title: AMC AMX

text: In 1969, American Motors showed the next generation AMX/2 concept car in the automobile show circuit. As the two-seater AMX production ceased in 1970, AMC was developing a sophisticated European-engineered alternative, the AMX/3 for 1971 introduction. However, overall economic conditions changed with spiraling inflation pushing sales of smaller cars along with the insurance companies' decision to penalize high-powered automobiles resulting in decreasing the sports-type car market segment, and the AMX was made into a high-performance model of the 4-seat Javelin starting in 1971.


title: AMC AMX

text: A total of 24 right hand drive 1969 model year AMXs were hand assembled under license in Australia by Australian Motor Industries (AMI) between August, 1969, and July, 1970. They used the name Rambler AMX as AMI produced the Rambler range of cars since October 1960. Complete knock down (CKD) kits were shipped from Kenosha, Wisconsin to AMI's facilities at Port Melbourne in Victoria.


title: AMC AMX

text: Differences to the RHD Australian AMXs (compared to the U.S. models) included different outside rear-view mirrors, and black vinyl trim inside the "AMX" circle logo on the C-pillars, As with Rambler sedans built in right-hand drive, windscreen wipers were not reversed, remaining LHD pattern, but the power brake booster and heater on the firewall were swapped over. Although the power steering pump remained in its usual left location, the remainder of the steering components were on the right side of the car. The cars came with and automatic transmission, power steering, power disk brakes, "twin-grip" rear axle, and other items that were optional on the U.S. models. All of the Australian AMX interiors were finished in black and featured unique seats, door panels, and a fiberglass RHD dashboard with a wood-grained instrument cluster in front of the driver. The Australian AMXs came with a large high level of equipment and were promoted as "personal super cars".


title: AMC AMX

text: A concept car with a folding exposed rear seat was introduced by AMC at the 1966 Society of Automotive Engineers convention in Detroit. This was the first "AMX" (American Motors Experimental) named car. The sports car design features a rumble seat for two additional passengers that was described as a "Ramble Seat" in homage to the automaker's predecessor Rambler models. This back seat folds into the trunk space and the rear window flips down, but these are not fully weatherproofed designs. The roof design also has no "A" pillars providing for greater visibility. The fiberglass-bodied "pushmobile" concept has no interior, engine, drivetrain, or suspension. It was widely covered by the automotive media and appeared on several auto magazine covers. It was painted in orange or a metallic blue to be shown on the auto show circuit. It received positive reviews that convinced management to put the car into production.


title: AMC AMX

text: A fiberglass-bodied AMX I concept car was made in 1966 to be part of AMC's "Project IV" exhibit. Built by Smith Inland of Ionia, Michigan, one of the two fiberglass-bodied concept cars was reportedly destroyed in a crash test convincing AMC's engineers and designers to use a traditional steel body. The remaining domestic-built fiberglass prototype features round headlamps.


title: AMC AMX

text: American Motors' president Roy Abernethy sanctioned the Turin coachbuilder Vignale to construct an operational car in steel. It was hand-built show car using a modified 1966 Rambler American chassis on a wheelbase powered by a V8 engine. Delivered in 78 days and known as the "AMX Vignale", it was first displayed at the 1966 New York International Auto Show. The Vignale car features a "split-vee" windshield, a cantilever-type roof that incorporates a built-in concealed roll bar, rectangular European-type headlamps, and a custom interior with full bucket seats flanking an aircraft-type console. The fully functional "Ramble-seat" was operated by a push-button from inside the car.


title: AMC AMX

text: Vince Gardner, an outside consultant, designed the fiberglass-bodied AMX II, a less radical two-door for the "Project IV" exhibit. This four-passenger hardtop (no B-pillar) notchback coupe had little in common with the AMX I. This car featured a longer wheelbase and an overall length of . The windshield wiper blades were concealed by a panel that raises when wipers are activated and the grille that was surrounded by a massive bumper had horizontal multi-bars with hidden headlamps. Safety innovations included doors that locked automatically when the engine is started, reflectors on the sides of the rear fenders, rear tail lamps that signaled the driver's intentions: green when the car is in motion, amber when the driver removes foot from the accelerator, and red when braking.


title: AMC AMX

text: Developed for the 1968 auto show circuit, the AMX GT is a concept car based on a shortened and "chopped" Javelin with a Kammback rear end. The AMX GT show car provided several design clues to future production models and performance options.


title: AMC AMX

text: In the late-1960s, George Barris made bolt-on customizing kits for the AMX that were marketed through AMC dealers. Changing customer preferences meant that traditional car customization was being replaced by quick bolt-on accessory personalization. Barris joined this trend by offering a variety of spoiler, body additions, and wheel options. American Motors requested Barris to offer enhancements for the Javelins and the AMX. Available through AMC dealers as complete kits or as separate items. The total package included a performance hood, rear spoiler, grille, racing side mirrors, and special wheels.


title: AMC AMX

text: Barris also performed a radical custom treatment on a 1969 AMX. The car was built for the second "Banacek" TV season episode. It was a true custom for that time and working with Joe Bailon, the car was lowered and its body was heavily modified. Its roof was cut down almost and the car was lengthened by . Featuring a sculpted body with louvered accents, it became known as the AMX-400. The car featured a taillight system that glowed green during acceleration, amber during deceleration, and red during braking.


title: AMC AMX

text: A third-generation AMX concept car, the AMX/3, debuted at the February 1970 Chicago Auto Show. Engine-less and fashioned in fiberglass, the original AMX/3 prototype was a "push-mobile" show car only. The functional steel prototype introduced in Rome of March 1970 were constructed by Giotto Bizzarrini, Salvatore Diomante and Giorgetto Giugiaro of Italdesign.


title: AMC AMX

text: American Motors placed an order for 30 operational cars. The AMX/3 body mold was sent to Italian grand tourer maker Giotto Bizzarrini, whose Turin facility hand made driveable mid-engined, steel bodied cars. Built on a wheelbase, the Bizzarrini prototypes used the AMC V8 and an Italian OTO Melara four-speed transaxle. The AMX/3 is considered one of Bizzarrini's car-masterpieces.


title: AMC AMX

text: The steel Italian cars differed from the original AMC design in having fewer but functional rear decklid louvers, louvered hoods, and, in some cases, hood scoops to direct fresh air into the heating-A/C system. Further engineering improvements and road testing was done by BMW, which declared the AMX/3's chassis one of the stiffest having a 50% higher stiffness compared to a benchmark Mercedes-Benz model. The car's steel semi-monocoque chassis design with its welded on steel body provided a strong overall structure while the top speed was verified to , with reports indicating the AMX/3 could go faster if it was not for the tendency for the front end to lift at those speeds, but BMW found the car to be most neutral handling they had ever tested. The BMW engineers also refined numerous components of the AMX/3 into "a world-class contender among the mid-engined super car elite of its time." One of the cars became known as the "Monza" after it achieved a top speed of in testing at the famed Italian race track."


title: AMC AMX

text: Five completed cars were produced before the US$2,000,000 development program was canceled. The original projection by AMC called for building 5,000 AMX/3s per year, but the estimated retail price kept increasing. The AMX/3 was "beautiful and sleek, the kind of car that would have made hearts race in the day" and was to be a "flagship or halo car" to lure customers to AMC dealerships, "where they would often end up with other, more practical models." However, escalating costs and pending bumper regulations put a stop to the mid-engined AMX/3.


title: AMC AMX

text: Some remaining parts from the canceled, second group of five cars were used by erstwhile Bizzarrini collaborator Salvatore Diomante to assemble the sixth car, named and marketed as Sciabola. Additionally, an open two-seat Spider featuring no weather protection was built in the 1990s using an unfinished AMX/3 modified chassis and the 7th AMX/3, on display at the Autoworld Museum in Belgium, were both finished by Giorgio Giordanengo.


title: AMC AMX

text: Sales of the two-seat AMX were not up to the numbers that American Motors management wanted, but AMC's vice president for styling, Dick Teague, wanted to continue the sports model. American Motors' Advanced Design Studio made design proposals for a 1971 AMX and Teague requestedand received permissionto produce a fully working concept car.


title: AMC AMX

text: Starting with a Frost White 1968 AMX coupe as the development mule, Teague updated its front end to the grille and swooping front fenders of what was incorporated into the production 1971 Javelin. The concept car also featured the interior to what was to become AMC's characteristic high-backed bucket seats and corduroy upholstery introduced in 1970. The concept car was repainted light metallic blue with red striping to match the interior. A short-wheelbase, two-seat 1971 AMX was not approved for production by the automaker, but Teague used this car as his daily driver.


title: AMC AMX

text: Automotive historian and author, Richard M. Langworth noted that the AMX has "all the right sports-car stuff" and that the "little machine that can only go up in value over the long haul."


title: AMC AMX

text: In 2004, there was considerable variation between the values of two-seat AMXs and four-seat Javelin AMXs. Craig Fitzgerald mentioned "the satisfaction in owning a car that you don't see every single day, or on the cover of every single magazine," and favored the two-seater, on the grounds of its rarity; but he noted that parts for either car were extremely expensive.


title: AMC AMX

text: In 2006, the editors of "Hemmings Muscle Machines" magazine said that AMCs had "experienced notable value increases over the last few yearsespecially AMXs..." The book "Keith Martin's Guide to Car Collecting", in collaboration with the editors of the monthly "Sports Car Market", lists the 1970 AMX as one of the picks under $40,000 among "Nine Muscle Car Sleepers".


title: AMC AMX

text: Unique versions, such as the California 500 Specials and the 52 Hurst-modified SS/AMX drag race cars are perhaps the most highly sought after by collectors. In 2006, a California 500 AMX sold for $54,000 at the Barrett-Jackson auction in Scottsdale, Arizona, while a regular AMX went for over $55,000 at the Mecum collector auction in Belvidere, Illinois. In 2007, "Hemmings" wrote that only about 39 of the original SS/AMX turn-key race cars may have survived.


title: AMC AMX

text: By 2007, the AMX was "among the most highly sought AMC cars" and "really taking off in the muscle-car market". Also in 2007, "Hemmings" said that the two-seater AMX had "a strong following among old car hobbyists and collectors of historic vehicles and nearly every one of the 19,134 built...remains in circulation and in demand, ensuring a good future for the first-generation AMX as a collectible muscle car." The 2007 book "Classic Cars" states that AMC's small and powerful AMX "had tire-burning speed" and "all have become collector's items."


title: AMC AMX

text: Noting the increasing values of the 1968–1970 AMXs, "Hemmings" listed them among the "21 hottest cars" that enthusiasts wanted in 2007 "and will want tomorrow."


title: AMC AMX

text: In 2008, "Hemmings" said that buyers had "only recently 'discovered' the AMX; they're now snapping them up left and right. Prices ... are on the rise, though they still represent a relative bargain compared to many more common muscle machines."


title: AMC AMX

text: In 2010, "Hemmings Classic Car" included the two-seat AMXs in their list of 32 best cars to restore in terms of economic sense after factoring purchase price, parts availability, as well as restored value and desirability.


title: AMC AMX

text: Although low in production, the AMX shared parts and components with other AMC models. There are many active AMC car clubs for these cars. Parts, including reproduction components, are available. However, "AMC did not build cars in the vast numbers the Big Three did back in the day; therefore, there are fewer to restore and not as many parts to go around." As of 2010, "Hemmings Classic Car" wrote that the AMXs are "pretty basic" so they are not hard to restore, and that "reproduction parts are available" and continues to grow with many mechanical parts interchanging with other cars.


title: AMC AMX

text: More valuable according to automotive historian and author, James C. Mays, is the "wow factor". His book, "The Savvy Guide to Buying Collector Cars at Auction", explains this important and measurable pleasure to an owner, whether their car is driven or sits in a climate-controlled garage, such as a red 1969 AMX that attracts more attention than the more prestigious Ferraris and Lamborghinis.


title: AMC AMX

text: The 100th issue of "Hemmings Classic Car" listed the "Top 100 American collector cars ever made" as selected by the editors of "Hemmings Motor News" on the basis of "the most popular models among both enthusiasts and collectors" and included the 1968–1969 AMXs for both rarity and high interest, as well as "they boast sporting lines, traditional long-hood/short-deck proportions, and a smattering of performance options to add spice."


title: AMC AMX

text: "Old Cars Weekly" describes the AMX as an "appealing little package for adrenaline junkies and guys ... who have an appetite for something a little offbeat and different ... a car that famed automotive scribe Tom McCahill once described as 'harrier than a Borneo gorilla.'"


title: AMC AMX

text: Automotive journalist Patric George noted the AMC AMX is "great vintage American iron" and with only "two seats, making it more of a sports car than a lot of other muscle cars."


title: AMC AMX

text: A variety of scale models of the AMX are available including promotional 1/25-scale model manufactured under license from AMC by Jo-Han in factory colors. Hot Wheels offered a 1969 AMX custom in , and in 1971 issued the AMX/2 show car model. Newer models in were issued, including the Playboy Pink version in the "Best of the Best" series, as well as the modified "Drag-On Lady" race car. According to the editors of "Die Cast X Magazine", "muscle cars are the largest, most popular category in die-cast" collectors, and they included the AMC AMX among the 34 models that represent "the best and most important from the genre ... performance and style that are the hallmarks of the high point of American automotive history."


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: Highways in the United States are split into at least four different types of systems: Interstate Highways, U.S. Highways, state highways, and county highways. Highways are generally organized by a route number or letter. These designations are generally displayed along the route by means of a highway shield. Each system has its own unique shield design that will allow quick identification to which system the route belongs.


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: In 1918, Wisconsin became the first state to number its highways in the field followed by Michigan the following year. In 1926 the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) established and numbered interstate routes (United States Numbered Highways), selecting the best roads in each state that could be connected to provide a national network of federal highways.


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: The Interstate Highway System is a federally funded and administered but state-maintained system of freeways that forms the transportation backbone of the United States, with millions of Americans relying on it for commutes, long-distance travel, and freight transport daily, among other things. Interstate highways are all constructed to precise standards, designed to maximize high-speed travel safety and efficiency. Interstate Highways also contain auxiliary routes, which are normally assigned a three-digit route number. All Interstate Highways are part of the National Highway System, a network of highways deemed essential to the defense, economy, and mobility of the country.


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: The United States Numbered Highway System is an older system consisting mostly of surface-level trunk roads, coordinated by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and maintained by state and local governments. U.S. Highways have been relegated to regional and intrastate traffic, as they have been largely supplanted by the Interstate system for long-distance travel except in areas (especially in the west) where the Interstate system is absent or underdeveloped. This has led to the decommissioning and truncation of U.S. Highways that were formerly vital long-haul routes, such as U.S. Route 21 and U.S. Route 66.


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: Each state also has a state highway system. State highways are of varying standards, capacity, and quality. Some state highways become so heavily traveled they are built to Interstate Highway standards. Others are more lightly traveled and have low capacity.


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: Many state highway markers are designed to suggest the geographic shape of the state or some other state symbol such as its flag. Most of the others are generically rectangular or some other neutral shape. The default design for state highway markers is the circular highway shield, which is how state highways are indicated on most maps and atlases. Currently, five states—Delaware, Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi, and New Jersey—use the circular shield for road signage on their state highways.


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: There are also numbered highways in the District of Columbia and territories. Likewise, they may also vary in standards and quality.


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: Some states may include a secondary highway system to supplement the main one, usually for a specific purpose. For example, Texas established a system of farm-to-market roads to specifically improve access to rural areas. Nebraska has Connecting Link, Spur, and Recreation Highways to provide access to small towns and state parks. The Missouri supplemental route system was designed to provide access to most farm houses, schools, churches, cemeteries, and stores within the state.


title: Numbered highways in the United States

text: The final administrative level in some states is the county highway. As the name suggests, this type of road is maintained by a county. County roads vary widely from well-traveled multilane highways to dirt roads into remote parts of the county. In Louisiana, parish roads exist in place of county highways, as counties in that state are called parishes. Alaska also has no counties, and all roads are maintained at the national, state or municipal level. In some states, such as Massachusetts, county roads are now administered by regional entities, and both Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county government and therefore no county highways. In New York and Ohio, each county has its own style of marker for its system of county roads, creating a wide variety of county road markers across those states.


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: The Evolution engine (popularly known as Evo and sometimes as Blockhead ) is an air-cooled, 45-degree, V-twin engine manufactured from 1984 by Harley-Davidson for the company's motorcycles. It was made in the displacement for Harley-Davidson Big V-twins bikes, replacing the Shovelhead engine until 2000 when the last EVO was placed in a production factory custom FXR4 (FXR2 and FXR3 were the first CVOs). In 1999, it was replaced by the Harley-Davidson Twin Cam 88 in the Touring and Dyna model and in 2000 in the Softail models. Also available in the Sportster model beginning in 1986, it was made in the displacement until 1988 and is still made in the and displacements for the Harley-Davidson Sportster, replacing the ironhead Sportster engine.


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: Most analysts consider the Evolution to be the engine that saved the reorganized Harley-Davidson company from certain bankruptcy. Harley-Davidson's official name for the engine was likely related to the company's attempt to reform its image following the 1981 management buyout from previous owner American Machine and Foundry (AMF).


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: Both the heads and cylinders of the Evolution engine are made from aluminum to reduce weight compared to a cast iron design. Air cooling efficiency is improved as aluminum is a superior thermal conductor to cast iron. The blocky rocker boxes (thus becoming nicknamed "block head" which never caught on), aluminum heads and cylinders (also referred to as "jugs") are the only part of the Evolution engine that can be said to be essential; the Big Twin and Sportster incarnations of the Evolution are significantly different.


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: The unit construction of the Harley-Davidson Sportster, which has essentially been unchanged since its inception as the side-valve 750cc "K" Model in 1952, was retained with the Evolution engine upgrade in 1986, resulting in a unique valve train configuration. Unlike almost any other engine in production today, the Sportster Evolution uses one cam per engine overhead valve, resulting in four individual, single-lobe, gear-driven camshafts. The cam lobes are thus all located one behind another, and pushrods are arrayed in pairs (front and rear) parallel to the cylinder axis as a result. This allows each lifter and pushrod to deflect from the cam lobes perpendicular to the lobe plane. This configuration is friendly to radical, high-output cams, making the Sportster Evolution a natural choice for the once Harley-Davidson owned line of Buell Motorcycle Company sportbikes from 1986 up to late 2009 (2010 model year).


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: The Sportster Evolution engine has remained largely unchanged from 1986 to the present day, though changes to the transmission, final drive and motor mounts have necessitated changes to the Sportster Evolution case. Construction is almost entirely the same between 883 cc and 1,200 cc versions; the chief difference between the two is a smaller bore on the 883 cc (inherited from its earlier "ironhead" parent), along with slightly different heads. Conversions from 883 cc to 1,200 cc are relatively inexpensive and commonplace, and cheaper than the price premium to go from an 883 to 1,200 engine on a new bike. Carburetors were standard on Sportster engines until 2007, when they were replaced by the Delphi Electronic Sequential-Port Fuel Injection (ESPFI) system.


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: A simplified derivative of the engine was used on the Buell Blast entry-level motorcycle from 2000 to 2009. The Sportster engine as used on the Buell Blast was in most ways similar to the one used on Sportsters, albeit with the rear cylinder removed, along with other concessions to reduce overall cost and maintenance.


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: The Evolution Big Twin saw a fifteen-year run in Harley-Davidson's Dyna, Softail, FXR, and Touring frames, although a limited number of Evolutions were used in the 2000 model year CVO FXR4, and 1999 FXR2 and FXR3 models. While the main case was only slightly modified from the previous Shovelhead engine, the top end was significantly improved.


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: The 1340cc Evolution utilizes a single, four-lobe, gear-driven camshaft located just above the crankshaft axis. While this simplifies camshaft replacement, it complicates the Big Twin valve train with tappet/lifters and pushrods that each deflect from the camshaft at wildly different angles. The Big Twin pushrods have a distinct helical appearance because the vertical plane formed by each cylinder's rockers (front-to-back) is exactly perpendicular to the vertical plane formed by the cam lobes (left-to-right). The need for one lifter and pushrod set to reach all the way out to the most outboard cam lobe gives rise to the Big Twin's tell-tale offset lifter assemblies, where the forward lifter assembly is located slightly farther out and rotated to enable the valve gear to make the reach.


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: The Big Twin has been accompanied by a number of different primary drives and transmissions, both on production Harley-Davidson motorcycles and in custom applications. The aftermarket selection of accessories for these closely related systems is wide, as it is for the engine itself.


title: Harley-Davidson Evolution engine

text: The Evolution Big Twin motor was, until the introduction of the Twin Cam engine, the last of the line of single cam, overhead valve motors tracing their lineage back to the seminal Knucklehead design penned by founder Bill Harley. It is also the most extensively aftermarket supported Harley-Davidson design, to date, with clones of the engine being produced by third parties like S&S Cycle and several others. Harley reverted to a single cam design with the Milwaukee-Eight engine, first introduced for touring models in 2017.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: The Not Fucking Around Coalition (NFAC) is a black nationalist militia part of the militia movement in the United States. The group advocates for black liberation and separatism. It has been described by news outlets as a "Black militia". It denies any connection to the Black Panther Party or Black Lives Matter.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: John Fitzgerald Johnson, also known as Grand Master Jay and John Jay Fitzgerald Johnson, claims leadership of the group and has stated that it is composed of "ex military shooters." Johnson served in the Virginia National Guard and the Army from 1989 to 2006, leaving at the rank of private. He was an independent candidate for U.S. president in 2016 and has stated: "We are a Black militia. We aren't protesters, we aren't demonstrators. We don't come to sing, we don't come to chant. That's not what we do." Furthermore, in the same interview, Johnson expressed Black Nationalist views, putting forth the view that the United States should either hand the state of Texas over to African-Americans so that they may form an independent country, or allow African-Americans to depart the United States to another country that would provide land upon which to form an independent nation. In April 2021 Johnson expanded on this notion, telling "The Atlantic" that the intention of the NFAC was to establish the "United Black Kemetic Nation", a strictly black ethno-state.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: In 2019, Johnson told the "Atlanta Black Star" that the organization was formed to prevent another Greensboro Massacre.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: Thomas Mockaitis, professor of history at DePaul University stated: "In one sense it (NFAC) echoes the Black Panthers but they are more heavily armed and more disciplined... So far, they've coordinated with police and avoided engaging with violence."


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: The first reported appearance of NFAC members was a May 12, 2020, protest near Brunswick, Georgia, over the February murder of Ahmaud Arbery, though they were identified by local media as "Black Panthers".


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: Johnson stated that NFAC provided armed security for the sister of Rayshard Brooks at her request. NFAC escorted her to a rally in downtown Atlanta in late June.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: On the Fourth of July, 2020, local media reported that about 100 to 200 mostly armed NFAC members marched through Stone Mountain Park near Atlanta, Georgia, calling for the removal of the Confederate monument. Reuters reported the number of participants as "scores." The NFAC posted videos of the event and reported the number as 1,500. The Stone Mountain Memorial Association, which operates the park, stated that the protesters were peaceful and orderly. Johnson stated of the site, which is important to the Ku Klux Klan: "Our initial goal was to have a formation of our militia in Stone Mountain to send a message that as long as you're abolishing all these statues across the country, what about this one?" He also stated that the formation was a response to a threat by the KKK to start shooting black people at 8 pm on the Fourth of July, 2020. Johnson thus stated at the formation, "I want the heart of the Ku Klux Klan to hear me no matter where the fuck you are. I'm in your house. Where you at? You made a threat. We don't threaten."


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: On July 25, a local news outlet stated that "more than 300" members were gathered in Louisville, Kentucky to protest the lack of action against the officers responsible for the March killing of Breonna Taylor. The NFAC posted a video of the event on its official YouTube page, reporting the number of militia members registered and present as 3,500. On July 20, preceding the event, Kentucky Attorney General Daniel Cameron and Louisville Metro Council President David James had a phone conversation with Johnson, which the AG's office described as "productive". In response to the announced NFAC presence, about 50 armed Three Percenters counter-protested. Louisville police in riot gear helped to facilitate the maintenance of space between the groups. Three NFAC members were wounded during a negligent weapon discharge. The NFAC said that the discharge occurred when a person who was not yet admitted into the formation collapsed from heat exhaustion and fired her weapon into the ground. The weapon was an older shotgun that Johnson said would not have been approved for the formation. The shotgun projectiles hit the ground, then ricocheted and hit three people. Johnson reported that two of those hit were checked by medics and cleared to continue to participate in the formation.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: On October 3, over 400 members of the NFAC along with over 200 other armed protesters marched in downtown Lafayette, Louisiana. This demonstration was sparked after United States Representative Clay Higgins made threats against protesters who showed up armed regarding the shooting of Trayford Pellerin at the hands of police. Johnson along with other speakers gave speeches at the Parc San Souci, urging members to continue protesting. A protest attendee, not associated with the NFAC, was arrested after accidentally discharging a handgun. No one was injured. Afterwards, the group marched and left.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: On November 2, Kansas City-based activist Keiajah Brooks announced via Twitter that she was under protection from the NFAC after multiple alleged instances of harassment committed by officers from the Kansas City Police Department. A week prior, she went viral online shortly after a video was released of her criticizing the local city commissioners for “choosing profits over people” as well as her push for the Police Chief Rick Smith to resign.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: On December 3, Johnson was arrested by the FBI for allegedly aiming his rifle at police officers during protests about Breonna Taylor's killing. He was later federally indicted the following year on February 24, 2021, and has since been found guilty. In November 2022, he was sentenced to 7 years and 2 months in prison along with 3 years of supervision after completion of the term.


title: Not Fucking Around Coalition

text: On June 23, 2021, former NFAC member Othal "Ozone" Wallace shot and critically wounded Daytona Beach Police Department Officer Jason Raynor in the head whilst he was conducting a "proactive patrol". He then attempted to disable the bodycam worn by the officer. Three days later, Wallace was arrested after police found out he was hiding at an alleged NFAC-affiliated property in DeKalb County, Georgia. According to Daytona Beach Police Chief Jakari Young, four other people were at the said property, along with multiple firearms, multiple flashbangs, body armor, and ammunition. The NFAC stated Othal Wallace was terminated from the organization on January 21, 2021. They also said they were not affiliated with the property as reported, claiming that it was owned by another ex-NFAC member.


title: Chickadee

text: The chickadees are a group of North American birds in the tit family included in the genus "Poecile". Species found in North America are referred to as chickadees, while other species in the genus are called tits.


title: Chickadee

text: They are small-sized birds overall, usually having the crown of the head and throat patch distinctly darker than the body. They are at least 6 to 14 centimeters (2.4 to 5.5 inches) in size.


title: Chickadee

text: Their name reputedly comes from the fact that their calls make a distinctive "chick-a-dee-dee-dee", though their normal call is actually "fee-bee," and the "chick-a-dee-dee-dee" call is an alarm call. The number of "dees" depends on the predator.


title: Chickadee

text: The chickadee (specifically the black-capped chickadee "Poecile atricapillus", formerly "Parus atricapillus") is the official bird for the US states of Massachusetts and Maine, the Canadian province of New Brunswick, and the city of Calgary, Alberta.


title: Chickadee

text: One holarctic species is referred to by a different name in each part of its range: grey-headed chickadee in North America and Siberian tit in Eurasia.


title: Chickadee

text: Chickadees are native to North America, where they are very common. In North America, the birds are found from the East Coast to the West Coast, and from Canada to Mexico. The habitat that chickadees prefer is mixed deciduous or coniferous forests, parks, open woods, cottonwood groves, willow thickets, and disturbed areas.


title: Chickadee

text: Mountain chickadees are food-caching birds. A single bird can hide as many as 80,000 individual seeds, which they retrieve during the winter. Their ability to do so depends on their spatial memory of the locations. Birds that live in harsher conditions, where their ability to remember the location of food is more important, have been found to have better memory abilities, a larger hippocampus, and more neurons than chickadees that live in milder climates where food sources are easier to find without relying on memory.


title: Alms

text: Alms (, ) are money, food, or other material goods donated to people living in poverty. Providing alms is often considered an act of virtue or charity. The act of providing alms is called almsgiving, and it is a widespread practice in a number of different religions and cultures.


title: Alms

text: The word "alms" comes from the Old English ', ', which comes from Late Latin ', from Greek ' ("pity, alms"), from , ' ("merciful"), from , ', meaning "pity or mercy".


title: Alms

text: In Buddhism, both "almsgiving" and "giving" are called "dāna" (Pāli). Such giving is one of the three elements of the path of practice as formulated by the Buddha for laypeople. This path of practice for laypeople is dāna, sīla, and bhāvanā.


title: Alms

text: Generosity towards other sentient beings is also emphasized in Mahayana as one of the perfections (paramita). As shown in Lama Tsong Khapa's 'The Abbreviated Points of the Graded Path' ():


title: Alms

text: The giving of alms is the beginning of one's journey to Nirvana (). In practice, one can give anything with or without thought for Nibbana. This would lead to faith (), one key power () that one should generate within oneself for the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.


title: Alms

text: The intentions behind giving play an important role in developing spiritual qualities. The suttas record various motives for exercising generosity. For example, the Anguttara Nikaya (A.iv, 236) enumerates the following eight motives:


title: Alms

text: In Buddhism, alms or almsgiving is the respect given by a lay Buddhist to a Buddhist monk, nun, spiritually-developed person or other sentient being. It is not charity as presumed by Western interpreters. It is closer to a symbolic connection to the spiritual realm and to show humbleness and respect in the presence of the secular society. The act of almsgiving connects the human to the monk or nun and what he/she represents. As the Buddha has stated:


title: Alms

text: In Theravada Buddhism, nuns (Pāli: "bhikkhunis") and monks (Pāli: "bhikkhus") practice "Takuhatsu" (') where they collect food ('). This is often perceived as allowing the laypeople to make merit (Pāli: "puñña"). Money cannot be accepted by a Theravadan Buddhist monk or nun in place of or in addition to food, as the Patimokkha training rules make it an offense worth forfeiture and confession.


title: Alms

text: In countries that follow Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of "Takuhatsu" has mostly died out. In China, Korea, and Japan, local cultures resisted the idea of giving food to 'begging' clerics, and there was no tradition of gaining 'merit' by donating to practitioners. After periods of persecution, monasteries were situated in remote mountain areas; the distance between the monastery and the nearest towns made this practice impossible. In Japan, the practice of a weekly or monthly Takuhatsu replaced the daily round. In the Himalayan countries, the large number of "bhikkhus" would have made an alms round a heavy burden on families. Competition with other religions for support also made daily practice difficult and even dangerous; the first Buddhist monks in the Silla dynasty of Korea were said to be beaten due to their minority at the time.


title: Alms

text: In Christianity, the giving of alms is viewed as an act of charity. In the Apostolic age, Christians were taught that giving alms was an expression of love. Such care for the poor was to be understood as love for God, who, in the person of Jesus Christ, sacrificed himself for the salvation of believers.


title: Alms

text: In nearly all Christian denominations, money is donated to support the church's financial needs and its ministry to the less fortunate. In some churches, the alms are placed near to the altar to symbolize that the offering belongs to God and to represent the unity of the congregation.


title: Alms

text: The offertory is the traditional moment in the Roman Catholic Mass, Lutheran Divine Service, and Anglican Eucharist, when alms are collected. Baptists and Methodists, among other denominations, collect tithes and offerings (alms) during the offertory in church services. A tithe, the first tenth of one's income, is seen as what is owed to God, while an offering (alms) includes anything contributed beyond that. Some fellowships practice regular giving for special purposes called "love offerings" for the poor, destitute or victims of catastrophic loss such as home fires or medical expenses. Traditionally, deacons and deaconesses are responsible for distributing these gifts among widows, orphans, and others in need. Many Christians support a plethora of charitable organizations, not all of which claim a Christian religious affiliation. Many American educational and medical institutions were founded by Christian fellowships giving alms.


title: Alms

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches, the collection of alms and tithes has not been formally united to the offertory in any liturgical action. However, either having a collection plate in the narthex or passing it unobtrusively during the service is not uncommon. In Eastern Orthodox theology, almsgiving is an important part of the spiritual life, and fasting should always be accompanied by increased prayer and almsgiving. Almsgiving in the name of the deceased also frequently accompanies prayer for the dead. Those whose financial circumstances do not permit the giving of monetary alms may give alms in other ways, such as intercessory prayer and acts of mercy.


title: Alms

text: In addition, private acts of charity are a duty and only considered virtuous only if not done for others to admire:


title: Alms

text: Jesus places the primary focus on the motives behind the outward and inward giving of alms, which should be love:


title: Alms

text: In Hinduism, ' () is an ancient concept of almsgiving dating to the Vedic period of Hinduism. ' has been defined in traditional texts as any action of relinquishing the ownership of what one considered or identified as one's own, and investing the same in a recipient without expecting anything in return. While "" is typically given to one person or family, Hinduism also discusses charity or giving aimed at public benefit, which is sometimes called "utsarga". This aims at larger projects such as building a rest house, school, investing in drinking water or an irrigation well, planting trees, and building care facilities, among others. The practice of begging for alms is called "bhiksha" ().


title: Alms

text: The 11th century Persian historian Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, who visited and lived in India for 16 years beginning in about 1017 CE, mentions the practice of charity and almsgiving among Hindus as he observed during his stay. He wrote, "It is obligatory with them (Hindus) every day to give alms as much as possible."


title: Alms

text: Almsgiving in Hinduism is considered a noble deed to be done without expectation of any return from those who receive the charity. Some texts reason, referring to the nature of social life, that charity is a form of good karma that affects one's future circumstances and environment, and that good charitable deeds leads to good future life because of the reciprocity principle. Other Hindu texts, such as "Vyasa Samhita", state that reciprocity may be innate in human nature and social functions but dāna is a virtue in itself, as doing good lifts the nature of one who gives. The texts do not recommend charity to unworthy recipients or where charity may harm or encourage injury to or by the recipient. ' is thus a dharmic act, requires an idealistic-normative approach, and has spiritual and philosophical context. Some medieval era authors state that ' is best done with "śraddhā" (faith), which is defined as being in good will, cheerful, welcoming the recipient of the charity and giving without "anasuya" (finding faults in the recipient). Kohler states that these scholars of Hinduism suggest that charity is most effective when it is done with delight, a sense of "unquestioning hospitality", where the "dāna" ignores the short term weaknesses as well as the circumstances of the recipient and takes a long-term view.


title: Alms

text: "Satrams", also called "Dharamsala" or "Chathrams" in parts of India, have been one means of almsgiving in Hinduism. "Satrams" are shelters (rest houses) for travelers and the poor, with many serving water and free food. These were usually established along the roads connecting major Hindu temple sites in south Asia, as well as near major temples. Hindu temples have also served as institutions for almsgiving. The "dāna" the temples received from Hindus were used to feed people in distress as well as fund public projects such as irrigation and land reclamation.


title: Alms

text: The Rigveda has the earliest discussion of "" in the Vedas and offers reasons for the virtue of almsgiving.


title: Alms

text: The early Upanishads, those composed before 500 BCE, discuss the virtue of almsgiving. For example, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states in verse 5.2.3 that three characteristics of a good, developed person are self-restraint ("dama"), compassion or love for all sentient life ("daya"), and charity (""). Chandogya Upanishad, similarly, states in Book III that a virtuous life requires "tapas" (meditation, asceticism), "dāna" (charity), "arjava" (straightforwardness, non-hypocrisy), "ahimsa" (non-violence, non-injury to all sentient beings) and "satyavacana" (truthfulness).


title: Alms

text: Bhagavad Gita describes the right and wrong forms of in verses 17.20 through 17.22. The "Adi Parva" of the Hindu Epic "Mahabharata" states in Chapter 91 that a person must first acquire wealth by honest means, then embark on charity; be hospitable to those who come to him; never inflict pain on any living being; and share a portion with others whatever he consumes. In the "Vana Parva", Chapter 194, the Mahabharata recommends that one must "conquer the mean by charity, the untruthful by truth, the wicked by forgiveness, and dishonesty by honesty".


title: Alms

text: The "Bhagavata Purana" discusses when is proper and when it is improper. In Book 8, Chapter 19, verse 36, it states that charity is inappropriate if it endangers and cripples modest livelihood of one's biological dependents or of one's own. Charity from surplus income above that required for modest living is recommended in the Puranas.


title: Alms

text: In Islam, the concept of charitable giving is generally divided into voluntary giving, "sadaqah" (), and an obligatory practice, the "zakat" (). "Zakat" is governed by a specific set of rules within Islamic jurisprudence and is intended to fulfill a well-defined set of theological and social requirements. "Sadaqah" is possibly a better translation of Christian influenced formulations of the notion of 'alms' for that reason, though "zakat" plays a much larger role within Islamic charity.


title: Alms

text: "Zakat" is the third of the five pillars of Islam. The literal meaning of the word "zakat" is "to purify", "to develop" and "cause to grow". "Zakat" is the amount of money that every Muslim, male or female, who is an adult, mentally stable, free, and financially able, has to pay to support specific categories of people. According to "shariah", it is an act of worship. Possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need. This cutting back, like the pruning of plants, balances and encourages new growth. Various rules are attached but, in general terms, it is obligatory to give 2.5% of one's savings and business revenue and 5–10% of one's harvest to the poor. Possible recipients include the destitute, the working poor, those who are unable to pay off their own debts, stranded travelers and others who need assistance, with the general principle of "zakat" always being that the rich should pay it to the poor. One of the most important principles of Islam is that all things belong to God and wealth is therefore held by human beings in trust.


title: Alms

text: The obligatory nature of "zakat" is firmly established in the Qur'an, the "sunnah" (or "hadith"), and the consensus of the companions and the Muslim scholars. Allah states in At-Tawbah:


title: Alms

text: Muslims of each era have agreed upon the obligatory nature of paying "zakat" from their gold and silver, and from other kinds of currency.


title: Alms

text: "Zakat" is obligatory when a certain amount of money, called the "nisab" (or minimum amount), is reached or exceeded. Zakat is not obligatory if the amount owned is less than this "nisab". The "nisab" of gold and golden currency is 20 "mithqal", or approximately 85 grams of pure gold. One "mithqal" is approximately 4.25 grams. The "nisab" of silver and silver currency is 200 dirhams, which is approximately 595 grams of pure silver. The "nisab" of other kinds of money and currency is to be scaled to that of gold; the "nisab" of money is equivalent to the price of 85 grams of 999-type (pure) gold on the day in which "zakat" is paid.


title: Alms

text: "Zakat" is obligatory after the money has been in the control of its owner for the span of one lunar year; a lunar year is approximately 355 days. The owner then needs to pay 2.5% (or 1/40) of the money as "zakat". The owner should deduct any amount of money he or she borrowed from others, check if the rest reaches the necessary "nisab", then pay "zakat" for it.


title: Alms

text: If the owner had enough money to satisfy the "nisab" at the beginning of the year, but his wealth in any form increased, the owner needs to add the increase to the "nisab" amount owned at the beginning of the year and then pay "zakat", 2.5%, of the total at the end of the lunar year. There are minor differences between "fiqh" schools on how this is to be calculated. Each Muslim calculates his or her own "zakat" individually. For most purposes, this involves the payment each year of two and a half percent of one's capital.


title: Alms

text: A pious person may also give alms as much as he or she pleases as "sadaqah", and does so preferably in secret. Although this word can be translated as 'voluntary charity', it has a wider meaning, as illustrated in the hadiths:


title: Alms

text: In Judaism, "tzedakah", a Hebrew term literally meaning righteousness but commonly used to signify "charity", refers to the religious obligation to do what is right and just. In the Greek Septuagint "tzedakah" was sometimes translated as , "almsgiving".


title: Alms

text: In Judaism, "tzedakah" is seen as one of the greatest deeds that a person can do. "Tzedakah", along with prayer and repentance, is regarded as ameliorating the consequences of bad acts. Contemporary "tzedakah" is regarded as a continuation of the Biblical "Maaser Ani", or poor-tithe, as well as Biblical practices including permitting the poor to glean the corners of a field, harvest during the "Shmita" (sabbatical year), and other practices. Jewish farmers are commanded to leave the corners of their fields for the starving to harvest for food and are forbidden to pick up any grain that has been dropped during harvesting, as such food shall be left for the starving as well.


title: Alms

text: In the Mishneh Torah, Chapter 10:7–14, Maimonides lists eight "laws about giving to poor people" (""), listed in order from most to least righteous, with the most righteous form being allowing an individual to become self-sustaining and capable of giving others charity:


title: Alms

text: In Mandaeism, "zidqa" refers to alms or almsgiving. Mandaean priests receive regular financial contributions from laypeople.


title: Alms

text: The Mandaic term "zidqa brika" (literally "blessed oblation") refers to a ritual meal blessed by priests. An early self-appellation for Mandaeans is "bhiri zidqa", meaning "elect of righteousness".


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: The Icelandic Commonwealth, also known as the Icelandic Free State, was the political unit existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king with the Old Covenant in 1262. With the probable exception of hermitic Irish monks known as Papar, Iceland was an uninhabited island until around 874.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: The Icelandic Commonwealth had a unique political system whereby chieftains ("goðar") established a common legal code and settled judicial disputes at the Althing, a national assembly. However, there was no executive body in Iceland that enforced the legal code. The Icelandic Commonwealth has consequently been characterized as a stateless society. During the 13th century, Iceland came under the control of the Norwegian Kingdom.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: The medieval Icelandic state had a unique judicial structure. The first settlers of Iceland were greatly influenced by their Norwegian roots when creating their own form of government. They wanted to avoid the strong centralized authority of Harald Fairhair from which some of them had fled, but they also wanted to replicate the Norwegian tradition of laws and district legal assemblies ("Þing"). This created a unique structure.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: The most powerful and elite leaders in Iceland were the chieftains (sing. "goði", pl. "goðar"). The office of the "goði" was called the "goðorð". The "goðorð" was not delimited by strict geographical boundaries. Thus, a free man could choose to support any of the "goðar" of his district. The supporters of the "goðar" were called "Þingmenn" ("assembly people"). In exchange for the "goði" protecting his interests, the "Þingmaðr" would provide armed support to his "goði" during feuds or conflicts. The "Þingmenn" were also required to attend regional and national assemblies.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: On a regional level, the "goðar" of the thirteen district assemblies convened meetings every spring to settle local disputes. The "goðar" also served as the leaders of the Alþingi, the national assembly of Iceland. Today, the Alþingi is the oldest parliamentary institution in existence. It began with the regional assembly at Kjalarness established by Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, son of the first settler. The leaders of the Kjalarnessþing appointed a man named Úlfljótr to study the laws in Norway. He spent three years in Norway and returned with the foundation of Úlfljótr's Law, which would form the basis for Iceland's national assembly. Sections of his law code are preserved in the Landnámabók, ("Book of Settlements"). The first Alþingi assembly convened around the year 930 at Þingvellir, ("Assembly Plains"). The Alþingi served as a public gathering at which people from all over the country met for two weeks every June. The Alþingi revolved around the "Lögrétta", the legislative council of the assembly, which was responsible for reviewing and amending the nation's laws. The Lögrétta comprised the 39 "goðar" and their advisors. They also appointed a Lawspeaker ("lögsögumaður") once every three years. The Lawspeaker recited and clarified laws at Lögberg ("Law Rock"), located at the center of Þingvellir. The descendants of Ingólfr Arnarson, the first settler of Iceland, held the ceremonial position of "allsherjargoði" and had the role of sanctifying the Alþingi each year.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: Iceland was divided into four administrative regions called "fjörðungar" (farthings). Each of these was ruled by nine "goðar". The Alþingi was made up of the four Quarter Courts ("fjórðungsdómur"). This judicial body of Iceland consisted of 36 judges, each appointed by one of the "goðar". These courts tried individual cases and served as a higher judicial authority to the regional courts. The rulings of the quarter judges had to be agreed upon by a strong majority: if only six of the judges disagreed, then the case was deadlocked and dismissed. In 1005, this problem was solved by the creation of a Fifth Court, an appeals court based on a simple majority. Once a court decided a party was guilty, however, it had no executive authority to carry out a sentence. Instead, enforcement of a verdict became the responsibility of the injured party or his family.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: Penalties often included financial compensation or outlawry. However, these were considered by some to be insufficient penalties and the Alþingi was only moderately successful at stopping feuds. According to Magnus Magnusson, the courts were "an uneasy substitute for vengeance." The most severe punishments were outlawry and three years' exile. Outlaws lost all property rights and could be killed without any punishment for the killers. Exiles who failed to leave Iceland became outlaws.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: Historian Birgir Solvason states that Icelandic society was "more peaceful and cooperative than its contemporaries". In England and Norway, by contrast, "the period from about 800 to 1200 is a period of continuous struggle; high in both violence and killings". Historian Jón Viðar Sigurðsson argues that the introduction of Christianity to Iceland illustrates how effective and significant arbitration was in Iceland. At the Christianisation of Iceland in 1000, the Alþingi outlawed public celebration of pagan rituals and decreed that in order to prevent an invasion, all Icelanders must be baptized.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: In 1117, the law code of the Icelandic Commonwealth was put into writing, becoming known as the Gray Goose Laws.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: Knowledge of the system of government in medieval Iceland stems mainly from two main primary sources: the written law code, and Íslendingabók, or the Book of the Icelanders by Ari the Learned. The impact of the legislative and judicial systems on Icelandic settlers is a common theme in many of the other Icelandic sagas. Works such as "Njáls saga" and the "Laxdæla saga" give many details, but their accuracy has been disputed. "Eyrbyggja saga" details the transition from paganism to Christianity within Icelandic settlement under the direction of Snorri Goði, or "Snorri the Priest." The emphasis on justice and the conviction in their system of governance is reflected within the saga: "They say we shall suffer setbacks in court; we must plead for support from powerful chieftains: but Arnkel will argue an eloquent case, he will sway judge and jury - I have faith in justice."


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: Chieftains were highly reliant on the support of farmers in their domain in the 11th and 12th centuries, and did thus not have princely powers or subjects in the districts that they represented. Around 1190, the number of chieftaincies declined and power started to centralize in individual chieftains controlling larger regions of the country. By ca 1220, the country was a loose federation of 10-12 regional powers.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: According to historian Jón Viðar Sigurðsson, "a chieftain based his power on his personal qualities, his wealth, friends, assembly men, kinsmen and in-laws. The cleverest, the most helpful, the wealthiest and the most generous became the most powerful ones." Historian Árni Daniel Júliusson further notes that the food production of the peasantry was the "basis of political and military power".


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: Peasant rebellions, traditionally defined, never occurred in Iceland, even though peasant unrest was fairly common.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: Slavery was practiced in Iceland from settlement to the early 12th century. Icelandic law allowed individuals guilty of theft or failure to pay debts to be enslaved. Slaves were allowed to marry and have children, which meant that a class of slaves could self-perpetuate. Slavery likely declined in the second half of the 12th century and was extremely rare by the 15th century.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: The followers of the "goðar" owed them military service. They were organized into platoons or companies based on their social status and equipment, and these formed expeditionary armies or leiðangrs. Icelandic military tradition of the time closely followed developments in Norway. No organized cavalry formations or formations of troops equipped with projectile weapons are recorded: instead the bulk of the forces were formed in units of light, medium and heavy infantry, with bowmen or slingers distributed among the infantry units, operating as light support skirmishers. Before the end of the Commonwealth, at least 21 fortresses and castles had been built in Iceland. During the Age of the Sturlungs, the average battle involved fewer than 1000 men, with an average casualty rate of only 15%. This relatively low casualty rate might be attributed to the blood-feud mentality which permeated Icelandic society, which meant that the defeated army could not honourably be slaughtered to a man.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: The first Bishop of Skalholt was Ísleifur Gissurarson, who was elected by the Althing in 1056. After his son Gissur was installed as bishop, the power and wealth of the church quickly grew due to the introduction of tithing, the first tax introduced in Iceland. The church became the second unifying institution in the country after the Althing. Continuing similar patterns from the pre-Christian era, church estates could be owned by "goðar" who would then get a portion of the tithe.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: In the early 13th century, the Age of the Sturlungs, the Commonwealth began to suffer from chaos and division resulting from internal disputes. Originally, the "goðar" (chieftains) functioned more as a contractual relationship than a fixed geographic chieftaincy. However, by 1220 this form of communal leadership was replaced by dominant regional individuals who battled with one another for more control. One historian argues the chaos and violence of this period stem from an imbalance of power and changes in the nature of Icelandic warfare. Whereas the number of "goðar" had been at least 39 early in the Icelandic Commonwealth, a few powerful families had consolidated control over most of the "goðorð" in the late 12th century.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: There are several factors that may have resulted in the consolidation of "goðorð". The separation of secular and ecclesiastical power led some families and regional networks to become stronger at the expense of others, leading to an imbalance of power. The introduction of tithe may have increased the wealth of chieftains that controlled the churches. The introduction of pitched battles and harassment of farmers on a regional basis raised the stakes and dangers, which may have incentivized consolidation. An increase in population along with a resource shortage may have made commoners more dependent on chieftains.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: The King of Norway began to exert pressure on his Icelandic vassals to bring the country under his rule. He commissioned Icelandic chieftains to become part of his body of retainers and to pursue his interests in Iceland. The King's role in Icelandic affairs started in 1220, and had become strong by 1240 (Icelanders were starting to accept the King's choice of chieftains). Over the period 1240-1260, the King consolidated power in Iceland. A combination of discontent with domestic hostilities and pressure from the King of Norway led the Icelandic chieftains to accept Norway's Haakon IV as king by the signing of the "Gamli sáttmáli" ("Old Covenant") in 1262. According to historian Sverrir Jakobsson, three Icelanders played a central role in bringing Iceland under the King of Norway: Gissur Þorvaldsson (for getting farmers to agree to pay taxes to the King), Hrafn Oddsson (for pressuring Gissur into supporting the King, and getting farmers in the Westfjords to submit to the King) and bishop Brandur Jónsson (for getting his relatives in the East Fjords to submit to the King).


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: By 1264, all Icelandic chieftains had sworn allegiance to the King of Norway. The end of the Icelandic Commonwealth is typically dated to the Old Covenant (1262–1264) or to the adoption of Jónsbók in 1281.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: According to the libertarian theorist David D. Friedman, "Medieval Icelandic institutions have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions." While not directly labeling it anarcho-capitalist, he argues that the legal system came close to being a real-world anarcho-capitalist legal system. Although noting that there was a single legal system, Friedman argues that enforcement of the law was entirely private and highly capitalist, providing some evidence of how such a society would function. "Even where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially "public" offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system." Commenting on its political structure, libertarian scholar Roderick Long remarks:The legal system's administration, insofar as it had one, lay in the hands of a parliament of about 40 officers whom historians call, however inadequately, "chieftains." This parliament had no budget and no employees; it met only two weeks per year. In addition to their parliamentary role, chieftains were empowered in their own local districts to appoint judges and to keep the peace; this latter job was handled on an essentially fee-for-service basis. The enforcement of judicial decisions was largely a matter of self-help (hence Iceland's reputation as a land of constant private feuding), but those who lacked the might to enforce their rights could sell their court-decreed claims for compensation to someone more powerful, usually a chieftain; hence even the poor and friendless could not be victimized with impunity. The basis of a chieftain's power within the political order was the power he already possessed outside it, in civil society. The office of chieftaincy was private property, and could be bought or sold; hence chieftaincies tended to track private wealth. But wealth alone was not enough. As economic historian Birgir Solvason notes in his masterful study of the period, "just buying the chieftainship was no guarantee of power"; the mere office by itself was "almost worthless" unless the chieftain could "convince some free-farmers to follow him." Chieftains did not hold authority over territorially-defined districts, but competed for clients with other chieftains from the same geographical area.


title: Icelandic Commonwealth

text: Summarizing his research, Friedman concludes in part:It is difficult to draw any conclusion from the Icelandic experience concerning the viability of systems of private enforcement in the twentieth century. Even if Icelandic institutions worked well then, they might not work in a larger and more interdependent society. And whether the Icelandic institutions did work well is a matter of controversy; the sagas are perceived by many as portraying an essentially violent and unjust society, tormented by constant feuding. It is difficult to tell whether such judgments are correct.Friedman and Bruce L. Benson argued that the Icelandic Commonwealth saw significant economic and social progress in the absence of systems of criminal law, an executive, or bureaucracy.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Education in Bangladesh is overseen by the country's Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Primary and Mass Education is responsible for implementing policy for primary education and state-funded schools at a local level. In Bangladesh, all citizens must undertake ten years of compulsory education which consists of five years at primary school level and five years at high school level. Primary and secondary education is financed by the state and free of charge in public schools.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Bangladesh conforms fully to the UN's Education For All (EFA) objectives and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as well as other education-related international declarations. Now; the government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh tends to align the curriculum that meets the "Goal: SDG-4" that is the "Quality Education" characterized in the charter of “Sustainable Development Goal 4”. Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4 or Global Goal 4) is about quality education and is among the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in September 2015. The full title of SDG 4 is "Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all". Article 17 of the Bangladesh Constitution provides that all children receive free and compulsory education.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) finds that Bangladesh is fulfilling only 82.5% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income. HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration Bangladesh's income level, the nation is achieving 88.7% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education but only 76.3% for secondary education. Again; the budgetary allocation is too meagre that the following source reiterates-


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Out of the total budget of Tk 678,064 crore for FY23, the allocation for the education sector is Tk 81,449 crore or 12 percent of the total, compared to 11.9 percent in FY22. In terms of GDP ratio, it is 1.83 percent, lower than the outgoing fiscal year's allocation. This is one of the lowest in the world – far below the recommended minimum of 4–6 percent of GDP and 20 percent of the national budget.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: At all levels of schooling, students can choose to receive their education in English or Bangla. Private schools tend to make use of English-based study media while government-sponsored schools use Bangla.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Bangladeshi National School Curriculum provides textbooks, takes standardized tests via one of two languages: English and Bangla (Bengali).


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: A student is expected to complete 12 years of education up to class 12. The curriculum does not include pre-school.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: There is no choice of subjects offered to students under this curriculum until class 9 and again at class 11 when a student is expected to choose between 3 streams of education:


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: In class 9–10 and 11–12, each has its own pre-selected set of subjects with one optional subject which can be changed. For instance, a student studying in Science group can't replace Chemistry, Bangla or Religion for Accounting or History. But he can replace Higher Math or Biology for Arts & Crafts. In other words, a student of this curriculum have to study a pre-set group of subjects with having only one choice of replacing an elective subject to another elective subject. Science is the most sought after stream of education in urban areas.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: A standardized exam is held in class 8 called Junior School Certificate examination, schools often restrict students getting less than their set Grade Point Average (GPA) from pursuing Science stream of education.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: 100% of the mark obtained in certificates of PEC (class 5), JSC (class 8), SSC (class 10), and HSC (class 12) examinations is obtained from standardized written tests, Multiple choice questions, Practical part, and viva-voice involved with practical part. Classroom performance, homework and assignments play no part in a student's certificate. Standardized written tests (Creative part) and Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) are taken in a single sitting without breaks. A student is given a blank answer script separate from the question paper to answer creative part, and a separate Optical Mark Reader (OMR) sheet to mark answers to Multiple Choice Questions. Time allocation for MCQ and CQ parts are separate and strictly enforced, OMR sheet is taken away after the allocated time, and CQ question is provided. Practical Part is taken in another sitting on a separate day, viva-voice is taken during practical exam simultaneously.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Concerning lesser than expected outcome of this curriculum, the ministry of education along with NCTB is about to implement a completely reformed curriculum starting from 2023 and completely implemented in 2027. The new curriculum is approved by Ministry of Education and currently undergoing piloting in selected schools in 2022.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The approved major overhaul of the current curriculum is about to be implemented nationwide for classes 1–12 starting from classes 6 and 7 in 2023, classes 8 and 9 in 2024, class 10 in 2025, class 11 in 2026, and finally class 12 in 2027. The new curriculum is expected to reduce the need of after school coaching centres as there will be various activities involved in the learning process offering students a better understanding of each topics. It is expected to shift our curriculum from an outcome-centric one to a competency-based one with 10 selected competencies a student is supposed to possess at completion of class 12 with emphasis on character building. Education minister Dr Dipu Moni believes "Role of teachers will change under the new curriculum".


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Under the initiative, newly written books will be provided to all students of the national curriculum. Number of subjects will decrease, there will be topics covering mental and physical health under a subject called "Wellbeing" or "Bhalo Thaka (Staying well)". Separate streams of education (Arts, Commerce, Science) will be eliminated for only 10 uniform subjects for classes 6–10 and SSC candidates, but such streams will remain for classes 11–12 or HSC candidates. Standardized board exams PEC (class 5) and JSC (class 8) will be abolished to reduce exam centric teaching and learning.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: A significant part of the evaluation will come from class performance. There will be no standardized tests at schools or board up to class 3, students of grades one to three will be evaluated on the basis of their classroom performance alone. Besides a significant percentage of marks will come from classroom performance and continuous evaluation in their own schools to further reduce exam centric learning, however the percentage keeps reducing as a student is promoted to a higher class.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The question pattern is also expected to be changed under the new curriculum in accordance with international standards, but official declaration has not come yet detailing the new question pattern. The new question pattern is expected to replace current creative type questions as it could not fill up its purpose of introduction completely in current curriculum.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Cadet Colleges are important in the education system of Bangladesh. A cadet college is a room and board collegiate administered by the Bangladesh Military. Discipline is compulsory at all cadet colleges. Faujdarhat Cadet College is the first cadet college in Bangladesh, established in 1958 over an area of at Faujdarhat in the district of Chittagong. At present, there are 12 cadet colleges in Bangladesh, including three for girls. Four Cadet Colleges were established before 1971. Other cadet colleges were built after the Liberation War of Bangladesh.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: As of September 2019, tertiary education in Bangladesh takes place at 44 government, 101 private and 3 international universities. Students can choose to further their studies in chartered accountancy, engineering, technology, agriculture and medicine at a variety of universities and colleges.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The overall responsibility of management of primary education lies with the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MOPME), set up as a Ministry in 1992. While MOPME is involved in formulation of policies, the responsibility of implementation rests with the Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) headed by a Director General. The Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) and its subordinate offices in the district and upazila are solely responsible for management and supervision of primary education. Their responsibilities include recruitment, posting, and transfer of teachers and other staff; arranging in-service training of teachers; distribution of free textbooks; and supervision of schools. The responsibility of school construction, repair and supply of school furniture lies with the DPE executed through the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED). The National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) is responsible for the development of curriculum and production of textbooks. According to the National Curriculum and Textbook Board, this year (2022), 34,70,16,277 textbooks have been distributed among 4,17,26,856 pre-primary, primary, secondary, ebtedayee, dakhil vocational, SSC vocational, ethnic minority groups and visually challenged students across the country. Of the total textbooks, 24,71,63,256 are for secondary and 9,98,53,021 for primary level students.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: While the Ministry of Education (MOE) is responsible for formulation of policies, the Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education (DSHE) under the Ministry of Education is responsible for implementing the same at secondary and higher education levels. The NCTB is responsible for developing curriculum and publishing standard textbooks.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) are responsible for conducting the two public examinations:


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The recent update on the PEC and JSC examinations are that ""There will be no Primary Education Completion (PEC) and Junior School Certificate (JSC) examinations from 2023"," disclosed Education Minister Dipu Moni at a Secretariat Press Conference in September, 2021.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The boards' headquarters are located in Baksibazar, Dhaka, Barishal, Cumilla, Chattogram, Dhaka, Dinajpur, Jessore, Mymensingh, Rajshahi and Sylhet.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Nine region-based Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) are responsible for conducting the two public examinations:


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: At the school level, in the case of non-government secondary schools, School Management Committees (SMC), and at the intermediate college level, in the case of non-government colleges, Governing Bodies (GB), formed as per government directives, are responsible for mobilizing resources, approving budgets, controlling expenditures, and appointing and disciplining staff. While teachers of non-government secondary schools are recruited by concerned SMCs observing relevant government rules, teachers of government secondary schools are recruited centrally by the DSHE through a competitive examination.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: In government secondary schools, there is not an SMC. The headmaster is solely responsible for running the school and is supervised by the deputy director of the respective zone. Parent Teachers Associations (PTAs), however, exist to ensure a better teaching and learning environment.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: At the tertiary level, universities are regulated by the University Grants Commission. There are three types of Universities in Bangladesh: Public, Private, and International. Some colleges providing tertiary education are affiliated under the National University. Each of the private medical colleges is affiliated with a public university. Universities in Bangladesh are autonomous bodies administered by statutory bodies such as Syndicate, Senate, Academic Council, etc. in accordance with provisions laid down in their respective acts.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Universities in Bangladesh represent about 150 academic bodies of the conventional higher education institution (HEI) in Bangladesh. Segmented by management and financial structure, these include 43 public universities, 103 private universities, 2 international universities, 31 specialized colleges, and 2 special universities. There are specialized universities in all categories offering courses principally in technological studies, medical studies, business studies and Islamic studies. There are two private universities dedicated solely to female students. The number of universities is growing mostly in and around the capital city of Dhaka.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Public universities are heavily subsidized by Government of Bangladesh to let students from most financial conditions study in these institutes. They admit students via competitive written standardized tests after meeting eligible High School grade criteria with little to no regards for extracurricular activities. Number of foreign teachers and students in these universities are very limited although many of them accept students passing from alternative curriculums.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Most of the Universities of Bangladesh are private. Unlike public universities they're not given financial support by Government. They're regulated by University Grants Commission along with public universities. By law, all private universities must get a permanent campus within 12 years of starting operations. Foreign students and teachers are more often found in private universities due to more flexible requirements than their public counterparts. Private medical colleges must be under a public university, currently no private medical college in Bangladesh is providing post graduate degrees, and other private universities are allowed to provide Master's degree but not MPhil or PhD.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The Technical and Vocational Education System provides courses related to various applied and practical areas of science, technology and engineering, or focuses on a specific specialized area. Course duration ranges from one month to four years. The Technical Education Board controls technical and vocational training in the secondary level and also Two years HSC BM/Vocational in higher secondary level.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) is responsible for the planning, development, and implementation of technical and vocational education in the country. Curriculum is implemented by BTEB. In the Technical Education System, after obtaining a Diploma-in-Engineering degree (four-year curriculum) from the institutes listed below, students can further pursue their educational career by obtaining a bachelor's degree from Engineering & Technology Universities. It normally it takes an additional two and a half to three years of coursework to obtain a bachelor's degree, although some students take more than three years to do so. They can then enroll in post-graduate studies. Students can also study CA (Chartered Accounting) after passing HSC or bachelor's degree and subject to fulfilling the entry criteria of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh (ICAB).


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: International Schools are mainly private schools where all the courses are taught in English and in International curriculums except language subjects i.e. Bangla or French. These schools in Bangladesh follow the Cambridge Assessement International Education, Pearson Edexel, International Bacculaureate and some other curriculums where students are prepared for taking their Ordinary Level (O Level), IGCSE (Cambridge)/ International GCSE (Edexel), Advanced Level (A Level), and IBDP examinations. The Ordinary level / IGCSE, International GCSE/ Advanced Level / IBDP examinations are considered international equivalent to the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) and Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) examinations respectively and accepted by local Colleges and Universities. Most students sit for these exams through attending the registered schools in Bangladesh who follow the curriculums. Those who do not attend a school that follows the British curriculums (not International Bacculaureate) may also sit for their Ordinary, IGCSE and Advanced Level examinations from the British Council as a private candidate. These examinations are conducted under the supervision of the British Council in Bangladesh. The school examinations conducted by the British Council takes place twice a year. Currently, there are two boards operating from Bangladesh for Ordinary and Advanced Level Examinations, which are Pearson Edexcel and Cambridge Assessment International Education.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: However Bangladesh has recently opened English version schools translating National Curriculum textbooks into English except the mandatory Bangla subject.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The Madrasah Education System focuses on religious education, teaching all the basics of education in a religious environment. Religious studies are taught in Arabic and the students in some areas also serve the local area masjids. Students also have to complete all the courses from the General Education System. Many privately licensed Madrasas take in homeless children and provide them with food, shelter and education, e.g. Jamia Tawakkulia Renga Madrasah in Sylhet.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: There are two types of madrasas in Bangladesh. One, the "Quomi" madrasas, are privately funded. The other, the "Alia" madrasas, are privately owned but subsidised by the government (the government spends 11.5% of its education budget on alia madrasahs, paying 80% of teacher and administrator salaries). Quomi madrasahs account for 1.9% of total primary enrollment and 2.2% of secondary enrollment; aliyah madrasahs account for 8.4% of primary and 19% of secondary enrollment. The alia system is like the general education system, except that Arabic is taught in addition to general education. The Madrasah Education Board covers religious education in government-registered Madrasahs in the secondary level. After passing "Alim", a student can enroll for three additional years to obtain a "Fazil" level. Students can go for further general education and earn a university degree. After passing successfully, they can further enroll for another two years to obtain a "Kamil" level degree.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: As of 2020, approximately one-third of refugee Rohingya children were able to access primary education, primarily through temporary centers run by international organizations. UNICEF runs approximately 1,600 learning centers across the country, educating around 145,000 children. Beginning in April 2020, UNICEF and the Government of Bangladesh were scheduled to enroll 10,000 Rohingya children in schools where they will be taught the Myanmar school curriculum.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Since the education system of Bangladesh is completely controlled by the government up to higher secondary level (or grade 12), the grading system up to this point is more or less the same. For each subject, grades are converted into 'grade points (GP)' and are summed up and divided by the total number of subjects, and thus is called 'grade point average (GPA)'. The highest achievable GPA is 5.0. There is also a 'letter grade (LG)' that indicates a range of GPA for total result, or a single GP for a single subject. The grading system is shown below.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: However, in secondary and higher secondary Level, a fourth subject or optional subject system is introduced. Although failing in the fourth subject will not be judged as a failure for the whole, Doing good in it can contribute to gain additional grade points. The additional grade points received is simply (GP in 4th subject) – 2. While counting GPA the algorithm can be simply written as:


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Here, TGP is the total grade points gained in subjects other than optional. OGP is the additional GP gained in 4th subject. N is the number of total subjects of course without optional.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Note that GPA cannot be above 5. Additional GP gained from the optional subject will not be counted if the GP of the subject is less than or equal to 2.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Gaining a GPA of 5.0 or A+ is naturally considered as a good result. However, since a student can gain grade far above the required 80% to receive a GPA of 5.0, the actual grades received in each subject is also included in the official mark sheets given by the education board for PSC,JSC, SSC and HSC exams. There is also an unofficial term called Golden A+ which means receiving A+ in all subjects, since a student can receive a perfect GPA also without gaining more than 80% marks in all subjects thanks to the fourth subject system.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: There exists a substantial number of NGO-run non-formal schools, catering mainly to the drop-outs of the government and non-government primary schools. Very few NGOs, however, impart education for the full five-year primary education cycle. Because of this, on completion of their two-to-three-year non-formal primary education in NGO-run schools, students normally re-enter into government/non-government primary schools at higher classes.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: There are Non-Governmental Schools (NGO) and Non-Formal Education Centers (NFE) and many of these are funded by the government. The largest NFE program is the much reputed BRAC program. However, not all NFE graduates continue on to secondary school.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: NGO-run schools differ from other non-government private schools. While the private schools operate like private enterprises often guided by commercial interests, NGO schools operate mainly in areas not served either by the government or private schools, essentially to meet the educational needs of vulnerable groups in the society. They usually follow an informal approach to suit the special needs of children from these vulnerable groups. But nowadays, some NGO schools are operating into places where there are both private and government schools.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Similarly, in NGO-run schools there does not exist any SMC. The style of management differs depending upon differences in policies pursued by different NGOs. Some are centrally managed within a highly bureaucratic set-up, while others enjoy considerable autonomy.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Different NGOs pursue different policies regarding recruitment of teachers. Some prepare a panel of prospective teachers on the basis of a rigorous test and recruit teachers from this panel. Other NGOs recruit teachers rather informally from locally available interested persons.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Current government projects to promote the education of children in Bangladesh include compulsory primary education for all, free education for girls up to grade 10, stipends for female students, a nationwide integrated education system and a food-for-education literacy movement. A large section of the country's national budget is set aside to help put these programs into action and to promote education and make it more accessible. Recent years have seen these efforts pay off and the Bangladesh education system is strides ahead of what it was only a few years ago. Now even national curriculum books from class 5 to class 12 are distributed freely among all students and schools.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The educational system of Bangladesh faces several problems. In the past, Bangladesh education was primarily a British modelled upper class affair with all courses given in English and very little being done for the common people. The Bangladesh education board has taken steps to leave such practices in the past and is looking forward to education as a way to provide a poverty-stricken nation with a brighter future.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: As Bangladesh is an overpopulated country, there is a huge demand to turn its population into labour, which is why proper education is needed and proper help from government in the educational sectors of Bangladesh is crucial.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Universities and the existing system of academic curricula in Bangladesh are not still observed to be encouraging industry-oriented critical thinking and primarily utilizing rote-learning which encourages passivity under a corporatized model as well as the country has not implemented Outcome-based-Education (OBE) blended system yet, encompassing classroom and laboratory-based teachings with industry-oriented practical learnings for undergraduate and postgraduate engineering academic degrees.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Public expenditure on education lies on the fringes of 2 percent of GDP with a minimum of 0.94 percent in 1980 and a maximum of 2.2 percent in 2007.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The education system lacks a sound Human Resource Development and deployment system, and this has demoralised the primary education sector personnel, including teachers, and contributes to poor performance. Poverty is a big threat to primary education. In Bangladesh, the population is very high. The number of seats available in colleges is less than the number of students who want to enroll, and the number of seats available in universities is also less than the number of students who passed higher secondary level and want to join in a university. The cost of education is increasing day by day, and as a result many students are unable to afford it.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: In Bangladesh, gender discrimination in education occurs amongst the rural households but is non-existent amongst rich households. Bangladesh has achieved gender parity in Primary and Secondary education with significant progress made in higher education There is great difference in the success rates of boys, as compared to girls in Bangladesh. Girls do much better and outperform boys in almost every field of Education. However, in recent years some progress has been made in trying to fix this problem.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: The low performance in primary education is a matter of concern, mostly in rural areas. School drop-out rates and grade repetition rates are high in rural areas. Poor school attendance and low contact time in school are factors contributing to low level of learning achievement. However the situation is very different in urban areas like Dhaka.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Madrasah education in Bangladesh is heavily influenced by religion. However, in the schools and colleges, in most cases, the teachers in the religious and moral education classes in Bangladeshi schools specifically place more emphasis on Islamic studies than universal religious education. Although the non-Muslim students receive books as per their respective religions and haves exams accordingly, many of them hardly or even don't receive formal religious education from their schools and thus have to study on their own. The schools that have religion teachers of different beliefs separate students to take class on their respective religions for the class period, then they mix up together again after finishing the class. Semi-governmental educational institutions often appoint "mawlana"s to conduct religious classes who are reluctant to teach non-Muslim students their own textbooks. In the country's national curriculum, as part of the subject Bengali, Prophet Muhammad's Farewell Sermon is taught to all students regardless of religion and caste in 5th grade; the continuity of study on Muhammad's life-related topics can be seen in the later classes as well and is obligatory for students from all creeds. Islamic History and Heritage is also included in humanities at college level.


title: Education in Bangladesh

text: Recently, the literacy rate of Bangladesh has improved as it stands at 74.7% due to the modernization of schools and education funds.


title: John Shakespeare

text: John Shakespeare (c. 1531 – 7 September 1601) was an English businessman in Stratford-upon-Avon and the father of William Shakespeare. He was a glover and whittawer (leather worker) by trade. Shakespeare was elected to several municipal offices, serving as an alderman and culminating in a term as bailiff, the chief magistrate of the town council, and mayor of Stratford in 1568, before he fell on hard times for reasons unknown. His fortunes later revived and he was granted a coat of arms five years before his death, probably at the instigation and expense of his son, the actor and playwright.


title: John Shakespeare

text: John Shakespeare moved to Stratford-upon-Avon in 1551, where he became a successful businessman involved in several related occupations. At this time, Stratford had a population of 1500 people and only 200 houses. From 1556 to 1592, several official records identify him as a glovemaker, which was probably his primary trade, as tradition remembers him as following that trade even into his old age, but the records of his real estate purchases and legal expenses indicate an income much higher than that of a small-town tradesman. The administration of his father's estate in 1561 names him as a farmer. He inherited and leased agricultural lands and is on record as selling timber and barley. Court records also document him as a "brogger", an unlicensed—and therefore illegal—wool dealer. In addition, he bought and leased out houses. He was twice taken to court for violating the usury laws that prohibited charging interest higher than the legal limit of 10 per cent.


title: John Shakespeare

text: By 1552 he was residing in a house on Henley Street. On 2 October 1556, he purchased a house on the same street, the eastern wing of what is now called Shakespeare's Birthplace. Whether the house he bought in 1556 was the same house he had lived in during 1552 is unknown. In 1576, he bought two houses to the west and joined the three together.


title: John Shakespeare

text: In 1556, Shakespeare was elected borough ale taster, the first of several key municipal positions he was to hold in Stratford. In that position he was responsible for ensuring that weights and measures and prices were observed by innkeepers and publicans within the borough, and also by butchers, bakers and town traders. In 1558 he was appointed borough constable – a position similar to an early police constable. In 1559 he became an affeeror, an officer responsible for assessing fines for offences carrying penalties not explicitly defined by existing statutes. This role led to his becoming a burgess, then a chamberlain. He would have been known as a 'Goodman', a title that recognised his growing social status within Stratford. By 1564, Shakespeare was an alderman, a member of the Common Hall of Stratford, and it was in this year that William was born.