title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: The DHR and its assets, including the stations, line and vehicles, is owned by the government of India and entrusted to the Ministry of Railways. The Northeast Frontier Railway documented the railway in a comprehensive register, and handles its day-to-day maintenance and management. Several programs, divisions and departments of Indian Railways are responsible for operating, maintaining and repairing the DHR. It is protected by the 1989 Railway Act and the stipulations governing public property. It is now headed by the director, Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: All the steam locomotives currently in use on the railway are B-Class, built by Sharp, Stewart and Company and later the North British Locomotive Company between 1889 and 1925. A total of 34 were built, but by 2005 only 12 were still in use or being repaired by the railway.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: In 2002, No. 787 was rebuilt for oil firing on the same principle as that used on Nilgiri Mountain Railway No. 37395. A diesel-powered generator was fitted to operate the oil burner and an electrically-driven feed pump, and a diesel-powered compressor was fitted to power the braking system. The locomotive was also fitted with a feedwater heater. The rebuild dramatically changed its appearance. Trials of the refitted locomotive were disappointing, and it never entered regular service; in early 2011, it was in the Tindharia Works awaiting re-conversion to coal-firing. In early 2019 B787 was restored cosmetically and is now displayed on a plinth outside Siliguri Junction station.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: In March 2001, No. 794 was transferred to the Matheran Hill Railway for a "joy train" (a steam-hauled tourist train) on that railway. It entered service there in May 2002.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: The DHR purchased the third Garratt locomotive built, a D Class , in 1910. Only one DHR steam locomotive has been taken out of India: DHR 778 (originally No. 19). After many years out of use at the Hesston Steam Museum, it was sold to Adrian Shooter in the UK and restored to working order. Now on a private railway (the Beeches Light Railway in Oxfordshire), it has run on the Ffestiniog Railway, the Launceston Steam Railway and the Leighton Buzzard Light Railway.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: The line follows Hill Cart Road, which is part of National Highway 110. The track is on the roadside for long stretches, and both track and road might be blocked by a rockslide. Since a length of the road is flanked with buildings, the railway line often resembles urban tramway tracks. To warn pedestrians and drivers of an approaching train, engines are equipped with very loud horns and whistles which train drivers sound almost constantly.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: A major difficulty faced by the DHR was the steepness of the terrain. Loops and zig-zags were incorporated along the route to achieve a comfortable gradient. When the train moves forward, reverses and then moves forward again (climbing a slope while doing so), it gains altitude along the side of the hill.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: Siliguri is palpably a place of meeting ... The discovery that here the metre gauge system ends and the two-foot gauge of the Darjeeling-Himalayan railway begins, confirms what all these things hint at ... One steps into a railway carriage which might easily be mistaken for a toy, and the whimsical idea seizes hold of one that one has accidentally stumbled into Lilliput. With a noisy fuss out of all proportion to its size the engine gives a jerk – and starts ... No special mechanical device such as a rack is employed – unless, indeed, one can so describe the squat and stolid hill-man who sits perched over the forward buffers of the engine and scatters sand on the rails when the wheels of the engine lose their grip of the metals and race, with the noise of a giant spring running down when the control has been removed. Sometimes we cross our own track after completing the circuit of a cone, at others we zigzag backwards and forwards; but always we climb at a steady gradient – so steady that if one embarks in a trolley at Ghum, the highest point on the line, the initial push supplies all the energy necessary to carry one to the bottom.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: The trip to Darjeeling by rail has changed little since that time, and remains popular with travelers and rail enthusiasts. Like tea and the Ghurka culture, the DHR has become an essential feature of the landscape and an enduring part of Darjeeling's identity.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: Several films have depicted the railway. Protagonist Rajesh Khanna sings "Mere Sapno Ki Rani" to heroine Sharmila Tagore, who is on the train, in the 1969 film "Aradhana". Other films which include the railway are "Barfi!", "Parineeta" and "Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman".


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: The BBC made a series of three documentaries on the mountain railways of India, which was first broadcast in February 2010. The first episode covers the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, the second the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, and the third the Kalka–Shimla Railway. The documentaries, directed by Tarun Bhartiya, Hugo Smith and Nick Mattingly, were produced by Gerry Troyna. The documentary on Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was directed by Tarun Bhartiya. The series won the UK Royal Television Society Award in June 2010.


title: Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

text: The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway Society (DHRS) is a preservation and support group, founded in 1998 and with a membership of over 750 people across twenty countries. Until his death in December 2022, the President of the DHRS was the British railway executive Adrian Shooter.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Turkoman (Middle Turkic: تُركْمانْ, and "Türkmân"; and ', , , Persian: ترکمن sing. "Turkamān", pl. "Tarākimah"), also called Turcoman and Turkman, is a term that was widely used during the Middle Ages for the people of Oghuz Turkic origin. Oghuz Turks were a western Turkic people that, in the 8th century A.D, formed a tribal confederation in an area between the Aral and Caspian seas in Central Asia, and spoke the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: "Turkmen", originally an exonym, dates from the High Middle Ages, along with the ancient and familiar name "Turk" (), and tribal names such as "Bayat", "Bayandur", "Afshar", "Kayi", and others. By the 10th century, Islamic sources were calling Oghuz Turks as Muslim Turkmens, as opposed to Shamanist or Buddhist Turks. It entered into the usage of the Western world through the Byzantines in the 12th century, since by that time Oghuz Turks were overwhelmingly Muslim. Later, the term "Oghuz" was gradually supplanted by "Turkmen" among Oghuz Turks themselves, thus turning an exonym into an endonym, a process which was completed by the beginning of the 13th century.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: In Anatolia, since the Late Middle Ages, "Turkmen" was superseded by the term "Ottoman", which came from the name of the Ottoman Empire and its ruling dynasty. It remains as an endonym of semi-nomadic tribes of the Terekeme, a sub-ethnic group of the Azerbaijani people.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Today, a significant percentage of residents of Azerbaijan, Gagauzia, Turkey, and Turkmenistan are descendants of Oghuz Turks (Turkmens), and the languages they speak belong to the Oghuz group of the Turkic language family. As of the early 21st century, this ethnonym is still used by the Turkmens of Central Asia, the main population of Turkmenistan, who have sizeable groups in Iran, Afghanistan and Russia, as well as Iraqi and Syrian Turkmens, the other descendants of Oghuz Turks.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: The current majority view for the etymology of the ethnonym "Türkmen" or "Turcoman" is that it comes from "Türk" and the Turkic emphasizing suffix "-men", meaning "'most Turkish of the Turks' or 'pure-blooded Turks.'" A folk etymology, dating back to the Middle Ages and found in al-Biruni and Mahmud al-Kashgari, instead derives the suffix "-men" from the Persian suffix "-mānind", with the resulting word meaning "like a Turk". While formerly the dominant etymology in modern scholarship, this mixed Turkic-Persian derivation is now viewed as incorrect.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: The first-known mention of the term "Turkmen", "Turkman" or "Turkoman" occurs near the end of the 10th century A.D in Islamic literature by the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi in "Ahsan Al-Taqasim Fi Ma'rifat Al-Aqalim". In his work, which was completed in 987 A.D, al-Muqaddasi writes about Turkmens twice while depicting the region as the frontier of the Muslim possessions in Central Asia. According to medieval Islamic authors Al-Biruni and al-Marwazi, the term Turkmen referred to the Oghuz who converted to Islam. There is evidence, however, that non-Oghuz Turks such as Karluks also have been called Turkomans and Turkmens. Later during the Middle Ages, the term was extensively employed for Oghuz Turks, a western Turkic people, who established a large tribal confederation called Oghuz Yabgu in the 8th century A.D. This polity, whose inhabitants spoke Oghuz Turkic, occupied an area between the Aral and Caspian seas in Central Asia.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Originally an exonym, the term "Turkmen" was used along with the ancient and familiar name "Turk" (türk), and tribal names such as "Bayat", "Bayandur", "Afshar", "Kayi", and others. By the 10th century, Islamic sources were referring to Oghuz Turks as Muslim Turkmens, to distinguish them from Shamanist or Buddhist Turks.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: 11th century was the era of the Seljuq conquests in Central Asia and the Middle East. Muslim Oghuz people, generally identified as Turkmens by then, rallied around the Qinik tribe that made up the core of the future Seljuq tribal union and the state they would create in the 11th century. These Seljuk Turkmens moved from their homeland in Transoxiana through the Qara Qum desert to the edges of Ghaznavid Khorasan in the 1020s. Later, large groups of Turkmens moved with their flocks and herds westward to Ray and Jebal, and as far west as Azerbaijan by 1030. Punitive Ghaznavid counter-attacks pushed some of these Turkmens back, but other bands were already plundering towns across the whole of northern Khorasan, severely impeding caravan traffic and commercial life, as well as destroying the oases by the pasturing of their sheep and horses. The decisive Seljuk victory over the Ghaznavid army at Dandanaqan in 1040 enabled the Seljuq dynasty to establish their own polity in Iran and beyond.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Since the Seljuk era, the sultans of the dynasty created military settlements in parts of the Near and Middle East to strengthen their power; large Turkmen settlements were created in Syria, Iraq, and Eastern Anatolia. After the Battle of Manzikert, the Oghuz extensively settled throughout Anatolia and Azerbaijan. In the 11th century, Turkmens densely populated Arran. The 12th-century Persian writer al-Marwazi wrote:


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: It was during those years that "Turkoman" entered into the usage of the Western world through the Byzantines in the 12th century, since by that time Oghuz Turks were largely Muslim. Later, the term "Oghuz" was successively superseded by the term "Turkmen" among Oghuz Turks themselves, thus becoming an endonym. This process was completed by the beginning of the 13th century.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Towards the High Middle Ages, the eastern part of Anatolia became known as "Turkomania" in European texts and as "Turkmeneli" in Ottoman sources. The center of the Turkmen settlement in the territory of modern-day Iraq became Kirkuk. The Turkmens also included the Ive and Bayandur tribes, from which the ruling clans of the states of Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu emerged. After the fall of Aq Qoyunlu, the Turkmen tribes—partly under their own name, for example Afshars, Hajilu, Pornak, Deger, and Mavsellu—united in a Turkmen Qizilbash tribal confederation.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Turkmens primarily spoke languages that belong or belonged to the Oghuz branch of Turkic languages, which included such languages and dialects as Seljuq, Old Anatolian Turkish, and old Ottoman Turkish. The Book of Dede Korkut, a collection of epic stories of the Oghuz Turks, is a good example of the Turkic language spoken by the Medieval Turkmens. It is of a mixed character and depicts vivid characteristics of the period of transition from later Old Oghuz Turkic to early Modern Turkic of Iranian Azerbaijan. There are also orthographical, lexical and grammatical structures found in Eastern Turkic that was spoken by the Oghuz Turks initially inhabiting parts of Central Asia.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: The first known linguistic material labeled as "Oghuz-Turkmen" was provided by the medieval Turkic scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari in his 11th-century-work called "Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk" (Compendium of Turkic dialects). First, Kashgari attempted to present his own understanding of the term Turkmen: "Turkmen. They are Oghuz," "Oghuz. A tribe of the Turks; the Turkmen." The author also cited phonetic, lexical and grammatical features of the language of Oghuz-Turkmens, providing them under the term "Oghuz", "Oghuz-Turkmen", "Turkmen-Oghuz" or simply "Turkmen" interchangeably. Kashgari also identified several dialects in the Oghuz-Turkmen language and presented a couple of examples displaying certain dialect differences.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Old Anatolian language, introduced to Anatolia by Seljuk Turkmens who migrated westward from Central Asia to Khorasan and further to Anatolia during the Seljuk expansion in the 11th century, was widely spoken by Turkmens of the area until the 15th century. It is also one of the known ancient languages within the Oghuz group of Turkic languages, along with old Ottoman. It displays certain characteristics peculiar to eastern Oghuz languages such as modern Turkmen and Khorasani Turkic languages, rather than western Oghuz languages such as Turkish or Azerbaijani. Such Old Anatolian Turkic features as bol- "to be(come)", also present in modern Turkmen and Khorasani Turkic, is ol in modern Turkish.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Famous "Book of Dede Korkut" is considered an Oghuz masterpiece. Other prominent works of literature produced during the High Middle Ages also include the "Oghuzname", Battalname, Danishmendname, "" epics, which are part of the literary history of Azerbaijanis, Turks of Turkey, and Turkmens.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: The Book of Dede Korkut is a collection of epics and stories bearing witness to the language, the way of life, religions, traditions and social norms of the Oghuz Turks. Other notable literary works of the era include (History of the House of Seljuq) by (; "Complaint") by , by , by Yunus Emre, (; "Book of Gnosis") by .


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Medieval Turkmen culture was mostly a continuation of Oghuz culture, where nomadic elements played a vital role. After adoption of Islam, Turkmens had to change a number of their traditional customs, such as stopping drinking wine, which was a common pastime in Oghuz culture. However, with Islam, polygyny entered Turkmen way of life, whereas previously the Oghuz were predominantly monogamous with Oghuz women playing an active role in family matters.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: By the time Turkmens settled in Asia Minor, their commitment to Islam replaced any national consciousness and changed their traditional values. Islam played a prominent role in the identity and cultural life of Turkmens. Besides, Oghuz Turks came to be known as Turkmens after they had overwhelmingly converted to Islam during the Samanid era in Central Asia. When Turkmens first entered the Iranian world from the steppes of upper Asia, they still held animist, totemist, shamanist and Zoroastrian beliefs, although a great majority of them were Muslims. These Turkmens preserved their own beliefs and rituals while accepting those of the new religion, Islam.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: By the 10th century A.D, Turkmens were predominantly Muslim, bound by a single religion and purpose. They later found themselves divided into Sunni and Shia branches of Islam. However, they still managed to preserve elements of their nomadic culture even during the peak years of their sedentary states. Steppe influences were also apparent in Turkmen marriages. Tughril, a sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire, in accordance with an old Oghuz custom, married his late brother Chaghri's widow, a practice despised in Islam.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: Medieval Turkmens markedly contributed to the expansion of Islam with their extensive conquests of previously Christian lands, specifically those of Byzantine Anatolia and the Caucasus.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: In Anatolia in the late Middle Ages, the term "Turkmen" was gradually supplanted by the term "Ottomans". The Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans until the 19th century. In the late 19th century, as the Ottomans adopted European ideas of nationalism, they preferred to return to a more common term "Turk" instead of "Turkmen", whereas previously "Turk" was used to exclusively refer to Anatolian peasants.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: The use of "Turkmen" as an ethnonym for the Turks living in Iranian Azerbaijan disappeared from common use after the 17th and 18th centuries. It continued to be used interchangeably with other ethnohistorical terms for the Turkic people of the area, including Turk, Tatar and Ajam, well into the early 20th century. In the early 21st century, "Turkmen" remains as the self-name for the semi-nomadic tribes of the Terekime, a sub-ethnic group of the Azerbaijani people.


title: Turkoman (ethnonym)

text: In the early 21st century, the ethnonyms "Turkoman" and "Turkmen" are still used by the Turkmens of Turkmenistan, who have sizeable groups in Iran, Afghanistan, Russia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Pakistan, as well as Iraqi and Syrian Turkmens, descendants of the Oghuz Turks who mostly adhere to an Anatolian Turkish heritage and identity. Most Iraqi and Syrian Turkmens are descendants of Ottoman soldiers, traders, and civil servants who were taken into Iraq from Anatolia during the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Turks of Israel and Lebanon, Turkish sub-ethnic groups of Yoruks and Karapapaks (sub-ethnic group of Azerbaijanis) are also referred to as Turkmens.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: José Leonardo Nunes Alves Sousa Jardim (; born 1 August 1974) is a Portuguese football manager, currently in charge of Emirati club Shabab Al Ahli.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: He started working at the professional level at the age of 35, initially with Camacha and Chaves, before winning promotion to the Primeira Liga with Beira-Mar in 2009–10. He later managed Braga, Olympiacos and Sporting CP.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: Jardim joined Monaco in 2014, and led the club to its eighth Ligue 1 championship in 2016–17. After being dismissed in October 2018, he was replaced by Thierry Henry and reappointed in January 2019, before being sacked once again in December.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: Born in Barcelona, Venezuela to Portuguese parents who had settled in the country, Jardim returned to Portugal at a very young age, relocating to the island of Madeira. In 2001, aged only 27, he began working as assistant at local club A.D. Camacha, and remained three years in that role.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: Subsequently, Jardim was promoted to head coach at the third division side, before moving to G.D. Chaves in the same division midway through the 2007–08 campaign. He led the northerners to promotion to the Segunda Liga in 2008-09, his only full season.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: On 2 June 2009, Jardim was hired by S.C. Beira-Mar, and achieved another promotion in 2009–10, this time to the Primeira Liga. He stepped down midway through the 2010–11 season, even though the Aveiro team was performing above most expectations.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: In May 2011, Jardim replaced Sporting CP-bound Domingos Paciência at the helm of S.C. Braga. He led the Minho club to third place in his only season – posting a record of 15 consecutive league wins in the process– but left after a disagreement with the president.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: On 5 June 2012, Jardim agreed to join Olympiacos F.C. of Super League Greece on a two-year contract, replacing Ernesto Valverde. He was controversially relieved of his duties on 19 January 2013, even though the team led the league by ten points.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: Jardim agreed to return to the country of his parents on 20 May 2013, signing a two-year deal with Sporting. Leading a team full of young players developed in the club's youth academy, he coached the Lisbon team to second place in 2013–14, with 25 points and 18 goals more than the previous season.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: On 10 June 2014, Jardim joined AS Monaco FC, signing a contract for two years with the option for another. He led the team to third place in Ligue 1 in his first year, and repeated the feat in 2015–16; in between, on 12 May 2015, he agreed to an extension until 2019.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: In the 2016–17 campaign, displaying attacking football, particularly by several young players, Monaco won its first national championship in 17 years. The side also reached the semi-finals in both the UEFA Champions League and the Coupe de France, and lost the final of the Coupe de la Ligue to Paris Saint-Germain FC. In early June 2017, Jardim agreed a new deal until 2020.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: On 11 October 2018, following a poor start to the season which included two losses in as many Champions League group stage matches, Jardim was sacked. On 25 January 2019, following the dismissal of Thierry Henry, he was reappointed.


title: Leonardo Jardim

text: On 2 June 2021, Jardim was appointed at Al Hilal SFC of the Saudi Professional League, on a one-year deal with an option for a second. On 14 February 2022, in spite of winning both the Saudi Super Cup and the AFC Champions League, he left by mutual consent.


title: Jijabai

text: Jijabai Bhonsle (or Bhonsale, Bhosale, Bhosle) or Jadhav (12 January 1598 – 17 June 1674), referred to as Rajmata, Rastramata, Jijabai or Jijau, was the mother of Shivaji, founder of the Maratha Empire. She was a daughter of Lakhujirao Jadhav of Sindkhed Raja.


title: Jijabai

text: Jijabai was born on 12 January 1598, to Mahalasabai Jadhav and Lakhuji Jadhav of Deulgaon, near Sindkhed, in present-day Buldhana district of Maharastra. Lakhojiraje Jadhav was a Maratha noble. Jijabai was married at an early age to Shahaji Bhosle, son of Maloji Bhosle of Verul village, a military commander serving under the Nizam Shahi sultans. She taught Shivaji about swarajya and raised him to be a warrior. Jijabai died on 17 June 1674. Jijabai (the mother of Shivaji, who founded the Maratha Empire) belonged to the clan of jadhavas of Sindkhed Raja, who also claimed descent from the Yadavas.


title: Jijabai

text: When Shivaji was 14 years old, Shahaji Raje handed over the Jagir of Pune to him. Of course, the responsibility of managing the Jagir fell on Jijabai. Jijabai and Shivaji arrived in Pune with skilled officers. Due to the persistent interests of Nizamshah, Adilshah and Mughals, the condition of Pune was very bad. Under such adverse circumstances, she redeveloped the city of Pune.


title: Jijabai

text: She plowed the farmland with a golden plow, giving sanctuary to the locals. She was responsible for the education of the kings. Jijabai told Shivaji stories from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, which began and ended in independence. How mighty was Rama who killed Ravana who was depriving Sita, how mighty was Bhima who killed Bakasura and rescued weak people, etc.


title: Jijabai

text: Because of these rites given by Jijabai, Shivaji Raje happened. Jijabai not only told the story but also gave the first lessons of politics by sitting next to the chair.


title: Jijabai

text: She was also a skilled horse rider. She could wield a sword very skillfully. She managed her husband's Jagir in Pune and developed it. She established Kasba Ganapati Mandir. She also renovated Kevareshwar Temple and Tambadi Jogeshwari Temple.


title: Jijabai

text: She died on 17 June 1674 at Pachad village near Raigad Fort. At that time it was only twelve days since the coronation of Shivaji.


title: Rainbow discography

text: The following is a comprehensive discography of Rainbow, an English hard rock band. They have released 8 studio albums, 15 live albums, 17 compilation albums, 8 box sets, 3 EPs and 24 singles.


title: Usufruct

text: Usufruct () is a limited real right (or "in rem" right) found in civil-law and mixed jurisdictions that unites the two property interests of "usus" and "fructus":


title: Usufruct

text: A usufruct is either granted in severalty or held in common ownership, as long as the property is not damaged or destroyed. The third civilian property interest is "abusus" (literally "abuse"), the right to alienate the thing possessed, either by consuming or destroying it (e.g., for profit), or by transferring it to someone else (e.g., sale, exchange, gift). Someone enjoying all three rights has full ownership.


title: Usufruct

text: Generally, a usufruct is a system in which a person or group of persons uses the real property (often land) of another. The "usufructuary" does not own the property, but does have an interest in it, which is sanctioned or contractually allowed by the owner. Two different systems of usufruct exist: perfect and imperfect. In a perfect usufruct, the usufructuary is entitled the use of the property but cannot substantially change it. For example, an owner of a small business may become ill and grant the right of usufruct to an individual to run their business. The usufructuary thus has the right to operate the business and gain income from it, but does not have the right to, for example, tear down the business and replace it, or to sell it. The imperfect usufruct system gives the usufructuary some ability to modify the property. For example, if a land owner grants a piece of land to a usufructuary for agricultural use, the usufructuary may have the right to not only grow crops on the land but also make improvements that would help in farming, say by building a barn. However this can be disadvantageous to the usufructuary: if a usufructuary makes material improvements such as a building, or fixtures attached to the building, or other fixed structures to their usufruct, they do not own the improvements, and any money spent on those improvements would belong to the original owner at the end of the usufruct.


title: Usufruct

text: In many usufructuary property systems, such as the traditional "ejido" system in Mexico, individuals or groups may only acquire the usufruct of the property, not legal ownership. A usufruct is directly equatable to a common-law life estate except that a usufruct can be granted for a term shorter than the holder's lifetime.


title: Usufruct

text: Usufruct comes from civil law, under which it is a subordinate real right ("ius in re aliena") of limited duration, usually for a person's lifetime. The holder of a usufruct, known as a usufructuary, has the right to use ("usus") the property and enjoy its fruits ("fructus"). In modern terms, "fructus" more or less corresponds to the profit one may make, as when selling the "fruits" (in both literal and figurative senses) of the land or leasing a house.


title: Usufruct

text: "Fruits" refers to any renewable commodity on the property, including (among others) actual fruits, livestock and even rental payments derived from the property. These may be divided into civil ("fructus civiles"), industrial ("fructus industriales"), and natural fruits ("fructus naturales"), the latter of which, in Roman law, included slaves and livestock.


title: Usufruct

text: Under Roman law, usufruct was a type of personal servitude ("servitutes personarum"), a beneficial right in another's property. The usufructuary never had possession of this property (on the basis that if he possessed at all, he did so through the owner), but he did have an interest in the property itself for a period, either a term of years, or a lifetime. Unlike the owner, the usufructuary did not have a right of alienation ("abusus"), but he could sell or lease his usufructuary interest. Even though a usufructuary did not have possessory title, he could sue for relief in the form of a modified possessory interdict (prohibiting order).


title: Usufruct

text: In some indigenous cultures, usufruct means the land is owned in common by the people, but families and individuals have the right to use certain plots of land. Land is considered village or communal land rather than owned by individual people. While people can take fruits of the land, they may not sell or abuse it in ways that stop future use of the land by the community.


title: Usufruct

text: Ancient examples of usufruct are found in the Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses. The Law of Moses directed property owners not to harvest the edges of their fields, and reserved the gleanings for the poor.


title: Usufruct

text: Thomas Jefferson famously wrote in 1789 that "Earth belongs in usufruct to the living." Jefferson's metaphor means that, like a usufructuary, human beings have the right to use the earth for their own benefit and derive profit from it, but only to the extent that their actions do not impoverish the earth's bounty for future generations. It was, in other words, an expression both of rights (of the living) and obligations (of the living to those yet to be born). Jefferson's use of the word "living" is critical here: he meant that the usufructuaries of the world are those who are alive, not deceased past generations. This idea would profoundly influence Jefferson over the course of his life, and would lead to his acknowledgement that the Constitution of the United States would be revised by future generations, and was part of the reason that the Constitution includes a provision for its own amendment.


title: Usufruct

text: In France usufruct applies in inheritances. Under French law an indefeasible portion known as the "forced estate" passes to the deceased's surviving spouse and issue (with shares apportioned according to the number of children), with the rest of the estate – the "free estate" – free to dispose of by will. However, the surviving spouse may elect to distribute the forced estate as is, or convert it into a usufruct, or break up the estate into a distributable portion and a usufruct good for the children's lifetime. If a usufruct is chosen, a value is set for the usufruct interest for inheritance tax purposes and payable by the surviving spouse, on a sliding scale according to his/her age.


title: Usufruct

text: The value of furniture and household items is calculated using a standard formula based on the appraised value of the estate's liquid and non-liquid assets, then the usufruct's value to the surviving spouse is subtracted, and finally the remaining balance is divided among the children on the death of the surviving spouse. This simplifies handling household items since the surviving spouse is free to maintain, replace or dispose of them as he/she wishes during his/her lifetime, with the monetary value of the items going to the children. Title to assets does not pass, and the usufruct disappears on death or at the end of a term of years. A usufruct is distinct from a trust or similar settlement. French law breaks with Roman law by construing a usufruct as "not" a servitude but rather a possessory interest.


title: Usufruct

text: Although the United States is for the most part a common law jurisdiction recognizing life estate instead of usufruct, Louisiana is a civil-law jurisdiction, specifically following the French and Spanish models. In Louisiana, usufructs generally are created in a manner similar to other real rights, by gift ("donation"), will ("testament"), or operation of law. Nevertheless, they are typically granted "cestui que vie". Unless otherwise provided in a will, a person's share of community property accedes to descendants as bare title holders ("naked owners"); nevertheless, if that person has a living spouse, the latter will receive a usufruct in that portion of the estate until death or remarriage (La. Civil Code art. 890). Under certain other conditions, a usufruct may arise giving rights to that person's parents.


title: Usufruct

text: While Georgia does not share Louisiana's civil law history, Georgia General Assembly statutorily created usufructs. In Georgia, a usufruct is "rights or privileges usually arising out of landlord and tenant relationships, and with privileges granted to tenants holding less interest in real estate than estate for years". Under Georgia law, if a landowner grants a lease for fewer than five years, the lease agreement is a usufruct, and the landowner retains the estate. Additionally, Georgia courts consider as a usufruct any relationship between a landowner and a lessee where the restrictions are "so pervasive as to be fundamentally inconsistent with the concept of an estate for years", or the landowner retains "dominion and control" over the business operating on the property.


title: Usufruct

text: In Thailand the Commercial and Civil Code is based on the European civil code and recognizes the notion of usufruct at clauses 1417 to 1428. The usufruct can be done for lifetime or a maximum of 30 years according to the law. It needs to be registered at the local land department to have full effect on third parties, on title deed Nor Sor Sam or higher.


title: Usufruct

text: A liferent, by which a usufruct is known in Scots law, is the right to receive for life the benefits of a property or other asset, without the right to dispose of the property or asset. An individual who enjoys this right is called a liferenter. The owner of a property burdened by a usufruct is called the fiar and right of ownership is known as the fee.


title: Usufruct

text: Usufruct has been revived as part of the agricultural change associated with Cuba's Special Period. As a legacy of sanctions and a struggling economy, Cuba had accumulated many crumbling buildings that could not be repaired. These were torn down and the empty lots lay idle for years until the food shortages forced Cuban citizens to make use of every piece of land. Initially, this was an ad-hoc process where ordinary Cubans took the initiative to grow their own food in whatever piece of land was available. Tenure but not ownership was formalised with a legal framework using usufruct to give farmers rights on a profit-sharing basis to the products produced from the land, but not ownership rights to the land itself.


title: Usufruct

text: The freedom of individuals in a community to appropriate resources merely by virtue of the fact that they are using them


title: Usufruct

text: Usufruct, in short, differs qualitatively from the quid pro quo of reciprocity, exchange, and mutual aid — all of which are trapped within history's demeaning account books with their "just" ratios and their "honest" balance sheets.


title: Usufruct

text: He pairs the concept of usufruct with complementarity and the irreducible minimum as core to his ethical world view.


title: Usufruct

text: What "civilization" has given us, in spite of itself, is the recognition that the ancient values of usufruct, complementarity, and the irreducible minimum must be extended from the kin group to humanity as a whole.


title: Pratapgad

text: Pratapgad is a mountain fort located in Satara district, in the Western Indian state of Maharashtra.The fort is situated 24 kilometres from the Mahabaleshwar hill station. The fort is now a popular tourist destination.


title: Pratapgad

text: The fort's historical significance is due to the Battle of Pratapgad, which took place here on 10 November 1659, between Shivaji and Bijapur Sultanate general Afzal Khan. Chatrapati Shivaji's killing of Afzal Khan was followed by decisive Maratha victory over the Bijapur army.


title: Pratapgad

text: The Maratha ruler Shivaji assigned Moropant Trimbak Pingle, his prime minister, to undertake the construction of this fort in order to defend the banks of the Nira and the Koyna rivers, and to defend the "Par pass". It was completed in 1656.


title: Pratapgad

text: The Battle of Pratapgad between Shivaji and Afzal Khan, a general of Adil Shahi dynasty, was fought below the ramparts of this fort on 10 November 1659. This was the first major test of the fledgling kingdom's army, and set the stage of the establishment of the Maratha empire.


title: Pratapgad

text: Pratapgad continued to be involved in regional politics. Sakharam Bapu Bokil, a well-known minister of Pune, was confined by his rival Nana Phadnis in Pratapgad in 1778. He was later moved from fort to fort until he died at Raigad. In 1796, Nana Phadnis, while escaping from the intrigues of Daulatrao Shinde and his minister Baloba, assembled a strong garrison in Pratapgad before heading to Mahad. In 1818, as part of the Third Anglo-Maratha War, Pratapgad surrendered by private negotiation. This was a great loss to the Maratha forces, as Pratapgad was an important stronghold, had a large garrison, and could suppress much of the country around Wai.


title: Pratapgad

text: Pratapgad fort is located at 15 km (10 miles) from Poladpur and 23 km (15 miles) west of Mahabaleshwar, a popular hill station of Maharashtra. The fort stands 1080 metres (3543') above sea level and is built on a spur which overlooks the road between the villages of Par and Kinesvar.


title: Pratapgad

text: The fort has a Tulja Bhawani temple from Shivaji's time. It have murti of goddess Bhawani, which have eight hands (Marathi : "Ashtbhuja"). Weapons of soldiers are on display near this temple.


title: Pratapgad

text: Pratapgad is usually visited as a day-trip from the hill station of Mahabaleshwar, a popular tourist destination located 25 kilometres away. Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation provides regular bus service. There are small shops, restaurants and a handicrafts store. Many schools also arrange educational trips to the fort. The fort is also on many trekking routes of the area.


title: Pratapgad

text: An bronze equestrian statue of Shivaji is present at the fort. It was unveiled by Jawaharlal Nehru, then Prime Minister of India on 30 November 1957. The same year a road was constructed by the Public Works Department from Kumbhrosi village up to fort. A guest house and a small park was built inside the fort in 1960.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: The SoftBank Vision Fund is a venture capital fund founded in 2017 that is part of the SoftBank Group. With over $100 billion in capital, it is the world's largest technology-focused investment fund. In 2019, SoftBank Vision Fund 2 was founded. The total fair value of both funds as of 31 March 2021 was $154 billion.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: The Softbank Vision Fund was created in May 2017 by the Softbank Group and the Public Investment Fund (PIF). $100 billion was raised with PIF contributing $45 billion, SoftBank contributing $28 billion, the Mubadala Investment Company contributing $15 billion and the rest from other investors including Apple. Through Softbank Vision Fund, Masayoshi Son explained his intent to invest in all companies developing technologies in line with the global artificial intelligence trends, including various sectors such as finance or transportation.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: In July 2019, SoftBank announced the creation of SoftBank Vision Fund 2 with investors from technology companies such as Microsoft, Apple and Foxconn as well as financial service companies such as Standard Chartered, Mizuho Bank, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation and MUFG Bank. The National Investment Corporation of National Bank of Kazakhstan was also an investor. Saudi Arabia was not an investor in the second fund. The fund was reported to focus on AI-based technology and reach an investment of approximately $108 billion, of which $38 billion would come from Softbank itself.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: In January 2020, multiple Softbank-funded startups started cutting their staff, such as at Getaround, Oyo, Rappi, Katerra and Zume. In February 2020, Elliott Management, an activist hedge fund, bought a $2.5 billion stake in Softbank and pushed for restructuration and more transparency, especially regarding its Vision Fund. With many portfolio companies of the first fund not performing well and high profile debacles such as the buyout of Wework after its failed Initial public offering, investor confidence in the Vision Fund fell. In May 2020, Softbank announced the Vision Fund lost $18 billion leading to 15% of the fund's 500 staff being laid off. As a result, the Vision Fund 2 raised less than half of its $108 billion goal with all of it being funded by Softbank itself after failure to secure commitments from external investors.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: In May 2021, SoftBank announced the total fair value of both funds as of 31 March 2021 was $154 billion and the Vision Funds made a record profit of $36.99 billion due to its successful investment in Coupang. After announcing the success, SoftBank raised the size of Vision Fund 2 to $30 billion and stated it plans to continue self funding the second fund although it might consider trying again to secure funding from external investors. Also in May 2021, Bloomberg reported that Vision Fund could become public through a $300 million SPAC in 2021, listing in Amsterdam.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: In 2022, SoftBank Vision Fund posted a record 3.5 trillion yen loss ($27.4 billion) for its financial year ended on 31 March 2022 as the valuation of its stock portfolio plummeted.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: In July 2022, CEO Rajeev Misra announced he would be stepping back from some of his main roles including the management of SoftBank Vision Fund 2. Several other executives stepped down from their roles in the same year.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: In August 2022, the Vision fund announced a loss of $23.1 billion for the April-June quarter and that it would be planning to cut headcounts. Eric J. Savitz, associate editor for technology at Barron's, characterized the SoftBank Vision Fund as a failed experiment. Masayoshi Son said at the time he was “embarrassed” and “ashamed” when he was confronted with SoftBank Vision Fund's dismal performance and The Wall Street Journal called SoftBank a “big loser" while Bloomberg elaborated on “Masayoshi Son’s broken business model." Son's investing strategy in the first and second SoftBank Vision Funds established in 2017 and 2019, was being described as one reliant on the greater fool theory and the lackluster performance of its investments and Masayoshi Son’s presentations in face of that, have been ridiculed by specialized media.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: SoftBank Vision Fund is managed by SoftBank Investment Advisers and SoftBank Vision Fund 2 is managed by SoftBank Global Advisors. Both are subsidiaries of the SoftBank Group. The firm has an investment team that will evaluate and select companies for the funds to invest in. Investments made mostly are either venture capital or private equity type ones. Most of the investments in Silicon Valley companies have been more than $100 million.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: SoftBank Investment Advisers is headquartered in London with additional main offices in Silicon Valley and Tokyo. It also has other offices in Abu Dhabi, Hong Kong, Mumbai, Riyadh, Shanghai and Singapore. The current CEO is Rajeev Misra, who was previously SoftBank's head of strategic finance.


title: SoftBank Vision Fund

text: The largest investor of the first Vision Fund is the Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia contributing $45 billion of the $100 billion fund. Other investors include Softbank, Mubadala as well as technology firms, Foxconn, Qualcomm, Sharp and Apple. The second Vision Fund is solely funded by Softbank itself after failure to secure commitment from external investors due to underwhelming performance of its predecessor.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: Virus is a 2019 Indian Malayalam-language medical thriller film co-produced and directed by Aashiq Abu set against the backdrop of the 2018 Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala. The film was written by Muhsin Parari and Suhas-Sharfu. It stars an ensemble cast that includes Kunchacko Boban, Tovino Thomas, Asif Ali, Parvathy Thiruvothu, Rahman, Indrajith Sukumaran, Indrans, Jinu Joseph, Sreenath Bhasi, Dileesh Pothan, Rima Kallingal, Madonna Sebastian, Ramya Nambeeshan, Joju George, Soubin Shahir and Revathi.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: Principal photography took place from January to February 2019 in a single schedule shot extensively in Government Medical College, Kozhikode and Government Homoeopathic Medical College, Kozhikode . The film was released worldwide on 7 June 2019, receiving critical acclaim and was a box office success. It was included in The Hindu's top 25 Malayalam films of the decade.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: A man named Zakariya Mohammed is infected and brought to the Government Medical College, Kozhikode, where he suffers from the symptoms of an unknown virus and, after a few hours, dies. Geetha, who was taking Zakariya's CT scan, got infected by the virus. As nurses and doctors checked her blood pressure, the scale was going up and down which left the doctors there worried and confused. A nurse Akhila who treated Zakariya gets affected too. Slowly more cases are identified in the surrounding areas. Dr. Salim (a neurologist) while checking on Zakariya's father, Razak, notices symptoms related to poisoning and Japanese encephalitis and other such infections on Razak. Dr. Salim also asked Dr. Suresh Rajan to conduct a sample test for Nipah virus. The samples were collected from Suhana, sister of Zakariya.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: As the death toll begins to rise, Dr. Suresh Babu confirms the unknown virus to be Nipah. Nipah spreads across Kozhikode and the neighbouring districts. Sister Akhila (the nurse who treated Zakariya), dies after a long battle with the virus and before she died, she wrote a letter to her husband. The film progresses with real life experiences of people who we are aware of when it has happened and also creates a backstory for each affected patient and generates an interest in the narration.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: In an emergency situation, a team of medical practitioners and healthcare professionals, led by the Health Minister of Kerala C. K. Prameela and District Collector Paul V. Abraham IAS, camp in Kozhikode to tackle the crisis. There is an attempt made to justify that this is not a bio-weapon used by any country or organisation. While the film is ending, the film pays tribute to scientists, medical professionals, hospital staff, volunteers and the people who came forward to support the team to solve the virus attack. Health minister, C. K. Prameela announces Kozhikode Nipah virus free. In the end, it is shown that Zakariya saw a flying fox (a breed of bats) that was on the ground. He went there and before coming in contact with the bat, he took a picture of the bat for his Instagram story.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: The film is based on the 2018 Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala. Principal photography began in Kozhikode on 6 January 2019, Kalidas Jayaram was supposed to appear in the film in a supporting but pivotal role, but was replaced by Sreenath Bhasi after the former did not ultimately accept it. "Virus" was shot extensively in and around Government Medical College, Kozhikode. Filming wrapped on 26 February 2019 after 52 days shoot in a single schedule.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: The original soundtrack is composed, programmed, and arranged by Sushin Shyam. The film features a promotional song titled "Spread Love" sung by Shelton Pinheiro, Madonna Sebastian, Muhsin Parari and Sushin Shyam, which was not included in the film, but was listed in the original soundtrack album, which features 17 instrumental numbers, which released on 17 May 2019.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: The film was released worldwide on 7 June 2019. The film dubbed in Tamil and Telugu as Virus and Nipah Virus released on Zee5 and Aha respectively.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: The film grossed ₹3.9 crore in the opening weekend (7 – 9 June) from Kerala box office. It collected a worldwide total of over ₹15 crore in 12 days, with ₹11.74 crore from Kerala alone. By collecting $65,000 in 10 days from the United States, "Virus" became the fourth highest-grossing Malayalam film of 2019 in the US, behind "Lucifer", "Kumbalangi Nights", and "Uyare". And as of 21 June, it is also the fourth highest-grossing Malayalam film of 2019 in the rest-of-India territories, behind "Lucifer", "Kumbalangi Nights", and "Uyare". It earned ₹2,60,058 in Chennai from 18 shows in the opening weekend, and ₹4,82,715 in two weeks.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: In the opening weekend, the film grossed $342,527 from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and $9,098 from Australia. It grossed €2,749 (₹2.16 lakh) in Germany in two weeks. The film was released a week later (on 14 June) in the United Kingdom and New Zealand where it collected £14,991 (₹13.2 lakh) and NZ$12,409 (₹5.65 lakh) in the opening weekend, and £28,809 (₹25.56 lakh) and NZ$16,099 (₹7.4 lakh) in two weeks. In three weeks, it collected A$23,868 (₹11.56 lakh) in Australia and $587,960 in the UAE. In the US, it made $68,244 (47.13 lakh) in four weeks.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: Sowmya Rajendran of "The News Minute" called the movie, "A compassionate, gripping medical thriller" and rated it 4/5 stars.


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: Meera Manu of News18 rated the movie 4/5 stars and said, "For its 152-minute duration, Virus will take you through many emotional roller-coasters. This one is contagious enough to make you skip a heartbeat or evoking tears. It's more than just a film, it's humans joining hands to beat a deadly disease. No reason to not watch this one." Manu of the Filmibeat rated the movie 4/5 stars and reviewed, "Virus is a mind-blowing movie and as its tagline says it rightly conveys the fear, fight and the survival during the Nipah outbreak. A well-crafted movie, which could be ranked as one among the best movies of all-time. Kudos to the team."


title: Virus (2019 film)

text: Anjana George of "The Times of India" rated the movie 3.5/5 stars and reviewed, "On the whole, the film can be called as a well-crafted multi-starrer, fictional documentation of news reports on the Nipah virus attack that shocked Kerala and still looms over us." Behindwoods rated the movie 3.25/5 stars and wrote, "With Virus, Aashiq Abu cements his top form as a filmmaker. Overall, Virus is a straightforward, detailed and uncompromising retelling of an unbelievable story of humanity."


title: Erin Sanders

text: Erin Sanders (born January 19, 1991) is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Quinn Pensky on "Zoey 101", Camille Roberts on "Big Time Rush", and for portraying Eden Baldwin on "The Young and the Restless" in 2008. She appeared as Chris on ABC Family's "Melissa and Joey" and starred in the film "Guilty at 17", which premiered on Lifetime.


title: Erin Sanders

text: Erin Sanders was born in Santa Monica, California. She has stated that she is a Jew. She identifies as bisexual.


title: Erin Sanders

text: At the age of 13, she began her starring role as Quinn Pensky on the Nickelodeon television series "Zoey 101". Through all four seasons, Sanders played the resident science genius at Pacific Coast Academy and roommate of Zoey (portrayed by Jamie Lynn Spears).


title: Erin Sanders

text: Following "Zoey 101", Sanders worked for several months on CBS's "The Young and the Restless" playing Eden Baldwin, the daughter of Michael Grossman.


title: Erin Sanders

text: In 2014 Sanders played the role of Chris on the third season of the ABC Family comedy "Melissa and Joey". She has had guest-starring roles on many other television series, including "Mad Men", "Weeds", "Castle", "The Mentalist", and "". Sanders has also had roles in several independent films, and played the lead role of Traci in "Guilty at 17" which premiered on Lifetime in 2014.


title: Erin Sanders

text: In 2020, she appeared in an episode of the Nickelodeon sketch comedy series "All That" in a sketch with many of her "Zoey 101" co-stars.


title: Doughboy

text: Doughboy was a popular nickname for the American infantryman during World War I. Though the origins of the term are not certain, the nickname was still in use as of the early 1940s. Examples include the 1942 song "Johnny Doughboy Found a Rose in Ireland", recorded by Dennis Day, Kenny Baker, and Kay Kyser, among others, the 1942 musical film "Johnny Doughboy", and the character "Johnny Doughboy" in "Military Comics". It was gradually replaced during World War II by "G.I."


title: Doughboy

text: The origins of the term are unclear. The word was in wide circulation a century earlier in both Britain and America, albeit with different meanings. Horatio Nelson's sailors and the Duke of Wellington's soldiers in Spain, for instance, were both familiar with fried flour dumplings called "doughboys", the precursor of the modern doughnut. Independently, in the United States, the term had come to be applied to bakers' young apprentices, i.e., "dough-boys". In "Moby-Dick" (1851), Herman Melville nicknamed the timorous cabin steward "Doughboy".


title: Doughboy

text: Doughboy as applied to the infantry of the U.S. Army first appears in accounts of the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848, without any precedent that can be documented. A number of theories have been put forward to explain this usage:


title: Doughboy

text: One explanation offered for the usage of the term in World War I is that female Salvation Army volunteers went to France to cook millions of doughnuts and bring them to the troops on the front line, although this explanation ignores the usage of the term in the earlier war. One joke explanation for the term's origin was that, in World War I, the doughboys were "kneaded" in 1914 but did not rise until 1917.


title: Doughboy

text: In World War I the doughboys were very young, often teenaged boys. The average age of a doughboy in World War I was less than 25 years old. Fifty-seven percent of the doughboys were under the age of 25. Seventeen-year-old boys also enlisted to fight in World War I.


title: Doughboy

text: A popular mass-produced sculpture of the 1920s called the "Spirit of the American Doughboy" shows a U.S. soldier in World War I uniform.


title: Western Sahara War

text: The Western Sahara War (, , ) was an armed struggle between the Sahrawi indigenous Polisario Front and Morocco from 1975 to 1991 (and Mauritania from 1975 to 1979), being the most significant phase of the Western Sahara conflict. The conflict erupted after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords (signed under the pressure of the Green March), by which it transferred administrative control of the territory to Morocco and Mauritania, but not sovereignty. In late 1975, the Moroccan government organized the Green March of some 350,000 Moroccan citizens, escorted by around 20,000 troops, who entered Western Sahara, trying to establish a Moroccan presence. While at first met with just minor resistance by the Polisario Front, Morocco later engaged a long period of guerrilla warfare with the Sahrawi nationalists. During the late 1970s, the Polisario Front, desiring to establish an independent state in the territory, attempted to fight both Mauritania and Morocco. In 1979, Mauritania withdrew from the conflict after signing a peace treaty with the Polisario Front. The war continued in low intensity throughout the 1980s, though Morocco made several attempts to take the upper hand in 1989–1991. A cease-fire agreement was finally reached between the Polisario Front and Morocco in September 1991. Some sources put the final death toll between 10,000 and 20,000 people.


title: Western Sahara War

text: The conflict has since shifted from military to civilian resistance. A peace process, attempting to resolve the conflict has not yet produced any permanent solution to Sahrawi refugees and territorial agreement between Morocco and the Sahrawi Republic. Today most of the territory of Western Sahara is under Moroccan occupation, while the inland parts are governed by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, managed by the Polisario Front.


title: Western Sahara War

text: In 1884 Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc. Later, the Spanish extended their area of control. In 1958 Spain joined the previously separate districts of Saguia el-Hamra (in the north) and Río de Oro (in the south) to form the province of Spanish Sahara.


title: Western Sahara War

text: Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Saharan population kept the Spanish forces out of much of the territory for a long time. Ma al-Aynayn, the Saharan caïd of Smara, started an uprising against the French in the 1910s, at a time when France had expanded its influence and control in North-West Africa, he died in the same year and his son El Hiba succeeded him. French forces defeated him when he tried to conquer Marrakesh, and in retaliation, severely damaged the holy city of Smara in 1913. Not until the second destruction of Smara in 1934, by joint Spanish and French forces, did the territory finally become subdued. Another uprising in 1956 – 1958, initiated by the Moroccan Army of Liberation, led to heavy fighting, but eventually the Spanish forces regained control, again with French aid. However, unrest simmered, and in 1967 the Harakat Tahrir arose to challenge Spanish rule peacefully. After the events of the Zemla Intifada in 1970, when Spanish police destroyed the organization and "disappeared" its founder, Muhammad Bassiri, Sahrawi nationalism again took a militant turn.


title: Western Sahara War

text: In 1971 a group of young Sahrawi students began organizing what came to be known as "The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro". After attempting in vain to gain backing from several Arab governments, including both Algeria and Morocco, but only drawing faint notices of support from Libya and Mauritania, the movement eventually relocated to Spanish-controlled Western Sahara to start an armed rebellion.


title: Western Sahara War

text: The Polisario Front was formally constituted on 10 May 1973 in the Mauritanian city of Zouirate, with the express intention of militarily forcing an end to Spanish colonization. Its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed. On 20 May he led the Khanga raid, Polisario's first armed action, in which a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas (Sahrawi-staffed auxiliary forces) was overrun and rifles seized. Polisario then gradually gained control over large swaths of desert countryside, and its power grew from early 1975 when the Tropas Nomadas began deserting to the Polisario, bringing weapons and training with them. At this point, Polisario's manpower included perhaps 800 men, but they were backed by a larger network of supporters. A UN visiting mission headed by Simeon Aké that was conducted in June 1975 concluded that Sahrawi support for independence (as opposed to Spanish rule or integration with a neighbouring country) amounted to an "overwhelming consensus" and that the Polisario Front was by far the most powerful political force in the country.


title: Western Sahara War

text: While Spain started negotiating a handover of power in the summer of 1975, it ceded the administrative control of the territory to Mauritania and Morocco only after signing the Madrid Accords. However, on 31 October 1975, Moroccan troops crossed into the territory from the north-east, advancing towards Mahbes and Farciya.


title: Western Sahara War

text: Moroccan government organized the Green March of some 350,000 Moroccan citizens, escorted by around 20,000 troops, who entered Western Sahara, trying to establish Moroccan presence. While, at first meeting just minor resistance by the Polisario, Morocco had later engaged in a long guerrilla warfare with the Sahrawi nationalists. During the late 1970s, After Moroccan pressure through the Green March of 6 November, Spain entered negotiations that led to the signing of the Madrid Accords by which it ceded unilaterally the administrative control of the territory to Mauritania and Morocco on November 14, 1975. The United Nations did not recognize the accord, considering Spain as the administrative power of the territory. In the fall of 1975, as a result of the Moroccan advance, tens of thousands of Sahrawis fled Morocco-controlled cities into the desert, building up improvised refugee camps in Amgala, Tifariti and Umm Dreiga.


title: Western Sahara War

text: On December 11, 1975, the first Moroccan troops arrived in El Aaiún, and fighting erupted with the POLISARIO. On December 20, Mauritanian troops succeeded taking over Tichy and La Güera, after two weeks of siege. On January 27, the First Battle of Amgala erupted between Morocco and Algeria with the Polisario.


title: Western Sahara War

text: In January 1976, the Royal Moroccan Air Force also bombed the refugee camps in the northern part of the territory. The following month, Moroccan jets attacked the Umm Dreiga refugee camps with napalm and white phosphorus bombs, killing thousands of civilians.


title: Western Sahara War

text: The Polisario Front proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 27 February 1976 and waged a guerrilla war against both Morocco and Mauritania. The World Court at the Hague had issued its verdict on the former Spanish colony just weeks before, which each party interpreted as confirming its rights on the disputed territory. After the completion of the Spanish withdrawal, and in the application of the Madrid Accords in 1976, Morocco took over the Saguia El Hamra and the northern two-thirds of the territory, while Mauritania took control of the southern third; this was formalised under the Western Sahara partition agreement.


title: Western Sahara War

text: The Polisario Front retaliated the Moroccan offensive with guerrilla attacks, and moved their base to Tindouf in western Algeria, where first refugee camps were established in May 1976. For the next two years the Polisario movement grew tremendously, as Sahrawi refugees flocked to the camps fleeing from the Moroccan and Mauritanian armies, while Algeria and Libya supplied arms and funding.


title: Western Sahara War

text: Within months after the 1975–1976 Moroccan offensive, Polisario had expanded to thousands of armed fighters. The reorganized army was able to inflict severe damage through guerrilla-style hit-and-run attacks against Moroccan forces in Western Sahara but also raided cities and towns in Morocco and Mauritania proper.


title: Western Sahara War

text: Mauritania, under the regime of Ould Daddah, had a weakened army of 3,000 men, which was unable to fend off the attacks. After repeated strikes at the country's principal source of income, the iron mines of Zouerate, the government was nearly incapacitated by the lack of funds and the ensuing internal disorder. Ethnic unrest in the Mauritanian Armed Forces also strongly contributed to the ineffectiveness of the army: forcibly conscripted black Africans from the south of the country resisted getting involved in what they viewed as a northern intra-Arab dispute, and the tribes of northern Mauritania often sympathized with Polisario, fearing possible Moroccan regional ambitions and presenting perceived increasing dependence of the Daddah regime on Moroccan support.


title: Western Sahara War

text: In 1977, France intervened after a group of French technicians was taken prisoner during a raid on the Zouerate iron mines, codenaming its involvement Opération Lamantin. The French Air Force deployed SEPECAT Jaguar jets to Mauritania in 1978 under the orders of President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, which repeatedly bombed Polisario columns headed for Mauritania with napalm. The Polisario Front launched a raid on the capital Nouakchott, during which Polisario leader El Ouali was killed, and was replaced by Mohamed Abdelaziz, with no letup in the pace of attacks. Under continued pressure, the Daddah regime finally fell in 1978 to a coup d'état led by war-weary military officers, who immediately agreed to a cease fire with the Polisario. A comprehensive peace treaty was signed on August 5, 1979, in which the new government recognized Sahrawi rights to Western Sahara and relinquished its own claims. Mauritania withdrew all its forces and would later proceed to formally recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, causing a massive rupture in relations with Morocco. King Hassan II of Morocco immediately claimed the area of Western Sahara evacuated by Mauritania (Tiris al-Gharbiya, roughly corresponding to the southern half of Río de Oro), which was unilaterally annexed by Morocco in August 1979.


title: Western Sahara War

text: From the mid-1980s Morocco largely had kept Polisario troops off by building a huge berm or sand wall (the Moroccan Wall). The Moroccan army stationed a number of troops roughly the same size as the entire Sahrawi population to defend the wall, enclosing the Southern Provinces, the economically useful parts of Western Sahara (Bou Craa, El-Aaiun, Smara etc.). This stalemated the war, with no side able to achieve decisive gains, but artillery strikes and sniping attacks by the guerrillas continued, and Morocco was economically and politically strained by the war. Morocco faced heavy burdens due to the economic costs of its massive troop deployments along the Wall. Economic and military aid was sent to Morocco by Saudi Arabia, France and the United States to relieve the situation, but matters gradually became unsustainable for all parties involved.


title: Western Sahara War

text: Guelta Zemmour (Centre of Western Sahara) and Algeria, but sustained heavy casualties and withdrawn after leaving more than 18 tanks burning and a dozen more vehicles. This setback let the Polisario consider a ceasefire.


title: Western Sahara War

text: 1991 Tifariti offensive was the last military operation and successful maneuver in Western Sahara War launched by Moroccan forces against the Sahrawi guerrilla fighters of the Polisario Front. During August–September 1991 the Royal Moroccan Army (RMA) conducted offensive operations in the areas of Mehaires, Tifariti, and Bir Lahlou and cleared the area of any Polisario presence.


title: Western Sahara War

text: A cease-fire between the Polisario and Morocco, monitored by MINURSO (UN) has come into effect on 6 September 1991, with the promise of a referendum on independence the following year. The referendum, however, stalled over disagreements on voter rights, and numerous attempts at restarting the process (most significantly the launching of the 2003 Baker plan) seem to have failed. The prolonged cease-fire has held without major disturbances, but Polisario has repeatedly threatened to resume fighting if no break-through occurs. Morocco's withdrawal from both the terms of the original Settlement Plan and the Baker Plan negotiations in 2003 left the peace-keeping mission without a political agenda: this further increased the risks of renewed war.


title: Western Sahara War

text: In mid-October 2020 tensions deepened between Morocco and the Polisario Front, when the Sahrawi refugees in Tindouf, Algeria, which houses about 100,000 Sahrawi refugees, passing through SADR-controlled territories, camped and blocked the road, creating a large caravan of vehicles and blocking traffic in the region. Morocco, which regards the region as vital to trade with sub-Saharan Africa, accused the Polisario Front of infiltrating the buffer zone and "carrying out acts of banditry" in Guerguerat. On 13 November 2020 clashes between Moroccan and the Polisario Front forces began in Guerguerat, but since has spread along the Moroccan Western Sahara Wall. Morocco claimed that it had acted in self-defence while the Polisario Front accused Morocco of violating the ceasefire by entering the buffer zone, and urged the United Nations to intervene. On April 8, 2021, the head of the Sahrawi National Guard, Addah Al-Bendir, was killed by what reports claim to be a drone strike while attempting a raid on Moroccan positions along the berm sand wall.


title: Western Sahara War

text: On 17 January 1980, the Spanish SPS Almirante Ferrandiz (D22) destroyer was machine-gunned by a Moroccan Mirage airfighter, from the southern coast of Western Sahara. The Spanish destroyer had received a S.O.S. from a Spanish fishing vessel that had been previously detained by a Moroccan patrol boat.


title: Western Sahara War

text: On 24 February 1985, the "Polar 3", a Dornier 228-type research airplane from the Alfred Wegener Institute was shot down by guerrillas of the Polisario Front over Western Sahara. All three crew members died. "Polar 3", together with unharmed "Polar 2", was on its way back from Antarctica and had taken off in Dakar, Senegal, to reach Arrecife, Canary Islands. The German government, which did not recognize Morocco's claim to Western Sahara at the time and remained neutral in the conflict, heavily criticized the incident.


title: New India Assurance

text: The New India Assurance Co. Ltd., is a central public sector undertaking under the ownership of Ministry of Finance, Government of India. It is based in Mumbai, Maharashtra. "It is the largest nationalised general insurance company of India on the basis of gross premium collection inclusive of foreign operations". It was founded by Sir Dorabji Tata in 1919, and was nationalised in 1973.


title: New India Assurance

text: Previously, it was a subsidiary of the General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC). But when GIC became a re-insurance company following the passage of the IRDA Act 1999, its four primary insurance subsidiaries New India Assurance, United India Insurance, Oriental Insurance and National Insurance became autonomous.


title: New India Assurance

text: The company, with its registered Head office in Mumbai, has about 31 regional offices, 6 Large Corporate Offices, 447 Divisional Offices, 578 Branches, 27 Direct Agent Branches and 1,239 Micro Offices, Elmo Auto hub, 2 centralised legal hubs totaling 2329 offices.


title: New India Assurance

text: NIA is the only direct insurer in India rated A-(Excellent – Positive outlook) by AM Best. CRISIL reaffirmed its AAA/STABLE rating, indicating that the company has the highest degree of financial strength.


title: Donyale Luna

text: Peggy Ann Freeman (August 31, 1945 – May 17, 1979), known professionally as Donyale Luna, was an American supermodel and actress who gained popularity in Western Europe during the late 1960s. Generally cited as "the first Black supermodel", Luna was the first African-American model to appear on the cover of the British edition of "Vogue", in March 1966.


title: Donyale Luna

text: Although the first Black cover model, Luna was not the first black model as she was preceded by models (then called mannequins) like Aïcha Goblet (Artists model), Adrienne Fidelin (first black model in Harpers Bazaar in September 1937), Sarah Harris, Bani Yelverton (first black model to appear in an American fashion show) and Anthea August (first black model in British vogue in 1963) who entered into previously 'White' modelling spaces before the 1966 cover. Luna entered modeling in a period that favored "white passing models" and has been described as "the first Black model who really began to change things; to enable more diverse beauty paradigms to break through". She is known to have been a covergirl 11 times between 1965 and 1975.


title: Donyale Luna

text: She appeared in several underground films like the screen tests of Andy Warhol (1966), and had roles in "Qui êtes-vous, Polly Maggoo?" (1966), and most notably as Enotea in the 1969 Federico Fellini film "Fellini Satyricon", as well as Otto Preminger's "Skidoo" (1968) in the role of "'God's Mistress".


title: Donyale Luna

text: Donyale Luna as she later became known, was born Peggy Ann Freeman in Detroit, Michigan, to working-class parents Nathaniel Freeman and Peggy Freeman (née Hertzog) in 1945. She was one of three daughters, Lillian, Peggy-Ann, and Josephine. Her parents had moved to Detroit from Georgia as part of the Great Migration. Her father worked in production at the Ford plant, of African-American heritage, and her mother as a secretary for the Young Women's Christian Association, of both African-American and European heritage, been given the nickname 'Big Peggy' to differentiate her from Peggy-Ann, who was "Little Peggy". Luna's parents married and divorced on four separate occasions due to their "headstrong characters" and Nathaniel's relatives alcoholism. They lived a "financially stable upbringing in a middle-class neighbourhood of Detroit" on Scotten Avenue. As a child, she would frequently go on trips to local cinemas with her father and in summer to swim at the "Kronk Gym" in Detroit.


title: Donyale Luna

text: As a child, she attended the Detroit High School of Commerce, where she studied data processing and typing. As a teen, she attended Cass Technical High School, where she studied journalism, performing arts and languages and was in the school choir, local community theatre and the experimental Concept East Theater. It was during this time that she began calling herself "Donyale George Luna" aged 18, thought to have "been her way of dealing with a turbulent home life" when her mother began raising the family as a single parent, and was also said to speak with an accent as "Donyale", which "she spoke not with a broad A or a French R, but in an accent she'd invented". Her mother said its tone "was like she was singing". The name Luna has been speculated to be chosen for its "symbolic dimensions, reflecting her yearning for complete, far-flung autogeny", being what Donyale described as the "real" surname of her father, or a reference to the Space Race. At this time she wanted to pursue being an actress as a career. Luna's sister later described her as being "a very weird child, even from birth, living in a wonderland, a dream". She would routinely create fantasies about her background or "origins" and herself. She was known then as an aspiring actress, a boyfriend, Sanders Bryant III, recalled first meeting her writing a play at lunchtime. She took roles such as Cherry in "Paint Your Wagon", Ariel in "The Tempest", Chastity in "Anything Goes" and Jean in "Stage Door". After rehearsals, inspired by the Beatniks, she would go to coffeehouses around Wayne State University with her boyfriend, dressed in head to toe black. On weekends she would cross the bridge to neighboring Windsor, Ontario, travel to other nearby parts of Canada. She became known by Roland Sharette, the managing director of the Detroit Civic Center Theatre, as a "kook" because she had a habit of walking around barefoot "even down the street". During the 1963 run of "Paint Your Wagon" she fed popcorn to pigeons when they rehearsed outdoors.


title: Donyale Luna

text: Contrasting her time in Europe modelling she later noted: "Back in Detroit I wasn't considered beautiful or anything." A fellow student at Cass Technical, Verna Green noted "She was such a striking image, I couldn't forget her ... She looked like an oddball to the run-of-the-mill student. Not enough people had told her how strikingly beautiful she was." She was not a "fashion-conscious" student, her attire mostly consisting of "simple black skirts and long loose sleeved tops". She stated that at her time in Cass Technical, she "wasn't accepted because I talked funny, I looked funny and I was a weirdo to everyone. I grew up realizing I was strange."


title: Donyale Luna

text: She moved to New York to pursue acting and modeling in October 1964, and worked during this time as a junior secretary at an "electronic cabling firm on Varick Street". She eventually moved into her own apartment with another roommate by advertising for one on Broadway, having joined their actor's union. Her sister Lillian later recalled "she packed so little it seemed like she was going on an overnight trip rather than to live in New York".


title: Donyale Luna

text: In January 1965, her mother fatally shot her father in self-defence as he was reportedly abusive, coming to Luna's childhood home drunk and threatening her mother "just steps away from the family home". Lillian witnessed the incident, acknowledging the shooting to be accidental. Luna only received the news 3 months after the fact and stayed in New York which is said by psychologists to be a coping mechanism of familial loss and trauma. In 1966, she reported to a journalist, "My mother is worried about me. She doesn't know that I have already been hurt."


title: Donyale Luna

text: Luna moved in between Europe and North America for the next five years. She professed during the filming of "Salome" in 1971 that she wished to quit modeling to focus on acting, and that she "professo la magia y el'amore e vivo en el mondo vio, deliziomente surreale" (speaks of magic and love, living in a deliciously surreal world) having become heavily influenced by Surrealism and New Age thought by this time, but still continued to do sporadic modelling in the 1970s. By 1972 when she had moved to Rome, she was working for Danish photographer Gunnar Larsen, modeling for the couturier Ted Lapidus with Veruschka and Jean Shrimpton on the streets of Paris, earning "$1000 ... for the day" ($6,250 in 2020).


title: Donyale Luna

text: Luna was discovered by the English photographer David McCabe on the streets of Detroit around the Fisher Building in 1963. Luna was then invited to move to New York City to pursue modeling by McCabe. At first, her mother discouraged her from traveling to New York wanting her to become a nurse instead, but Luna persisted and her mother sent her to live with an aunt near the New York Harbor in New Jersey.


title: Donyale Luna

text: In October 1964, Luna called McCabe and he sent out her photographs to various agencies. McCabe introduced her to "Harper's Bazaar" editor Nancy White, fashion photographer Richard Avedon and senior fashion editor China Machado; White signed her to an exclusive contract for the remainder of 1964, while Avedon served as her manager. Her first job as a model was a shoot for "Mademoiselle" starring Woody Allen. In November 1964, Luna moved out of her aunt's apartment into her own in New York City.


title: Donyale Luna

text: In 1964, working as a model for Paco Rabanne, Luna witnessed American journalists spitting in the face of Rabanne because his fashion show used only Black models.


title: Donyale Luna

text: Nancy White had Luna's likeness sketched into an illustration for the January 1965 cover of "Harper's Bazaar", replacing a pre-planned coverthe first Black person ever put on the cover of "Harper's Bazaar" in its then 98 years of publication, however being portrayed as ethnically ambiguous. The sketch was her first work for "Harper's Bazaar", and included six other illustrations in the January 1965 issue. Denzinger described drawing 'a total of 40 brush and ink studies for that session, in a one-room studio apartment on Lexington Avenue. . . .I remember that the Bazaar editors came to the apartment with the clothes, and that uniformed cops watched while Donyale modeled and I drew her'.


title: Donyale Luna

text: In the April 1965 edition she was shot again by Avedon in the 'What's Happening' editorial, along with Paul McCartney, Jean Shrimpton, and Ringo Starr. In the editorial, she was described using the conflating racalist phrase: "The tall strength and pride of movement of a Masai Warrior", which was picked up in an article by the "Sarasota Herald Tribune", who finding the language deeply prejudiced and racialized, explored the work prospects of African-American women. In the same month, Luna received news of her father's death but decided to not return home for the funeral. Around this time, Luna also began having problems with Avedon. In an interview with an Italian magazine in 1975, she recalled that "The more successful she became, the more controlling and possessive her fashion-photographer-manager became".


title: Donyale Luna

text: Luna's career began to slow down when she met with the color bar of print publishing at the time. Southern US advertisers had reported complaints against the inclusion of Luna's images in "Harper's Bazaar", pulling their advertising revenue, with readers cancelling subscriptions. Designers Mainbocher and Norman Norell refused to dress Luna in their clothes, and "Harper's Bazaar" owner Hearst Communications had stopped Avedon working with Luna after her contract expired. Richard Avedon believed that he was no longer allowed to work with Luna due to "racial prejudice and the economics of the fashion business". McCabe later stated he believed that "the magazine world really wasn't ready for photographing beautiful Black women".


title: Donyale Luna

text: Black models were only shown through "a racial script that brought together both primitivism and modernity as the material precondition for participation within the industry," in an "exotic noble savage" role which required Black models to present only as outsiders from "primitive African cultures". Brigid Keenan wrote that Luna "until then any Black person who appeared in a fashion picture was usually there because they'd been popped into the background as a kind of prop" such as Bani Yelverton, who was in 1958 placed "on the far right of the foldout, so she could be easily torn out of the magazine by [offended] readers". Keenan further wrote how the othering "exotic Black model trope" perpetrated by white media creators that "Luna's breakthrough into the glossy magazines meant that from then on a Black model might actually have some sort of career in front of her ... yet extraordinary as she was, Ms. Luna did not have a style that other women could adopt. "She looked more like she was going to attack you" wrote one Black girl. White fashion editors used her and immediate successors for impact, as freakish clothes-horses on which they could photograph their outrageous garments. [Her] acceptance ... no doubt boosted the morale of the Black community, but she could not give them a look of their own."


title: Donyale Luna

text: Due to the death of her father and a failed marriage of 10 months in New York, she then had a nervous breakdown and spent time recovering in hospital at the end of 1965. Two years later she told "The New York Times" that she fled New York for Europe, at the end of 1965, when she found "they said beautiful things on one side and turned around and stabbed you in the back." She would later remember of the move to Europe, "I wouldn't have to be bothered with political situations when I woke up in the morning - I could live and be treated as I felt, without having to worry about the police coming along".


title: Donyale Luna

text: Avedon (who had moved over to the American "Vogue" in 1966) requested Luna again for a shoot around Northern Japan featuring furs, he told Doon Arbus he had requested her specifically because of his association with her as an "extenuated Black girl" given "there was no way of not being reminded of Egypt and not being reminded of Watusis and Africans", deftly conflating African culture and employing the prescribed primitive racial script of the exotic Black model which Luna had been portrayed in her shoots with him in "Harper's Bazaar" which compared Luna to an animal as she was dressed in animal print. Diana Vreeland, along with Alexey Brodovitch, stopped Avedon from using Luna as the only model in the shoot and suggested Veruschka instead for the 27-page "Great Fur Caravan" shoot published in October 1966. "Ironically, in 1966 [American] "Vogue" named Donyale Luna 'The Model of the Year'." Living in London, she was described in "Jet" magazine as "the most photographed girl of 1966 ... challenging Jean Shrimpton for position (and bankroll) as the model most in demand in Europe's "haute couture" houses."


title: Donyale Luna

text: By 1966, Luna had become an internationally recognized model and in November 1966, Luna appeared in "Cosmopolitan". In April 1967 Donyale also frequented Trude Heller's discotech in Greenwich village and covered a number of albums for Blue Note Records such as Lush Life, Mustang, A New Conception, Let 'em Roll and Easy Walker. Luna appeared in American "Vogue" in August 1969 and in 1970 in an advertisement for a colored contacts company which she often wore, it was reported she "changes her eyes to match her moods as she flits through Rome's posh parties while picture making for Carlo Ponti."


title: Donyale Luna

text: Arriving in December 1965, London proved to be where Luna would make her name as a model, emerging in Swinging London, part of a youth cultural revolution associated with Beatlemania and in fashion Mary Quants miniskirts with other models of color like Kellie Wilson and Hazel Collins in the stylized-bobs of Vidal Sassoon, Mods, Teddy Boys and bright colors and patterns and fashions like those sold in shops like Barbara Hulanickis Biba or seen in the street culture of Carnaby Street or Chelsea. She was photographed in London by David Bailey, William Klein, Helmut Newton, Charlotte March (image in infobox, above) and William Claxton. Keen to join the London arts scene, she would become friends with Mick Jagger, Julie Christie, Michael Caine, Iain Quarrier and Yul Brynner. She rented an apartment by the Thames and bought a pet Maltese dog she named "Christianne".


title: Donyale Luna

text: She became the first African-American model to appear on the cover of any "Vogue" magazine, the March 1966 British issue, shot by photographer David Bailey, only months after arriving in London. Bailey described her as "extraordinary-looking, so tall and skinny, ... She was like an illustration, a walking illustration." Shooting her for the cover he noted "I didn't care what she was – she could have been a fucking Martian for all I cared." He thought the editorial staff at "Vogue" House were happy about using a Black model but states that "the sales people always had a problem [with using her]." She was chosen by Beatrix Miller, the-then British "Vogue" editor for "her bite and personality", also describing her as "[happening] to be a marvellous shape ... All sort of angular and immensely strange and tall". The shot composition was inspired by Spanish surrealist Picasso's ocular-centric portraiture with "one of Luna's eyes peered suggestively from between her fingers". She was wearing a Chloé dress and Mimi de N earrings in the shot. In the editorial images she was dressed in Christian Dior silk tunics, Mod dresses by Pierre Cardin and a silver Yves Saint Laurent dress.


title: Donyale Luna

text: In popular internet lore such as on blogs, it has been speculated that the shot was angled so "Luna's face, most notably her lips and nose, are ... obscured on her British "Vogue" cover, also somewhat hiding her race" a proponent of featurism coded in privilege and Eurocentric beauty standards. However, in 2019 her family revealed the shot was chosen as "a single heavily lined eye ... visible through her fingers, which form a V for Vogue".


title: Donyale Luna

text: She was shot, by Charlotte March, for a jewelry spread in the German magazine "Twen" of March 1966. Fellow model and friend Pat Cleveland noted: "she had no tits, but lots of presence, we'd walk down the street and men's mouths would drop open in awe. When we walked into restaurants people would stop eating and stand up and applaud. She was like a mirage, or some kind of fantasy." She also went on to work for French "Vogue". Bethann Hardison stated of Luna that "no one looked like her. She was like a really extraordinary species." "Time" magazine in an article titled "The Luna Year" (1966), described her as: "a new heavenly body who, because of her striking singularity, promises to remain on high for many a season. Donyale Luna, as she calls herself, is unquestionably the hottest model in Europe at the moment. She is only 20, a Negro, hails from Detroit, and is not to be missed if one reads "Harper's Bazaar", "Paris Match", Britain's "Queen", the British, French or American editions of "Vogue"." She also appeared in "London Life", a monthly fashion magazine, in a shoot as a shop window display model at a Wallis department store in London.


title: Donyale Luna

text: In April she appeared again in "Vogue" UK shot by David Bailey in a feature called "This Summer's dancing patterns" in mod styled luxury brands. She then appeared on the cover of "Harper's Bazaar" UK in June 1966, her features and skin color had not been edited out in this cover, shot by Bill King. In the October 15 edition of British "Vogue", she was featured in a Klein shoot with Audrey Hepburn.


title: Donyale Luna

text: In 1967 the world-leading fiberglass mannequin designer Adel Rootstein released a model based on Luna's statuesque figure, the previous figure been the popular model Twiggy. Jet described them as "unmistakeably Negro, excellently sculpted and posed, and dressed in the London Mod styles" and that Adel Rootstein had paid Luna to pose for the work at $105 per hour ($830 per hour today). She was also noted to be working in New York for a short period in September 1967 but her flatmates "thought they were all going to get kicked out soon because Donyale was making about 500 dollars' worth of calls to Europe every month". Another mannequin model was made by Lester Gaba, who made both a black and white version. She was also shot in Rabanne by Peter Knapp for The Sunday Times.


title: Donyale Luna

text: On the March 27, 1968, she appeared on the cover of the British magazine "Queen" in a headwrap. Around November 10, 1968, Luna and a party of five including Iain Quarrier and Mia Farrow went for breakfast at the Mayfair Cavendish Hotel, Jermyn Street, St James's, London, when at 4 a.m. they were asked to leave due to because the men being informed they were "not properly dressed" in not wearing ties. When Iain pointed out that other seated men were not wearing ties, Luna asked the managers if it was because she was colored. Eventually, all five were denied service in the hotel restaurant and kicked out by police for causing a disturbance. In her usual extravagance, she "arrived in a maroon-coloured Rolls Royce wearing a yellow coat of Mongolian wools lamb ... [and] knee high blue suede boots ... [where] Luna accused the police of lying, but her claims went unheard". Quarrier defended Luna in the London Bow Street court noting when the judge, Kenneth Harrington, said: "I am quite sure it had nothing whatsoever to do with Miss Luna's colour" Quarrier shouted from the dock in the courtroom "that is not true[!]." Quarrier would eventually be charged £10 for disturbing the peace.


title: Donyale Luna

text: Luna later stated to the American press how that incidence of "rowdiness" occurred and that they were thrown out "because I am colored. It was a nightmare. The Hotel staff and police were pushing me around. The Hotel refused to tell us why we were being thrown out." In the same month she was shot for British "Vogue" again in November by Harry Peccinotti.


title: Donyale Luna

text: Luna was initially supposed to cover Vogue Paris before British Vogue when she arrived in Europe in December 1965. Edmonde Charles-Roux who had fostered the talent of William Klein, had shot Luna for the cover, but prior to release, the cover was changed overnight to that of two acceptably white models, in a move to not offend readers for its capacity to 'shock' because Luna was a woman of color. She was put forward for the cover by the French editor Charles-Roux who was subsequently fired on the charge of Si Newhouse for attempting to put a Black model on the cover, a feat which would take another 22 years when Naomi Campbell was put on the cover, but even then only on the grounds that YSL would otherwise withdraw advertising revenue.


title: Donyale Luna

text: By 1966, of her modeling, she was quoted as saying "Being what I am, I can get what I ask". Paco Rabanne had her model in his "debut Paris show, entitled '12 Unwearable Dresses'" designed for dancing in, in which fellow London based model Kellie Wilson also appeared, working in the spring of 1966 she was modelling for Paris Match who had 11 different photographers doing shoots for the magazine including on "the landing gear of an airborne helicopter" and underwater with "her robe streaming behind her". She was shot for Guy Laroche for Match on a skating rink and by Charles Courrière (b.1928) in Emanuel Ungaro for the Spring/Summer collection.


title: Donyale Luna

text: She appeared on the cover of "Elle" for July 1966 shot by Ronald Traeger in a long toga dress by Galeries Lafayette and in beach shoot with Jill Kennington.


title: Donyale Luna

text: In 1967 she modelled in Sydney a number of paper dresses for the store Paraphernalia, which was a short fad popular at the time with teenage girls. She appeared on a catwalk in Sydney for the "Donyale Luna spectacular" fashion walk.


title: Donyale Luna

text: Luna appeared in the Italian magazine Amica in a number of animal print and fur coats in 1966 and "Vogue" Italia shot by Gian Paolo Barbieri. She modelled later in a number of camera advertisements in 1968. She bought an apartment in Italy in 1970, and would drive around in her Cinquenta car, and "fold herself into like an accordion, squeezing her knees up to her chin" to get to new modelling shoots. In January 1970, she appeared in the Italian adult magazine Playmen in a number of fishnet style outfits, in a multiple-page spread. In this time she was reportedly thrown out by Italian police for not having the correct paperwork to reside in Italy, but her husband recalled later that she was harassed for her skin color in Rome.


title: Donyale Luna

text: When Luna moved to Italy in 1974 she was a collaborator with her husband in photographic shoots and other media such as a "hand-illustrated fairy tale, avant-garde film scripts and beautiful coloured prints" which remain unpublished. She was said to be the most creative as a content creator of art in this period of her life. However historians have also noted she is said to have felt a deep sense of "existential aloneness" in this period. In a short prose piece entitled "LUNAFLYLABY", she wrote a self-aware "part confessional [work which] alludes to an insular and at times stifling childhood, the excitement and challenges Luna experienced in the fashion world [and] her move to Europe" and how as a biracial woman, these "societal forces conspired to render Black women "INVISIBLE" " versus her "VISIBLE LIFE", which is heavily present throughout the work in the motifs of "VISIONS" (her spiritual visions as other Black women in history in her writings she refers to as "Future Visioning") and "succumbing to "VISUAL MISTAKES"" (her desire to achieve her own form of beauty which she considered her "art", such as modelling photographs or films) due to her conflicting position as a biracial woman in her environment in her career. She also modeled for artist Peter Beard in 1977.


title: Donyale Luna

text: She would return for a year between 1973 and April 1974, with her work later published and returning again between October 1974 and June 1975, to the US to do runway modeling in New York and California and Toronto. She appeared on the cover of Warhol's magazine Interview for October 1974. Luna then appeared in a nude photo layout in the April 1975 issue of "Playboy"; the photographer being her husband, Luigi Cazzaniga. In the shoot she depicts herself as "characters of her own devising - as an angel soaring over the Los Angeles skyline or as a mermaid perched on a rock by the Pacific Ocean". Powell notes, "Although fulfilling Playboy's prerequisite for female nudity, the photographs were far from titillating or sexually explicit. Luna seemed not only at ease with her nudity, but completely beyond societal structures and moral rectitude." She was also noted for defying the usual body type portrayed in the magazine of more "voluptuous" women with her smaller build, placing more emphasis on her spiritual "visions" which occurred on her photography shoots such as in Playboy.


title: Donyale Luna

text: By this time however, Luna's modeling career began to decline due to a variety of factors; the first being a shift in her career from modeling into acting on her behalf; secondly a negative reception from mainstream popular media, which chastised her "dependency on drugs like heroin, LSD, pot and her eccentric behavior" (see Artistry section). A designer for whom Luna once worked said, "She took a lot of drugs and never paid her bills". Beverly Johnson in 1974 was asked about how her Vogue cover had been won by other Black women like Luna, said "[Luna] doesn't wear shoes winter or summer. Ask her where she's from—Mars? She went up and down the runways on her hands and knees. She didn't show up for bookings. She didn't have a hard time, she made it hard for herself." Johnson later acknowledged in 2016 that Luna had "made it possible for models like me and others" and that "Luna is one of several Black models everyone needs to know" being "one of those legends in our industry; one of the shoulders I stood on."


title: Donyale Luna

text: In June 1975 she attended a Zandra Rhodes show at the Circle in the Square in New York where she was seen "posing in a veiled harem outfit".