title: Complex plane

text: The complex plane is associated with two distinct quadratic spaces. For a point in the complex plane, the squaring function "z" and the norm-squared formula_20 are both quadratic forms. The former is frequently neglected in the wake of the latter's use in setting a metric on the complex plane. These distinct faces of the complex plane as a quadratic space arise in the construction of algebras over a field with the Cayley–Dickson process. That procedure can be applied to any field, and different results occur for the fields R and C: when R is the take-off field, then C is constructed with the quadratic form formula_21 but the process can also begin with C and "z", and that case generates algebras that differ from those derived from R. In any case, the algebras generated are composition algebras; in this case the complex plane is the point set for two distinct composition algebras.


title: Complex plane

text: The preceding sections of this article deal with the complex plane in terms of a geometric representation of the complex numbers. Although this usage of the term "complex plane" has a long and mathematically rich history, it is by no means the only mathematical concept that can be characterized as "the complex plane". There are at least three additional possibilities.


title: Phenylacetone

text: Phenylacetone is an organic compound with the chemical formula CHCHCOCH. It is a colorless oil that is soluble in organic solvents. This substance is used in the manufacture of methamphetamine and amphetamine, where it is commonly known as P2P. Due to the illicit uses in clandestine chemistry, it was declared a schedule II controlled substance in the United States in 1980. In humans, phenylacetone occurs as a metabolite of amphetamine and methamphetamine via FMO3-mediated oxidative deamination.


title: Phenylacetone

text: In the 20th century chloroacetone, benzene, and anhydrous aluminum chloride were used to synthesize phenylacetone. The reaction included Friedel–Crafts alkylation.


title: Phenylacetone

text: In the TV series "Breaking Bad", Walter White manufactures methamphetamine through an enantioselective variation of the P2P method, starting from phenylacetone.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone, formerly known as Costanoans (from Spanish meaning 'coast dweller'), are a Native American people of the Northern California coast. When Spanish explorers and missionaries arrived in the late 18th century, the Ohlone inhabited the area along the coast from San Francisco Bay through Monterey Bay to the lower Salinas Valley. At that time they spoke a variety of related languages. The Ohlone languages make up a sub-family of the Utian language family. Older proposals place Utian within the Penutian language phylum, while newer proposals group it as Yok-Utian.


title: Ohlone

text: In pre-colonial times, the Ohlone lived in more than 50 distinct landholding groups, and did not view themselves as a single unified group. They lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering, in the typical ethnographic California pattern. The members of these various bands interacted freely with one another. The Ohlone people practiced the Kuksu religion. Prior to the Gold Rush, the northern California region was one of the most densely populated regions north of Mexico.


title: Ohlone

text: However, the arrival of Spanish colonizers to the area in 1769 vastly changed tribal life forever. The Spanish constructed missions along the California coast with the objective of Christianizing the native people and culture. Between the years 1769 and 1834, the number of Indigenous Californians dropped from 300,000 to 250,000. After California entered into the Union in 1850, the state government perpetrated massacres against the Ohlone people. Many of the leaders of these massacres were rewarded with positions in state and federal government. These massacres have been described as genocide. Many are now leading a push for cultural and historical recognition of their tribe and what they have gone through and had taken from them.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone living today belong to one or another of a number of geographically distinct groups, most, but not all, in their original home territory. Tamien Nation citizens are direct lineal descendants from Tamien speaking villages of the Santa Clara Valley. The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe has members from around the San Francisco Bay Area, and is composed of descendants of the Ohlones/Costanoans from the San Jose, Santa Clara, and San Francisco missions. The Ohlone/Costanoan Esselen Nation, consisting of descendants of intermarried Rumsen Costanoan and Esselen speakers of Mission San Carlos Borromeo, are centered at Monterey. The tribe are descendants of Mutsun Costanoan speakers of Mission San Juan Bautista, inland from Monterey Bay. Most members of another group of Rumsien language, descendants from Mission San Carlos, the Costanoan Rumsien Carmel Tribe of Pomona/Chino, now live in southern California. These groups and others with smaller memberships ("See groups listed under "Present day" below") are separately petitioning the federal government for tribal recognition.


title: Ohlone

text: British ethnologist Robert Gordon Latham originally used the term "Costanoan" to refer to the linguistically similar but ethnically diverse Native American tribes in the San Francisco Bay Area. The term was based on the name of a group of Ramaytush speakers in the area of Mission Dolores first mentioned in 1850 as ""Olhones" or "Costanos"". Based on the former, American anthropologist Clinton Hart Merriam referred to the Costanoan groups as "Olhonean" in the early 20th century in his posthumously published field notes, and eventually, the term "Ohlone" has been adopted by most ethnographers, historians, and writers of popular literature.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone inhabited fixed village locations, moving temporarily to gather seasonal foodstuffs like acorns and berries. The Ohlone people lived in Northern California from the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula down to northern region of Big Sur, and from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Diablo Range in the east. Their vast region included the San Francisco Peninsula, Santa Clara Valley, Santa Cruz Mountains, Monterey Bay area, as well as present-day Alameda County, Contra Costa County and the Salinas Valley. Prior to Spanish contact, the Ohlone formed a complex association of approximately 50 different "nations or tribes" with about 50 to 500 members each, with an average of 200. Over 50 distinct Ohlone tribes and villages have been recorded. The Ohlone villages interacted through trade, intermarriage and ceremonial events, as well as some internecine conflict. Cultural arts included basket-weaving skills, seasonal ceremonial dancing events, female tattoos, ear and nose piercings, and other ornamentation.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone subsisted mainly as hunter-gatherers and in some ways harvesters. "A rough husbandry of the land was practiced, mainly by annually setting of fires to burn-off the old growth in order to get a better yield of seeds—or so the Ohlone told early explorers in San Mateo County." Their staple diet consisted of crushed acorns, nuts, grass seeds, and berries, although other vegetation, hunted and trapped game, fish and seafood (including mussels and abalone from the San Francisco Bay and Pacific Ocean), were also important to their diet. These food sources were abundant in earlier times and maintained by careful work, and through active management of all the natural resources at hand. Animals in their mild climate included the grizzly bear, elk ("Cervus elaphus"), pronghorn, and deer. The streams held salmon, perch, and stickleback. Birds included plentiful ducks, geese, quail, great horned owls, red-shafted flickers, downy woodpeckers, goldfinches, and yellow-billed magpies. Waterfowl were the most important birds in the people's diet, which were captured with nets and decoys. The Chochenyo traditional narratives refer to ducks as food, and Juan Crespí observed in his journal that geese were stuffed and dried "to use as decoys in hunting others".


title: Ohlone

text: Along the ocean shore and bays, there were also otters, whales, and at one time thousands of sea lions. In fact, there were so many sea lions that according to Crespi it "looked like a pavement" to the incoming Spanish.


title: Ohlone

text: In general, along the bayshore and valleys, the Ohlone constructed dome-shaped houses of woven or bundled mats of tules, 6 to 20 feet (1.8 to 6 m) in diameter. In hills where redwood trees were accessible, they built conical houses from redwood bark attached to a frame of wood. Residents of Monterey recall Redwood houses. One of the main village buildings, the sweat lodge was low into the ground, its walls made of earth and roof of earth and brush. They built boats of tule to navigate on the bays propelled by double-bladed paddles.


title: Ohlone

text: Generally, men did not wear clothing in warm weather. In cold weather, they might don animal skin capes or feather capes. Women commonly wore deerskin aprons, tule skirts, or shredded bark skirts. On cool days, they also wore animal skin capes. Both wore ornamentation of necklaces, shell beads and abalone pendants, and bone wood earrings with shells and beads. The ornamentation often indicated status within their community.


title: Ohlone

text: A full list of their ethnobotany can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/50/ (430 documented plant uses) and http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/51/ (6 documented plant uses). They use the roots of many species of Carex for basketry.


title: Ohlone

text: Researchers are sensitive to limitations in historical knowledge, and careful not to place the spiritual and religious beliefs of all Ohlone people into a single unified worldview. Due to the displacement of Indian people in the Missions between 1769–1833, cultural groups are working as ethnographers to discover for themselves their ancestral history, and what that information tells about them as a cultural group. Their religion is different depending on the band referred to, although they share components of their worldview.


title: Ohlone

text: The pre-contact spiritual beliefs of the Ohlone were not recorded in detail by missionaries. The Ohlone probably practiced "Kuksu", a form of shamanism shared by many Central and Northern California tribes. Although, it is also possible that the Ohlone people learned Kuksu from other tribes while at the missions. Kuksu included elaborate acting and dancing ceremonies in traditional costume, an annual mourning ceremony, puberty rites of passage, intervention with the spirit world and an all-male society that met in subterranean dance rooms.


title: Ohlone

text: Kuksu was shared with other indigenous ethnic groups of Central California, such as their neighbors the Miwok and Esselen, also Maidu, Pomo, and northernmost Yokuts. However Kroeber observed less "specialized cosmogony" in the Ohlone, which he termed one of the "southern Kuksu-dancing groups", in comparison to the Maidu and groups in the Sacramento Valley; he noted "if, as seems probable, the southerly Kuksu tribes (the Miwok, Costanoans, Esselen, and northernmost Yokuts) had no real society in connection with their Kuksu ceremonies."


title: Ohlone

text: The conditions upon which the Ohlone joined the Spanish missions are subject to debate. Some have argued that they were forced to convert to Catholicism, while others have insisted that forced baptism was not recognized by the Catholic Church. All who have looked into the matter agree, however, that baptized Indians who tried to leave mission communities were forced to return. The first conversions to Catholicism were at Mission San Carlos Borromeo, alias Carmel, in 1771. In the San Francisco Bay area the first baptisms occurred at Mission San Francisco in 1777. Many first-generation Mission Era conversions to Catholicism were debatably incomplete and "external".


title: Ohlone

text: It is apparent that the pre-contact Ohlone had distinguished medicine persons among their tribe. Some of these people healed through the use of herbs, and some were shamans who were believed to heal through their ability to contact the spirit world. Some shamans typically engaged in more ritualistic healing in the form of dancing, ceremony, and singing. Some shamans were also believed to be able to tell and influence the future, therefore they were equally able to bring about fortune and misfortune among the community.


title: Ohlone

text: Additionally, some Ohlone bands built prayer houses, also called sweat lodges, for ceremonial and spiritual purification purposes. These lodges were built near stream banks because water was believed to be capable of great healing. Men and women would gather in the sweat lodges to "cleanse, purify, and empower themselves" for a task like hunting and spirit dancing. Today, there is a place located in Hollister called Indian Canyon, where a traditional sweat lodge, or Tupentak, has been built for the same ceremonial purposes. Along with the development of the sweat lodge in the early 1990s, the construction of an upen- tah-ruk, or round house/assembly house, was underway as well. These areas are meant to provide a gathering place for tribal meetings, traditional dances and ceremonies, and education activities. Indian Canyon is an important place because it is open to all Native American groups in the United States and around the world as a place to hold traditional native practices without federal restrictions. Indian Canyon is also home to many Ohlone people, specifically of the Mutsun band, and serves as an educational, cultural, and spiritual environment for all visitors. Indian Canyon allows Natives to reclaim their heritage and implement their ancestral beliefs and practices into their lives.


title: Ohlone

text: The storytelling of sacred narratives has been an important component of Ohlone indigenous culture for thousands of years, and continues to be of importance today. The narratives often teach specific moral or spiritual lessons, and are illustrative of the cultural, spiritual, and religious beliefs of the tribe. Because not all the Ohlone bands shared a unified identity, and therefore have varying religious and spiritual beliefs, the stories are unique to the tribe. Today, sacred narratives are still an important part of the Ohlone culture. Only a minimal number of sacred stories have survived Spanish colonization during the 1700s and 1800s due to ethnographic efforts in the Missions. Many Ohlone bands refer to anthropologic records to reconstruct their sacred narratives because some Ohlone people living in the missions acted as "professional consultants" for anthropologic research, and therefore told their past stories. The problem with this type of recording is that the stories are not always complete due to translation differences where meaning can be easily misunderstood.


title: Ohlone

text: Therefore, many Ohlone bands today feel responsible for re-adopting these narratives and discussing them with cultural representatives and other Ohlone people to decide what their meanings are. This process is important because the Ohlone can further piece together a cultural identity of their past ancestors, and ultimately for themselves as well. Additionally, through knowing sacred narratives and sharing them with the public through live performances or storytelling, the Ohlone people are able to create an awareness that their cultural group is not extinct, but actually surviving and wanting recognition.


title: Ohlone

text: Ohlone folklore and legend centered around the Californian culture heroes of the Coyote trickster spirit, as well as Eagle and Hummingbird (and in the Chochenyo region, a falcon-like being named Kaknu). The Coyote spirit was clever, wily, lustful, greedy, and irresponsible. He often competed with Hummingbird, who despite his small size regularly got the better of him. Ohlone creation stories mention that the world was covered entirely in water, apart from a single peak "Pico Blanco" near Big Sur (or Mount Diablo in the northern Ohlone's version) on which Coyote, Hummingbird, and Eagle stood. Humans were the descendants of Coyote.


title: Ohlone

text: The predominant theory regarding the settlement of the Americas date the original migrations from Asia to around 20,000 years ago across the Bering Strait land bridge, but one anthropologist, Otto von Sadovszky, claims that the Ohlone and some other northern California tribes descend from Siberians who arrived in California by sea around 3,000 years ago.


title: Ohlone

text: Some anthropologists think that these people migrated from the San Joaquin–Sacramento River system and arrived into the San Francisco and Monterey Bay Areas in about the 6th century CE, displacing or assimilating earlier Hokan-speaking populations of which the Esselen in the south represent a remnant. Datings of ancient shell mounds in Emeryville and in Newark and suggest the villages at those locations were established about 4000 BCE.


title: Ohlone

text: Through shell mound dating, scholars noted three periods of ancient Bay Area history, as described by F.M. Stanger in : "Careful study of artifacts found in central California mounds has resulted in the discovery of three distinguishable epochs or cultural 'horizons' in their history. In terms of our time-counting system, the first or 'Early Horizon' extends from about 4000 BCE to 1000 BCE in the Bay Area and to about 2000 BCE in the Central Valley. The second or Middle Horizon was from these dates to 700 CE, while the third or Late Horizon, was from 700 CE to the coming of the Spaniards in the 1770s."


title: Ohlone

text: The arrival of missionaries and Spanish colonizers in the mid-1700s had a negative impact on the Ohlone people who inhabited Northern California. The Ohlone territory consisted of the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula down to Big Sur in the south. There were more than fifty Ohlone landholding groups prior to the arrival of the Spanish Missionaries. The Ohlone were able to thrive in this area by hunting, fishing, and gathering, in the typical pattern found in California coastal tribes. Each of the Ohlone villages interacted with each other through trade, intermarriage, and ceremonial events, as well as through occasional conflict.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone culture was relatively stable until the first Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived with the double-purpose of Christianizing the Native Americans by building a series of missions and of expanding Spanish territorial claims. The Rumsien were the first Ohlone people to be encountered and documented in Spanish records when, in 1602, explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno reached and named the area that is now Monterey in December of that year. Despite Vizcaíno's positive reports, nothing further happened for more than 160 years. It was not until 1769 that the next Spanish expedition arrived in Monterey, led by Gaspar de Portolà. This time, the military expedition was accompanied by Franciscan missionaries, whose purpose was to establish a chain of missions to bring Christianity to the native people. Under the leadership of Father Junípero Serra, the missions introduced Spanish religion and culture to the Ohlone.


title: Ohlone

text: Spanish mission culture soon disrupted and undermined the Ohlone social structures and way of life. Under Father Serra's leadership, the Spanish Franciscans erected seven missions inside the Ohlone region and brought most of the Ohlone into these missions to live and work. The missions erected within the Ohlone region were: Mission San Carlos Borroméo de Carmelo (founded in 1770), Mission San Francisco de Asís (founded in 1776), Mission Santa Clara de Asís (founded in 1777), Mission Santa Cruz (founded in 1791), Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad (founded in 1791), Mission San José (founded in 1797), and Mission San Juan Bautista (founded in 1797). The Ohlone who went to live at the missions were called Mission Indians, and also "neophytes." They were blended with other Native American ethnicities such as the Coast Miwok transported from the North Bay into the Mission San Francisco and Mission San José.


title: Ohlone

text: Spanish military presence was established at two Presidios, the Presidio of Monterey, and the Presidio of San Francisco, and mission outposts, such as San Pedro y San Pablo Asistencia founded in 1786. The Spanish soldiers traditionally escorted the Franciscans on missionary outreach daytrips but declined to camp overnight. For the first twenty years, the missions accepted a few converts at a time, slowly gaining population. Between November 1794 and May 1795, a large wave of Bay Area Native Americans were baptized and moved into Mission Santa Clara and Mission San Francisco, including 360 people to Mission Santa Clara and the entire Huichun village populations of the East Bay to Mission San Francisco. In March 1795, this migration was followed almost immediately by the worst-seen epidemic, as well as food shortages, resulting in alarming statistics of death and escapes from the missions. In pursuing the runaways, the Franciscans sent neophytes first and (as a last resort) soldiers to go round up the runaway "Christians" from their relatives, and bring them back to the missions. By running to tribes outside of the missions, escapees and those sent to bring them back to the mission spread illness outside of the missions.


title: Ohlone

text: Indians did not thrive when the missions expanded both their populations and operations in their geographical areas. "A total of 81,000 Indians were baptized and 60,000 deaths were recorded". The cause of death varied, but most were the result of European diseases such as smallpox, measles, and diphtheria against which the Indians had no natural immunity. Other causes were a drastic diet change from hunter and gatherer fare to a diet high in carbohydrates and low in vegetables and animal protein, harsh lifestyle changes, and unsanitary living conditions.


title: Ohlone

text: Under Spanish rule, the intent for the future of the mission properties is difficult to ascertain. Property disputes arose over who owned the mission (and adjacent) lands, between the Spanish crown, the Catholic Church, the Natives and the Spanish settlers of San Jose: There were "heated debates" between "the Spanish State and ecclesiastical bureaucracies" over the government authority of the missions. Setting the precedent in an interesting petition to the Governor in 1782, the Franciscan priests claimed the "Missions Indians" owned both land and cattle, and they represented the Natives in a petition against the San Jose settlers. The fathers mentioned the "Indians' crops" were being damaged by the San Jose settlers' livestock and also mentioned settlers "getting mixed up with the livestock belonging to the Indians from the mission." They also stated the Mission Indians had property and rights to defend it: "Indians are at liberty to slaughter such (San Jose pueblo) livestock as trespass unto their lands." "By law", the mission property was to pass to the Mission Indians after a period of about ten years, when they would become Spanish citizens. In the interim period, the Franciscans were mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Natives.


title: Ohlone

text: In 1834, the Mexican government ordered all Californian missions to be secularized and all mission land and property (administered by the Franciscans) turned over to the government for redistribution. At this point, the Ohlone were supposed to receive land grants and property rights, but few did and most of the mission lands went to the secular administrators. In the end, even attempts by mission leaders to restore native lands were in vain. Before this time, 73 Spanish land grants had already been deeded in all of Alta California, but with the new régime most lands were turned into Mexican-owned rancherias. The Ohlone became the laborers and "vaqueros" (cowboys) of Mexican-owned rancherias.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone eventually regathered in multi-ethnic rancherias, along with other Mission Indians from families that spoke the Coast Miwok, Bay Miwok, Plains Miwok, Patwin, Yokuts, and Esselen languages. Many of the Ohlone that had survived the experience at Mission San Jose went to work at "Alisal Rancheria" in Pleasanton, and "El Molino" in Niles. Communities of mission survivors also formed in Sunol, Monterey and San Juan Bautista. In the 1840s a wave of United States settlers encroached into the area, and California became annexed to the United States. The new settlers brought in new diseases to the Ohlone.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone lost the vast majority of their population between 1780 and 1850, because of an abysmal birth rate, high infant mortality rate, diseases and social upheaval associated with European immigration into California. Peter Hardeman Burnett, the state’s first governor, was an open advocate of exterminating local California Indian tribes. By all estimates, the Ohlone were reduced to less than ten percent of their original pre-mission era population. By 1852 the Ohlone population had shrunk to about 864–1,000, and was continuing to decline. By the early 1880s, the northern Ohlone were virtually extinct, and the southern Ohlone people were severely impacted and largely displaced from their communal land grant in the Carmel Valley. To call attention to the plight of the California Indians, Indian Agent, reformer, and popular novelist Helen Hunt Jackson published accounts of her travels among the Mission Indians of California in 1883.


title: Ohlone

text: Considered the last fluent speaker of an Ohlone language, Rumsien-speaker Isabel Meadows died in 1939. Descendants are reviving Rumsien, Mutsun, and Chochenyo.


title: Ohlone

text: The arrival of the Spanish in the 1776 decelerated the culture, sovereignty, religion, and language of the Ohlone. Before the Spanish invasion, the Ohlone had an estimated 500 shellmounds lining the sea and shores of the San Francisco Bay. Shellmounds are essentially Ohlone habitation sites where peopled lived and died and often buried. The mounds consist predominately of molluscan shells, with lesser amounts mammal and fish bone, vegetal materials and other organic material deposited by the Ohlone for thousands of years. These shellmounds are the direct result of village life. Archaeologists have examined the mounds and often refer to them as "middens," or "kitchen midden" meaning an accumulation of refuse.


title: Ohlone

text: One theory is that the massive amount of shellfish remains represent Ohlone ritual behavior, whereas they would spend months mourning their dead and feasting on large amounts of shellfish which were disposed of ever growing the girth and height of the mound. Shellmounds were once found all over the San Francisco Bay area near marshlands, creeks, wetlands, and rivers. San Bruno Mountain is home to the nation's largest intact shellmound. These mounds are also thought to have served a practical purpose as well, since these shellmounds were usually near waterways or the ocean, they protected the village from high tide as well as to provide high ground for line of sight navigation for watercraft on San Francisco Bay. The Emeryville Shellmound is a site standing at over 60 feet (18 m) tall and 350 feet (105 m) in diameter, and was believed to be occupied between 400 and 2800 years ago.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone burial practices changed over time with cremation being preferred before the arrival of the Spanish. Once the cremation was complete the loved ones and friends would place ornaments as well as other valuables as an offering to the dead. Ohlone believed that this would give them good fortune in the afterlife. Many of these artifacts have been found in and around the shellmounds. They often include a wide variety of shell beads and ornaments as well as frequently used everyday items such as stone and bone tools. These burials also showcase genealogies and territorial rights. The mounds were seen as a cultural statement because the villages on top were clearly visible and their sacred aura was very dominant.


title: Ohlone

text: The West Berkeley Shellmound, located in Berkeley, California, is thought to be the site of the earliest known habitation in the San Francisco Bay Area.[1] It was mostly removed by the early 20th century, but human remains and artifacts are still found in the area during construction projects. Local Ohlone groups have fought to have a portion of it protected and returned to their use.


title: Ohlone

text: The City of Vallejo, California built Glen Cove Waterfront Park after years of protests from Ohlone people and their allies that the location was a sacred site known as Sogorea Te', one of the last native village sites in the San Francisco Bay that had escaped urban development.


title: Ohlone

text: A 6,000-year-old grave site was found at a KB Home construction site in the city of Santa Cruz. Protestors have picketed at the front gate of the Branciforte Creek construction site, holding signs, handing out flyers and engaging passersby to call attention to the site.


title: Ohlone

text: Ohlone remains were discovered in 1973 near Highway 87 during housing development. Some remains were removed during the construction of the highway.


title: Ohlone

text: Mt. Umunhum (Dove Mountain) is the physical foundation of Tamien Nation oral narrative of the Great Flood - Tamien Nation’s most sacred landscape.


title: Ohlone

text: Construction crews at a Van Daele Homes luxury housing development unearthed 32 sets of Ohlone remains in 2017. The remains were reburied on-site under the supervision of a native consultant.


title: Ohlone

text: The determination and passion to preserve sacred ground is largely influenced by the desire to revive and preserve the Ohlone cultural heritage. Natives today are engaging in extensive cultural research to bring back knowledge, narratives, beliefs, and practices of the post-contact days with the Spanish. The Spanish eradicated and stripped the Ohlones of their cultural heritage by causing the death of ninety percent of the population, and forcing cultural assimilation with military fortification and Catholic reform. After the arrival of the Americans, many land grants were contested in court. Preserving their burial sites is a way to gain acknowledgment as a cultural group.


title: Ohlone

text: The Muwekma Ohlone tribe are active participants in the revival of Ohlone people across the East and South Bay. Key to their success is in their involvement in unearthing and analyzing their ancestral remains in ancient burial sites, which allows them to "recapture their history and to reconstruct the present and future of their people". Only some sacred cultural narratives survive through the recording of stories told from various Ohlone elders living in the missions between 1769–1833. This makes analyzing pre-contact Ohlone sites so difficult because so much of the symbolism and ritual are unknown. Therefore, the Muwekma see their participation in archeological projects as a way to bring tribal members together as a unified community, and as a way to reestablish the link between the Ohlone people today and their pre-contact ancestors through their ability to analyze remains and be coauthors in the archeological reports. One major archeological site the Muwekma tribe actively helped excavate is the burial site CA-SCL-732 in San Jose, dating between 1500–2700 BCE. In this burial site, excavated in 1992, the remains of three ritually buried wolves were found among human remains. In other grave site, the skeletal remains of two more wolves were found with "braided, uncured yucca or soap root fiber cordage around their necks". There were many other fragments of remains of animals like deer, squirrel, mountain lion, grizzly bear, fox, badger, blue goose, and elk found as well. From the excavations it is clear that the animals were ritually buried, along with beads and other ornamentations.


title: Ohlone

text: Although the truth may not be known about exactly what these findings mean, the Muwekma and the archeological team analyzed the ritual burial of the animal remains as a way to learn what they may tell about the Ohlone cosmology and cultural system before pre-contact influence. One way the team did this was utilizing known narratives of the Ohlone, as ascribed by previous ethnographers who recorded the sacred narratives of various Ohlone elders in the missions across the Bay, well as the narratives telling of other central California cosmologies to make references about what the meaning of the possible kinship between the animals and the Ohlone in these burials were. Together the archeological team made three hypotheses: animals served as "moieties, clans, lineages, families, and so on," animals were "dream helpers," or personal spirit allies for individuals, and lastly, the animals were representations of "sacred deity-like figures".


title: Ohlone

text: Indian People Organizing for Change (IPOC) is a community-based organization in the San Francisco Bay Area. Its members, including Ohlone tribal members and conservation activists, work together in order to accomplish social and environmental justice within the Bay Area American Indian community. Current projects include the preservation of Bay Area shellmounds, which are the sacred burial sites of the Ohlone Nation, whose homeland is the San Francisco Bay Area. Currently, IPOC has spread awareness throughout the community through shellmounds walks and has advocated for the preservation of sacred burial sites in the Emeryville Mall, Glen Cove Site, Hunters Point in San Francisco, just to name a few.


title: Ohlone

text: The Sogorea Te Land Trust is a land trust founded by members of IPOC in 2012 with the goals of returning traditionally Chochenyo and Karkin lands in the San Francisco Bay Area to indigenous stewardship and cultivating more active, reciprocal relationships with the land. It has also started a project called the Shuumi Land Tax, which asks that non-indigenous people living on Ohlone land to pay dues for the land that they live on. The tax has no legal ramifications and no connection with the United States government or Internal Revenue Service, but the organization prefers this term (as opposed to merely calling contributions donations) as it asserts indigenous sovereignty.


title: Ohlone

text: Costanoan is an externally applied name (exonym). The Spanish explorers and settlers referred to the native groups of this region collectively as the "Costeños" (the "coastal people") circa 1769. Over time, the English-speaking settlers arriving later Anglicized the word "Costeños" into the name of "Costanoans." (The suffix "-an" is English). For many years, the people were called the Costanoans in English language and records.


title: Ohlone

text: Since the 1960s, the name of Ohlone has been used by some of the members and the popular media to replace the name "Costanoan." "Ohlone" might have originally derived from a Spanish rancho called "Oljon", and referred to a single band who inhabited the Pacific Coast near Pescadero Creek. The name "Ohlone" was traced by Teixeira through the mission records of Mission San Francisco, Bancroft's "Native Races", and Frederick Beechey's Journal regarding a visit to the Bay Area in 1826–27. "Oljone", "Olchones" and "Alchones" are spelling variations of "Ohlone" found in Mission San Francisco records. However, because of its tribal origin, Ohlone is not universally accepted by the native people, and some members prefer to either to continue to use the name Costanoan or to revitalize and be known as the "Muwekma". Teixeira maintains Ohlone is the common usage since 1960, which has been traced back to the Rancho Oljon on the Pescadero Creek. Teixeira states in part: "A tribe that once existed along the San Mateo County coast." Milliken states the name came from: "A tribe on the lower drainages of San Gregorio Creek and Pescadero Creek on the Pacific Coast".


title: Ohlone

text: Linguists identified eight regional, linguistic divisions or subgroups of the Ohlone, listed below from north to south:


title: Ohlone

text: These division designations are mostly derived from selected local tribe names. They were first offered in 1974 as direct substitutes for Kroeber's earlier designations based upon the names of local Spanish missions. The spellings are anglicized from forms first written down (often with a variety of spellings) by Spanish missionaries and soldiers who were trying to capture the sounds of languages foreign to them.


title: Ohlone

text: Within the divisions there were over 50 Ohlone tribes and villages who spoke the Ohlone-Costanoan languages in 1769, before being absorbed into the Spanish Missions by 1806.


title: Ohlone

text: The Mutsun (of Hollister and Watsonville), The Lisjan Ohlone, The Tamien Nation, Ramaytush Ohlone and the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe (of the San Francisco Bay Area) are among the surviving groups of Ohlone today. The Esselen Nation also describes itself as Ohlone/Costanoan, although they historically spoke both the southern Costanoan (Rumsien) and an entirely different Hokan language Esselen.


title: Ohlone

text: Published estimates of the pre-contact Ohlone population in 1769 range between 7,000 and 26,000 combined with Salinans. Historians differ widely in their estimates, as they do with the entire population of Native California. However, modern researchers believe that American anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber's projection of 7,000 Ohlone "Costanoans" was much too low. Later researchers such as Richard Levy estimated "10,000 or more" Ohlone.


title: Ohlone

text: The highest estimate comes from Sherburne F. Cook, who in later life concluded there were 26,000 Ohlone and Salinans in the "Northern Mission Area". Per Cook, the "Northern Mission Area" means "the region inhabited by the Costanoans and Salinans between San Francisco Bay and the headwaters of the Salinas River. To this may be added for convenience the local area under the jurisdiction of the San Luis Obispo even though there is an infringement of the Chumash." In this model, the Ohlone people's territory was one half of the "Northern Mission Area". It was however known to be more densely populated than the southern Salinan territory, per Cook: "The Costanoan density was nearly 1.8 persons per square mile with the maximum in the Bay region. The Esselen was approximately 1.3, the Salinan must have been still lower." We can estimate that Cook meant about 18,200 Ohlone based on his own statements (70% of "Northern Mission Area"), plus or minus a few thousand margin for error, but he does not give an exact number.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone population after contact in 1769 with the Spaniards spiralled downwards. Cook describes rapidly declining indigenous populations in California between 1769 and 1900, in his posthumously published book, "The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970." Cook states in part: "Not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident." The population had dropped to about 10% of its original numbers by 1848.


title: Ohlone

text: The population stabilized after 1900, and as of 2005 there were at least 1,400 on tribal membership rolls.


title: Ohlone

text: The Ohlone language family is commonly called "Costanoan", sometimes "Ohlone". Ohlone is classified with Miwok under the label Utian. The controversial Penutian language phylum groups the Utian languages with other languages spoken in California, Oregon, and Washington. The most recent work suggests that Ohlone, Miwok, and Yokuts may all be sub-families within a single Yok-Utian language family.


title: Ohlone

text: Eight dialects or languages of Ohlone have been recorded: Awaswas, Chalon, Chochenyo (aka Chocheño), Karkin, Mutsun, Ramaytush, Rumsen, and Tamyen. Of these, Chochenyo, Mutsun, and Rumsen are seeing revival by Ohlone tribes.


title: Ohlone

text: The chroniclers, ethnohistorians, and linguists of the Ohlone population began with: Alfred L. Kroeber who researched the California natives and authored a few publications on the Ohlone from 1904 to 1910, and C. Hart Merriam who researched the Ohlone in detail from 1902 to 1929. This was followed by John P. Harrington who researched the Ohlone languages from 1921 to 1939, and other aspects of Ohlone culture, leaving volumes of field notes at his death. Other research was added by Robert Cartier, Madison S. Beeler, and Sherburne F. Cook, to name a few. In many cases, the Ohlone names they used vary in spelling, translation and tribal boundaries, depending on the source. Each tried to chronicle and interpret this complex society and language(s) before the pieces vanished.


title: Ohlone

text: There was noticeable competition and some disagreement between the first scholars: Both Merriam and Harrington produced much in-depth Ohlone research in the shadow of the highly published Kroeber and competed in print with him. In the "Editor's Introduction" to "Merriam (1979)", Robert F. Heizer (as the protege of Kroeber and also the curator of Merriam's work) states "both men disliked A. L. Kroeber." Harrington, independently working for the Smithsonian Institution cornered most of the Ohlone research as his own specialty, was "not willing to share his findings with Kroeber ... Kroeber and his students neglected the Chumash and Costanoans, but this was done because Harrington made it quite clear that he would resent Kroeber's 'muscling in.


title: Ohlone

text: Recent Ohlone historians who have published new research are Lauren Teixeira, Randall Milliken and Lowell J. Bean. They all note the availability of mission records which allows for continual research and understanding.


title: Gloria Bell

text: Gloria Bell is a 2018 comedy-drama film written and directed by Sebastián Lelio; it is an English language remake of Lelio's 2013 film "Gloria". The film stars Julianne Moore, John Turturro, Michael Cera, Caren Pistorius, Brad Garrett, Jeanne Tripplehorn, Rita Wilson, Sean Astin, and Holland Taylor. It had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United States on March 8, 2019, by A24.


title: Gloria Bell

text: Gloria Bell is a middle-aged divorcée living in LA. She has two children: Anne, a kindhearted yoga instructor, and Peter, an uninspired married man who cares for his infant son while his wife is away. Gloria spends her nights letting loose at dance clubs around the city.


title: Gloria Bell

text: One night, she meets Arnold, also a divorcée, and they hit it off. They sleep together and begin a relationship shortly after. However, Gloria is annoyed when Arnold admits that he still financially supports his ex-wife and two daughters, who are unemployed and demanding. Arnold owns a paintball arena, and introduces Gloria to the sport.


title: Gloria Bell

text: Gloria introduces Arnold to her family at Peter's birthday party, her two children and ex-husband, Dustin, as well as his wife. During a toast, Gloria unwittingly reveals that Anne is pregnant; the father is a Swedish wave rider and she plans to move to Sweden. Dustin did not know these things. Later, they look at family photos, including from Gloria's and Dustin's wedding, which causes amusement but Arnold is left out and leaves unnoticed. Dustin expresses anger at not 'being here' for some event in the photos and the others are shaken from their reverie. When Gloria realizes Arnold has left, everyone looks for him before giving up. Gloria leaves embarrassed.


title: Gloria Bell

text: Arnold repeatedly calls her, and finally catches up with her as she is leaving work. He attempts to justify his sudden exit from the party (that he had sought her eyes and she had not been looking for him), but when he again mentions his daughters' calls, she tells him to 'grow a pair'. She tries to give him his paintball guns back but he refuses, so she drives away with them.


title: Gloria Bell

text: Gloria's crazy neighbor leaves his marijuana on her doorstep one night, and, impulsively, she smokes it and goes dancing. The next day, she drives Anne to the airport for her trip to Sweden, tearfully accepting her daughter is grown up. Soon after, Gloria is told by the doctor she will have to take prescription eyedrops for the rest of her life for her failing eyesight.


title: Gloria Bell

text: Gloria finally returns Arnold's calls and they arrange a trip to Las Vegas. As they are settling into their room, he receives a call from his daughters, who inform him that his ex-wife injured herself walking through a sliding glass door. Arnold refuses to cancel the trip, and they have sex that night. They spend time together, eating at nice restaurants and lounging in the pool. He continues to ignore his daughters' calls. During a romantic dinner together, she then suggests that they take a trip to Spain. He agrees and Gloria drops his phone in his soup. Arnold excuses himself, saying he'll be back immediately but does not return. Gloria checks the wardrobe on their hotel room and then goes to the casino. Gloria dazedly drinks and parties with random people, meeting a man and having a hallucinatory trip. She wakes up on a pool chair missing a shoe, and calls her mother to take her home.


title: Gloria Bell

text: Arnold calls her multiple times, and she unplugs her phone in response. Still stuck with the paintball guns, she throws them away, but eventually retrieves them. Then, driving to Arnold's house, she silently shoots his house and him in anger. His ex-wife and daughters rush out, yelling obscenities, but she remains unfazed and drives away, laughing with "Total Eclipse of the Heart" on her stereo.


title: Gloria Bell

text: At her friend Vicky's daughter's wedding reception, the song "Gloria" begins to play, and Gloria politely refuses to dance when asked, but has a change of heart when Vicky coaxes her out. She gets on the dance floor and begins to lose herself in the music.


title: Gloria Bell

text: On May 12, 2017, it was reported that Sebastián Lelio would direct a reimagining of his 2013 film "Gloria" starring Julianne Moore. "As one of the greatest actresses in the world, Julianne giving her interpretation of the character is not only a huge honor, it's irresistible. It's going to be like jazz, you'll feel the spirit of the original story but it'll be re-invigorated and vital," said Lelio. On November 16, 2017, it was reported that the film had begun production. John Turturro, Michael Cera, Brad Garrett, Holland Taylor, and Caren Pistorius also joined the cast.


title: Gloria Bell

text: It had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 2018. Prior to that, A24 had acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film. It was released on March 8, 2019.


title: Gloria Bell

text: "Gloria Bell" grossed $5.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $10.6 million.


title: Gloria Bell

text: The film made $145,218 from five theaters in its opening weekend, the second best per-venue average ($29,044) of the weekend behind the blockbuster "Captain Marvel". In its third weekend, the film expanded to 654 theaters and made $1.7 million, finishing eighth.


title: Gloria Bell

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Free of visual or narrative embellishments, "Gloria Bell" rests almost completely on Julianne Moore's performance in the title role – and she's gloriously up to the task." Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Gloria Bell

text: Gwilym Mumford of "The Guardian" gave the film 4 stars out of 5, saying, "there's a warm universality here that is absorbing in its own right." Stephen Dalton of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "Although he reconstructs the original film's narrative virtually scene by scene, Lelio strikes a more overtly comic note in "Gloria Bell" than in the original." Peter Debruge of "Variety" called it "one of the great female-led films of the 21st century, passing the Bechdel test with flying colors — which explains why Moore would be so keen to remake it." Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" wrote: "a transcendent Julianne Moore," the director "is acutely sensitive to the absurdities of everyday life, including the comedy of humiliation, both petty and wounding."


title: Gloria Bell

text: In contrast, some film critics criticized the remake's existence. On "Mi Cine Tu Cine", a Mexican film review TV program, Alonso Díaz de la Vega called it "unnecessary", "burying the triumph of Paulina García and Sergio Hernández's performances" (the original version's protagonists) and "hiding the Latin American work" as a way in which Hollywood wants to tell how to get a notion of success; while Arantxa Luna and Jean-Christophe Berjon emphasized the change of actress, remarking Garcia's performance as "more fresh" and "more profound".


title: Pippa Haywood

text: Philippa Haywood (born 6 May 1961) is an English actress. She won the 2005 Rose d'Or Award for Best Female Comedy Performance for "Green Wing" (2004–2006). Her other television credits include "The Brittas Empire" (1991–1997), Chimera (1991) "Prisoners' Wives" (2012–2013) and "Scott & Bailey" (2012–2016). In 2018, she played the role of Lorraine Craddock in the BBC television series "Bodyguard". In 2019 she appeared in series 4 of the BBC Radio 4 Show "The Pin".


title: Pippa Haywood

text: Haywood was born in Hatfield, Hertfordshire. She attended Hatfield Girls’ Grammar School and trained at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School.


title: Pippa Haywood

text: Haywood has an extensive television career which includes portraying the much put-upon Helen Brittas in the BBC One comedy series "The Brittas Empire" (1991–1997), Mrs Kitchen in the CITV animated series "Budgie the Little Helicopter" (1994-1996), Julie Chadwick in the 2007 BBC Two comedy "Fear, Stress & Anger" and the hot-tempered, sex-mad human resources director Joanna Clore in "Green Wing" (2004–2006), for which she won the "best comedy female performance" award at the 2005 Rose d'Or television festival in Lucerne, Switzerland.


title: Pippa Haywood

text: Though Haywood is credited as "Philippa Haywood" in her earliest acting appearances, since the second episode of series 2 of "The Brittas Empire" in 1992 she has always been credited as "Pippa Haywood". She has also appeared in many dramatic roles, including Jenny Thorne in the 1988 ITV drama serial "The One Game", and Mrs. Upjohn in the 2008 "Agatha Christie's Poirot" episode "Cat Among the Pigeons". In 2002 Haywood was a guest star in the last episode of the first series of "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries".


title: Pippa Haywood

text: In 2007 she played the role of Veronica Gray in the first episode of the second series of "". She appeared in the 2008 ITV period drama series "Lost in Austen" as Amanda Price’s mother, Frankie. She also had a guest role in a 2009 episode of "Kingdom", and portrayed the disgraced Miss Bunting in several episodes of the first series of "Mr Selfridge" (2013). Since 2012 she has played one of the lead roles, Harriet, on the BBC One drama "Prisoners' Wives", and costarred as Detective Superintendent Julie Dodson on the ITV drama series "Scott & Bailey". In 2014 she appeared in the BBC TV adaptation of E.F. Benson's "Mapp and Lucia", as Susan Wyse.


title: Pippa Haywood

text: In 2015, Haywood took over the role of Helen Golightly in the long-running BBC Radio 4 comedy "Clare in the Community". The character was previously played by Liza Tarbuck. In December 2016 she starred in an episode of "Midsomer Murders", alongside Hugh Dennis.


title: Pippa Haywood

text: In 2017, Haywood appeared in the 2017 version of the British TV sitcom "Porridge" as Governor Littlewood.


title: Pippa Haywood

text: In 2018, Haywood appeared in "Bodyguard" as Chief Superintendent Lorraine Craddock and in "Agatha and the Truth of Murder". In that same year, she played gambling-addicted Reverend Grace in an episode of Agatha Raisin.


title: Pippa Haywood

text: In 2020 Haywood appeared in "Father Brown" in series eight, episode two - "The Queen Bee" - as a revenge filled murderer Eileen Slither. She also appeared in two episodes of "Feel Good" as the newly divorced mother Felicity.


title: Pippa Haywood

text: Haywood also appeared in the Netflix series "Bridgerton" as the Duke of Hastings' housekeeper, Mrs. Colson. She has performed on several audio dramas, including Doctor Who stories for Big Finish Productions, and the podcast "Forest 404" (2019) with Pearl Mackie.


title: Pippa Haywood

text: Haywood has also worked in film and theatre. Recent stage credits include: "House & Garden", "Private Lives", "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "The Winter's Tale", "Requiem" and "Landscape with Weapon" at the National Theatre. She played the lead role in "Wanderlust" at the Royal Court Jerwood Theatre Upstairs.


title: Christian prayer

text: Christian prayer is an important activity in Christianity, and there are several different forms used for this practice.


title: Christian prayer

text: Christian prayers are diverse: they can be completely spontaneous, or read entirely from a text, such as from a breviary, which contains the canonical hours that are said at fixed prayer times. While praying, certain gestures usually accompany the prayers, including folding one's hands, bowing one's head, kneeling (often in the kneeler of a pew in corporate worship or in the kneeler of a prie-dieu in private worship), and prostration.


title: Christian prayer

text: The most common prayer among Christians is the "Lord's Prayer", which according to the gospel accounts (e.g. ) is how Jesus taught his disciples to pray. The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in "Didache" 8, 2 f., which, in turn, was influenced by the Jewish practice of praying thrice daily found in the Old Testament, specifically in , which suggests "evening and morning and at noon", and , in which the prophet Daniel prays thrice a day. The early Christians thus came to recite the Lord's Prayer thrice a day at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm, supplanting the former Amidah predominant in the Hebrew tradition; as such, in Christianity, many Lutheran and Anglican churches ring their church bells from belltowers three times a day: in the morning, at noon and in the evening summoning the Christian faithful to recite the Lord’s Prayer.


title: Christian prayer

text: From the time of the early Church, the practice of seven fixed prayer times have been taught; in "Apostolic Tradition", Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray seven times a day "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion." Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as Copts and Indians, use a breviary such as the Agpeya and Shehimo to pray the canonical hours seven times a day at fixed prayer times while facing in the eastward direction, in anticipation of the Second Coming of Jesus; this Christian practice has its roots in , in which the prophet David prays to God seven times a day. Church bells enjoin Christians to pray at these hours. Before praying, they wash their hands and face in order to be clean before and present their best to God; shoes are removed in order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God. In these Christian denominations, and in many others as well, it is customary for women to wear a Christian headcovering when praying. Many Christians have historically hung a Christian cross on the eastern wall of their houses to indicate the eastward direction of prayer during these seven prayer times.


title: Christian prayer

text: There are two basic settings for Christian prayer: corporate (or public) and private. Corporate prayer includes prayer shared within the worship setting or other public places, especially on the Lord's Day on which many Christian assemble collectively. These prayers can be formal written prayers, such as the liturgies contained in the Lutheran Service Book and Book of Common Prayer, as well as informal ejaculatory prayers or extemporaneous prayers, such as those offered in Methodist camp meetings. Private prayer occurs with the individual praying either silently or aloud within the home setting; the use of a daily devotional and prayer book in the private prayer life of a Christian is common. In Western Christianity, the prie-dieu has been historically used for the purpose of private prayer and many Christian homes possess home altars in the area where these are placed. In Eastern Christianity, believers often keep icon corners at which they pray, which are on the eastern wall of the house. Among Old Ritualists, a prayer rug known as a Podruchnik is used to keep one's face and hands clean during prostrations, as these parts of the body are used to make the sign of the cross. Spontaneous prayer in Christianity, often done in private settings, follows the basic form of adoration, contrition, thanksgiving and supplication, abbreviated as A.C.T.S.


title: Christian prayer

text: Prayer in the New Testament is presented as a positive command (; ). The people of God are challenged to include prayer in their everyday life, even in the busy struggles of marriage () as it is thought to bring the faithful closer to God. Throughout the New Testament, prayer is shown to be God's appointed method by which the faithful obtain what he has to bestow (; ; ). Prayer, according to the Book of Acts, can be seen at the first moments of the church (). The apostles regarded prayer as an essential part of their lives (; ; ). As such, the apostles frequently incorporated verses from Psalms into their writings. for example is borrowed from and other psalms.


title: Christian prayer

text: Thus, due to this emphasis on prayer in the early church, lengthy passages of the New Testament are prayers or canticles (see also the Book of Odes), such as the Prayer for forgiveness (), the Lord's Prayer, the Magnificat (), the Benedictus (), Jesus' prayer to the one true God (), exclamations such as, "Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" (), the Believers' Prayer (), "may this cup be taken from me" (), "Pray that you will not fall into temptation" (), Saint Stephen's Prayer (), Simon Magus' Prayer (), "pray that we may be delivered from wicked and evil men" (), and Maranatha ().


title: Christian prayer

text: Christian prayer can be divided into different categories, varying by denomination and tradition. Over time, theologians have studied different types of prayer. For example, theologian Gilbert W. Stafford divided prayer into eight different types based on New Testament scripture. Interpretations of prayer in the New Testament and the Christian faith as a whole widely vary, leading to the practice of different types of prayer.


title: Christian prayer

text: From the time of the early Church, the practice of seven fixed prayer times have been taught; in "Apostolic Tradition", Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray seven times a day "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion."


title: Christian prayer

text: Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as Copts and Indians, as well as members of the Mar Thoma Syrian Church (an Oriental Protestant denomination), use a breviary such as the Agpeya and Shehimo to pray the canonical hours seven times a day at fixed prayer times while facing in the eastward direction, in anticipation of the Second Coming of Jesus; this Christian practice has its roots in , in which the prophet David is described as praying to God seven times a day. These Christians incorporate prostrations in their prayers, "prostrating three times in the name of the Trinity; at the end of each Psalm … while saying the ‘Alleluia’; and multiple times during the more than forty Kyrie eleisons" as with the Copts and thrice during the Qauma prayer, at the words "Crucified for us, Have mercy on us!", thrice during the recitation of the Nicene Creed at the words "And was incarnate of the Holy Spirit...", "And was crucified for us...", & "And on the third day rose again...", as well as thrice during the Prayer of the Cherubim while praying the words "Blessed is the glory of the Lord, from His place forever!" as with the Indians. Before praying, Oriental Christians wash their hands, face and feet out of respect for God; shoes are removed in order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God. In this Christian denomination, and in many others as well, it is customary for women to wear a Christian headcovering when praying.


title: Christian prayer

text: In the Lutheran Churches, the canonical hours are contained in breviaries such as The Brotherhood Prayer Book and , while in the Roman Catholic Church they are known as the Liturgy of the Hours. The Methodist tradition has emphasized the praying of the canonical hours as an "essential practice" in being a disciple of Jesus.


title: Christian prayer

text: The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's Prayer thrice daily was given in "Didache" 8, 2 f., which, in turn, was influenced by the Jewish practice of praying thrice daily found in the Old Testament, specifically in , which suggests "evening and morning and at noon", and , in which the prophet Daniel prays thrice a day. The early Christians came to pray the Lord's Prayer thrice a day at 9 am, 12 pm and 3 pm, supplanting the former Amidah predominant in the Hebrew tradition. As such, in Christianity, many Lutheran and Anglican churches ring their church bells from belltowers three times a day, summoning the Christian faithful to recite the Lord’s Prayer.


title: Christian prayer

text: The sign of the cross is a short prayer used daily by many Christians, especially those of the Catholic, Lutheran, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Methodist and Anglican traditions apart from its daily use in private prayer, it is widely used in corporate prayer by these Christian denominations. The Small Catechism, a catechism used in the Lutheran Churches, instructs believers "to make the sign of the cross at both the beginning and the end of the day as a beginning to daily prayers." It specifically instructs Christians: "When you get out of bed, bless yourself with the holy cross and say ‘In the name of God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Amen.’"


title: Christian prayer

text: Christians often pray to ask God to thank Him for and bless their food before consuming it at the time of eating meals, such as supper. These prayers vary per Christian denomination, e.g. the common table prayer is used by communicants of the Lutheran Churches and the Moravian Church.


title: Christian prayer

text: Many denominations use specific prayers geared to the season of the Christian Liturgical Year, such as Advent, Christmas, Lent and Easter. Some of these prayers are found in the Roman Breviary, the Liturgy of the Hours, the Orthodox Book of Needs, Evangelical Lutheran Worship, and the Anglican Book of Common Prayer.


title: Christian prayer

text: In the seasons of Advent and Lent, many Christians add the reading of a daily devotional to their prayer life; items that aid in prayer, such as an Advent wreath or Lenten calendar are unique to those seasons of the Church Year.


title: Christian prayer

text: The ancient church, in both Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, developed a tradition of asking for the intercession of (deceased) saints, and this remains the practice of most Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, as well as some Lutheran and Anglican churches. Most of the Reformed Churches however rejected this practice, largely on the basis of belief in the sole mediatorship of Christ.


title: Christian prayer

text: A broad, three stage characterization of prayer begins with vocal prayer, then moves on to a more structured form in terms of meditation, then reaches the multiple layers of contemplation, or intercession.


title: Christian prayer

text: Christian meditation is a structured attempt to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God. The word meditation comes from the Latin word "meditārī", which has a range of meanings including to reflect on, to study and to practice. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (such as a bible passage) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.


title: Christian prayer

text: Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.


title: Christian prayer

text: At times there may be no clear-cut boundary between Christian meditation and Christian contemplation, and they overlap. Meditation serves as a foundation on which the contemplative life stands, the practice by which someone begins the state of contemplation. In contemplative prayer, this activity is curtailed, so that contemplation has been described as "a gaze of faith", "a silent love".


title: Christian prayer

text: Meditation and contemplation on the life of Jesus in the New Testament are components of the rosary and are central to spiritual retreats and to the prayer that grows out of these retreats.


title: Christian prayer

text: This kind of prayer involves the believer taking the role of an intercessor, praying on behalf of another individual, group or community, or even a nation.


title: Christian prayer

text: Ejaculatory prayer is the use of very brief exclamations. Saint Augustine remarked that the Egyptian Christians who withdrew to a solitary life "are said to say frequent prayers, but very brief ones that are tossed off as in a rush, so that a vigilant and keen intention, which is very necessary for one who prays, may not fade away and grow dull over longer periods".


title: Christian prayer

text: Examples of such prayers are given in the old "Raccolta" under the numbers 19, 20, 38, 57, 59, 63, 77, 82, 83, 133, 154, 166, 181.


title: Christian prayer

text: Johnson's Dictionary defined "ejaculation" as "a short prayer darted out occasionally, without solemn retirement". Such pious ejaculations are part also of the liturgy of the Church of England.


title: Christian prayer

text: Listening prayer is a type of Christian prayer. As compared with the traditional Christian prayer, the listening prayer method demands "hearing and discerning God's voice through prayer and scripture; then obeying the Lord's direction in personal ministry."


title: Christian prayer

text: Traditional Christian prayer requested people to thank God, as well as tell God their own request. When their prayers seemed unanswered, some would feel that God did not hear them or did not respond to them. Listening prayer asks: "Was it that God did not respond to you, or was it that you did not hear from God"? Listening prayer requires those praying to calm their minds down and read the Scripture. During the reading, some sentences may pop into mind, as if in answer to their prayers but listening prayers are also of two types one is normally listening to church father and second is prayer with music nowadays prayer with music is considered as prayer music or prayer song.


title: Christian prayer

text: A Christian child's prayer is typically short, rhyming, or has a memorable tune. It is usually said before bedtime, to give thanks for a meal, or as a nursery rhyme. Many of these prayers are either quotes from the Bible, or set traditional texts.


title: Christian prayer

text: Prayer books as well as tools such as prayer beads such as chaplets are used by Christians. Images and icons are also associated with prayers in some Christian denominations.


title: Christian prayer

text: There is no one prayerbook containing a set liturgy used by all Christians; however many Christian denominations have their own local prayerbooks, for example:


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: Zuikaku (Japanese: 瑞鶴 "Auspicious Crane") was the second and last built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) shortly before the beginning of the Pacific War. Her aircraft took part in the attack on Pearl Harbor that formally brought the United States into the war, and she fought in several of the most important naval battles of the war, before being sunk during the Battle of Leyte Gulf.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: "Zuikaku" was one of six carriers to participate in the Pearl Harbor attack and was the last of the six to be sunk in the war (Akagi, Kaga, Hiryu and Sōryū in the Battle of Midway, "Shōkaku" in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and "Zuikaku" in the Battle of Leyte Gulf.)


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: In 1941, "Zuikaku", under the command of Captain Yokokawa Ichibei, and her sister ship comprised Carrier Division 5. On 26 November 1941, she left Hitokappu Bay for the attack on Pearl Harbor as part of the "Kido Butai" ("Mobile Force"). Her aircraft complement consisted of 18 Mitsubishi A6M fighters, 27 Aichi D3A dive bombers, and 27 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers. On 7 December, she launched two waves of aircraft against American military installations on the island of Oahu. In the first wave, 25 Val dive bombers attacked Wheeler Army Airfield and five Zero fighters attacked the airbase at Kaneohe. In the second wave, 27 high-level Kate bombers attacked the airbase at Hickam Field.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: "Zuikaku"s aircraft also attacked the Australian bases at Rabaul on 20 January 1942 and Lae in New Guinea on 21 January. In April 1942, she took part in the Indian Ocean raid, striking the British naval bases at Colombo and Trincomalee on Ceylon, and sinking the Royal Navy aircraft carrier and the heavy cruisers and , also with the help of "Shōkaku".


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: In May 1942, she was assigned along with "Shōkaku" to support Operation Mo, the invasion of Port Moresby, New Guinea. Alerted by intercepted and decrypted Japanese naval messages, the Americans dispatched the carriers and to stop this operation. On 8 May 1942, during the Battle of the Coral Sea, the main carrier forces located one another and launched maximum-effort raids, which passed each other in the air. Hidden by a rain squall, "Zuikaku" escaped detection, but "Shōkaku" was hit three times by bombs and was unable to launch or recover her aircraft. In return, torpedo and dive bombers from both ships hit "Lexington", which was later scuttled by torpedoes from an escorting destroyer. "Zuikaku" was undamaged in the battle, but sustained severe losses in aircraft and aircrew. This required her to return to Japan with her sister ship for resupply and aircrew training, and neither carrier was able to take part in the Battle of Midway in June 1942, where every carrier that participated in the Pearl Harbor attack besides the two "Shōkaku" class ships were sunk by American carrier based aircraft.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: In August 1942, commanded by Captain Tameteru Notomo, "Zuikaku" was dispatched as part of the First Carrier Division along with the repaired "Shōkaku" and the light carrier to oppose the American offensive in the Solomon Islands. On 24 August 1942, in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, her aircraft severely damaged the carrier . She was based at Truk for the next few months.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: On 26 October 1942, in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, her aircraft again damaged the repaired "Enterprise", and crippled ("Hornet" was abandoned after a failed scuttling attempt and later sunk by Japanese destroyers). However, "Shōkaku" and "Zuihō" were both severely damaged by American air attacks, and "Zuikaku" had to recover their surviving aircraft in addition to her own. Of the 110 aircraft launched by the three Japanese carriers, only 67 returned to "Zuikaku". She then returned to the home islands via Truk for training and aircraft ferrying duties.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: In February 1943, she covered the evacuation of Japanese ground forces from Guadalcanal. In May, she was assigned to a mission to counterattack the American offensive in the Aleutian Islands, but this operation was cancelled after the Allied victory on Attu on 29 May 1943. Later in 1943, under the command of Captain Kikuchi Tomozo, she was again based at Truk and operated against U.S. forces in the Marshall Islands.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: In 1944, she was based at Singapore. In June, she was assigned to Operation A-Go, an attempt to repulse the Allied invasion of the Mariana Islands. On 19 June, in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and "Shōkaku" were both sunk by American submarines, leaving "Zuikaku", the only survivor of Carrier Division One, to recover the Division's few remaining aircraft. On 20 June, a bomb hit started a fire in the hangar, but "Zuikaku"s experienced damage control teams managed to get it under control, and she was able to escape under her own power. After this battle, "Zuikaku" was the only survivor of the six fleet carriers that had launched the attack on Pearl Harbor.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: In October 1944, she was the flagship of Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa's decoy Northern Force in Operation Shō-Gō 1, the Japanese counterattack to the Allied landings on Leyte. On 24 October, as part of the depleted (just 108 aircraft across four carriers) Third Carrier Division, she launched aircraft along with the light carriers , , and in an ineffective strike against the U.S. Third Fleet. Several of these aircraft were shot down, and the majority of the surviving aircraft did not return to the carriers, instead landing at Japanese land bases on Luzon. However, some of her aircraft made "kamikaze" attacks and helped sink the light carrier ; and most of the others were sent to other surviving carriers and air bases, to later sink the escort carrier during the Battle off Samar after again using the new "kamikaze" tactics.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: The next day, during the Battle off Cape Engaño, she launched her few remaining aircraft for combat air patrol, search, or to join the aircraft already on Luzon. She then came under heavy air attack and was hit by seven torpedoes and nine bombs. With "Zuikaku" listing heavily to port, Ozawa shifted his flag to the light cruiser . The order to abandon ship was issued at 13:58 and the naval ensign was lowered. "Zuikaku" rolled over and sank stern-first at 14:14, taking the lives of Rear Admiral (promoted from captain 10 days earlier) Kaizuka Takeo and 842 of the ship's crew; 862 officers and men were rescued by the destroyers and . Before her loss, "Zuikaku" was the last surviving Japanese carrier to have attacked Pearl Harbor. She was also the only Japanese fleet carrier (as opposed to a light carrier) to have been sunk by aircraft-launched torpedoes, as all others were sunk by dive bombers or submarine-launched torpedoes.


title: Souplantation

text: Sweet Tomatoes, operating as Souplantation in southern California, was a United States–based chain of all-you-can-eat buffet-style restaurants. The first location opened in 1978 in San Diego, California, where the company was headquartered. The company was incorporated as Garden Fresh Corp. in 1983. The company went public in 1995 but was taken private in 2004. The company, owned by Garden Fresh Restaurant Corporation, temporarily closed its 97 locations in March 2020 in response to government mandates related to the COVID-19 pandemic. On May 7, 2020, the closure was made permanent and the company filed for liquidation.


title: Souplantation

text: The first Souplantation restaurant opened on Mission Gorge Road in San Diego, in 1978. It was the idea of Dennis Jay, who was a bartender at Springfield Wagon Works, a pioneer in salad bars in El Cajon. Dennis's friends, John Turnbull and Scott King were opening their first Soup and Salad restaurant The Soup Exchange. Dennis was impressed with the new concept and introduced Steve Hohe, the Springfield Restaurant manager and Ron Demery, a bail bondsman and friend of John and Scott. Dennis, Steve and Ron decided to partner to create a parallel concept, the Souplantation. The two concepts grew side by side in a friendly, mutually supportive, yet competitive environment for several years. This restaurant and a second one in Point Loma were purchased in 1983 by Garden Fresh Restaurant Corp, founded by Michael Mack to operate the chain.


title: Souplantation

text: The company expanded across the American West and Southwest, and also opened locations in several Southeast states, including 23 restaurants in Florida. All of the restaurants were company-owned.


title: Souplantation

text: In 2005, an affiliate of the private investment firm Sun Capital Partners purchased Garden Fresh and with it the restaurant chains. In 2007, a Souplantation restaurant in Orange County, California was linked to an outbreak of "E. coli." The restaurant closed temporarily while authorities investigated the outbreak.


title: Souplantation

text: In October 2016, Garden Fresh Restaurant Corp, the owner/operator of Souplantation and Sweet Tomatoes, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. At the time Garden Fresh was nearly $175 million in debt. In January 2017, the company said it expected to emerge from bankruptcy later that month, following a sale of the company's assets to New York-based private investment firm Cerberus Capital Management L.P. and its partners. Garden Fresh anticipated it would wind up with "between 90 and 104 restaurants" and "significantly less debt". In 2017, Garden Fresh and its restaurant chains were purchased by the New York private investment firm Cerberus Capital Management.


title: Souplantation

text: In March 2020, all of the restaurants closed due to state and local government mandated shutdowns as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic. On May 7, 2020, the company announced it would be closing all Souplantation and Sweet Tomatoes locations permanently amid concerns that new federal guidelines recommending an end to self-serve stations would prevent local health departments from granting permits to restaurants with salad bars and buffets.


title: Souplantation

text: Garden Fresh Restaurants, the parent company to both Souplantation and Sweet Tomatoes, filed for Chapter 7 liquidation with the U.S. Bankruptcy Court the following week on May 14. At the time of the announcement, the company had 4,400 employees and 97 restaurants.


title: Souplantation

text: In May 2022, a Souplantation restaurant not formally associated with the former company was announced. The location was set to open in La Mesa, California in mid-2022, but in July was delayed without a current opening date, and there are conflicting reports on whether the new restaurant will include recipes owned by the original company.


title: Souplantation

text: Souplantation and Sweet Tomatoes restaurants specialized in fresh salads and soups, offering a large salad bar with ingredients to build your own plate of salad, homestyle soup options, and pasta, as well as bread, muffins, cornbread, and pizza, baked on the premises.


title: Souplantation

text: The salad bar offered a wide variety of vegetables, fruits, nuts, seeds, croutons, and other salad condiments, as well as a few prepared featured salads, which changed monthly. Other sections included up to eight soup selections, a small bakery offering muffins, cornbread, pizza Foccacia, and baked potatoes, a pasta section with a few different plates of pasta and sauces, and a dessert section offering fruit, puddings, and soft-serve ice cream. Featured menu items were rotated monthly often along a theme. Themes, named according to the type of food being served, included Asian, Greek, Italian, and Customer Favorites.


title: Souplantation

text: The company's home city of San Diego often served as a test market for new ideas and innovations, and was home to Souplantation's corporate offices. For example, some Souplantation and Sweet Tomatoes locations were open on Sunday mornings for breakfast. In 2011, the company launched its first quick-serve restaurant, called Souplantation Express, in Carlsbad, California.


title: Displacement (ship)

text: The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is its weight. As the term indicates, it is measured indirectly, using Archimedes' principle, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, then converting that value into weight. Traditionally, various measurement rules have been in use, giving various measures in long tons. Today, tonnes are more commonly used.


title: Displacement (ship)

text: Ship displacement varies by a vessel's degree of load, from its empty weight as designed (known as "lightweight tonnage") to its maximum load. Numerous specific terms are used to describe varying levels of load and trim, detailed below.


title: Displacement (ship)

text: Ship displacement should not be confused with measurements of volume or capacity typically used for commercial vessels and measured by tonnage: net tonnage and gross tonnage.


title: Displacement (ship)

text: The process of determining a vessel's displacement begins with measuring its draft. This is accomplished by means of its "draft marks" (or "load lines"). A merchant vessel has three matching sets: one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ship's displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0.5%.


title: Displacement (ship)

text: The draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ship's hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced.


title: Displacement (ship)

text: To calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater (1,025 kg/m) is more dense than fresh water (1,000 kg/m); so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water also varies with temperature.


title: Displacement (ship)

text: Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations. Presently, it is done with computers.


title: Next in Fashion

text: Next in Fashion (NIF) is a Netflix reality show and fashion design competition series hosted by two designers, Tan France and Alexa Chung. It follows designers from around the world as they compete for the chance to win $250,000 and debut a collection on luxury fashion retailer site Net-a-Porter.


title: Next in Fashion

text: In June 2020, Netflix announced it was cancelling the series after one season. Nevertheless, it was announced on the series’s Instagram that the show would have a second season that would feature Tan France and Gigi Hadid.


title: Next in Fashion

text: The show was announced in May 2019, with co-hosts Alexa Chung and Tan France attached, as well as stylist Elizabeth Stewart and Instagram's Eva Chen as judges. Filming wrapped in May 2019.


title: Next in Fashion

text: The series was created and produced by theoldschool and executive produced by Robin Ashbrook and Yasmin Shackleton with co-executive producer Adam Cooper.


title: Next in Fashion

text: According to an interview with PinkNews, Chung and France met at a Victoria Beckham party during London Fashion Week. France had already signed onto "Next in Fashion" and mentioned the role to Chung, who was "too drunk to realise" at the time.


title: Next in Fashion

text: In a statement to "Variety", Netflix's vice president of unscripted originals and comedy specials Brandon Riegg explained why it made sense for the company to venture into the fashion competition series category:Fashion is something that is really appealing and relatable, and so it made sense for us to get into that space considering our viewers around the world ... It is also an opportunity to gauge the fashion enthusiasm of fans and showcase some amazing talent and stories [from designers], the struggles and the victories, and help them elevate their own brand to the next level through the show.Riegg also discussed the importance of the show's global casting:“One of the core tenets of our approach to programming is having diversity, and diversity comes in lots of different forms; obviously we are a global platform ... But really it came to finding great characters with great story, and who are credible in the fashion space. And that was a big driver in terms of the casting. It just happened that we looked everywhere in looking for those qualities in the contestants and it allowed us to have more of a global group of contestants for this series in particular.”


title: Next in Fashion

text: The contestants are shown in a modern warehouse space that serves as both the workroom, and on show days, a runway space complete with area for hair and makeup stations. A fully-stocked fabrics and notions “closet” is adapted for each challenge, and producers will get any item that is needed outside of the supplies provided.


title: Next in Fashion

text: Alexa Chung and Tan France serve as both hosts and judges; with two or three more judges for each challenge. Each episode has them introducing the theme, and revealing the guest judge. The designers then each occupy a large work table, and pull fabrics and supplies. The bulk of the pre-runway show overviews their designing and construction process, typically over two work days.


title: Next in Fashion

text: The runway contest itself has a catwalk, and fully digitized floors and walls so each show has a different feel yet comes off as a professional presentation. During the show the judges comments are overheard; following the catwalk show the judges visit each entry, inspect the work, and ask questions of the designer. Following the judges deliberations the winner, and bottom two entries are revealed. After more discussion one or more designers are eliminated.


title: Chain letter

text: A chain letter is a message that attempts to convince the recipient to make a number of copies and pass them on to a certain number of recipients. The "chain" is an exponentially growing pyramid (a tree graph) that cannot be sustained indefinitely.


title: Chain letter

text: Common methods used in chain letters include emotionally manipulative stories, get-rich-quick pyramid schemes, and the exploitation of superstition to threaten the recipient. Originally, chain letters were letters sent by mail; today, chain letters are often sent electronically via email, social network sites, and text messages.


title: Chain letter

text: In the United States, chain letters that request money or other items of value and promise a substantial return to the participants (such as the infamous Make Money Fast scheme) are illegal.


title: Chain letter

text: Some colleges and military bases have passed regulations stating that in the private mail of college students and military personnel, respectively, chain letters are not authorized and will be thrown out. However, it is often difficult to distinguish chain letters from genuine correspondence.


title: Chain letter

text: The oldest known channel for chain letters is written, or printed, on letters on paper. These might be exchanged hand-to-hand or distributed through the mail. One notorious early example was the "Prosperity Club" or "Send-a-Dime" letter. This letter started in Denver, Colorado in 1935, based on an earlier luck letter. It soon swamped the Denver post office with hundreds of thousands of letters before spilling into St. Louis and other cities.


title: Chain letter

text: Chain letters take religious perspectives to the extremes, especially when relating to Christianity. Often these letters originate from photocopy centers, claiming to have originated from the Pope, with the intent of persuading people to make copies of such letters. The content usually gives one or two examples of people, sometimes public figures, who obeyed and were rewarded and of others who disobeyed and suffered heavily, which may even include cases of deaths and of someone becoming a millionaire overnight. These types of letters will flourish for some days and will die out naturally, partly based on the economic realities of recipients, and possibly because they may also reason that if that was truly the original letter, then it cannot contain cases of people who had broken or continued the chain.


title: Chain letter

text: Some email messages sent as chain letters may seem fairly harmless; for example, a grammar school student wishing to see how many people can receive his/her email for a science project, but they can grow exponentially and be hard to stop. Infamously, the salacious Claire Swire email spread in a chain-like fashion when its recipient sought to learn Swire's identity.


title: Chain letter

text: Messages sometimes include phony promises from companies or wealthy individuals (such as Bill Gates) promising a monetary reward to everyone who receives the message. They may also be politically motivated, such as "Save the Scouts, forward this to as many friends as possible" or a warning that a popular TV or radio show may be forced off the air. Some, like the "Hawaiian Good Luck Totem", which has spread in thousands of forms, threaten users with bad luck if not forwarded.


title: Chain letter

text: There are many forms of chain email that threaten death or the taking of one's soul by telling tales of others' deaths, such as the Katu Lata Kulu chain email, stating that if it is not forwarded, the receivers of the message will be killed by a spirit.


title: Chain letter

text: Platforms like Facebook and YouTube can host chain letters playing with users' emotions. They may also be in the form of warnings, such as stories of escaped convicts, which urge the reader to pass the message on. One chain letter distributed on MSN Hotmail began, "Hey it's Tara and John the directors of MSN"... and subsequently claimed readers' accounts would be deleted if they did not pass on the message.


title: Chain letter

text: Chain letters within social media platforms became widespread on Myspace (in the form of Myspace bulletins) and YouTube (in the form of video comments) as well as on Facebook through messages or applications. For instance, the chain post/email of Carmen Winstead, supposedly about a girl from Indiana who was pushed down a sewage drain in a firedrill, states that, "if you do not repost/send this to 10 people, Carmen will find you and kill you." Chain letters are often coupled with intimidating hoaxes or the promise of providing the sender with "secret" information once they have forwarded the message.


title: Chain letter

text: A chain letter may qualify as a fraudulent activity, as in the case of a pyramid scheme, which asks recipients to funnel money up the chain while requesting the letter be distributed to multiple new recipients.


title: Chain letter

text: The legality of chain letters comes into question when they attempt to funnel monetary value to a single recipient. When a chain letter suggests a game of chance or a lottery with an opportunity for financial gain, it is considered fraudulent under Title 18, United States Code, Section 1302, the Postal Lottery Statute. Chain letters that ask for items of minor value, such as business cards or recipes, are not covered by this law.


title: Chain letter

text: If pyramid scheme chain letters are sent through email, it may constitute wire fraud. An email chain letter may contain trojans or another type of computer virus that is covered under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) [18 U.S.C. Section 1030]. This law makes it illegal to distribute computer codes or place them in the stream of commerce if their intent is to cause damage or economic loss.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Lieke Elisabeth Petronella Martens (; born 16 December 1992) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a winger or midfielder for Division 1 Féminine club Paris Saint-Germain and the Netherlands national team.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Martens began her professional career playing for Dutch, German and Belgian clubs relatively close to her hometown of Bergen, Limburg. In 2015, Martens broke out on the international stage when she scored the Netherlands’ first ever goal in a Women's World Cup against New Zealand. In 2016, Martens’ performances at Swedish club FC Rosengård attracted the attention of FC Barcelona, who signed her the following year. Weeks after her signing at FC Barcelona was made official, Martens participated in the Netherlands' 2017 UEFA Women's Euro campaign. She was the Netherlands' standout player at that year's Euro, where the Dutch won their first ever major international title with the women's national team. She was chosen as Player of the Tournament, and later in 2017, she was voted as The Best FIFA Women's Player as well as the UEFA Women's Player of the Year.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Her successes that year skyrocketed her to international fame, as she emerged as one of the biggest names in women's football and one of the most famous female athletes in the world. In 2018, "Forbes" ranked her Number 22 in their "Most Powerful Women in International Sports" list. In the 2018–19 season, Martens helped FC Barcelona to their first ever UEFA Women's Champions League final, where she assisted their only goal in a 4–1 defeat to Olympique Lyonnais. Months later, she played in the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup, where she fought through a toe injury for most of the tournament. The Dutch reached the final and were defeated by the United States.


title: Lieke Martens

text: In 2021, Martens was an essential part of FC Barcelona Femení completing their first continental treble, winning the UEFA Women's Champions League, the Primera Division, and the Copa de la Reina all in the same season.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Lieke Elisabeth Petronella Martens was born on 16 December 1992, in Bergen in the north of the Dutch province of Limburg. She recalls playing football in her garden throughout her childhood with two of her brothers, Jelle and Sjoerd.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Martens began playing football at five years old at local club . At thirteen, she went to Boxmeer club at the insistence of then national-team coach Vera Pauw, where she played with teams of boys. She then went to the Hogeschool van Amsterdam between the years of 2008–2009 before leaving to SC Heerenveen.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Martens made the step to the Vrouwen Eredivisie at sixteen, first representing SC Heerenveen. She scored twice in eighteen appearances for the club.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Martens continued playing football in the Netherlands when she joined the newly-formed VVV-Venlo women's team, based in her hometown province of Limburg. Martens scored the club's first ever goal in the Vrouwen Eredivisie, a penalty against her former club SC Heerenveen. She played 20 matches for the club and scored nine times.


title: Lieke Martens

text: In 2011, Martens made the move from the Vrouwen Eredivisie to the Belgian First Division, where she played for Standard Liège. In her first official match with Standard she scored two goals to help win her first major title, the newly founded BeNe Super Cup. She also won the 2011–12 league title with the club in the Belgian Women's First Division, now known as the Belgian Women's Super League.


title: Lieke Martens

text: She made her UEFA Women's Champions League debut with Standard, scoring once in their Round of 32 tie against Brøndby IF. Her first Champions League goal came in the second leg, where she converted a penalty to bring Standard 4–3 up, but they lost the tie on a 5–4 aggregate score.


title: Lieke Martens

text: After spending a year playing for Standard Liège, she made the move to German Bundesliga club FCR 2001 Duisburg. Duisburg sporting director Claudio Marcone said her decision was influenced by Duisburg's close proximity to Limburg. Martens’ transfer was delayed due to a paperwork mixup within the German Football Association, so she was not allowed to play for Duisburg until July 2012, despite the transfer being made official in March 2012.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Martens made the move to the Swedish Damallsvenskan when she signed for Kopparbergs/Göteborg FC ahead of the 2014 Damallsvenskan season. Martens made her debut against Vittsjö GIK. Coach Stefan Rehn praised Martens' technique and her understanding with compatriot centre forward Manon Melis.


title: Lieke Martens

text: In November 2015, it was announced that Martens had left Göteborg, transferring to Damallsvenskan champions FC Rosengård on a one-year contract.


title: Lieke Martens

text: In the 2016–17 UEFA Women's Champions League, she was knocked out of the competition by her future club FC Barcelona in the quarterfinals on a 3–0 aggregate score. In the semifinal of the 2016 Svenska Cupen, she scored the game-winning goal against Piteå IF to make it to the cup final. Martens scored in the final, where Rosengård won the match 3–1. Martens also won the 2016 Svenska Supercupen with the club, as well as finishing the 2016 Damallsvenskan in second place.


title: Lieke Martens

text: Martens departed Rosengård in July 2017. Upon her departure from the club, she was tied as the league's third-highest scorer in that season's competition with eight goals in 11 appearances.


title: Lieke Martens

text: In July 2017, Martens signed for FC Barcelona for an undisclosed fee on a three-year-long contract. She made her debut for the club as a substitute in a 9–0 win against Zaragoza CCF. She scored her first goal in a 10–0 win over Santa Teresa. Barcelona finished the league that season in second place, one point behind rivals Atlético Madrid. Martens had eight assists and 11 goals in the league that year, and was Barcelona's second-highest goalscorer behind Andressa Alves.


title: Lieke Martens

text: In the semifinals of the 2018 Copa de la Reina, Martens scored what was nearly Barcelona's game-winning goal against Athletic Bilbao until Lucía García scored the equalizer less than a minute later. The match went to penalties where Barcelona went through to the final against Atlético Madrid. Martens played all 120 minutes of the final that went to extra time, which Barcelona won through a Mariona Caldentey goal in the 122nd minute. The 2018 Copa de la Reina was her first major title with the club.