title: Andrés Segovia

text: His editions of works originally written for guitar include newly-fingered and occasionally-revised versions of works from the standard repertoire (most famously, his edition of a selection of twenty "estudios" by Fernando Sor, the "cornerstone" of every serious student's technique since its publication in 1945 although somewhat ironically, Segovia, in the preface to that work, disparaged Sor as "not among the vigorous talents") as well as compositions written for him, including by Heitor Villa-Lobos, Federico Mompou, and Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco. Many of the latter had been edited by Segovia, working in collaboration with the composer, before they were first published. Because of Segovia's predilection for altering the musical content of his editions to reflect his interpretive preferences, many of today's guitarists prefer to examine the original manuscripts or newer publications based on the original manuscripts to compare them with Segovia's published versions to accept or reject Segovia's editorial decisions.


title: Andrés Segovia

text: Segovia was one of those to whom homage was paid in the 1978 song by Ian Dury and The Blockheads "There Ain't Half Been Some Clever Bastards."


title: Andrés Segovia

text: Influential rock entertainer Johnny Thunders included a guitar instrumental titled "Illegitimate Son of Segovia" in his album "Hurt me".


title: Andrés Segovia

text: Segovia was awarded many prizes and honours, including doctorates "honoris causa", from ten universities. On 24 June 1981, he was ennobled by King Juan Carlos I, who gave Segovia the hereditary title of "Marqués de Salobreña" (English: Marquis of Salobreña) in the nobility of Spain in recognition of his contributions to music and the arts. He received the Danish Sonning Award in 1974, the Ernst von Siemens Music Prize in 1985, and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1986.


title: Andrés Segovia

text: Segovia's first wife was Adelaida Portillo (marriage in 1918). Segovia's second wife (marriage in 1935) was the pianist Paquita Madriguera, who also made some piano roll recordings. From 1944, he maintained a romantic relationship with Brazilian singer and guitarist Olga Praguer Coelho, which was to last for over a decade. In 1962 Segovia married Emilia Magdalena Corral Sancho. They had one son, Carlos Andrés Segovia, the current Marquis of Salobreña.


title: Dick Emery

text: Richard Gilbert Emery (19 February 19152 January 1983) was an English comedian and actor. His broadcasting career began on radio in the 1950s, and his self-titled television series ran from 1963 to 1981.


title: Dick Emery

text: Richard Gilbert Emery was born 19 February 1915, in University College Hospital, Bloomsbury, London. His parents were the comedy double act Callan and Emery. They took him on tour when he was only three weeks old and gave him the occasional turn on the stage during his childhood, which was always on the move and disrupted, creating problems for the future but setting the scene for eventually going into showbusiness himself. His parents split up when he was eight and he chose to stay with his mother, who gave up showbusiness. He tried a variety of jobs before the stage: mechanic, office boy, farm hand and driving instructor.


title: Dick Emery

text: During the Second World War he was called up to the RAF and rose to the rank of corporal. However, because of family problems, he returned to London, joining the chorus line of "The Merry Widow" at the Majestic Theatre, although he was subsequently recognised, arrested and imprisoned. He was recruited by Ralph Reader into the RAF Gang Show to entertain air and ground crew at bases in Great Britain.


title: Dick Emery

text: At this time he created Vera Thin (the Forces' Sweetheart), loosely based on Vera Lynn, later saying, "I was better in drag than combat gear". After D-Day, his unit toured forward airbases.


title: Dick Emery

text: On leaving the RAF, he returned to the theatre as a comedian. He worked at the Windmill Theatre, though his name does not appear on the plaque commemorating the acts that played there. He toured his fledgling act around the United Kingdom.


title: Dick Emery

text: He also auditioned for various parts and in 1952 he starred in a role in a 15-minute Radio Luxembourg series on Saturdays at 7.00pm called "Chance of a Lifetime". This was a quiz sponsored by Marshall Ward in which merchandise to the value of £30 was awarded to contestants. Other radio work around this time included several appearances on "Workers' Playtime" on the BBC, a morale-boosting show that had started during the war to entertain factory workers in their canteens. Emery also made a guest appearance on the popular BBC radio programme "The Goon Show", replacing regular cast member Harry Secombe for one episode in 1957.


title: Dick Emery

text: During 1953 he briefly formed a double act with Charlie Drake. His television debut came in 1950 on "The Centre Show" on the BBC. He appeared on TV programmes including "Round the Bend" (BBC, 1955–56) and "Educating Archie" (ITV, 1958–59) and appeared with his friend Tony Hancock in several episodes of "The Tony Hancock Show" (ITV, 1956) and "Hancock's Half Hour" (BBC, 1957).


title: Dick Emery

text: He enhanced his reputation on two series with former Goon Michael Bentine: "After Hours" (ITV, 1958–59) and "It's a Square World" (BBC, 1960–64). His role as Private Chubby Catchpole in the final series of "The Army Game", (ITV 1960) led to an exclusive BBC contract, and the long-running "The Dick Emery Show" (BBC, 1963–81) began.The show involved Emery dressing up as various characters, lasted 18 series totalling 166 episodes aired between 1963 to 1981.


title: Dick Emery

text: In a sporadic film career he made his debut in the Goons' "The Case of the Mukkinese Battle Horn" (directed by Joseph Sterling, 1954). He also played bungling bank robber Booky Binns in "The Big Job" (directed by Gerald Thomas, 1965) and was known for vocal talents as an array of characters including "The Nowhere Man" Jeremy Hillary Boob, the Mayor of Pepperland and Max, one of the Blue Meanies in the Beatles' "Yellow Submarine" directed by George Dunning, in 1968.


title: Dick Emery

text: Emery appeared in films as Shingler in "The Fast Lady" (1962), as Peter Sellers's neighbour in "The Wrong Arm Of The Law", as Harry in "Baby Love" (1968), as Mr Bateman in "Loot" (1970) and "Ooh… You Are Awful" (1972), in which he played many of the characters he had portrayed in his TV series. The plot of this comedy centred on Emery hunting down a bank account number. The digits of the number are tattooed on the bottoms of four young women. Emery has to see the girls naked, which requires disguises. One of the women is played by Liza Goddard.


title: Dick Emery

text: Emery also recorded several novelty records, most notably "If You Love Her", which reached number 32 in 1969, and "You Are Awful", which just missed the top 40 in 1973. Other singles included "A Cockney Christmas" (1962), "You're The Only One" (1974) and "Rocking Horse Cowboy" (1979). In 1979, Emery moved to ITV for three specials before returning to the BBC in 1980 and resuming "The Dick Emery Show".


title: Dick Emery

text: By 1982, Emery was tiring of the format for his BBC series and wanted to do something different. Using a new format and character, Jewish private detective Bernie Weinstock, Emery had a new outlet – two series of comedy thrillers under the banner "Emery Presents" (BBC, 1982–83), "Legacy of Murder" and "Jack of Diamonds".


title: Dick Emery

text: Emery had a very difficult childhood initially, but things settled down following the departure of his father, Laurie Howe. He was devoted to his mother for most of his life and helped support her once he was able to work. This devotion caused problems in his marriages.


title: Dick Emery

text: He was in six long-term relationships, marrying five times, and also had numerous affairs. He often appeared in tabloid newspapers with beautiful women.


title: Dick Emery

text: At the beginning of the Second World War he married Joan (sometimes known as Zelda) Sainsbury and had one son, Gilbert Richard. After the failure of that marriage, he married Irene (Pip) Ansell but the marriage barely lasted six months. While working in summer season in 1950, at the Winter Gardens in Ventnor on the Isle of Wight, he met Iris Margaret Tully, who was also in the show. At the end of the season, they returned to London and set up home together in Iris' flat in Shaftesbury Avenue. Iris changed her name to Emery by deed poll until 1955, a year after she had given birth to his second son, Nicholas William. She and Emery married in 1955.


title: Dick Emery

text: The marriage was a rocky one because Emery had several affairs while away on tour. He met the woman who became his fourth wife, Victoria Chambers, in the mid-1950s. He was torn between the two women, but in late 1958 he left Iris and moved to Thames Ditton in Surrey to set up home.


title: Dick Emery

text: In 1960, however, he returned to Iris and his son and moved them to Thames Ditton, but he could never settle, and in 1962 he left Iris for Victoria. Iris divorced him in 1964. By this time, he had set up home in Esher. Vickie bore him a son Michael and a daughter Eliza. His last wife was Josephine Blake to whom he was still married at the time of his death, although he had left her to live with Fay Hillier, an actress 30 years his junior.


title: Dick Emery

text: Outside showbusiness, he enjoyed flying, and held a pilot's licence from 1961 onwards. He also liked fast cars and motorcycles. He was a keen maker of scale models, and was president of the Airfix Modellers' Club. He also wrote a review feature for "Meccano Magazine" during 1971.


title: Dick Emery

text: While the public took him to heart, voting him BBC TV Personality of the Year in 1972, Emery suffered from severe stage fright and low self-esteem. He underwent psychoanalysis and hypnosis, and took sedatives to try to cure the problems.


title: Dick Emery

text: He had four children, Gilbert, Nicholas, Michael and Eliza, and was the half-brother of actress Ann Emery.


title: Dick Emery

text: In December 1982, Emery was taken to a London hospital with severe chest pains. He died at the hospital from cardiorespiratory failure on 2 January 1983 at the age of 67.


title: Apruebo Dignidad

text: Apruebo Dignidad (; in English, "Approve Dignity", AD) is a left-wing Chilean electoral coalition officially created on 11 January 2021, by the Broad Front and Chile Digno in preparation for the Constitutional Convention election.


title: Apruebo Dignidad

text: The Apruebo Dignidad pact has its origins in the attempt to reunite the left into a large conglomerate. In the midst of the pandemic, there were various attempts to seek unity in the opposition. One of them was Popular Sheet (), a platform that led left-wing political parties and movements with the intention of pushing left-of-centre economic proposals in Congress.


title: Apruebo Dignidad

text: Its members include the Broad Front, Chile Digno, Social Unity Table, Community for Dignity, among other organizations. On 5 February 2021, the central principals of the coalition for the drafting of the New Constitution were defined. This event was attended by social and political figures such as Beatriz Sánchez, Fernando Atria, Bárbara Figueroa, Emilia Schneider, Bastián Bodenhöfer, Patricia López, Tatiana Urrutia, Marcos Barraza, Bárbara Sepúlveda Hales, and others.


title: Apruebo Dignidad

text: After successful constituent elections, the parties confirmed a and the formalization of the electoral coalition on 19 May, amid failed talks with the Socialist Party. These primaries summon the standard-bearer and current mayor of Recoleta, Daniel Jadue, who is supported by Chile Digno composed of the Communist Party and the Social Green Regionalist Federation, and also the Equality Party. On the other side was deputy Gabriel Boric, who was supported by the Broad Front as a whole.


title: Apruebo Dignidad

text: On 18 July 2021, the primaries of Apruebo Dignidad were held, giving as the winner the militant of Social Convergence, Gabriel Boric, who represented the coalition in the presidential elections in November. Also, in the midst of talks, the possibility of the conglomerate forming a single list for the parliamentary elections was considered.


title: Apruebo Dignidad

text: On Thursday, 12 August, the conglomerate launched the Constituent Observatory Apruebo Dignidad, a think tank that brings together four study centers of parties and movements that are members of the coalition: Saberes Colectivos (Broad Front), Rumbo Colectivo (Democratic Revolution), La Casa Común (Common Force) and the Alejandro Lipschutz Institute of Sciences (Communist Party). The main objective of the project is the need to forge links between the Constitutional Convention and civil society for the monitoring and lifting of constitutional proposals, in addition to strengthening relations between the parties and movements that make up Apruebo Dignidad.


title: Apruebo Dignidad

text: On 11 August, the parliamentary list of Apruebo Dignidad was formalized, composed of the parties and movements of the conglomerate that have parliamentary representation (RD, CS, Comunes, Unir, PC, FREVS, AH). The objective of the bench was to improve parliamentary coordination in debates in Congress in the future; such as the 40-hour law, the tax on the super rich, among others. Likewise, the event ratified the support for Gabriel Boric's candidacy for the presidency. The Equality Party decided not to support Boric and raise a parallel parliamentary list with the Humanist Party called Dignidad Ahora.


title: Apruebo Dignidad

text: Boric obtained 25.83% of the votes in the first round of the presidential election, securing his place in a run-off against José Antonio Kast of the Christian Social Front, who received 27.91% of the preferences. In the second round, that took place on 19 December, he won 55.87% of the votes, becoming president-elect of Chile. He was sworn in on 11 March 2022.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: Family of Saltimbanques (French: ) is a 1905 oil on canvas painting by Pablo Picasso. The work depicts six saltimbanques, a kind of itinerant circus performer, in a desolate landscape. It is considered the masterpiece of Picasso's Rose Period, sometimes called his circus period. The painting is housed in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: This painting was created during Picasso's early years as an artist after moving to Paris from Barcelona in 1904. As a young man with little money, Picasso lived in a studio in a dilapidated building known as the Bateau-Lavoir. He was fortunate to be surrounded by the many young artists who lived in the building and local area, but for Picasso, this was a period of loneliness and poverty. His sympathy for lonely, poor and isolated people is most evident in the melancholy paintings of his Blue Period, which continued until 1904. By 1905, Picasso shifted his outlook and began to paint in a new palette of warmer shades, depicting subjects with a more positive undertone. In this Rose Period, Picasso developed an interest in the life of the saltimbanque, or travelling circus performer, often depicting groups or families of acrobats.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: "Family of Saltimbanques" was painted during a period from late 1904 to early 1906 when Picasso was exploring themes about the saltimbanque. During this period, Picasso frequently attended the Cirque Médrano in Montmartre and was inspired by a group of performers there. In the circus performers, Picasso found a connection, as like himself, many of them were from Spain and experienced a transitory lifestyle that he had also experienced as a young man.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: "Family of Saltimbanques" is a huge painting measuring 7 ft x 7.5 ft. It was an ambitious work for a young, impoverished artist. The painting consists of a group of saltimbanques, who stand together but appear to be disconnected as they do not look at one another. Picasso depicted himself in this composition as the harlequin dressed in a diamond-patterned costume. The figures in the group appear isolated as if lost in their own thoughts. They glance towards a woman who is sitting alone. The harlequin is shown to be reaching towards a child who is standing behind him.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: John Richardson and other art historians have considered that the dreamy atmosphere of the painting and the expressionless appearances of the figures were influenced by Picasso's use of opium, a substance that was regularly used by the tenants of the Bateau-Lavoir during this period. In the first volume of John Richardson’s 1991 biography "A Life of Picasso", he stated that the artist smoked opium several times a week between 1904 and 1908.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: Analysis of the painting has revealed that Picasso painted the composition twice before completing the third and final layer. In 1980, E.A. Carmean and Ann Hoenigswald made the discovery whilst carrying out an x-ray examination of the painting. The examination revealed that there were two earlier paintings beneath the surface, the first of which depicted a circus family and the second depicted a pair of acrobats. This showed that Picasso worked on the canvas for over a year and also helped to clarify the chronology of his artistic transition from the end of his Blue Period in 1904 to his early Rose Period in 1905. Art historians remain unclear about whether Picasso painted over the earlier paintings because he was dissatisfied with them or because he was simply too poor to afford a new canvas.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: X-radiography has shown the previous versions of the painting, in which Picasso had made several changes to the figures, such as the woman's hat and shoulders, the colour of the child's ballet slippers and the red jester's leg.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: The scientific study also revealed how Picasso not only changed the figures over the course of several versions of the painting, but also changed the tonality. The original image was predominantly blue but Picasso changed this to rose and allowed the blue shades to show through the paint as he made changes to the painting. The resulting final composition conveys a dusky rose-blue palette that presents an overarching atmosphere of sadness.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: Critics have suggested that "Family of Saltimbanques" is a covert group portrait of Picasso and his social circle, symbolized as poor, independent and isolated. The painting was removed from the Spanish salon at the IX Biennale of Venice in 1910, because it was considered inappropriate by the organization.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: The figures in the painting have been described as representations of specific identities. While the harlequin resembles Picasso, the small acrobat resembles Picasso's friend, the poet Max Jacob. The deep-browed acrobat is considered to be a representation of André Salmon and the large jester is said to be a representation of Guillaume Apollinaire. It was alongside these friends that Picasso would frequent the Cirque Medrano. In his book "Picasso and Apollinaire: The Persistence of Memory", Peter Read notes that preparatory drawings for the work revealed that the large jester was actually a representation of El Tio Pepe Don José, the head of a circus troupe. He continues by opining that the figures in the painting are allegorical and represent Picasso and his social circle facing a new century without a clear path to guide them.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: Harold B. Plum notes that the figures in the painting are placed from left to right in a receding order of height, with the tallest figure being Picasso himself. He describes the painting as an illustration of the artist's personal transition. "In the painting, he was depicting a metamorphosis from late childhood to adulthood, in life and art."


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: E.A. Carmean has drawn a connection between the figures in the painting and the circumstances of Picasso's own personal life. At the time that Picasso was working on this painting he was living with his partner Fernande Olivier. She had brought a ten-year old girl home from an orphanage and then returned her. Carmean noted that in the painting, the harlequin, who represents Picasso, is reaching out for the girl who is standing behind his back. On the right side of the painting is an isolated woman, representing Olivier, who is sitting with one hand on her shoulder and the other in her lap as if holding a missing baby. Carmean considers that this image is a metaphor for this emotional incident in Picasso's life.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: "Family of Saltimbanques" is the culmination of the Saltimbanque cycle, a series of drawings, paintings, engravings and sculptures that Picasso focused on from late 1904 to the end of 1905. After studying the lives of the circus performers of the Cirque Medrano, Picasso chose to portray them not from the cheerful perspective of their performances, but as an isolated group within a static and melancholy image. Musée d'Orsay describes the painting as a masterpiece and remarks that, "Picasso is less interested in the show, usually excluded from the frame, than in the other aspects of their lives, capturing a medial space between public and private worlds where in the most banal triviality and the most sublime grace converge."


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: The painting has been in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. since 1963, at the bequest of Chester Dale.


title: Family of Saltimbanques

text: Bohemian–Austrian poet Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926) was inspired by this painting as he wrote the fifth of ten elegies in his "Duino Elegies" (1923). Rilke used the figures in Picasso's painting as a symbol of "human activity ... always travelling and with no fixed abode, they are even a shade more fleeting than the rest of us, whose fleetingness was lamented." Further, although Picasso's painting depicts the figures in a desolate desert landscape, Rilke described them as standing on a "threadbare carpet" to suggest "the ultimate loneliness and isolation of Man in this incomprehensible world, practicing their profession from childhood to death as playthings of an unknown will...before their 'pure too-little; had passed into 'empty too-much'."


title: Jesse Wood

text: Jesse James Wood (born 30 October 1976) is an American born British musician. He plays guitar and bass guitar.


title: Jesse Wood

text: Wood is the son of The Rolling Stones musician Ronnie Wood, and Krissy Findlay who died of an accidental overdose in June 2005. He attended King's House School and Ibstock Place School in Roehampton, south-west London.


title: Jesse Wood

text: Wood has previously played with Glyda, The Leah Wood Band, The Ronnie Wood Band, Wills and the Willing, HOGG, and The Black Swan Effect. He joined the band Carbon/Silicon in June 2010. In 2014, Wood joined two friends, John Hogg and Sean Genockey, in the band RedRacer. He joined Reef in April 2014.


title: Jesse Wood

text: Wood is also a model. His work includes a Yohji Yamamoto fragrance campaign and Liam Gallagher's Pretty Green clothing label. In December 2014, Wood was featured in "British GQ" "My Style" page.


title: Jesse Wood

text: Wood has been married twice. He has two children from his first marriage to Tilly Wood, whom he married in 2003.


title: Jesse Wood

text: Wood began dating TV presenter Fearne Cotton in 2011. On 21 February 2013, Cotton gave birth to a son, Rex Rayne Wood. The couple were engaged in December that year and married on 4 July 2014. In 2015 they announced they were expecting their second baby. On 9 September 2015 it was announced that Cotton had given birth to their daughter, Honey Krissy Wood.


title: Sageuk

text: The first known historical film, "The Story of Chun-hyang" filmed in 1923, was directed by a Japanese filmmaker. The first Korean sound film was also . The heyday of Korean cinema began in the 1950s and lasted until the 1980s, with many films released, like Lee Gyu-hwan's Chunhyang adaptation in 1955. In the 1960s, historical melodramas were significant, as well as martial arts films. In the 1970s, due to the popularity of television, cinema started to decline, and in the 1980s it encountered a crisis, which prompted filmmakers to try to win viewers back with erotic pieces. From the 1990s, Im Kwon-taek's movies, as well as "The Legend of Gingko" and "The Eternal Empire" are significant works. From the 2000s, films started flourishing, between 2012 and 2015 Korean cinema produced five that broke the 10 million viewership record. As of 2016 June, the highest grossing South Korean film is also a historical drama: "".


title: Sageuk

text: The first television series, a , of South Korea aired on state channel KBS in 1962, titled . In the 1970s, in contrast to the previous decade, historical TV series portrayed national heroes like Yi Sun-shin or Sejong the Great. The characteristic series of the 1980s was ('500 Years of Joseon'). The 1990s were dominated by contemporary dramas with regards to popularity and viewership ratings, despite having produced a number of quality . The 2000s saw the birth of the "fusion " genre, which changed the historical series genre in South Korea. Some of the significant works from this period are "Hur Jun", "Damo", "Dae Jang Geum" and "Queen Seondeok".


title: Sageuk

text: Popular themes of include elements from Korean folklore and mythology, famous or notorious princes, kings, national heroes and famous women.


title: Sageuk

text: The first film which can be regarded a was "The Story of Chun-hyang", directed by Japanese filmmaker Koshu Hayakawa (早川孤舟) in 1923. The story of Chunhyang is a popular element of Korean folklore, recurring in Korean cinema, as well, having produced more than a dozen adaptations both in films and television series. Some cinematic milestones are also related to it, for example Lee Myeong-woo's () in 1935 was the first Korean sound film. From 1940, the number of Korean films declined, due to the Japanese colonialist policies forbidding films other than propaganda movies. Many filmmakers fled the country, those remaining had to join the pro-Japanese camp. After the second world war ended, filmmakers rather celebrated independence and did not make historical pieces.


title: Sageuk

text: After the Korean war, romanticism was the ruling school of 1950s historical movies in South Korea, often focusing on female characters. The roots of this can be traced back to theatres: grand changgeuks, or folk operas, had been popular, so much so, that they began to be adapted to film. Since these stories focused on human nature, human fate and feelings, actual historical backgrounds were irrelevant. These stories usually preferred the period of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, factual details of which were scarce, thus attention to historical factual accuracy could be avoided. In 1956, () adapted the story of Prince Hodong and the Princess of Nakrang, Korea's very own Romeo and Juliet tale.


title: Sageuk

text: The period from the 1950s to the 1980s are considered the heyday of "Chungmuro", or the Korean Hollywood, when more than 100 films were produced annually. The need for historical films was boosted by the success of such works as Lee Gyu-hwan's Chunhyang adaption (1955), Kim Ki-young's "Yangsan Province" or Jeon Chang-geun's (King Gojong and martyr An Jung-Geun; 1959).


title: Sageuk

text: successes of the 1960s were adaptations of works that had previously been successful in other art forms, for example as radio plays, theatrical plays, changgeuk operas or novels. Examples include (; 1961), (, 'Eunuch'; 1968) or "Women of Yi Dynasty" (, ; 1969). The atmosphere this time was more conservative than in the 1950s, partially due to Park Chung-hee's dictatorship. Conforming to the circumstances, historical melodramas were preferred, but there were exceptions like Jeong Chang-hwa's martial arts films, inspired by the Shaw Brothers. This is the period when Joseon became the focus of attention, depicting the relationship between kings and officials, determining the nature of historical films for the next decades. Viewers were now more interested in actual historical events than in mystified, old legends. Previously, people were searching for familiar themes in , due to modern inventions being relatively new to Korea at the time. By the 1960s, however, they got used to modernities, thus filmmakers turned to decadent themes or novel stories.


title: Sageuk

text: The first historical television series in South Korea was aired in 1962 on state channel KBS, titled (), directed by Kim Jae-hyeong (), set in the era of Goguryeo.


title: Sageuk

text: As television sets started to be rolled out en masse, the number of television series also grew. Just like in cinema, however, the policies of the ruling regime affected them as well. Thus dramatic historical figures were replaced by national heroes like general Yi Sun-shin or Sejong the Great. of the time mixed legends and reality, the major cause of which was the enormous demand for TV series. Historical factual accuracy would have required scriptwriters to research historical documents written in hanja characters, which, considering the demand and the daily episodes, would have been impossible. Also, legends were easier to be dramatized.


title: Sageuk

text: As television dominated, cinema declined, and out of all the historic films of the period only two could achieve success at the box office: Lee Gyu-ung's () and yet another Chunhyangga adaptation, this time by Lee Seong-gu. Critics applauded other works, like "Gate of Woman" (, , 1972), "An Executioner" (, , 1974), "Concentration of Attention" (, , 1976) or "A War Diary" (, , 1977).


title: Sageuk

text: The characteristic classic TV series of the 1980s was (, '500 Years of Joseon'), which ran for eight years, airing 11 separate TV series with over 800 episodes altogether, depicting the history of Joseon. The series referenced official historical documents (albeit liberally to some extent) and often included debated events and themes. It was directed by Lee Byung-hoon, who later also helmed the popular hallyu series "Dae Jang Geum". The state channel KBS aired "Gaeguk" (, 'Foundation of the Kingdom') which depicted King Taejo's usurpation of the Goryeo throne in an overtly positive light, reminiscent of Chun Du-hwan's rise in politics.


title: Sageuk

text: The diverse programming on television devoured viewers from attending cinemas, and the film industry had but one way out: show a genre that could not be accessed through television. This is why they turned to making erotic films, a good portion of which were set in historical times. Movies like "Eoudong" (1985) or "Does the Cuckoo Cry at Night" (, , 1985) were also popular at the box office. Although erotic movies were popular, the genre saw a decline in South Korean cinema generally.


title: Sageuk

text: At the beginning of the 1990s, historical films were scarce, except for Bae Chang-ho's (, 'Dream'; 1990). "The Eternal Empire" (), which received outstanding critics, was released in 1995. The film is significant for its different take on the popular story of Crown Prince Sado, focusing on the political aftermath of his death, rather than the pain of the prince himself. Although it did not do well at the box office, the film received eight awards at the Grand Bell Awards, including Best Film and Best Director. Im Kwon-taek's period films are also noteworthy, as well as "The Legend of Gingko" from 1996.


title: Sageuk

text: The 1990s saw a number of on television, like (, 1994), (, 1995), "Tears of the Dragon" (, 1996–1998) or "King of the Wind" (, 1998). However, viewership ratings could not match up to that of contemporary Korean dramas, only a few could reach 30%, while for example the modern themed "Eyes of Dawn" recorded 58.3%, "Sandglass" broke 50.8%.


title: Sageuk

text: At the beginning of the 2000s, were preferred by older generations. Young people chose to watch contemporary series, which they could better relate to. were often complicated, archaic in language use, and mainly employed older actors — thus were less appealing to younger generations. A change in attitude is attributed to producer and director Lee Byung-hoon, who entrusted the script of "Hur Jun" to a young, up-and-coming scriptwriter, Choi Wan-gyu. Instead of dry historical facts and distant wars, the series focused on emotions and relationships, revolving around the legendary Joseon royal physician. A new genre, "fusion " was born, changing the structure and format of Korean historical television series. In 2003, actress Ha Ji-won starred in "Damo", the first HDTV format Korean TV series. The drama merged characteristics of trendy modern dramas with Hong Kong style wire-fu action scenes, narrating a fictional story set in a real historical time.


title: Sageuk

text: As fusion conquered televisions, they started to infiltrate cinema, as well. This can be attributed partially to the success of television dramas and partially to the international success of such Chinese historical epics like "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon", "Hero" or the American "Gladiator", prompting the need to produce such works at home, as well. In 2003, "Untold Scandal" with drama icon Bae Yong-joon was released, but the real turning point in historical films came in 2005 with "The King and the Clown", breaking box office records selling more than 12 million tickets. Period films are also successful in the 2010s in South Korea, between 2012 and 2015, five out of all the films surpassing 10 million viewers were "," and the record keeper (as of 2016 June) is also a historical piece: "" sold 17.61 million tickets. The most popular ones are also of the fusion type, mixing historical facts with fictional people or events. Such works include for example, "The Face Reader" or "Masquerade". Apart from so-called palace dramas, spectacular action-filled like "War of the Arrows", "The Grand Heist" or "Pirates" are also successful in the 21st century. Film series have also appeared, like the "Detective K"-series, placing a crime investigation story into Joseon settings. Erotic period films experience a renaissance in South Korean cinema, with pieces like "Forbidden Quest", "The Servant" or "Empire of Lust".


title: Sageuk

text: "Sungkyunkwan Scandal" (2010), "Moon Embracing the Sun" (2012) and "Love in the Moonlight" (2016) were all adapted from popular novels. They were initially targeted to a younger demographic but has since received mainstream and international success. The productions have also put the spotlight to then emerging actors Song Joong-ki, Yoo Ah-in, Kim Soo-hyun, Park Bo-gum and Kim Yoo-jung.


title: Sageuk

text: Large-scale "s" have been rarely produced, but when they were launched, they often caught the attention of the public. Most of them have been fantasy-based, telling the audience a unique story of kings and queens who lived in the ancient era. The most well-known one so far has been The Legend (2007), which featured the Hallyu star Bae Yong-joon. In 2018, Studio Dragon announced it is working on "Arthdal Chronicles", a new fantasy casting Song Joong-ki and Kim Ji-won. The drama started its first shooting on 1 June and recorded 8% personal best rating.


title: Sageuk

text: On March 5, 2017, Netflix announced that it had given the production a series order for a first season of Kingdom. Alongside the series announcement, it was confirmed that Kim Seong-hun would direct the series and that Kim Eun-hee would be credited as the writer. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of AStory.


title: Sageuk

text: Moreover, famous actors confirmed that they would join the web television series with plenty of political, supernatural and thrilling scenes. Those include Ju Ji-hoon, Ryu Seung-ryong, Bae Doona, Jeon Seok-ho, Kim Hye-jun and Heo Joon-ho. Director Park In-je joined the production and directed the second episode and onward from season two. On January 25, 2019, the first season of the series, consisting of six episodes, was released for streaming on Netflix. The second season, also consisting of six episodes, was released on March 13, 2020.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is an abnormal phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a honey bee colony disappear, leaving behind a queen, plenty of food, and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees. While such disappearances have occurred sporadically throughout the history of apiculture, and have been known by various names (including disappearing disease, spring dwindle, May disease, autumn collapse, and fall dwindle disease), the syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in early 2007 in conjunction with a drastic rise in reports of disappearances of western honey bee ("Apis mellifera") colonies in North America. Beekeepers in most European countries had observed a similar phenomenon since 1998, especially in Southern and Western Europe; the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50%. The phenomenon became more global when it affected some Asian and African countries as well.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Colony collapse disorder could cause significant economic losses because many agricultural crops worldwide depend on pollination by western honey bees. According to the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department of the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the total value of global crops pollinated by honey bees was estimated at nearly US$200 billion in 2005. In the United States, shortages of bees have increased the cost to farmers renting them for pollination services by up to 20%. Declining numbers of bees predate CCD by several decades, however: the US managed hive industry has been shrinking at a steady pace since 1961.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In contrast, the bee population worldwide has been increasing steadily since 1975, based on honey production, with China responsible for most of the growth. The period of time with the lowest growth in worldwide honey production was between 1991 and 1999, due to the economic collapse after the dissolution of communism in the former Soviet sphere of influence. As of 2020 the production has increased further by 50% compared to 2000, double the rate of growth in previous decades, notwithstanding CCD.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Several possible causes for CCD have been proposed, but no single proposal has gained widespread acceptance among the scientific community. Suggested causes include pesticides; infections with various pathogens, especially those transmitted by "Varroa" and "Acarapis" mites; malnutrition; genetic factors; immunodeficiencies; loss of habitat; changing beekeeping practices; or a combination of factors. A large amount of speculation has surrounded the contributions of the neonicotinoid family of pesticides to CCD, but many collapsing apiaries show no trace of neonicotinoids.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Colony collapse disorder is a syndrome defined by a specific set of symptoms which, in the past several decades, has been given many different names (among them "disappearing disease", "spring dwindle", "May disease", "autumn collapse", and "fall dwindle disease"). The cause of these symptoms has never been determined. Only very recently, upon recognition that the syndrome does not seem to be seasonally restricted, and that it may not be a "disease" in the standard sense—that there may not be one specific causative agent or pathogenesis—was the syndrome renamed.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Limited occurrences resembling CCD were documented as early as 1869. A well-documented outbreak of colony losses spread from the Isle of Wight to the rest of the UK in 1906. These losses were later attributed to a combination of factors, including adverse weather, intensive apiculture leading to inadequate forage, Acarine (tracheal) mites, and a new infection, the chronic bee paralysis virus, but during the outbreak, the cause of this agricultural beekeeping problem was unknown.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Reports show similar behavior in hives in the US in 1918 and 1919. Coined "mystery disease" by some, it eventually became more widely known as "disappearing disease". Oertel, in 1965, reported that hives afflicted with disappearing disease in Louisiana had plenty of honey in the combs, although few or no bees were present, discrediting reports that attributed the disappearances to lack of food.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In the US, the number of colonies maintained by beekeepers had been in decline since the 1960s, for various reasons including urbanization, pesticide use, tracheal and "Varroa" mites, and commercial beekeepers retiring and going out of business. However, in late 2006 and early 2007, the rate of attrition was alleged to have reached new proportions, and people began to use the term "colony collapse disorder" to describe the sudden rash of disappearances (or sometimes "spontaneous hive collapse" or the "Mary Celeste syndrome" in the United Kingdom).


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Losses had remained stable since the 1990s at 17–20% per year, attributable to a variety of factors, such as mites, diseases, and management stress. In the winter of 2004–2005, a spontaneous collapse occurred and was attributed to varroa mites (the "vampire mite" scare), though this was ultimately never confirmed. The first report classified as CCD was in mid-November 2006 by a Pennsylvania beekeeper overwintering in Florida. By February 2007, large commercial migratory beekeepers wintering in California, Florida, Oklahoma, and Texas had reported heavy losses associated with CCD. Their reports of losses varied widely, ranging from 30% to 90% of their bee colonies; in some cases, beekeepers reported losses of nearly all of their colonies, with surviving colonies so weakened that they might no longer be able to pollinate or produce honey. In late February 2007, some larger non-migratory beekeepers in the mid-Atlantic and Pacific Northwest regions also reported significant losses of more than 50%. Colony losses were also reported in five Canadian provinces, several European countries, and countries in South and Central America and Asia. In 2010, the United States Department of Agriculture reported that data on overall honey bee losses for 2010 indicated an estimated 34% loss, which is statistically similar to losses reported in 2007, 2008, and 2009. Fewer colony losses occurred in the US over the winter of 2013–2014 than in recent years. Total losses of managed honey bee colonies from all causes were 23.2% nationwide, a marked improvement over the 30.5% loss reported for the winter of 2012–2013 and the eight-year average loss of 29.6%.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: After bee populations dropped 23% in the winter of 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Agriculture formed a task force to address the issue. Since 2014, Congress has substantially subsidized the pollinator industry through the 2014 Farm Bill. The 2014 Farm Bill has allowed for up to $20 million worth of subsidies every fiscal year to be put toward conservation of honeybees, livestock, and farm-raised fish that suffer losses due to disease, weather events, or adverse conditions. In 2017, Congress implemented additional funding to protect bees from agricultural pesticide spray and dust applications while they are under contract to provide pollination services. The Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018, also known as the 2018 Farm Bill, increased the monetary cap for the annual financial aid for emergency assistance from $20 million to $34 million.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: CCD is not the same as colony decline that can be caused by various issues such as queen health, varroa mite infestation, nutrition, and various diseases. In collapsed colonies, CCD is suspected when it is observed that few adult bees are physically present in the colony. Unlike with other acute causes of die-off such as pesticide exposure, few if any dead bees are found in or near the hive, as if the hive had simply been abandoned. A colony that has collapsed from CCD is generally characterized by all of these conditions occurring simultaneously:


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Before any symptomatic manifestation of colony collapse disorder, various physio-pathological traits may serve as biomarkers for colony health as well as predict CCD status. Bees of collapsing colonies tend to have a soft fecal matter, half-filled rectums, rectal enteroliths (rectal stones), and Malpighian tubule iridescence. The defective rectum indicates nutritional disruption or water imbalance, whereas rectal enteroliths suggest a malfunction of excretory physiology which might further lead to constipation and poor osmoregulation in CCD bees. These traits express at various degrees across four bee age groups (newly emerged bees, nurse bees, non-pollen foragers, and pollen foragers) and were confirmed not to be associated with age.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In addition, there are genetic indications in the gut that suggest the susceptibility of honey bees to CCD. Sixty-five different RNA transcripts have been determined as potential signs for CCD status. Genetic expression of these transcripts were either upregulated or downregulated depending on genes when comparing them to healthy bees. The abundance of unusual ribosomal RNA (rRNA) fragments containing poly(A)-rich 3′ tails was detected via microarray analysis and qPCR in the guts of CCD bees. This evidence suggests that these poly(A)-rRNA sequences play the role of degradation intermediates to help in protein folding and enzymatic activity of rRNA. Furthermore, the presence of deformed wing virus and Israeli acute paralysis virus as well as the expression of poly(A)-rRNA are genetic indications for the appearance of CCD.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) reported 2.44 million honey-producing hives were in the United States in February 2008, down from 4.5 million in 1980, and 5.9 million in 1947, though these numbers underestimate the total number of managed hives, as they exclude several thousand hives managed for pollination contracts only, and also do not include hives managed by beekeepers owning fewer than 5 hives. This under-representation may be offset by the practice of counting some hives more than once; hives that are moved to different states to produce honey are counted in each state's total and summed in total counts.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2007 in the US, at least 24 different states had reported at least one case of CCD. In a 2007 survey of 384 responding beekeepers from 13 states, 23.8% met the specified criterion for CCD (that 50% or more of their dead colonies were found without bees and / or with very few dead bees in the hive or apiary). In 2006–2007, CCD-suffering operations had a total loss of 45% compared to the total loss of 25% of all colonies experienced by non-CCD suffering beekeepers.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A 2007–2008 survey of over 19% of all US colonies revealed a total loss of 35.8%. Operations that pollinated almonds lost, on average, the same number of colonies as those that did not. The 37.9% of operations that reported having at least some of their colonies die with a complete lack of bees had a total loss of 40.8% of colonies compared to the 17.1% loss reported by beekeepers without this symptom. Large operations were more likely to have this symptom, suggesting a contagious condition may be a causal factor. About 60% of all colonies that were reported dead in this survey died without the presence of dead bees in the hive, thus possibly suffered from CCD.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Between 2007–2013 after CCD was described in the US, annual winter colony losses doubled from 15% pre-CCD to 30%. Such loss rates fell to 24% from 2014 to 2017 and CCD symptoms were not as commonly associated with hive losses. While CCD has increased hive losses, honey bee colony numbers in the US have remained stable or grown since the identification of CCD.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Throughout the year in 2017, NASS reported total US hives ranged between 2.63 and 2.99 million throughout the year for operations with more than five colonies, and 35–43 thousand hives for those with fewer than 5 colonies. In the same year, operations with more than 5 colonies lost 77.8 thousand hives (2.6–3.0%) with CCD symptoms and those with fewer than 5 colonies lost 6 thousand hives (14–17%) with CCD symptoms.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), in 2007, the United Kingdom had 274,000 hives, Italy had 1,091,630, and France 1,283,810. In 2008, the British Beekeepers Association reported the bee population in the United Kingdom dropped by around 30% between 2007 and 2008, and an EFSA study revealed that in Italy the mortality rate was 40–50%. However, EFSA officials point out the figures are not very reliable because before the bees started dying, no harmonisation was used in the way different countries collected statistics on their bee populations. At that time (2008), the reports blamed the high death rate on the varroa mite, two seasons of unusually wet European summers, and some pesticides.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2009, Tim Lovett, president of the British Beekeepers' Association, said: "Anecdotally, it is hugely variable. There are reports of some beekeepers losing almost a third of their hives and others losing none." John Chapple, chairman of the London Beekeepers' Association, put losses among his 150 members at between a fifth and a quarter. "There are still a lot of mysterious disappearances; we are no nearer to knowing what is causing them." The government's National Bee Unit continued to deny the existence of CCD in Britain; it attributes the heavy losses to the varroa mite and rainy summers that stop bees foraging for food.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2010, David Aston of the British Beekeepers' Association stated, "We still do not believe CCD (which is now better defined) is a cause of colony losses in the UK, however we are continuing to experience colony losses, many if not most of which can be explained." He feels recent studies suggest "further evidence to the evolving picture that there are complex interactions taking place between a number of factors, pathogens, environmental, beekeeping practices and other stressors, which are causing honey bee losses described as CCD in the US".


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Beekeepers in Scotland also reported losses from 2007 to 2009. Andrew Scarlett, a Perthshire-based bee farmer and honey packer, lost 80% of his 1,200 hives during the 2009–2010 winter. He attributed the losses to a virulent bacterial infection that quickly spread because of a lack of bee inspectors, coupled with sustained poor weather that prevented honey bees from building up sufficient pollen and nectar stores.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In Germany, where some of the first reports of CCD in Europe appeared, and where, according to the German national association of beekeepers, 40% of the honey bee colonies died, there was no scientific confirmation. In early May 2007, the German media reported no confirmed CCD cases seemed to have occurred in Germany.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A case study published in 2012 examined and identified a colony loss incident in Switzerland, surveyed by the Swiss Bee Research Centre in October 2009, as the first case of CCD outside of the United States. While the incedent matched the criteria suggested by prior US hive surveys, analysis of laboratory tests for pathogens found a lack of differentiation in pathogen loads or co-infection levels between CCD and non-CCD hives. The case study further notes that the colonies did not have damaging levels of Varroa destructor or Nosema spp at the time of collapse but emphasized that pathogens could not be ruled out as playing a role.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: At the end of May 2012, the Swiss government reported about half of the bee population had not survived the winter. The main cause of the decline was thought to be the parasite "Varroa destructor".


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In China, a three-year survey from 2010 to 2013 (using COLOSS questionnaires) showed colony losses of 10.1% on average. Comb renewal and queen problems were identified as significant risk factors.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: The mechanisms of CCD are still unknown, but many causes are currently being considered, such as pesticides, mites, fungi, beekeeping practices (such as the use of antibiotics or long-distance transportation of beehives), malnutrition, poor quality queens, starvation, other pathogens, and immunodeficiencies. The current scientific consensus is that no single factor is causing CCD, but that some of these factors in combination may lead to CCD either additively or synergistically.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2006, the Colony Collapse Disorder Working Group (CCDWG), based primarily at Pennsylvania State University, was established. Their preliminary report pointed out some patterns, but drew no strong conclusions. A survey of beekeepers early in 2007 indicated most hobbyist beekeepers believed that starvation was the leading cause of death in their colonies, while commercial beekeepers overwhelmingly believed invertebrate pests ("Varroa" mites, honey bee tracheal mites, and/or small hive beetles) were the leading cause of colony mortality. A scholarly review in June 2007 similarly addressed numerous theories and possible contributing factor, but left the issue unresolved.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In July 2007, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) released a "CCD Action Plan", which outlined a strategy for addressing CCD consisting of four main components: survey and data collection; analysis of samples; hypothesis-driven research; mitigation and preventive action. The first annual report of the U.S. Colony Collapse Disorder Steering Committee was published in 2009. It suggested CCD may be caused by the interaction of many agents in combination. The same year, the CCD Working Group published a comprehensive descriptive study that concluded: "Of the 61 variables quantified (including adult bee physiology, pathogen loads, and pesticide levels), no single factor was found with enough consistency to suggest one causal agent. Bees in CCD colonies had higher pathogen loads and were co-infected with more pathogens than control populations, suggesting either greater pathogen exposure or reduced defenses in CCD bees."


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: The second annual Steering Committee report was released in November 2010. The group reported that although many associations—including pesticides, parasites, and pathogens—had been identified throughout the course of research, "it is becoming increasingly clear that no single factor alone is responsible for [CCD]". Their findings indicated an absence of damaging levels of the parasite "Nosema" or parasitic "Varroa" mites at the time of collapse. They did find an association of sublethal effects of some pesticides with CCD, including two common miticides in particular, coumaphos and fluvalinate, which are pesticides registered for use by beekeepers to control varroa mites. Studies also identified sublethal effects of neonicotinoids and fungicides, pesticides that may impair the bees' immune systems and may leave them more susceptible to bee viruses.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A 2015 review examined 170 studies on colony collapse disorder and stressors for bees, including pathogens, agrochemicals, declining biodiversity, climate change and more. The review concluded that "a strong argument can be made that it is the interaction among parasites, pesticides, and diet that lies at the heart of current bee health problems." Furthermore:


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Bees of all species are likely to encounter multiple stressors during their lives, and each is likely to reduce the ability of bees to cope with the others. A bee or bee colony that appears to have succumbed to a pathogen may not have died if it had not also been exposed to a sublethal dose of a pesticide and/or been subject to food stress (which might in turn be due to drought or heavy rain induced by climate change, or competition from a high density of honey bee hives placed nearby). Unfortunately, conducting well-replicated studies of the effects of multiple interacting stressors on bee colonies is exceedingly difficult. The number of stressor combinations rapidly becomes large, and exposure to stressors is hard or impossible to control with free-flying bees. Nonetheless, a strong argument can be made that it is the interaction among parasites, pesticides, and diet that lies at the heart of current bee health problems.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Early researchers commented that the pathway of propagation functions in the manner of a contagious disease; however, some sentiment existed that the disorder may involve an immunosuppressive mechanism, potentially linked to "stress" leading to a weakened immune system. Specifically, according to research done in 2007 at the Pennsylvania State University: "The magnitude of detected infectious agents in the adult bees suggests some type of immunosuppression". These researchers initially suggested a connection between "Varroa destructor" mite infestation and CCD, suggesting that a combination of these bee mites, deformed wing virus (which the mites transmit) and bacteria work together to suppress immunity and may be one cause of CCD. Parasites, such as varroa mites "(Varroa destructor"), honey bee tracheal mites "(Acarapis woodi)", fungal, bacterial and viral diseases, and kleptoparasites such as small hive beetles ("Aethina tumida"), are all problems that have been introduced within the last 20 years in the continental U.S., and are faced by beekeepers.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: When a colony is dying, for whatever cause, and other healthy colonies are nearby (as is typical in a bee yard), those healthy colonies often enter the dying colony and rob its provisions for their own use. If the dying colony's provisions were contaminated (by natural or man-made toxins), the resulting pattern (of healthy colonies becoming sick when in proximity to a dying colony) might suggest to an observer that a contagious disease is involved. However, in typical CCD cases, provisions of dying colonies are not robbed, suggesting that toxins do not spread via robbing, thereby mimicking a disease.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Additional evidence that CCD is an infectious disease came from the following observations: the hives of colonies that had died from CCD could be reused with a healthy colony only if they were first treated with DNA-destroying radiation, and the CCD Working Group report in 2010 indicated that CCD-exhibiting hives tended to occur in proximity to one another within apiaries.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: According to a 2007 article, the mite "Varroa destructor" remains the world's most destructive honey bee killer, due in part to the viruses it carries, including deformed wing virus and acute bee paralysis virus, which have both been implicated in CCD. Affliction with "Varroa" mites also tends to weaken the immune system of the bees. Dr. Enesto Guzman, an entomological researcher at the University of Guelph in Canada, studied 413 Ontario bee colonies in 2007–08. The presence of "Varroa" mites within colonies before winter was observed to weaken the immune systems of bees and introduce viruses that led to colony death during the winter. About 27% of hives did not survive the winter, and the "Varroa" mite was identified as the cause in 85% of the cases. "Varroa" mites also affect the queen's ability to reproduce, which is detrimental to the survival of the hive. As such, "Varroa" mites have been considered as a possible cause of CCD, though not all dying colonies contain these mites.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: "Varroa destructor" is a parasitic mite that colonizes beehives and preys on honey bees by consuming their hemolymph. "Varroa" mites parasitize all types of honey bees (workers, nurse bees, larvae) depending on their life cycle stage. During the phoretic stage, "Varroa" prefer to attach to nurse bees as this results in higher fitness leading into the reproductive stage. The mites then feed on larvae during their reproductive stage and increased fitness leads to an increase in mite fecundity (number of female offspring). Due to "Varroa"s ability to feed on all types of honey bees, they are one of the biggest threats to colonies, especially over winter.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2020 a group of scientists announced that they were in the early stages of field testing a bacterium with specifically genetically modified plasmids that both suppressed infection with deformed wing virus but also effectively reduced "Varroa" mite survival.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2004, Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), was discovered in Israel and at one time it was considered the cause of CCD. It was named after the place it was first identified; its place of origin is unknown. In September 2007, results of a large-scale statistical RNA sequencing study of afflicted and unafflicted colonies were reported. RNA from all organisms in a colony was sequenced and compared with sequence databases to detect the presence of pathogens. All colonies were found to be infected with numerous pathogens, but only the IAPV virus showed a significant association with CCD: the virus was found in 25 of the 30 tested CCD colonies, and only in one of the 21 tested non-CCD colonies.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Research in 2009 has found that an indicator for an impaired protein production is common among all bees affected by CCD, a pattern consistent with IAPV infection. It is conjectured that Dicistroviridae, like the IAPV, cause degradation of the ribosomes, which are responsible for protein production of cells, and that this reduced ribosomal function weakens the bees, making them more vulnerable to factors that might not otherwise be lethal.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Some have suggested the syndrome may be an inability by beekeepers to correctly identify known diseases such as European foulbrood or the microsporidian fungus "Nosema apis". The testing and diagnosis of samples from affected colonies (already performed) makes this highly unlikely, as the symptoms are fairly well known and differ from what is classified as CCD. A high rate of "Nosema" infection was reported in samples of bees from Pennsylvania, but this pattern was not reported from samples elsewhere.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Hives of western honey bees infected with "Nosema ceranae" are wiped out within eight days indicating that CCD may be caused by "N. ceranae". A research team claim to have ruled out many other potential causes, however, a 2009 survey of US CCD-affected bee populations found only about half of the colonies sampled, both in CCD and control populations, were infected with "N. ceranae".


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: The primary antifungal agent used against "Nosema" is fumagillin, which has been used in a German research project to reduce the microsporidian's impact, and is mentioned as a possible remedy by the CCDWG. Higes also claims to have successfully cured colonies with fumagillin. A review of these results described these results as promising, but cautioned ""N. ceranae" may not be to blame for all cases of colony collapse". Various areas in Europe have reported this fungus, but no direct link to CCD has yet been established.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2007, "N. ceranae" was reported in a few hives in California. The researcher did not, however, believe this was conclusive evidence of a link to CCD; "We don't want to give anybody the impression that this thing has been solved". A USDA bee scientist has similarly stated, "while the parasite "Nosema ceranae" may be a factor, it cannot be the sole cause. The fungus has been seen before, sometimes in colonies that were healthy".


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: "N. ceranae" has been detected in honey bees from several states using PCR of the 16S gene. In New York, "N. ceranae" was detected in 49 counties, and of the 1,200 honey bee samples collected, 528 (44%) were positive for "Nosema", from which, PCR analysis of 371 spore positive samples revealed 96% were "N. ceranae", 3% had both "N. ceranae" and "N. apis", and 1% had "N. apis" only.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: When healthy bees are fed pollen filled with fungicides, insecticides, and other agrochemicals—including imidacloprid—they are more likely to be infected by "N. ceranae", thereby suggesting a potential link to CCD.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A University of Montana and Montana State University team of scientists headed by Jerry Bromenshenk and working with the US Army's Edgewood Chemical Biological Center published a paper in October 2010 saying that a new DNA virus, invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6), and the fungus "Nosema ceranae" were found in every killed colony the group studied. In their study, they found neither agent alone seemed deadly, but a combination of the virus and "N. ceranae" was always 100% fatal. Information about the study was released to the public in a front-page article in "The New York Times". A few days later, an article was published in "Fortune" magazine with the title, "What a scientist didn't tell the New York Times about his study on bee deaths". Professor of entomology at Penn State University James Frazier, who was researching the sublethal impact of pesticides on bees, said that while Bromenshenk's study generated some useful data, Bromenshenk has a conflict of interest as CEO of a company developing scanners to diagnose bee diseases. A few months later, the methods used to interpret the mass spectrometry data in the Bromenshenk study were called into question, raising doubts as to whether IIV-6 was ever correctly identified in any of the samples examined.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: According to the USDA pesticides may be contributing to CCD. Scientists have long been concerned that pesticides, including possibly some fungicides, may have sublethal effects on bees, not killing them outright, but instead impairing their development and behavior. Maryann Frazier said "pesticides alone have not shown they are the cause of CCD. We believe that it is a combination of a variety of factors, possibly including mites, viruses and pesticides."


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Evaluating pesticide contributions to CCD is particularly difficult for several reasons. First, the variety of pesticides in use in the different areas reporting CCD makes it difficult to test for all possible pesticides simultaneously. Second, many commercial beekeeping operations are mobile, transporting hives over large geographic distances over the course of a season, potentially exposing the colonies to different pesticides at each location. Third, the bees themselves place pollen and honey into long-term storage, effectively meaning a delay may occur from days to months before contaminated provisions are fed to the colony, negating any attempts to associate the appearance of symptoms with the actual time when exposure to pesticides occurred.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2010 a sequencing of the honey bee genome provided a possible explanation for the sensitivity of bees to pesticides. Its genome is deficient in the number of genes encoding detoxification enzymes, including cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s), glutathione-S-transferases, and carboxylesterases.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A class of insecticides called neonicotinoids has come under particular scrutiny. Neonicotinoids are systemic pesticides, typically used as seed treatments in order to reduce the application of foliar pesticides as the plants grow. The three main compounds in agricultural use are imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam. Potentially toxic effects studied in the laboratory have often been followed by field studies that fail to show effects on actual bee populations. Despite gaps in the scientific evidence, regulators have restricted the use of neonicotinoids in Europe and elsewhere largely on the basis of concerns for bee health.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Most corn (maize) grown in the US is grown from seeds treated with neonicotinoids. Although maize is wind-pollinated, honey bees that happen to be foraging on the plants may be exposed to pesticide residues in the nectar and pollen. Honey bees may also be exposed by foraging on wild plants unintentionally exposed to nicotinoids.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: To date, most of the evaluation of possible roles of pesticides in CCD have relied on the use of surveys submitted by beekeepers, but direct testing of samples from affected colonies seems likely to be needed.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Neonicotinoids may interfere with bees' natural homing abilities, causing them to become disoriented and preventing them from finding their way back to the hive. These impairments may result from effects of neonicotinoids on the long-term and short-term memory of bees. Sublethal doses of imidacloprid in laboratory and field experiments decreased flight activity and olfactory discrimination, and olfactory learning performance was impaired.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Exposure to Imidacloprid matched to field levels has been shown to reduce colony growth and new queen production.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A 2012 "in situ" study suggested that exposure to sublethal levels of imidacloprid in high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), which is used to feed honey bees when forage is not available, caused bees to exhibit symptoms consistent with CCD. The control group fed HFCS without insecticide does not show such symptoms.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A 2013 literature review concluded that neonicotinoids in the amounts typically used were harmful to bees and that alternatives were urgently needed. The doses taken up by bees were not lethal, but possible chronic problems could be caused by long-term exposure.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2005 a team of scientists found pollen obtained from seeds dressed with imidacloprid contain significant levels of the insecticide, and suggested that polluted pollen might cause honey bee colony death.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A meta-analysis study published in February 2010 found evidence from laboratory studies showing sublethal effects of imidacloprid on honey bees, but a lack of evidence on the environmental relevance of these findings. Similarly, a 2012 review concluded that in a laboratory setting, both lethal and sub-lethal effects on foraging behavior, memory, and learning ability were observed in honey bees exposed to neonicotinoids, but that these effects were not seen in field studies with field-realistic dosages.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2012 several studies were published showing that neonicotinoids had previously undetected routes of exposure affecting bees including through dust, pollen, and nectar. Research also showed environmental persistence in agricultural irrigation channels and soil. The machines that plant corn seeds coated with clothianidin and imidacloprid release certain amounts of the pesticide into the air, another possible route of exposure.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2015, an 11-year British study showed a correlation between increasing agricultural use of neonicotinoid seed treatments and escalating honey bee colony losses at a landscape level. This was the first field study to establish a link between neonicotinoids and CCD.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In Europe, the interaction of the phenomenon of "dying bees" with imidacloprid has been discussed for quite some time. A study from the "Comité Scientifique et Technique (CST)" was at the center of discussion, and led to a partial ban of imidacloprid in France. The imidacloprid pesticide Gaucho was banned in 1999 by the French Minister of Agriculture Jean Glavany, primarily due to concern over potential effects on honey bees.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: While French beekeepers succeeded in banning neonicotinoids, the Clinton administration permitted pesticides that were previously banned, including imidacloprid. In 2004, the Bush administration reduced regulations further and pesticide applications increased.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2013, a formal review by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), reported that some neonicotinoids posed an unacceptably high risk to bees, and identified several data gaps not previously considered. Their review concluded, "A high acute risk to honey bees was identified from exposure via dust drift for the seed treatment uses in maize, oilseed rape and cereals. A high acute risk was also identified from exposure via residues in nectar and/or pollen."


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Subsequent to the 2013 EFSA review, the European Commission (EC) proposed a two-year ban on neonicotinoids. In April 2013, the European Union voted for a two-year restriction on neonicotinoid insecticides. The ban restricted the use of imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam for use on crops that are attractive to bees. Eight nations voted against the motion, including the British government, which argued that the science was incomplete. The ban can be seen as an application of the "precautionary principle", established at the 1992 Rio Conference on the Environment and Development, which advocated that "lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation."


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2013 beekeepers and environmentalists jointly filed a lawsuit blaming the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for continuing to allow the use of neonicotinoids in the United States. The suit specifically asked for suspension of clothianidin and thiamethoxam. The EPA responded to the suit by pointing to research which found the "Varroa" mite responsible for the decline in bees and showed that the role of neonicotinoids in CCD had been overstated. The Save America's Pollinators Act (H.R. 2692) was introduced in Congress in 2013, and reintroduced in 2015. The proposed act asked that neonicotinoids be suspended until a full review of their impacts had occurred.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Fipronil is a phenylpyrazole insecticide, with a broad-spectrum systemic mode of action. Fipronil is designed to eliminate insects similar to bees, such as yellowjackets ("Vespula germanica") and many other colonial pests by a process of 'toxic baiting', whereby one insect returning to the hive spreads the pesticide among the brood.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In May 2003, the French Directorate-General of Food at the Ministry of Agriculture determined that a case of mass bee mortality observed in southern France was related to acute fipronil toxicity. Toxicity was linked to defective seed treatment, which generated dust. In February 2003, the ministry decided to temporarily suspend the sale of BASF crop protection products containing fipronil in France, including the "Regent" brand.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2010 fipronil was blamed for the spread of CCD among bees, in a study by the Minutes-Association for Technical Coordination Fund in France, which found that even at very low nonlethal doses, this pesticide impaired the ability to locate the hive, resulting in large numbers of foragers lost with every pollen-finding expedition, though no mention was made regarding any of the other symptoms of CCD; other studies, however, have shown no acute effect of fipronil on honey bees.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2013, researchers collected pollen from hives and fed it to healthy bees. The pollen had an average of nine different pesticides and fungicides. Further, the researchers discovered that bees that ate pollen with fungicides were three times more likely to be infected by parasites. Their study shows that fungicides, thought harmless to bees, may actually play a significant role in CCD. Their research also showed that spraying practices may need to be reviewed because the bees sampled by the authors foraged not from crops, but almost exclusively from weeds and wildflowers, suggesting that bees are more widely exposed to pesticides than thought.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Dennis vanEngelsdorp, an entomologist at the University of Maryland, has been quoted as saying "Fungicides, which we didn't expect to harm insects, seem to have a sub-lethal effect on bee health". He went on further to state this is important because fungicides are not heavily regulated.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Most beekeepers affected by CCD report that they use antibiotics and miticides in their colonies, though the lack of uniformity as to which particular chemicals they use makes it unlikely that any single such chemical is involved. However, it is possible that not all such chemicals in use have been tested for possible effects on honey bees, and could therefore potentially be contributing to the CCD phenomenon.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A study at the University of Texas in Austin found that commonly used antibiotics found in beekeeping to prevent disease lower the gut microbial levels in honeybees, making them more susceptible to disease. A widespread occurrence of viral infections within a beehive can lead to colony collapse. Researchers state that although the antibiotics are necessary, beekeepers should exercise caution when determining amount and length of use. A widespread occurrence of viral infections within a beehive can lead to colony collapse.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Beekeepers use miticides to rid colonies of "Varroa" infestations; however, treatment can lead to higher levels of viral infections in colonies. High doses of treatment or the use of miticides for an extended period of time can lead to immune-suppression in honey bees, making them more susceptible to viruses.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: 2008 research by scientists from Pennsylvania State University found high levels of the miticides fluvalinate and coumaphos in samples of wax from hives, as well as lower levels of 70 other pesticides. Increased levels of the organophosphate Coumaphos in wax have been associated with decreased survivorship of developing queens. Researchers from Washington State University, under entomologist Steve Sheppard in 2009, confirmed high levels of pesticide residue in hive wax and found an association between it and significantly reduced bee longevity. A large 2010 survey of healthy and CCD-affected colonies also revealed elevated levels of pesticides in wax and pollen, but the amounts of pesticides were similar in both failing and healthy hives.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Environmental changes may have an effect on honey bee development, but the precise impact of potential environmental changes on honey bees as a result of climate change is unknown.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Since U.S. beekeeper Nephi Miller first began moving his hives to different areas of the country for the winter of 1908, migratory beekeeping has become widespread in America. Bee rental for pollination is a crucial element of U.S. agriculture, which could not produce anywhere near its current levels with native pollinators alone. U.S. beekeepers collectively earn much more from renting their bees out for pollination than they do from honey production.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Researchers are concerned that trucking colonies around the country to pollinate crops, where they intermingle with other bees from all over, helps spread viruses and mites among colonies. Additionally, such continuous movement and re-settlement is considered by some a strain and disruption for the entire hive, possibly rendering it less resistant to all sorts of systemic disorder. In addition to the concern surrounding viruses and mites in transporting bees across the country, the stress bees experience in transport is a potential mechanism involved in colony collapse disorder.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Most of the focus on CCD has been toward environmental factors. CCD is a condition recognised for greatest impact in regions of 'industrial' or agricultural use of commercially bred bee colonies. Natural breeding and colony reproduction of wild bees is a complex and highly selective process, leading to a diverse genetic makeup in large within-colony populations of bees, which might not be reproduced in commercially bred colonies.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In 2007, one of the patterns reported by the CCD Study Group at Pennsylvania State was that all producers in a preliminary survey noted a period of "extraordinary stress" affecting the colonies in question prior to their die-off, most commonly involving poor nutrition and/or drought. This was the only factor that "all" of the cases of CCD had in common in the report; accordingly, there appeared to be at least some significant possibility that the phenomenon was correlated to nutritional stress that may not manifest in healthy, well-nourished colonies. This was similar to the findings of another independent survey done in 2007 in which small-scale beekeeping operations (up to 500 colonies) in several states reported their belief that malnutrition and/or weak colonies was the factor responsible for their bees dying in over 50% of the cases, whether the losses were believed to be due to CCD or not.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Some researchers have attributed the syndrome to the practice of feeding high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) to supplement winter stores. The variability of HFCS may be relevant to the apparent inconsistencies of results. One European writer has suggested a possible connection with HFCS produced from genetically modified corn. At least one researcher has stated, however, that if this were the sole factor involved, this should have led to the exclusive appearance of CCD in wintering colonies being fed HFCS, but many reports of CCD had occurred in other contexts with beekeepers who had not used HFCS.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Other researchers have speculated that colony collapse disorder is mainly a problem of feeding the bees a monoculture diet when they should receive food from a variety of sources/plants. In winter, these bees are given a single food source such as corn syrup (high-fructose or other), sugar and pollen substitute. In summer, they may only pollinate a single crop (e.g., almonds, cherries, or apples). The monoculture diet is thus attributed to bee rentals and migratory bee keeping. While it is claimed that single pollen diets are greatly inferior to mixed pollen diets, there are a few pollens, however, that are acceptable for honey bees to be introduced to exclusively, including sweet clover and mustard.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A study published in 2010 found that bees that were fed pollen from a variety of different plant species showed signs of having a healthier immune system than those eating pollen from a single species. Bees fed pollen from five species had higher levels of glucose oxidase than bees fed pollen from one species, even if the pollen had a higher protein content. The authors hypothesised that CCD may be linked to a loss of plant diversity. Researches found a proper diet that does lead to a healthy honey bee population. "The authors recommended a diet containing 1000 ppm potassium, 500 ppm calcium, 300 ppm magnesium and 50 ppm each of sodium, zinc, manganese, iron and copper." A 2014 studies found that bees fed high-fructose corn syrup or sugar shows downregulation in several genes related to protein metabolism and oxidation reduction as compared to those fed the similarly low-protein honey.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A 2013 study found that "p"-Coumaric acid, which is normally present in honey, assists bees in detoxifying certain pesticides. Its absence in artificial nutrients fed to bees may therefore contribute to CCD.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Despite considerable discussion on the Internet and in the lay media, there have been almost no careful studies, published in peer reviewed scientific literature, on effects of electromagnetic field exposure on honeybees. One of the few peer-reviewed studies was published in 1981 and found that even at microwave radiation powers far higher than used in communication, that bees were not significantly affected.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A study on the non-thermal effects of radio frequency (RF) on honey bees ("Apis mellifera carnica") reported there were no changes in behavior due to RF exposure from DECT cordless phone base stations operating at 1,880–1,900 MHz. A later study established that close-range electromagnetic field (EMF) may reduce the ability of bees to return to their hive. In the course of their study, one half of their colonies broke down, including some control hives that did not have embedded DECT base stations. In April 2007, news of this study appeared in various media outlets, beginning with an article in "The Independent", which stated that the subject of the study included mobile phones and had related them to CCD. Although cellular phones were implicated at the time by other media reports, they were not covered in the quoted study. The researchers involved have since stated that their research did not include findings on cell phones, nor their relationship to CCD, and indicated that the "Independent" article had misinterpreted their results and created "a horror story".


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A review of 919 peer-reviewed scientific studies investigating the effects of EMF on wildlife, humans, and plants included 7 studies involving honey bees; 6 of which reported negative effects from exposure to EMF radiation, but none demonstrated any specific link to CCD. A 2004 exploratory study was conducted on the non-thermal effects of electromagnetic exposure and learning. The investigators did not find any change in behavior due to RF exposure from the DECT base station operating at 1880–1900 MHz.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Honeybees can detect weak static, or low-frequency magnetic fields, which they use as one of several cues in navigation. However, no mechanism has been established by which weak radio frequency energy can affect the behavior of insects, apart from minor heating effects.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: GM crops are not considered to be a cause of CCD. In 2008 a meta-analysis of 25 independent studies assessing the effects of Bt Cry proteins on honeybee survival (mortality) showed that Bt proteins used in commercialized GE crops to control lepidopteran and coleopteran pests did not negatively impact the survival of honeybee larvae or adults. Additionally, larvae consumed only a small percent of their protein from pollen, and there was also a lack of geographic correlation between GM crop locations and regions where CCD occurred.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: , the Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium (MAAREC) offered the following tentative recommendations for beekeepers noticing the symptoms of CCD:


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Another proposed remedy for farmers of pollinated crops is simply to switch from using beekeepers to the use of native bees, such as bumble bees and mason bees. Native bees can be helped to establish themselves by providing suitable nesting locations and some additional crops the bees could use to feed from (e.g. when the pollination season of the commercial crops on the farm has ended).


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: A British beekeeper successfully developed a strain of bees that are resistant to varroa mites. Russian honey bees also resist infestations of varroa mites but are still susceptible to other factors associated with colony collapse disorder, and have detrimental traits that limit their relevance in commercial apiculture.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In the United Kingdom, a national bee database was set up in March 2009 to monitor colony collapse as a result of a 15% reduction in the bee population that had taken place over the previous two years. In particular, the register, funded by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and administered by the National Bee Unit, will be used to monitor health trends and help establish whether the honey industry is under threat from supposed colony collapse disorder. Britain's 20,000 beekeepers have been invited to participate. In October 2010, David Aston of the British Beekeepers' Association stated, "We still do not believe CCD is a cause of colony losses in the UK, however we are continuing to experience colony losses, many if not most of which can be explained. The approach being taken in UK beekeeping is to raise the profile of integrated bee health management, in other words identifying and trying to eliminate factors that reduce the health status of a colony. This incorporates increasing the skill level of beekeepers through training and education, raising the profile of habitat destruction and its effect of forage (nectar and pollen) availability, and of course research on the incidence and distribution of diseases and conditions in the UK together with more applied research and development on providing solutions."


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: Honey bees are not native to the Americas, therefore their necessity as pollinators in the U.S. and other regions in the Western Hemisphere is limited to strictly agricultural and ornamental uses, as no native plants require honey bee pollination, except where concentrated in monoculture situations—where the pollination need is so great at bloom time that pollinators must be concentrated beyond the capacity of native bees (with current technology).


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: The phenomenon is particularly important for crops such as almond growing in California, where honey bees are the predominant pollinator and the crop value in 2011 was $3.6 billion. In 2000, the total U.S. crop value that was wholly dependent on honey bee pollination was estimated to exceed $15 billion. California almond production increased from 370 million pounds in 1995 to a record 2,500 million pounds in 2019, with an increase of over 30% in the last decade alone. Because of such high demand in pollinators, the cost of renting honey bees has increased significantly, and California's almond industry rents approximately 1.6 million honey bee colonies during the spring to pollinate their crop. Worldwide, honeybees yield roughly $200 billion in pollination services.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: They are responsible for pollination of approximately one third of the United States' crop species, including such species as almonds, peaches, apples, pears, cherries, raspberries, blackberries, cranberries, watermelons, cantaloupes, cucumbers, and strawberries. Many, but not all, of these plants can be (and often are) pollinated by other insects in the U.S., including other kinds of bees (e.g., squash bees on cucurbits), but typically not on a commercial scale. While some farmers of a few kinds of native crops do bring in honey bees to help pollinate, none specifically need them, and when honey bees are absent from a region, there is a presumption that native pollinators may reclaim the niche, typically being better adapted to serve those plants (assuming that the plants normally occur in that specific area).


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: However, even though on a per-individual basis, many other species are actually more efficient at pollinating, on the 30% of crop types where honey bees are used, most native pollinators cannot be mass-utilized as easily or as effectively as honey bees—in many instances they will not visit the plants at all. Beehives can be moved from crop to crop as needed, and the bees will visit many plants in large numbers, compensating via saturation pollination for what they lack in efficiency. The commercial viability of these crops is therefore strongly tied to the beekeeping industry. In China, hand pollination of apple orchards is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and costly.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: In regions of the Old World where they are indigenous, honeybees ("Apis mellifera") are among the most important pollinators, vital to sustain natural habitats there in addition to their value for human societies (to sustain food resources). Where honeybee populations decline, there is also a decline in plant populations. In agriculture, some plants are completely dependent on honeybees to pollinate them to produce fruit, while other plants are only dependent on honeybees to enhance their capacity to produce better and healthier fruits. Honeybees also help plants to reduce time between flowering and fruit set, which reduces risk from harmful factors such as pests, diseases, chemicals, weather, etc. Specialist plants that require honeybees will be at more risk if honeybees decline, whereas generalist plants that use other animals as pollinators (or wind pollinating or self-pollinating) will suffer less because they have other sources of pollination.


title: Colony collapse disorder

text: With that said, honeybees perform some level of pollination of nearly 75% of all plant species directly used for human food worldwide. Catastrophic loss of honeybees could have significant impact, therefore; it is estimated that seven out of the 60 major agricultural crops in North American economy would be lost, and this is only for one region of the world. Farms that have intensive systems (high density of crops) will be impacted the most compared to non-intensive systems (small local gardens that depend on wild bees) because of dependence on honeybees. These types of farms have a high demand for honeybee pollination services, which in the U.S. alone costs $1.25 billion annually. This cost is offset, however, as honeybees as pollinators generate 22.8 to 57 billion Euros globally.


title: Mark Gonzales

text: Mark Gonzales (born June 1, 1968), also known as "Gonz" and "The Gonz", is an American professional skateboarder and artist. He is known as the godfather of modern street skateboarding and was named the "Most Influential Skateboarder of All Time" by the Transworld Skateboarding magazine in December 2011.


title: Mark Gonzales

text: Gonzales entered the skateboarding scene at the age of thirteen in South Gate, California, U.S. At the age of fifteen, as Tommy Guerrero and Natas Kaupas were developing their own styles of progressive street skating around the same time, Gonzales adopted a more modern, innovative approach to skateboarding in a street context (subsequently dubbed "street skateboarding"). He was featured on the cover of "Thrasher" magazine's November 1984 issue riding a board from the Alva company, his board sponsor at the time, while performing a trick known as a "beanplant".


title: Mark Gonzales

text: Shortly after his "Thrasher" magazine cover, Gonzales then joined the Vision skateboard team and attained the status of a professional skateboarder. Gonzales won the 1985 Oceanside street contest while sponsored by Vision.


title: Mark Gonzales

text: Gonzales proceeded to further influence the progression of street skateboarding with the 1991 Blind Skateboards video "Video Days" (a company he formed with Steve Rocco in 1989).


title: Mark Gonzales

text: Gonzales left Blind after experiencing frustrations that were similar to his time with Vision and then started another company called ATM Click and followed it with a venture with Ron Chatman called 60/40 who sponsored future Menace skaters Fabian Alomar and Joey Suriel. In 1993, Gonzales created controversy after he appropriated a Vision design that was used for one of his signature model boards for an ATM Click design; Gonzales then proceeded to also use the graphic for Real and Krooked signature skateboard models following his move to Deluxe Distribution.


title: Mark Gonzales

text: Under the Deluxe Distribution company, Gonzales skated for Real Skateboards and appeared in three of the company's videos: "Kicked Out of Everywhere", "Non Fiction", and "Real to Reel". In 2002, Gonzales then launched Krooked Skateboards in partnership with the Deluxe company and, as of February 2016, Krooked is an operational company that has released four full-length videos.


title: Mark Gonzales

text: In 2007, Gonzales appeared in the skateboarding video game "EA Skate" and filmed a commercial to promote the game's release.


title: Mark Gonzales

text: As of 2013, Gonzales was sponsored by adidas, Krooked, Spitfire, Independent, and Supreme. In 2016, Gonzales joined the Pro-Tec skate team.


title: Mark Gonzales

text: In the summer of 1986 Gonzales performed an ollie from one wall down to another platform at The Embarcadero in San Francisco, U.S. and the obstacle had been known as the "Gonz Gap" since his completion of the trick; the trick also helped to popularize The Embarcadero as a location for skateboarders to skateboard. Later that year, Gonzales - along with fellow progressive street skater Natas Kaupas - was the first person to skate handrails. Gonzales was also the first person to ollie the Wallenberg Set, a four-block, nineteen feet-long, four feet-tall gap in San Francisco, California, US.