Matt Sydal to win the tag team championship. Their reign, however, proved to be brief, as they in turn to dropped the belts to Naruki Doi and Shingo Takagi in their first defense, at "Fifth Year Festival: Liverpool". After this match, the storyline was that the brothers felt they needed to "man up" due to losing the title in their first defense, just as they had the GHC Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship earlier in the year. Thus, the two faced off what was described as "one time only" at "Fifth Year Festival: Finale". The match ended in a draw, with both of them unable to answer the referee's standing ten-count. At the next event, "All Star Extravaganza III", they won the title back from Doi and Shingo, but in the course of the match Mark was seriously injured attempting a Shooting Star Press to the floor. Mark was kept in the ICU of hospital for two nights, and suffered a seizure there before eventually being released. Two weeks later, at "Fighting Spirit", Mark made an unadvertised and unannounced return, entering through the crowd to come to his brother's side during his match with Erick Stevens against Kevin Steen and El Generico. The storyline was that with Mark out and injured, Jay was tagging with Stevens as a replacement. The No Remorse Corps then ran in and attacked Stevens, and Jay was momentarily left without a partner until Mark entered. Mark eventually suffered the fall in the match after several bumps to the head. They then began to feud with Steen and Generico. After successfully retaining the tag title over Claudio Castagnoli and Matt Sydal at ROH's first pay-per-view "Respect is Earned", Steen and Generico showed up and immediately demanded their title shot; the scene followed with a wild brawl all over the building. The feud was followed on both ROH's standard canon, with Steen defeating Mark at "A Fight at the Roxbury", and the PPV series, with the Brothers successfully retaining the tag team title against Steen and Generico at "Driven", after which Steen repeatedly attacked both brothers with a ladder. The Briscoes then retained over Steen and Generico in a steel cage match at "Caged Rage" and in ROH's first-ever ladder match at "Man Up".


title: Jay Briscoe

text: After the ladder match, Jimmy Jacobs and the other members of The Age of the Fall attacked the Brothers and hanged Jay upside-down from the apparatus which held up the belts. It was announced that this would not be included in the footage shown on PPV, although it was soon after shown on ROH's video wire and was included with the DVD of the event. After Mark was again injured in a motorcycle accident, though considerably less serious, Jay was alone in a match held at the taping for ROH's fourth PPV, "Undeniable". This was an anything goes match against Necro Butcher of the Age of the Fall, which he did not win. On November 30, the Briscoes had a match which was taped to be included in "Undeniable", a tag team title defense against Davey Richards and Rocky Romero, which they won. At "Final Battle 2007", the Briscoes lost the ROH World Tag Team Championship to Jimmy Jacobs and Tyler Black of The Age of the Fall, but won it back on April 12, 2008, at "Injustice", defeating Richards and Romero, who had since won the championship from Jacobs and Black. On April 20, ROH's official website reported that Mark had sustained a wrist injury due to Jacobs stabbing him with his trademark rail spike and stood to miss up to six months. The next day, the company announced that Jay and a partner of his choosing would continue to be recognized as the tag team champions. This partner was later revealed to be Austin Aries. After their successful defense against Jacobs & Black on May 10 at "A New Level", the championship was declared vacant. Mark returned to active competition at "Northern Navigation" on July 25, teaming with Jay and Aries to defeat The Age of the Fall in a no disqualification match. On December 19, 2009, at Final Battle 2009, the Briscoes won the ROH World Tag Team Championship for a record sixth time by defeating The American Wolves (Davey Richards and Eddie Edwards). They went on to lose the championship to The Kings of Wrestling (Chris Hero and Claudio Castagnoli) at The Big Bang! pay-per-view on April 3. On August 23, 2010, Ring of Honor announced that the company had signed the Briscoe Brothers to contract extensions. The Briscoe Brothers ended their feud with the Kings of Wrestling on December 18 at Final Battle 2010, where they teamed with their father Mike "Papa" Briscoe in a six-man tag team match, where they defeated Hero, Castagnoli and their manager Shane Hagadorn. On January 25, 2011, Ring of Honor announced that the Briscoe Brothers had signed new contract extensions with the promotion. On March 19 at "Manhattan Mayhem IV", the Briscoe Brothers turned heel after suffering an upset loss against the All Night Xpress (Kenny King and Rhett Titus). On September 17 at Death Before Dishonor IX, the All Night Xpress defeated the Briscoe Brothers in a ladder match to become the number one contenders to the ROH World Tag Team Championship. At Final Battle 2011 on December 23, the Briscoes defeated Wrestling's Greatest Tag Team (Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin) to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship for the seventh time, turning back to faces in the process. On May 12, 2012, at Border Wars, the Briscoe Brothers lost the title back to Haas and Benjamin. On December 16 at , the Briscoe Brothers defeated S.C.U.M. (Jimmy Jacobs and Steve Corino) and Caprice Coleman and Cedric Alexander in a three-way match to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship for the eighth time. They lost the title to Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly on March 2, 2013, at the 11th Anniversary Show.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: On April 5 at Supercard of Honor VII, Jay Briscoe defeated Kevin Steen to become the ROH World Champion. Briscoe made his first successful title defense on May 4, 2013 at Border Wars 2013 against Adam Cole. On June 22 at Best in the World 2013, Jay successfully defended the ROH World Championship against his brother Mark Briscoe. The following day, Briscoe made another successful title defense against Matt Hardy. During the weekend ROH shot injury angles with both Briscoes.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: On June 25, it was reported that Jay Briscoe's contracts with ROH had expired and would not be renewed. On July 3, Ring of Honor stripped Briscoe of the ROH World Championship. while also noting that Jay was slated to be out of action for three to six months. Jay Briscoe returned to ROH on September 20 at Death Before Dishonor XI to hand the title belt to the winner of the tournament, Adam Cole, who proceeded to attack him afterwards. On October 26 at Glory By Honor XII, Briscoe entered a storyline, where he introduced his own ROH World Championship belt titled the "Real World Title", claiming that he was the true champion since he had never been defeated for the title. Jay received his shot at the ROH World Championship on December 14 at Final Battle 2013, but was defeated by Cole in a three-way match, which also included Michael Elgin. On February 8, 2014, Jay defeated Cole to retain his version of the ROH World Championship. The two world titles were unified in a ladder match on April 4 at Supercard of Honor VIII, where Cole was victorious, following outside interference from Matt Hardy and Michael Bennett. On May 17, the Briscoe Brothers took part in the ROH/New Japan Pro-Wrestling co-produced War of the Worlds iPPV, where they unsuccessfully challenged Bullet Club (Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson) for the IWGP Tag Team Championship. On September 6 at All Star Extravaganza 6, Jay Briscoe defeated Michael Elgin to win the ROH World Championship, becoming only the second two-time ROH World Champion. On December 7, at Final Battle 2014, Briscoe successfully retained the ROH World title after defeating Adam Cole in a Fight Without Honor, which would end their year-long feud. On March 1, 2015, at the ROH 13th Anniversary Show, Briscoe successfully retained the ROH World Championship defeating Tommaso Ciampa, Michael Elgin and Hanson in a four corner survival match. On March 27, 2015, at Supercard of Honor IX, Jay Briscoe defeated Samoa Joe in Joe's return match to Ring of Honor successfully retaining the ROH World Championship. Briscoe would go on to defend the ROH World Championship against Jay Lethal at Best in the World 2015 but was defeated, ending his championship reign at 9 months.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: On Best in the World '16, Jay failed to regain the ROH World title against Jay Lethal. The two shook hands afterwards. At Field of Honor The Briscoes (Jay Briscoe and Mark Briscoe) was in a Tag Team Gauntlet match was they were unsuccessfully of winning the ROH World Tag Team Championship which included The Addiction (Christopher Daniels and Frankie Kazarian), War Machine (Hanson and Ray Rowe), The All Night Express (Rhett Titus and Kenny King), Chaos (Gedo and Toru Yano), Cheeseburger and Will Ferrara and Leon St. Giovanni and Shaheem Ali. At All Star Extravaganza VIII The Briscoes teamed with Toru Yano and were defeated by Kushida, A. C. H. and Jay White in the first round of the ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Championship Tournament. At Final Battle The Briscoes unsuccessfully challenged The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) for the ROH World Tag Team Championship. At January 7, 2017, Jay defeated B. J. Whitmer in the first round of the Decade of Excellence. Briscoe defeated Jay Lethal in the second round. Briscoe was defeated by Christopher Daniels in the final round.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: On March 11, 2017, The Briscoes and Bully Ray defeated The Kingdom to win the ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Championship. They lost the title to Dalton Castle and The Boys on June 23 at Best in the World. On September 22 at Death Before Dishonor XV, Jay turned on Bully Ray, costing himself, Mark and Ray their match against Hangman Page and The Young Bucks for the ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Championship. On October 20, Mark also turned on Ray, attacking him and Tommy Dreamer with his brother.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: On March 9, 2018 at ROH 16th Anniversary Show, The Briscoes defeated The Motor City Machine Guns to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship for the ninth time. They lost the title on October 14, 2018 against So Cal Uncensored (Kazarian and Scorpio Sky).


title: Jay Briscoe

text: Through ROH's working relationship with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), the Briscoes made their NJPW debut on January 4, 2016, at Wrestle Kingdom 10 in Tokyo Dome, where they teamed with Toru Yano to defeat Bullet Club (Bad Luck Fale, Tama Tonga and Yujiro Takahashi) to become the inaugural NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Champions. Through their affiliation with Yano, the Briscoes also became part of the Chaos stable. The three made their first successful title defense the following day against another Bullet Club trio of Fale, Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson. On February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka, the Briscoes and Yano lost the NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Championship to Fale, Tonga and Takahashi in their second defense. The Briscoes and Yano regained the title three days later at The New Beginning in Niigata. On February 20 at , the Briscoes and Yano lost the title to The Elite (Kenny Omega, Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson). The Briscoes returned to NJPW on June 19 at Dominion 6.19 in Osaka-jo Hall, where they defeated Guerrillas of Destiny (Tama Tonga and Tanga Loa) to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship. They made their first successful title defense on August 14 against the Bullet Club team of Hangman Page and Yujiro Takahashi. On September 22 at Destruction in Hiroshima, The Briscoe Brothers defeated reigning IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions The Young Bucks for their second successful title defense. On October 10 at King of Pro-Wrestling, they lost the title back to Tonga and Loa.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: On April 1, 2022 at Multiverse of Matches, The Briscoe Brothers made their Impact Wrestling debut, losing to The Good Brothers (Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson). On May 7, 2022, they defeated Violent By Design (represented by Eric Young and Deaner) at Under Siege to win the Impact World Tag Team Championship for the first time. On May 8 taping of "Impact Wrestling"; they successfully defended titles in a rematch against Violent By Design. But at Slammiversary; they lost the title against The Good Brothers.


title: Jay Briscoe

text: In May 2013, Jay caused a controversy on his Twitter account, when he threatened to "fucking shoot" anybody that tries to "teach [his] kids that there's nothing wrong with [same sex marriage]". He had previously also made other derogatory comments about homosexual people on his Twitter account. Pugh first apologized for the comment on ROH's website and again at a house show on May 11, explaining that the comments were meant to reflect the worldview of Jay Briscoe, 'the redneck character he plays on TV,' and not the views of Jay Pugh, the person behind the character. Pugh also agreed to donate his full pay from the next two shows to the Partners Against Hate (PAH) charitable organization.


title: Social theory

text: Social theories are analytical frameworks, or paradigms, that are used to study and interpret social phenomena. A tool used by social scientists, social theories relate to historical debates over the validity and reliability of different methodologies (e.g. positivism and antipositivism), the primacy of either structure or agency, as well as the relationship between contingency and necessity. Social theory in an informal nature, or authorship based outside of academic social and political science, may be referred to as "social criticism" or "social commentary", or "cultural criticism" and may be associated both with formal cultural and literary scholarship, as well as other non-academic or journalistic forms of writing.


title: Social theory

text: Social theory by definition is used to make distinctions and generalizations among different types of societies, and to analyze modernity as it has emerged in the past few centuries. Social theory as it is recognized today emerged in the 20th century as a distinct discipline, and was largely equated with an attitude of critical thinking and the desire for knowledge through "a posteriori" methods of discovery, rather than "a priori" methods of tradition.


title: Social theory

text: Social thought provides general theories to explain actions and behavior of society as a whole, encompassing sociological, political, and philosophical ideas. Classical social theory has generally been presented from a perspective of Western philosophy, and often regarded as Eurocentric.


title: Social theory

text: "Their goal is to promote accurate communication, rigorous testing, high accuracy, and broad applicability. They include the following: absence of contradictions, absence of ambivalence, abstractness, generality, precision, parsimony, and conditionality." Therefore, a social theory consists of well-defined terms, statements, arguments and scope conditions.


title: Social theory

text: Confucius (551–479 BCE) envisaged a just society that went beyond his contemporary society of the Warring States. Later on, also in China, Mozi ("circa" 470 – "circa" 390 BCE) recommended a more pragmatic sociology, but ethical at base.


title: Social theory

text: In the West, Saint Augustine (354–430) was concerned exclusively with the idea of the "just society". St. Augustine describes late Ancient Roman society through a lens of hatred and contempt for what he saw as false Gods, and in reaction theorized City of God. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle (384–322 BC) and Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC), did not see a distinction between politics and society. The concept of society did not come until the Enlightenment period. The term, "société", was probably first used as key concept by Rousseau in discussion of social relations. Prior to the enlightenment, social theory took largely narrative and normative form. It was expressed as stories and fables, and it may be assumed the pre-Socratic philosophers and religious teachers were the precursors to social theory proper.


title: Social theory

text: There is evidence of early Muslim sociology from the 14th century: in Ibn Khaldun's "Muqaddimah" (later translated as "Prolegomena" in Latin), the introduction to a seven volume analysis of universal history, was the first to advance social philosophy and social science in formulating theories of social cohesion and social conflict. Ibn Khaldun is thus considered by many to be the forerunner of sociology. Khaldun's treatise described in "Muqaddimah" "(Introduction to History)", published in 1377, two types of societies: (1) the city or town-dweller and (2) the mobile, nomadic societies.


title: Social theory

text: Modernity arose during the Enlightenment period, with the emergence of the world economy and exchange among diverse societies, bringing sweeping changes and new challenges for society. Many French and Scottish intellectuals and philosophers embraced the idea of progress and ideas of modernity.


title: Social theory

text: The Enlightenment period was marked by the idea that with new discoveries challenging the traditional way of thinking, scientists were required to find new normativity. This process allowed scientific knowledge and society to progress. French thought during this period focused on moral critique and criticisms of the monarchy. These ideas did not draw on ideas of the past from classical thinkers, nor involved following religious teachings and authority of the monarch.


title: Social theory

text: A common factor among the classical theories was the agreement that the history of humanity is pursuing a fixed path. They differed on where that path would lead: social progress, technological progress, decline or even fall. Social cycle theorists were skeptical of the Western achievements and technological progress, but argued that progress is an illusion of the ups and downs of the historical cycles. The classical approach has been criticized by many modern sociologists and theorists; among them Karl Popper, Robert Nisbet, Charles Tilly and Immanuel Wallerstein.


title: Social theory

text: The 19th century brought questions involving social order. The French Revolution freed French society of control by the monarchy, with no effective means of maintaining social order until Napoleon came to power. Three great classical theories of social and historical change emerged: the social evolutionism theory (of which Social Darwinism forms a part), the social cycle theory, and the Marxist historical materialism theory.


title: Social theory

text: 19th-century classical social theory has been expanded upon to create newer, contemporary social theories such as multilineal theories of evolution (neoevolutionism, sociobiology, theory of modernization, theory of post-industrial society) and various strains of Neo-Marxism.


title: Social theory

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, social theory became closely related to academic sociology, and other related studies such as anthropology, philosophy, and social work branched out into their own disciplines. Subjects like "philosophy of history" and other multi-disciplinary subject matter became part of social theory as taught under sociology.


title: Social theory

text: A revival of discussion free of disciplines began in the late 1920s and early 1930s. The Frankfurt Institute for Social Research is a historical example. The Committee on Social Thought at the University of Chicago followed in the 1940s. In the 1970s, programs in Social and Political Thought were established at Sussex and York. Others followed, with emphases and structures, such as Social Theory and History (University of California, Davis). Cultural Studies programs extended the concerns of social theory into the domain of culture and thus anthropology. A chair and undergraduate program in social theory was established at the University of Melbourne. Social theory at present seems to be gaining acceptance as a classical academic discipline.


title: Social theory

text: Adam Ferguson, Montesquieu, and John Millar, among others, were the first to study society as distinct from political institutions and processes. In the nineteenth century, the scientific method was introduced into study of society, which was a significant advance leading to development of sociology as a discipline.


title: Social theory

text: In the 18th century, the pre-classical period of social theories developed a new form that provides the basic ideas for social theory, such as evolution, philosophy of history, social life and social contract, public and general will, competition in social space, organismic pattern for social description. Montesquieu, in "The Spirit of Laws", which established that social elements influence human nature, was possibly the first to suggest a universal explanation for history. Montesquieu included changes in mores and manners as part of his explanation of political and historic events.


title: Social theory

text: Philosophers, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, and Denis Diderot, developed new social ideas during the Enlightenment period that were based on reason and methods of scientific inquiry. Jean-Jacques Rousseau in this time played a significant role in social theory. He revealed the origin of inequality, analyzed the social contract (and social compact) that forms social integration and defined the social sphere or civil society. Jean-Jacques Rousseau also emphasized that man has the liberty to change his world, an assertion that made it possible to program and change society.


title: Social theory

text: Adam Smith addressed the question of whether vast inequalities of wealth represented progress. He explained that the wealthy often demand convenience, employing numerous others to carry out labor to meet their demands. Smith argued that this allows wealth to be redistributed among inhabitants, and for all to share in progress of society. Smith explained that social forces could regulate the market economy with social objectivity and without need for government intervention. Smith regarded the division of labor as an important factor for economic progress. John Millar suggested that improved status of women was important for progress of society. Millar also advocated for abolition of slavery, suggesting that personal liberty makes people more industrious, ambitious, and productive.


title: Social theory

text: The first "modern" social theories (known as classical theories) that begin to resemble the analytic social theory of today developed simultaneously with the birth of the science of sociology. Auguste Comte (1798–1857), known as the "father of sociology" and regarded by some as the first philosopher of science, laid the groundwork for positivism – as well as structural functionalism and social evolutionism. Karl Marx rejected Comtean positivism but nevertheless aimed to establish a "science of society" based on historical materialism, becoming recognised as a founding figure of sociology posthumously. At the turn of the 20th century, the first of German sociologists, including Max Weber and Georg Simmel, developed sociological antipositivism. The field may be broadly recognized as an amalgam of three modes of social scientific thought in particular; Durkheimian sociological positivism and structural functionalism, Marxist historical materialism and conflict theory, and Weberian antipositivism and verstehen critique.


title: Social theory

text: Another early modern theorist, Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), coined the term "survival of the fittest". Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923) and Pitirim A. Sorokin argued that "history goes in cycles," and presented the social cycle theory to illustrate their point. Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936) made "community" and "society" ("Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft", 1887) the special topics of the new science of "sociology", both of them based on different modes of will of social actors.


title: Social theory

text: The 19th century pioneers of social theory and sociology, like Saint-Simon, Comte, Marx, John Stuart Mill or Spencer, never held university posts and they were broadly regarded as philosophers. Emile Durkheim endeavoured to formally established academic sociology, and did so at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, he published "Rules of the Sociological Method". In 1896, he established the journal "L'Année Sociologique". Durkheim's seminal monograph, "Suicide" (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy.


title: Social theory

text: The term "postmodernism" was brought into social theory in 1971 by the Arab American Theorist Ihab Hassan in his book: "The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature". In 1979 Jean-François Lyotard wrote a short but influential work "The Postmodern Condition: A report on knowledge". Jean Baudrillard, Michel Foucault, and Roland Barthes were influential in the 1970s in developing postmodern theory.


title: Social theory

text: Scholars most commonly hold "postmodernism" to be a movement of ideas arising from, but also critical of elements of modernism. The wide range of uses of this term resulted in different elements of modernity are chosen as being continuous. Each of the different uses is rooted in some argument about the nature of knowledge, known in philosophy as epistemology. Individuals who use the term are arguing that either there is something fundamentally different about the transmission of meaning, or that modernism has fundamental flaws in its system of knowledge.


title: Social theory

text: The argument for the necessity of the term states that economic and technological conditions of our age have given rise to a decentralized, media-dominated society. These ideas are simulacra, and only inter-referential representations and copies of each other, with no real original, stable or objective source for communication and meaning. Globalization, brought on by innovations in communication, manufacturing and transportation, is cited as one force which has decentralized modern life, creating a culturally pluralistic and interconnected global society, lacking any single dominant center of political power, communication, or intellectual production. The postmodern view is that inter-subjective knowledge, and not objective knowledge, is the dominant form of discourse. The ubiquity of copies and dissemination alters the relationship between reader and what is read, between observer and the observed, between those who consume and those who produce.


title: Social theory

text: Not all people who use the term postmodern or postmodernism see these developments as positive. Users of the term argue that their ideals have arisen as the result of particular economic and social conditions, including "late capitalism", the growth of broadcast media, and that such conditions have pushed society into a new historical period.


title: Social theory

text: In the past few decades, in response to postmodern critiques, social theory has begun to stress free will, individual choice, subjective reasoning, and the importance of unpredictable events in place of deterministic necessity. Rational choice theory, symbolic interactionism, false necessity are examples of more recent developments. A view among contemporary sociologists is that there are no great unifying 'laws of history', but rather smaller, more specific, and more complex laws that govern society.


title: Social theory

text: Philosopher and politician Roberto Mangabeira Unger recently attempted to revise classical social theory by exploring how things fit together, rather than to provide an all encompassing single explanation of a universal reality. He begins by recognizing the key insight of classical social theory of society as an artifact, and then by discarding the law-like characteristics forcibly attached to it. Unger argues that classical social theory was born proclaiming that society is made and imagined, and not the expression of an underlying natural order, but at the same time its capacity was checked by the equally prevalent ambition to create law-like explanations of history and social development. The human sciences that developed claimed to identify a small number of possible types of social organization that coexisted or succeeded one another through inescapable developmental tendencies or deep-seated economic organization or psychological constraints. Marxism is the star example.


title: Social theory

text: Unger, calling his efforts "super-theory", has thus sought to develop a comprehensive view of history and society. Unger does so without subsuming deep structure analysis under an indivisible and repeatable type of social organization or with recourse to law-like constraints and tendencies. His articulation of such a theory is in "False Necessity: anti-necessitarian social theory in the service of radical democracy," where he uses deep-logic practice to theorize human social activity through anti-necessitarian analysis.


title: Social theory

text: Unger begins by formulating the theory of false necessity, which claims that social worlds are the artifact of human endeavors. There is no pre-set institutional arrangement that societies must adhere to, and there is no necessary historical mold of development that they will follow. We are free to choose and to create the forms and the paths that our societies will take. However, this does not give license to absolute contingency. Unger finds that there are groups of institutional arrangements that work together to bring about certain institutional forms—liberal democracy, for example. These forms are the basis of a social structure, which Unger calls formative context. In order to explain how we move from one formative context to another without the conventional social theory constraints of historical necessity (e.g. feudalism to capitalism), and to do so while remaining true to the key insight of individual human empowerment and anti-necessitarian social thought, Unger recognized that there are an infinite number of ways of resisting social and institutional constraints, which can lead to an infinite number of outcomes. This variety of forms of resistance and empowerment make change possible. Unger calls this empowerment negative capability. However, Unger adds that these outcomes are always reliant on the forms from which they spring. The new world is built upon the existing one.


title: Social theory

text: The Chicago school developed in the 1920s, through the work of Albion Woodbury Small, W. I. Thomas, Ernest W. Burgess, Robert E. Park, Ellsworth Faris, George Herbert Mead, and other sociologists at the University of Chicago. The Chicago school focused on patterns and arrangement of social phenomenon across time and place, and within context of other social variables.


title: Social theory

text: Critical theorists focus on reflective assessment and critique of society and culture in order to reveal and challenge power structures and their relations and influences on social groups.


title: Social theory

text: Karl Marx wrote and theorized about the importance of political economy on society, and focused on the "material conditions" of life. His theories centered around capitalism and its effect on class-struggle between the proletariat and bourgeoisie.


title: Social theory

text: Postmodernism was defined by Jean-François Lyotard as "incredulity towards metanarratives" and contrasted that with modern which he described as "any science that legitimates itself with reference to a metadiscourse... making an explicit appeal to some grand narrative, such as the dialectics of Spirit the hermeneutics of meaning, the emancipation of the rational or working subject, or the creation of wealth."


title: Social theory

text: Some known French social thinkers are Claude Henri Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, and Michel Foucault.


title: Social theory

text: British social thought, with thinkers such as Herbert Spencer, addressed questions and ideas relating to political economy and social evolution. The political ideals of John Ruskin were a precursor of social economy ("Unto This Last" had a very important impact on Gandhi's philosophy).


title: Social theory

text: Important German philosophers and social thinkers included Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Georg Simmel, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse and Niklas Luhmann.


title: Social theory

text: Important Chinese philosophers and social thinkers included Shang Yang, Lao Zi, Confucius, Mencius, Wang Chong, Wang Yangming, Li Zhi, Zhu Xi, Gu Yanwu, Gong Zizhen, Wei Yuan, Kang Youwei, Lu Xun, Mao Zedong, Zhu Ming.


title: Social theory

text: Important Italian social scientists include Antonio Gramsci, Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo Pareto, Franco Ferrarotti.


title: Social theory

text: Social theory seeks to question why humans inhabit the world the way they do, and how that came to be by looking at power relations, social structures, and social norms, while also examining how humans relate to each other and the society they find themselves in, how this has changed over time and in different cultures, and the tools used to measure those things. Social theory looks to interdisciplinarity, combining knowledge from multiple academic disciplines in order to enlighten these complex issues, and can draw on ideas from fields as diverse as anthropology and media studies.


title: Social theory

text: Social theory guides scientific inquiry by promoting scientists to think about which topics are suitable for investigation and how they should measure them. Selecting or creating appropriate theory for use in examining an issue is an important skill for any researcher. Important distinctions: a "theoretical orientation" (or paradigm) is a worldview, the lens through which one organizes experience (i.e. thinking of human interaction in terms of power or exchange). A "theory" is an attempt to explain and predict behavior in particular contexts. A theoretical orientation cannot be proven or disproven; a theory can.


title: Social theory

text: Having a theoretical orientation that sees the world in terms of power and control, one could create a theory about violent human behavior which includes specific causal statements (e.g. being the victim of physical abuse leads to psychological problems). This could lead to a hypothesis (prediction) about what one expects to see in a particular sample, e.g. "a battered child will grow up to be shy or violent". One can then test the hypothesis by looking to see if it is consistent with data. One might, for instance, review hospital records to find children who were abused, then track them down and administer a personality test to see if they show signs of being violent or shy. The selection of an appropriate (i.e. useful) theoretical orientation within which to develop a potentially helpful theory is the bedrock of social science.


title: Social theory

text: Other issues relating to modernity that were addressed by social thinkers include social atomization, alienation, loneliness, social disorganization, and secularization.


title: Urtica

text: Urtica is a genus of flowering plants in the family Urticaceae. Many species have stinging hairs and may be called nettles or stinging nettles, although the latter name applies particularly to "Urtica dioica".


title: Urtica

text: "Urtica" species are food for the caterpillars of numerous Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), such as the tortrix moth "Syricoris lacunana" and several Nymphalidae, such as "Vanessa atalanta", one of the red admiral butterflies.


title: Urtica

text: "Urtica" species grow as annuals or perennial herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs. They can reach, depending on the type, location and nutrient status, a height of . The perennial species have underground rhizomes. The green parts have stinging hairs. Their often quadrangular stems are unbranched or branched, erect, ascending or spreading.


title: Urtica

text: Most leaves and stalks are arranged across opposite sides of the stem. The leaf blades are elliptic, lanceolate, ovate or circular. The leaf blades usually have three to five, rarely up to seven veins. The leaf margin is usually serrate to more or less coarsely toothed. The often-lasting bracts are free or fused to each other. The cystoliths are extended to more or less rounded.


title: Urtica

text: In 1874, while in Collioure (south of France), French botanist Charles Naudin discovered that strong winds during 24 hours made the stinging hairs of "Urtica" harmless for a whole week.


title: Urtica

text: The last common ancestor of the genus originated in Eurasia, with fossils being known from the Miocene of Germany and Russia, subsequently dispersing worldwide. Several species of the genus have undergone long distance oceanic dispersal, such as "Hesperocnide sandwicensis" (native to Hawaii) and "Urtica ferox" (native to New Zealand).


title: Urtica

text: A large number of species included within the genus in the older literature are now recognized as synonyms of "Urtica dioica". Some of these taxa are still recognized as subspecies. Genetic evidence indicates that the two species of "Hesperocnide" are part of this genus.


title: Urtica

text: Due to the stinging hairs, "Urtica" species are rarely eaten by herbivores, but rather provide shelter for insects, such as aphids, butterfly larvae, and moths.


title: Urtica

text: Fabric woven of nettle fiber was found in burial sites in Denmark dating to the Bronze Age, and in clothing fabric, sailcloth, fishing nets, and paper via the process called retting (microbial enzymatic degradation, similar to linen processing). Other processing methods include mechanical and chemical.


title: Urtica

text: "Urtica", called "krapiva" in Russian, "kopriva" in Macedonian, Croatian, Serbian, Bulgarian and Slovenian, and "urzica" in Romanian, is an ingredient in soups, omelettes, banitsa, purée, and other dishes. In Mazandaran, northern Iran, a soup (Āsh) is made using this plant. Nettles were used in traditional practices to make nettle tea, juice, and ale, and to preserve cheeses, such as in Cornish Yarg.


title: Urtica

text: Nettles have many folklore traditions associated with them. The folklore mainly relates to the stinging nettle ("Urtica dioica").


title: Urtica

text: Milarepa, the great Tibetan ascetic and saint, was reputed to have survived his decades of solitary meditation by subsisting on nothing but nettles; his hair and skin turned green and he lived to the age of 83.


title: Urtica

text: The Caribbean trickster figure Anansi appears in a story about nettles, in which he has to chop down a huge nettle patch in order to win the hand of the king's daughter.


title: Urtica

text: Coo, cow, and stoo are all Scottish for cut back or crop (although, curiously, another meaning of "stoo" is to throb or ache), while "laich" means short or low to the ground. Given the repetition of "early," presumably this is advice to harvest nettles first thing in the morning and to cut them back hard [which seems to contradict the advice of the Royal Horticultural Society].


title: Urtica

text: In Hans Christian Andersen's fairy-tale "The Wild Swans," the princess had to weave coats of nettles to break the spell on her brothers.


title: Quadrivium

text: From the time of Plato through the Middle Ages, the quadrivium (plural: quadrivia) was a grouping of four subjects or arts—arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy—that formed a second curricular stage following preparatory work in the "trivium", consisting of grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Together, the " trivium" and the "quadrivium" comprised the seven liberal arts, and formed the basis of a liberal arts education in Western society until gradually displaced as a curricular structure by the "studia humanitas" and its later offshoots, beginning with Petrarch in the 14th century. The seven classical arts were considered "thinking skills" and were distinguished from practical arts, such as medicine and architecture.


title: Quadrivium

text: The "quadrivium", Latin for 'four ways', and its use for the four subjects have been attributed to Boethius—who likely coined the term. It was considered the foundation for the study of philosophy (sometimes called the "liberal art "par excellence"") and theology. The "quadrivium" was the upper division of the medieval education in the liberal arts, which comprised arithmetic (number in the abstract), geometry (number in space), music (number in time), and astronomy (number in space and time).


title: Quadrivium

text: Educationally, the "trivium" and the "quadrivium" imparted to the student the seven essential thinking skills of classical antiquity. Altogether the Seven Liberal Arts belonged to the so-called 'Low Faculty' (of Arts), whereas Medicine, Jurisprudence (Law), and Theology were established in the three so-called 'High' faculties. Thereby it was quite common in the middle ages that the lecturers in the Low Faculty (for trivium and/or quadrivium) to be students themselves in one of the High faculties. Philosophy was typically "not" a subject (nor faculty) in its own right, but was rather present "implicitly" as an 'auxiliary tool' within the discourses of the High faculties (especially theology); the complete emancipation of philosophy from theology happened only after the Medieval era.


title: Quadrivium

text: Displacement of the quadrivium by other curricular approaches from the time of Petrarch gained momentum with the subsequent Renaissance emphasis on what became the modern humanities, one of four liberal arts of the modern era, alongside natural science (where much of the actual subject matter of the original quadrivium now resides), social science, and the arts; though it may appear that music in the quadrivium would be a modern branch of performing arts, it was then an abstract system of proportions that was carefully studied at a distance from actual musical practice, and effectively a branch of music theory more tightly bound to arithmetic than to musical expression.


title: Quadrivium

text: These four studies compose the secondary part of the curriculum outlined by Plato in "The Republic" and are described in the seventh book of that work (in the order Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Music).


title: Quadrivium

text: The quadrivium is implicit in early Pythagorean writings and in the "De nuptiis" of Martianus Capella, although the term "quadrivium" was not used until Boethius, early in the sixth century. As Proclus wrote:


title: Quadrivium

text: The Pythagoreans considered all mathematical science to be divided into four parts: one half they marked off as concerned with quantity, the other half with magnitude; and each of these they posited as twofold. A quantity can be considered in regard to its character by itself or in its relation to another quantity, magnitudes as either stationary or in motion. Arithmetic studies quantities as such, music the relations between quantities, geometry magnitude at rest, spherics [astronomy] magnitude inherently moving.


title: Quadrivium

text: At many medieval universities, this would have been the course leading to the degree of Master of Arts (after the BA). After the MA, the student could enter for bachelor's degrees of the higher faculties (Theology, Medicine or Law). To this day, some of the postgraduate degree courses lead to the degree of Bachelor (the B.Phil and B.Litt. degrees are examples in the field of philosophy).


title: Quadrivium

text: The study was eclectic, approaching the philosophical objectives sought by considering it from each aspect of the quadrivium within the general structure demonstrated by Proclus (AD 412–485), namely arithmetic and music on the one hand and geometry and cosmology on the other.


title: Quadrivium

text: The subject of music within the quadrivium was originally the classical subject of harmonics, in particular the study of the proportions between the musical intervals created by the division of a monochord. A relationship to music as actually practised was not part of this study, but the framework of classical harmonics would substantially influence the content and structure of music theory as practised in both European and Islamic cultures.


title: Quadrivium

text: In modern applications of the liberal arts as curriculum in colleges or universities, the quadrivium may be considered to be the study of number and its relationship to space or time: arithmetic was pure number, geometry was number in space, music was number in time, and astronomy was number in space and time. Morris Kline classified the four elements of the quadrivium as pure (arithmetic), stationary (geometry), moving (astronomy), and applied (music) number.


title: Quadrivium

text: This schema is sometimes referred to as "classical education", but it is more accurately a development of the 12th- and 13th-century Renaissance with recovered classical elements, rather than an organic growth from the educational systems of antiquity. The term continues to be used by the classical education movement and at the independent Oundle School, in the United Kingdom.


title: Flying Scotsman (train)

text: The Flying Scotsman is an express passenger train service that operates between Edinburgh and London, the capitals of Scotland and England, via the East Coast Main Line. The service began in 1862; the name was officially adopted in 1924. It is currently operated by London North Eastern Railway.


title: Flying Scotsman (train)

text: The East Coast Main Line over which the "Flying Scotsman" runs was built in the 19th century by many small railway companies, but mergers and acquisitions led to only three companies controlling the route; the North British Railway (NBR), the North Eastern Railway (NER) and the Great Northern Railway (GNR). In 1860 the three companies established the East Coast Joint Stock for through services using common vehicles, and it is from this agreement that the "Flying Scotsman" came about.


title: Flying Scotsman (train)

text: The first "Special Scotch Express" ran in 1862, with simultaneous departures at 10:00 from the GNR's London King's Cross and the NBR's Edinburgh Waverley. The original journey took hours, including a half-hour stop at York for lunch. Increasing competition and improvements in railway technology saw this time reduced to hours by the time of the Race to the North in 1888.