title: Battle of Pavia

text: In Rome Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici, who acted as Florentine emissary to Charles V in 1535, expressed support for the Emperor's victory by commissioning a rock crystal low relief in the manner of an Antique cameo, from the gem engraver Giovanni Bernardi. The classicizing treatment of the event lent it a timeless, mythic quality and reflected on the culture and taste of the patron.


title: Battle of Pavia

text: An oil-on-panel "Battle of Pavia", painted by an anonymous Flemish artist, depicts the military engagement between the armies of Charles V and Francis I. Because of its detail, the painting is considered an accurate visual record, probably based on eyewitness accounts. A suite of seven Brussels tapestries after cartoons by Bernard van Orley (above right) celebrate the Imperial–Spanish victory. They are kept in the Capodimonte Museum in Naples and were donated to Charles V in 1531 by the Estates General of the Spanish Netherlands.


title: Battle of Pavia

text: In 2016, the Spanish writer Arturo Pérez-Reverte published his short story "Jodía Pavía (1526)" ("Fucking Pavia (1526)"), an enhanced version of a column published in "El País Semanal" in October 2000.


title: Battle of Pavia

text: Pérez-Reverte uses a satirical and colloquial language with frequent anachronisms (as an example, there are allusions to Errol Flynn and films).


title: Battle of Pavia

text: Much of the battle took place within the immense hunting reserve of the Dukes of Milan, the Visconti Park, which extended for over 2,200 hectares. The Visconti Park no longer exists, most of its woods were cut between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to make room for the fields, however three natural reserves survive that can be considered the heirs of the park, they are the heronry of the Carola, that of Porta Chiossa and the Vernavola Park, which cover an area of 148 hectares. In particular, some of the most important episodes of the battle took place inside the Vernavola park, which extends southwest of the Mirabello Castle.


title: Battle of Pavia

text: Near the park, in 2015, two cannonballs were found during some agricultural work, probably fired by French artillery. Although partially mutilated during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when it was transformed into a farm, the Mirabello Castle, once the seat of the ducal captain of the park, still stands today a short distance from Vernavola and preserves inside some curious decorative elements (fireplaces, frescoes and windows) not yet adequately restored and studied, in French late Gothic style, added to the structure of the Sforza period during the first French domination of the Duchy of Milan (1500- 1513). About two kilometers to the north, along the Cantone Tre Miglia road, is the Repentita farmhouse, where Francesco I was captured and, according to tradition, was housed. The complex still retains parts of the fifteenth-century masonry and an inscription placed on the external wall recalls the event.


title: Battle of Pavia

text: In the nearby town of San Genesio ed Uniti in via Porta Pescarina there are some of the remains of the park gate where, in the night between 23 and 24 February 1525, the imperials made the three breaches that started the battle. Less evident are the traces of the battle in Pavia: the city walls, which defended the city during the siege, were replaced, around the middle of the sixteenth century, by robust bastions, partly preserved. Instead, in addition to the Visconti Castle (where the tombstone of Eitel Friedrich III, Count of Hohenzollern, captain of the Landsknechte is preserved), two gates of the medieval walls: Porta Nuova and Porta Calcinara.


title: Battle of Pavia

text: The eastern outskirts of Pavia are home to some monasteries (almost all now deconsecrated) that hosted the Swiss and German mercenaries of Francis I, such as the monastery of Santi Spirito and Gallo, that of San Giacomo della Vernavola, that of San Pietro in Verzolo and the church of San Lazzaro, while in the western one there is the church of San Lanfranco (where Francis I was based) and the basilica of Santissimo Salvatore. In the church of San Teodoro there is a large fresco depicting the city during the siege of 1522, in it, with a certain wealth of detail, Pavia and its surroundings are depicted, exactly as they must have appeared at the time of the battle.


title: Legatus

text: A legatus (; anglicised as legate) was a high-ranking Roman military officer in the Roman Army, equivalent to a modern high-ranking general officer. Initially used to delegate power, the term became formalised under Augustus as the officer in command of a legion.


title: Legatus

text: From the times of the Roman Republic, legates received large shares of the military's rewards at the end of a successful campaign. This made the position a lucrative one, so it could often attract even distinguished consuls or other high-ranking political figures within Roman politics (e.g., the consul Lucius Julius Caesar volunteered late in the Gallic Wars as a legate under his first cousin, Gaius Julius Caesar).


title: Legatus

text: The rank of legatus existed as early as the Samnite Wars, but it was not until 190 BC that it started to be standardized, meant to better manage the higher numbers of soldiers the Second Punic War had forced to recruit. The legatus of a Roman Republican army was essentially a supreme military tribune, drawn from among the senatorial class of Rome (usually a consul or proconsul), who acted as a second-in-command to the magistrate in charge of the force. This role was usually played by either seasoned generals or ambitious young senators; the latter option eventually displaced the military tribune as a path to gain recognition.


title: Legatus

text: The legatus was officially assigned by the Senate, although it was generally only done after consulting with the magistrate in command, hoping to pair a commander and a lieutenant who could work together without trouble. This was established to avoid clashes of leadership like that of the consuls Varo and Paulus in Cannae. The legatus often acted as a military consultant or adviser, like Scipio Africanus did for his brother Lucius during the Roman–Seleucid War, or as a trusted man of action, as in the case of Lucius Quinctius Flamininus and his brother Titus in their campaigns.


title: Legatus

text: After the Marian reforms, the figure of the legatus as a major second-in-command was eliminated. Multiple legati were assigned to every army, each in command of a legion, which was called "legatus legionis". Julius Caesar made wide use of this title throughout the Gallic Wars. Initially, only conflicts on foreign ground had demanded the presence of legati, but the beginning of the Social War in 90 BC saw them being increasingly deployed in Italia.


title: Legatus

text: There were two main positions. The "legatus legionis" was an ex-praetor given command of one of Rome's legions, while the "legatus pro praetore" was an ex-consul given the governorship of a Roman province, with the magisterial powers of a praetor, which in some cases included command of four or more legions. A legatus was entitled to twelve "lictors", who carried out punishments with fasces (bundled rods). A "legatus legionis" could order capital punishment.


title: Legatus

text: From Augustus onwards, the emperor gave the title of "legatus legionis" to senior commanders (former military tribunes) of a legion, except in Egypt and Mesopotamia where the legions were commanded by a "praefectus legionis" of an equestrian rank. The "legatus legionis" was under the supreme command of a "legatus Augusti pro praetore" of senatorial rank. If the province was defended by a single legion, the "legatus Augusti pro praetore" was also in direct command of the legion. This post was generally appointed by the emperor. The person chosen for this rank was a former tribune, and although the emperor Augustus set a maximum term of command of two years for a "legatus", subsequent emperors extended the tenure to three or four years, although the incumbent could serve for a much longer period. In a province with only one legion, the "legatus" served as the provincial governor, while in provinces with multiple legions each legion had a "legatus" and a separate provincial governor who had overall command.


title: Legatus

text: A "legatus" held full power over his legion. "Consul militaris" held control of all legions under the Emperor, who held entire control of Rome during the time of the Roman Empire. After the Roman Republic, all of the Senate's controls shifted to the Emperor, making him the most powerful person in Rome. The "Legatus legionis" would delegate duties to his command staff, who would then carry out his orders. A "legatus" was one of the most respected military ranks in Rome.


title: Legatus

text: The "legatus" could be distinguished in the field by his elaborate helmet and body armour, as well as a scarlet "paludamentum" (cloak) and "cincticulus" (a waist-band tied around the waist in a bow).


title: Legatus

text: The senatorial "legatus legionis" was removed from the Roman army by Gallienus, who preferred to entrust the command of a legionary unit to a leader chosen from within the equestrian order who had a long military career.


title: Legatus

text: The title has other uses from the period of Augustus onwards, following the constitutional resettlement of 27 BC "that senatorial governors in the People's provinces bore the republican title of 'proconsul', while those appointed by the Emperor bore a title which explicitly referred to their dependence on him, namely "legatus", or deputy".


title: Legatus

text: "Legatus" was also a term for an ambassador of the Roman Republic who was appointed by the Senate for a mission ("legatio") to a foreign nation, as well as for ambassadors who came to Rome from other countries. The concept remains today as a diplomatic legation.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The Sea-Based X-Band Radar (SBX-1) is a floating, self-propelled, mobile active electronically scanned array early-warning radar station designed to operate in high winds and heavy seas. It was developed as part of the United States Department of Defense Missile Defense Agency's (MDA) Ballistic Missile Defense System.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The radar is mounted on a fifth generation CS-50 twin-hulled semi-submersible oil platform. Conversion of the vessel was carried out at the AmFELS yard in Brownsville, Texas; the radar mount was built and mounted on the vessel at the Kiewit yard in Ingleside, Texas. It is nominally based at Adak Island in Alaska, but has spent significant time at Pearl Harbor in test status.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: SBX-1 is part of the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) system under development by the Missile Defense Agency (MDA). The decision to place the system on a mobile sea-based platform was intended to allow the vessel to be moved to areas where it is needed for enhanced missile defense. Fixed radars provide coverage for a very limited area due to the curvature of the Earth. Even though the same limitation applies to the SBX, because it can be moved it mitigates this limitation. SBX's primary task is discrimination of enemy warheads from decoys, followed by precision tracking of the identified warheads. Testing has raised doubts about the system's ability to perform these tasks, to deal with multiple targets, and to report accurately to command authorities.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The vessel has many small radomes for various communications tasks and a large central dome that encloses a phased-array, 1,800 tonne (4,000,000 pound) X band radar antenna. The small radomes are rigid, but the central dome is not - the flexible cover is supported by positive air pressure amounting to a few inches of water. The amount of air pressure is variable depending on weather conditions.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The radar antenna itself is described as being . It has 45,000 solid-state transmit-receive modules mounted on an octagonal flat base which can move ±270 degrees in azimuth and 0 to 85 degrees elevation (although software currently limits the maximum physical elevation to 80 degrees). The maximum azimuth and elevation velocities are approximately 5-8 degrees per second. In addition to the physical motion of the base, the beam can be electronically steered off bore-sight (details classified).


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: There are currently 22,000 modules installed on the base. Each module has one transmit-receive feed horn and one auxiliary receive feed horn for a second polarization, totaling 44,000 feed horns. The base is roughly 2/3 populated, with space for installation of additional modules. The current modules are concentrated toward the center to minimize grating lobes. This configuration allows it to support the very-long-range target discrimination and tracking that GMD's midcourse segment requires. The radar is never pointed at land, for the safety of the inhabitants.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In addition to the power consumed by the radar, the thrusters which propel the vessel are electric and require substantial power. The maximum speed is approximately . To support this and all other electrical equipment, the vessel currently has six 3.6-megawatt generators (12-cylinder Caterpillar diesels). The generators are in two compartments, one port and one starboard.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The radar is derived from the radar used in the THAAD theater ballistic missile defense system, and is a part of the layered ballistic missile defense (BMDS) program of the United States Missile Defense Agency (MDA). One important difference from Aegis is the use of X band in the SBX. Aegis uses S band, and Patriot uses the higher-frequency C band. The X band frequency is higher still, so its shorter wavelength enables finer resolution of tracked objects.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The radar was described by Lt. Gen Trey Obering (former director of MDA) as being able to track an object the size of a baseball over San Francisco in California from Chesapeake Bay in Virginia, approximately away. The radar will guide land-based missiles from Alaska and California, as well as in-theater assets, depending on the mission.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The first such vessel is scheduled to be based in Adak Island, Alaska, part of the Aleutian Islands. From that location it will be able to track missiles launched toward the US from both North Korea and China. Although her homeport is in Alaska, she will be tasked with moving throughout the Pacific Ocean to support her mission. The hull code number given to the SBX vessel, "SBX-1", indicates the possibility of further units of the class. In circumstances when a vessel is required to be continually on duty over a long period of time, common naval practice is to have at least three units of the type available to allow for replenishment, repair and overhaul. Three further vessels of the CS-50/Moss Sirius design were under construction or contract at the Severodvinsk Shipyard in Russia as of early 2007, but were configured for oil production. On 11 May 2011, Col. Mark Arn, the SBX project manager for MDA, said that the "SBX is the only one of its kind and there are no current plans for another one". In July 2011, a Missile Defense Agency spokesman explained that other, smaller radars in the Pacific will "pick up the slack" while SBX is in port with its radar turned off.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The SBX deployed in 2006. The ship has spent time for maintenance and repair at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii several times, including 170 days in 2006, 63 days in 2007, 63 days in 2008, 177 days in 2009, and 51 days in 2010. When not at Hawaii, the SBX has been on operational deployments in the Pacific, including the waters off Alaska. The ship has not moored at Alaska, in spite of the construction of a $26 million, eight-point mooring chain system installed in 2007 in Adak's Kuluk Bay. On 23 June 2009, the SBX was moved to offshore Hawaii in response to a potential North Korean missile launch. Between 2009 and 2010, the vessel spent 396 continuous days at sea.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: The SBX failed during a flight test on 31 January 2010, designated FTG-06. The test was a simulation of a North Korean or Iranian missile launch. The test failure arose from two factors, the first being that algorithms in the SBX radar software (designed to filter out extraneous information from the target scene) were left disengaged for the test, and the second was a mechanical failure in a thruster on the kill vehicle.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: During flight test FTG-06a on 15 December 2010, the SBX performed as expected, but intercept of the target missile was again not achieved.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In May 2011, the SBX-1 entered Vigor Shipyard (formerly the Todd Pacific Shipyard) in Seattle for a $27 million upgrade and maintenance work by contractor Boeing. The work was completed in about three months and in August 2011, SBX-1 departed Seattle for deployment.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In December 2011, MDA transferred responsibility for the SBX vessel management and physical security to the U.S. Navy's Military Sealift Command. MDA retains responsibility for communications, the X-band Radar, and for mission integration.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In February 2012, the Missile Defense Agency requested only $9.7 million per year for Fiscal Years 2013 through 2017, down from $176.8 million in fiscal 2012. This reduced amount would be used to maintain SBX in a "limited test support" role, "while also retaining the ability to recall it to an active, operational status if and when it is needed."


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In April 2012, it was reported that SBX-1 had left Pearl Harbor and was assumed to be being deployed to monitor North Korea's planned Unha-3 missile in the launch window of 12–16 April 2012. The vessel returned to Pearl Harbor on 21 May 2012. It redeployed to monitor the next North Korean launch attempt at the end of 2012.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In April 2013, it was reported that SBX-1 was being deployed to monitor North Korea. It has never been deployed to Adak.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In November 2015, it was moved to Pearl Harbor for repairs and testing. It departed Pearl Harbor November 2017 for North Pacific Ocean waters to monitor North Korea ballistic missile operations.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In January 2017 the SBX-1 was deployed into the Pacific during North Korean threats of ICBM and nuclear attacks on other nations. The radar was able to perform its mission of tracking a target operating at ICBM speeds during the interception of a mock ICBM by a GMD interceptor on 30 May 2017.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: In May 2019, the SBX-1 docked on the north side of Ford Island in Pearl Harbor, where it underwent maintenance. It departed Pearl Harbor on 26 September 2019.


title: Sea-based X-band Radar

text: A fictionalized version of SBX-1, armed with "Interceptor" anti-ballistic missiles, is used as the setting for the 2022 action drama film "Interceptor".


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "A Scandal in Bohemia" is the first short story, and the third overall work, featuring Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional detective Sherlock Holmes. It is the first of the 56 Holmes short stories written by Doyle and the first of 38 Sherlock Holmes works illustrated by Sidney Paget. The story is notable for introducing the character of Irene Adler, who is one of the most notable female characters in the Sherlock Holmes series, despite appearing in only one story. Doyle ranked "A Scandal in Bohemia" fifth in his list of his twelve favourite Holmes stories.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "A Scandal in Bohemia" was first published on 25 June 1891 in the July issue of "The Strand Magazine", and was the first of the stories collected in "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" in 1892.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: On 20 March 1888, Dr. Watson is visiting Sherlock Holmes when a masked gentleman arrives at 221B Baker Street. Initially introducing himself as Count von Kramm, he reveals himself as Wilhelm Gottsreich Sigismond von Ormstein, Grand Duke of Cassel-Felstein and hereditary King of Bohemia, after Holmes deduces his true identity. The King explains that, five years earlier, he engaged in a secret relationship with American opera singer Irene Adler, who has since retired and now lives in London. He is set to marry a young Scandinavian princess but worries that her strictly principled family will call the marriage off should they learn of this impropriety.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The King further explains that he seeks to regain a photograph of Adler and himself together which he gave to her as a token. His agents have failed to recover the photograph through various means, and an offer to pay for it was also refused. With Adler now threatening to send the photograph to his fiancée's family, the King requests Holmes and Watson's help in recovering it.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The next morning, a disguised Holmes goes to Adler's house. He discovers Adler has a gentleman friend, barrister Godfrey Norton, who calls at least once a day. On this particular day, Norton visits Adler and soon afterward takes a cab to a nearby church. Minutes later, the lady herself gets into her landau, bound for the same place. Holmes follows in a cab and enters the church, where he is unexpectedly asked to be a witness to Norton and Adler's wedding. Curiously, the newly-weds go their separate ways after the ceremony.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Returning to Baker Street, Holmes recounts his tale to Watson and expresses his amusement at his role in Adler's wedding. He also asks whether or not Watson is willing to participate in an illegal scheme to figure out where the picture is hidden in Adler's house. Watson agrees, and Holmes changes into another disguise as a clergyman. They depart Baker Street for Adler's house.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: When Holmes and Watson arrive, a group of jobless men meanders throughout the street. When Adler's coach pulls up, Holmes enacts his plan. A fight breaks out between the men on the street over who gets to help Adler. Holmes rushes into the fight to protect Adler and is seemingly struck and injured, though it is later revealed that this is a self-inflicted splatter of red paint. Adler takes him into her sitting room, where Holmes motions for her to have the window opened. As Holmes lifts his hand, Watson recognizes a pre-arranged signal and tosses in a plumber's smoke rocket. While smoke billows out of the building, Watson shouts "Fire!" and the cry is echoed up and down the street.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Holmes slips out of Adler's house and tells Watson what he saw. As Holmes expected, Adler rushed to get her most precious possession at the cry of "fire"—the photograph of herself and the King. Holmes observes that the picture was kept in a recess behind a sliding panel just above the right bell pull. He was unable to steal it at that moment, however, because the coachman was watching him.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The following morning, Holmes explains his findings to the King. When Holmes, Watson, and the King arrive at Adler's house at 8 am, her elderly maidservant sardonically informs them she had left the country via train earlier that morning. Holmes quickly goes to the photograph's hiding spot, finding a photo of Irene Adler in an evening dress and a letter addressed to him, dated at midnight. In the letter, Adler tells Holmes he did very well in finding the photograph and taking her in with his disguises. Adler has left England with Norton, "a better man" than the King, adding she will not compromise the King, despite being "cruelly wronged" by him; she had kept the photo only to protect herself from further action he might take.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Thanking Holmes effusively, the King offers a valuable emerald ring from his finger as a further reward. Holmes declines and says there is something he values even more highly: the photograph of Adler, which he keeps as a reminder of her cleverness. Watson concludes the story by noting that, since their meeting, Holmes always referred to Adler by the honourable title of ""the" woman."


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: In the short story's opening paragraph, Watson calls her "the late Irene Adler," suggesting she is deceased. However, it has been speculated that the word "late" might actually mean "former." She married Godfrey Norton, making Adler her former name. (Doyle employs this same usage in "The Adventure of the Priory School" in reference to the Duke's former status as a cabinet minister.)


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Adler earns Holmes' unbounded admiration. When the King of Bohemia says, "Would she not have made an admirable queen? Is it not a pity she was not on my level?" Holmes replies that Adler is indeed on a much different level from the King, implying that she was superior to the King all along.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: This "memory" is kept alive by a photograph of Irene Adler, which had been deliberately left behind when she and her new husband took flight with the embarrassing photograph of her with the King. Holmes had then asked for and received this photo from the King, as payment for his work on the case. In "The Five Orange Pips" he comments to a client that he has been defeated on a mere handful of occasions and only once by a woman.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: In derivative works, she is frequently used as a romantic interest for Holmes, a departure from Doyle's novels where he only admired her for her wit and cunning. In his "Sherlock Holmes Handbook", Christopher Redmond notes "the Canon provides little basis for either sentimental or prurient speculation about a Holmes-Adler connection."


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "A Scandal in Bohemia" was first published in the UK in "The Strand Magazine" in July 1891, and in the United States in the US edition of the "Strand" in August 1891. The story was published with ten illustrations by Sidney Paget in "The Strand Magazine". It was included in the short story collection "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes", which was published in October 1892.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: William Gillette's 1899 stage play "Sherlock Holmes" is based on several stories, among them "A Scandal in Bohemia". Films released in 1916 (starring Gillette as Holmes) and 1922 (starring John Barrymore), both titled "Sherlock Holmes", were based on the play, as was a 1938 "Mercury Theatre on the Air" radio adaptation titled "The Immortal Sherlock Holmes", starring Orson Welles as Holmes.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The 1965 Broadway musical "Baker Street" was loosely based on the story, making Irene Adler into the heroine and adding Professor Moriarty as the villain.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Steven Dietz's 2006 play "Sherlock Holmes: The Final Adventure", adapted from the 1899 play "Sherlock Holmes", merges the storylines of "A Scandal in Bohemia" and "The Final Problem". In this adaptation, Godfrey Norton is under the employ of Professor Moriarty and whose original plan was to rob Adler. However, they ended up falling in love, complicating the plan and forcing Moriarty to intervene when Holmes begins investigating on behalf of the King.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The story was adapted as a 1921 silent short film as part of the Stoll film series starring Eille Norwood as Holmes.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The 1946 film "Dressed to Kill", starring Basil Rathbone as Sherlock Holmes and Nigel Bruce as Dr. Watson, features several references to "A Scandal in Bohemia", with Holmes and Watson discussing the recent publication of the story in "The Strand Magazine" (albeit anachronistically, the film takes place in its current day), and the villain of the film using the same trick on Watson that Holmes uses on Irene Adler in the story.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "The Adventure of Sherlock Holmes' Smarter Brother", a 1975 Gene Wilder film, parodies the basic storyline, with the female lead replaced with a music hall singer.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The 1998 film "Zero Effect" is loosely based on the story, set in late 90s America, with Bill Pullman as Daryl Zero and Ben Stiller as Steve Arlo, both based on the Holmes and Watson characters, respectively. Kim Dickens plays Gloria Sullivan, the Irene Adler character, while Ryan O'Neal is Gregory Stark, the King of Bohemia equivalent.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The second episode of "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" featured an adaptation by Edith Meiser of the story on 27 October 1930 and starred Clive Brook as Holmes and Leigh Lovell as Watson. A remake of the script aired in March 1933, with Richard Gordon playing Sherlock Holmes and Leigh Lovell again playing Dr. Watson. Another remake of the script aired in August 1936, with Gordon as Holmes and Harry West as Watson.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce, who played Holmes and Watson in the film "Dressed to Kill" and other films, did the story for their radio series, "The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes". The episode aired on 10 December 1945, and was followed by a sequel, "Second Generation", featuring Irene's daughter hiring Holmes in retirement. "Second Generation" aired on 17 December 1945.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: A radio adaptation starring John Gielgud as Holmes and Ralph Richardson as Watson aired in October 1954 on the BBC Light Programme. The production was also broadcast on NBC radio in January 1955, and on ABC radio in May 1956.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Michael Hardwick adapted the story as a radio production which aired on the BBC Light Programme in 1966, as part of the 1952–1969 radio series. Carleton Hobbs played Sherlock Holmes and Norman Shelley played Dr. Watson.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: A radio adaptation was broadcast as an episode of the series "CBS Radio Mystery Theater" in 1977, with Kevin McCarthy as Sherlock Holmes and Court Benson as Dr. Watson. Marian Seldes played Irene Adler.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Bert Coules dramatised "A Scandal in Bohemia" for BBC Radio 4 in 1990, as an episode of the 1989–1998 radio series, starring Clive Merrison as Holmes and Michael Williams as Watson. It also featured Andrew Sachs as the King (Sachs would then go on to play Watson in Coules' radio series "The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" in 2002–2010).


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The story was adapted as a 2012 episode of the American radio series "The Classic Adventures of Sherlock Holmes", with John Patrick Lowrie as Holmes and Lawrence Albert as Watson.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The story was adapted for a 1951 TV episode of "We Present Alan Wheatley as Mr Sherlock Holmes in..." starring Alan Wheatley as Holmes, Raymond Francis as Dr. Watson and Olga Edwardes as Irene Adler.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "A Scandal in Bohemia" was adapted as part of the Soviet television film series "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson", in the form of a flashback in "The Treasures of Agra"; two episodes adapting "The Sign of the Four" (1983, USSR). It starred Vasily Livanov as Sherlock Holmes, Vitaly Solomin as Dr. Watson, Georgiy Martirosyan as the King of Bohemia and Larisa Solovyova as Irene Adler.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "A Scandal in Bohemia" was adapted as the first episode of the 1984–1985 television series "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes". The episode featured Jeremy Brett as Holmes, David Burke as Watson, and Gayle Hunnicutt as Irene Adler, whose first name is pronounced "Irena" in this adaptation.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "A Scandal in Bohemia" was featured in a season 1 episode of the PBS series "Wishbone", entitled "A Dogged Exposé". In the episode, the supporting human characters search for an incognito photographer at their school who has been publishing embarrassing photographs of students. Intermingled with the plot, the title character Wishbone portrays Sherlock Holmes in a slightly modified adaptation of the original story to compare with the events of the "real-life" plot.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: A series of four television movies produced in the early 2000s starred Matt Frewer as Sherlock Holmes and Kenneth Welsh as Dr. Watson. One of these films, "The Royal Scandal", adapted "A Scandal in Bohemia" and combined its story with "The Bruce-Partington Plans".


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "A Scandal in Belgravia", episode one of the second series of the TV series "Sherlock", was loosely adapted from the short story and aired on 1 January 2012, starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Holmes, Martin Freeman as Watson and Lara Pulver as Irene Adler. The plot of the short story – Holmes and Watson attempting to recover incriminating photos from Adler – is covered briefly in the first half of the episode updated for the contemporary period (Adler's photos are stored digitally on her mobile phone) and adjusted (the royal they incriminate is British and female); the episode then moves on to a storyline based on other Sherlock Holmes stories and films while including Adler, Mycroft Holmes (Mark Gatiss) and Jim Moriarty.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: "A Scandal in Bohemia" was adapted to the second episode "The Adventure of the Headmaster with Trouble" of NHK puppetry "Sherlock Holmes". Holmes is a pupil of an imaginary boarding school Beeton School. One day he pretends to be ill and goes to the nurse's office to search the photo that Headmaster Ormstein and school nurse Irene Adler are in. But Adler sees through his feigned illness. Then Holmes and his roommate John H. Watson make a false fire to find the photo but she penetrates their wiles and tells Holmes that she returned the photo to Ormstein.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: Rather than creating a fictional country for the King in his story, Conan Doyle chose to place a fictional dynasty in a real country. The Kingdom of Bohemia was at the time of writing a possession of the House of Habsburg and the Austrian Emperors held the title "King of Bohemia". Although Bohemian nobles had offered the crown to other Germanic families twice since the Middle Ages (Frederick of the Palatine in 1618 and Charles of Bavaria in 1741), claiming the title formally had elective succession.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: On the other hand, there had never been a "Kingdom of Scandinavia". The closest instance was the personal union of Denmark, Norway and Sweden under the Kalmar Union, which was never formalised like the British Acts of Union and broke down in the 16th century.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: However after the Kalmar Union was dissolved by Gustav Vasa's coronation the Kingdom of Norway remained in personal union with Denmark before the Napoleonic Wars changed that to a union with Sweden, which existed until 14 years after publication (the whole time under King Oscar II) and this might have been the "Kingdom of Scandinavia" Conan Doyle meant.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The surname of the King's fiancée was that of the actual ruling house of the Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen. At publication ruled by George II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, a cadet member of the Ernestine duchies ruled by various cousins from the House of Wettin, whose Saxe-Coburg line produced Queen Victoria's mother Victoria and husband Albert.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: There was also no "Grand Duchy of Cassel-Felstein" and in fact there was no major title with the name Felstein. The closest match is a collective municipality named Feldstein. But there was a possible inspiration in the former Landgraviate of Hesse, which was partitioned into four parts in the 16th century. While two went extinct swiftly and were divided by the remaining pair, both of those probably inspired the title.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: One was the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, which was spelled with "Cassel" before the 20th century spelling reform of German changed the city's name. This title was elevated to the Electorate of Hesse during the Napoleonic Wars, but by the time of publication had been annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia for 25 years as the Province of Hesse-Nassau.


title: A Scandal in Bohemia

text: The Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt also has a probable connection to the fictional title, since it was elevated to the Grand Duchy of Hesse in 1806. At the time of publication its ruler was Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, whose first wife had been Queen Victoria's third child Princess Alice of the United Kingdom.


title: Leukorrhea

text: Leukorrhea or (leucorrhoea British English), also known as fluor albus, is a thick, whitish, yellowish or greenish vaginal discharge.


title: Leukorrhea

text: There are many causes of leukorrhea, the usual one being estrogen imbalance. The amount of discharge may increase due to vaginal infection, and it may disappear and reappear from time to time. This discharge can keep occurring for years, in which case it becomes more yellow and strong-smelling. It is usually a non-pathological symptom secondary to inflammatory conditions of the vagina or cervix.


title: Leukorrhea

text: Leukorrhea can be confirmed by finding >10 WBC per high-power field under a microscope when examining vaginal fluid.


title: Leukorrhea

text: Vaginal discharge is normal, and causes of change in discharge include infection, malignancy, and hormonal changes. It sometimes occurs before an adolescent female has her first period, and is considered a sign of puberty.


title: Leukorrhea

text: The word leukorrhea comes from Greek λευκός (leukós, “white”) + ῥοία (rhoía, “flow, flux”). In Latin leukorrhea is "fluor albus" (fluor, "flow" & albus, "white").


title: Leukorrhea

text: It is not a major issue but is to be resolved as soon as possible. It can be a natural defense mechanism that the vagina uses to maintain its chemical balance, as well as to preserve the flexibility of the vaginal tissue. The term "physiologic leukorrhea" is used to refer to leukorrhea due to estrogen stimulation.


title: Leukorrhea

text: Leukorrhea may occur normally during pregnancy. This is caused by increased bloodflow to the vagina due to increased estrogen. Female infants may have leukorrhea for a short time after birth due to their in-uterine exposure to estrogen.


title: Leukorrhea

text: It may also result from inflammation or congestion of the vaginal mucosa. In cases where it is yellowish or gives off an odor, a doctor should be consulted since it could be a sign of several disease processes, including an organic bacterial infection (aerobic vaginitis) or STD.


title: Leukorrhea

text: After delivery, leukorrhea accompanied by backache and foul-smelling lochia (post-partum vaginal discharge, containing blood, mucus, and placental tissue) may suggest the failure of involution (the uterus returning to pre-pregnancy size) due to infection. A number of investigation such as wet smear, Gram stain, culture, pap smear and biopsy are suggested to diagnose the condition.


title: Leukorrhea

text: Leukorrhea is also caused by trichomonads, a group of parasitic protozoan, specifically "Trichomonas vaginalis". Common symptoms of this disease are burning sensation, itching and discharge of frothy substance, thick, white or yellow mucous.


title: Leukorrhea

text: Leukorrhea may be caused by sexually transmitted diseases; therefore, treating the STD will help treat the leukorrhea.


title: Leukorrhea

text: Treatment may include antibiotics, such as metronidazole. Other antibiotics common for the treatment of STIs include clindamycin or tinidazole.


title: Oil wrestling

text: Oil wrestling (), also called grease wrestling, is a traditional Turkish sport, where participants, called "pehlivan" (wrestlers) or "baspehlivan" (master wrestlers), wrestle while covered in oil. Competitions are held in "proving grounds". One challenge of oil wrestling is that oiling the wrestlers' bodies makes it harder to grab each other.


title: Oil wrestling

text: Oil wrestling was performed by ancient communities 4,500 years ago in Thrace and the Balkans. As the Ottoman Empire extended into Europe, oil wrestling competitions has been held ceremoniously until modern times.


title: Oil wrestling

text: Unlike Olympic wrestling, oil wrestling matches may be won by achieving an effective hold of the "kisbet". Thus, the "pehlivan" aims to control his opponent by putting his arm through the latter's "kisbet". To win by using this move is called "paça kazık". Originally, matches had no set duration and could go on for one or two days until one man was able to establish his superiority, but in 1975 the duration was capped at 40 minutes for the "baspehlivan" and 30 minutes for the "pehlivan" category. If there is no winner, play continues for another 15 minutes in the "baspelivan" or 10 minutes in the "pehlivan" category, wherein scores are kept to determine the victor.


title: Oil wrestling

text: The annual Kırkpınar tournament, held in Edirne in Turkish Thrace since 1346, is the oldest continuously running, sanctioned sporting competition in the world. Oil wrestling festivals also take place in the Turkish-inhabited regions of Bulgaria (Ludogorie and Rhodopes), as well as northern Greece in Eastern Macedonia (Serres region) and West Thrace (Rhodope Mountains).


title: Oil wrestling

text: The Turkish word for wrestling can be traced back to the Oghuz Turkic languages, which originate from the Eurasian steppes. After the conquest of Anatolia by Seljuk Turks, a form of traditional freestyle wrestling called "Karakucak Güreşi" (literally "Ground hug") was popularized, where special leather clothing was worn and wrestlers commenced the competition by pouring olive oil on their bodies. This form evolved into what is currently known as "Yağlı Güreş", or Turkish oil wrestling. In the Ottoman Empire, wrestlers trained in special schools called "tekke" (), which were both athletic and spiritual centers.


title: Oil wrestling

text: Oil wrestling can be traced back to ancient Sumer and Babylon. Cognate forms of folk wrestling practiced by Turkic-speakers are found throughout Western Eurasia (i.e. Europe and Central Asia) under the names Köraş, Khuresh, Kurash, etc.. Greco-Roman traditions also point to the practice of oil wrestling.


title: Oil wrestling

text: Wrestlers oil one another prior to matches as a demonstration of balance and mutual respect. If a man defeats an older opponent, he kisses the latter's hand (a sign of respect for elders in Turkey).


title: Oil wrestling

text: Matches are held all over Turkey throughout the year, but in early summer, around 1000 competitors gather in Kırkpınar for an annual three-day wrestling tournament to determine who will be the winner, or "başpehlivan" ("chief wrestler"), of Turkey. Evidence from Ottoman chronicles and documents indicate that the Kırkpınar Games have been held every year since 1362. The Guinness Book of World Records accepts this as the world's oldest continually sanctioned sporting competition. The games have only been cancelled about 70 times. In 1924, they were moved to the present location after the Balkan War, some from the original site.


title: Oil wrestling

text: There are some organized oil wrestling competitions outside Turkey, particularly the ones regulated by the Royal Dutch Power Sport Federation ("Koninklijke Nederlandse Krachtsport en Fitnessfederatie" (KNKF)) in the Netherlands.


title: Oil wrestling

text: The most important of rituals is "peşrev", a theatrical introduction to wrestling, prayer, and warm-up at the same time. Rituals like peşrev also exist in the other kinds of Turkish traditional wrestling ("karakucak", "aba" "güreş"), but they are much simpler and don't have a developed symbolism. At the beginning of "peşrev", wrestlers line up in rows with the main "pehlivan" ("başpehlivan", the winner of the previous competitions) on the right. Wrestlers then look toward the "Kıbla"'s side; they take the right hand of the competitor in their own right hand, take the competitor's left hand in their left hand, and listen to "cazgır" prayer. Holding each other's hands means: "You are more than a brother for me; you are my comrade in a holy war, in struggle on the way of martyrdom ("şehadet"). We are like heroes Ali and Selim, who became founders of Kırkpınar, we are their representatives now".


title: Oil wrestling

text: A wrestler's garment comprises only leather pants below the knee called "kıspet". "Kıspet" is an Arabic word meaning the garment starts at the belt and goes down to just below the knee. The word itself came to the Ottoman language through Persian. Until the 1960s, kıspets were made of buffalo skin and weighed between 12–13 kg. Nowadays, they're typically made of calfskin and weigh about 1.8 kg or 2.5 kg when oiled.


title: Oil wrestling

text: According to the rules of oil wrestling, the loser is the wrestler whose back touches the ground as a result of the opponent's actions ("showing belly to the stars"); sitting supported by two hands behind them; touching the ground with both elbows or elbow and hand. The winner is the wrestler who raises his opponent and either carries him three steps or spins him around. If a wrestler's "kıspet" gets pulled down (revealing his genitals), he loses as well, though losing under such circumstances is unlikely.


title: Oil wrestling

text: Before 1975 the duration of each wrestling match was unlimited, which was highly inconvenient from the competition's organizational point of view as matches could drag on for hours. Nowadays, wrestling in young categories is limited to 30 minutes, and 40 minutes for masters. The winner of a final tournament receives the title of "başpehlivan" and a monetary award. A "pehlivan" who won three years successively, is awarded a Golden belt. Second and third place winners are also awarded, and all participating pehlivans received "trip money."


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Anastasia "Ana" Kriégel (; 18 February 2004 14 May 2018) was a Russian-Irish girl who was subject to a violent attack, murder and sexual assault in an abandoned house in May 2018 in Lucan near Dublin. Two boys, known only as Boy A and Boy B, who were 13 years old at the time of Kriégel's death, were convicted of her murder, with one of the boys (Boy A) being further convicted of aggravated sexual assault. The two convicts are the youngest in the history of Ireland to be charged with murder.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Anastasia () was born in Novokuznetsk, Russia in 2004 and placed in an orphanage. In 2006, she was adopted by Geraldine Kriégel and her French-born husband Patric Kriégel (who passed away in June 2022, four years after her murder) and came to live in Ireland. Though her parents had no cultural links to Russia themselves, they tried to make sure she kept connections with Russian culture, such as keeping her original given name.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Kriégel was said to be a happy girl during most of her time in primary school, despite some health issues, such as a tumour that had to be removed from her right ear, which left her nearly deaf in that ear. She also suffered from sight problems. She struggled to make friends at the secondary school she attended. She was suspended for painting a black eye onto herself; her mother thinks that the painted eye was an expression of the pain she felt inside. She suffered from bullying, and self-harmed on one occasion in 2017. Some of the bullying began before she started secondary school with online bullying about her height and the fact that she was adopted. Some of the bullying messages were of a sexual nature. She also set up fake social media accounts to "bully" herself. After this, her mother insisted that Ana give her the passwords to all her apps, so her mother could check them.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: On 14 May 2018, Ana attended a counselling session. She went home from school, changed out of uniform and walked to Leixlip town centre. She came back and went up to her room before the child later known as "Boy B" called to the Kriégel home at 5:00 p.m. This was unusual; Ana's mother Geraldine recalled that Ana had no friends and that "nobody calls for Ana."


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Ana Kriégel's body was found on Thursday, 17 May 2018 in Glenwood House, a derelict James Gandon-designed 19th-century farmhouse, located in the townland of Coldblow west of Lucan. Her clothes were found scattered in the house. Death was caused by blunt force injuries and bloodied pieces of wood were found in the house. There were also signs of sexual assault (attempt at penetration and semen on her shirt) and blue Tescon building tape was found around her neck.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Two boys, both aged 13, immediately came under suspicion. As minors, they cannot be named in the media and are known in reports as Boy A and Boy B. They were the youngest people in the history of the Republic of Ireland to be charged with murder.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Both were charged with murder; Boy A was additionally charged with aggravated sexual assault. Both charges carry potential life sentences for adults, but these are not mandatory for children. Their trial began in the Central Criminal Court on 29 April 2019.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: The two accused were found guilty of murder on 18 June 2019. The jury had deliberated for over fourteen hours. After the verdict, Mr. Justice Paul McDermott thanked the jury members and relieved them from jury duty for the rest of their lives.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Prosecuting counsel said there were places available at Oberstown Children Detention Campus. The judge remanded them in custody and adjourned sentencing to 15 July. Sentencing was further adjourned to October in order that psychological assessments could take place.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: A number of posts appeared on social media platforms including Twitter and Facebook that identified the two boys despite a court order being made preventing this. An injunction was served on Twitter and Facebook to remove all of these posts.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: The sentencing took place on 5 November 2019. Boy A was sentenced to life with a review period after twelve years for Ana's murder. Additionally he was sentenced to twelve years for aggravated sexual assault. This sentence is to run alongside the murder sentence. His co-accused, known as Boy B, was sentenced to fifteen years for Ana’s murder. This will be reviewed after a period of eight years. Outside the court, Ana's father Patric said "forever is not long enough" in response to the sentences. The boys will be offered new identities after release. Patric Kriégel died on 19 June 2022.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: The boys are currently held in the Oberstown Detention Centre in North Dublin. The pair will be transferred to an adult prison when they turn 18. Boy A, then aged 15, was assaulted by fellow inmates in May 2020, suffering minor injuries.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Ana Kriégel's funeral took place on 31 May 2018 at Newlands Cross Crematorium, Dublin. Her family requested that mourners wear "sparkle and colour" in Ana's memory and that donations be made to the Russian Irish Adoption Group. A Russian flag and matryoshka doll were placed on her coffin.


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: After the trial, her parents spoke outside the court. Her father said "Ana was our strength." Her mother said "Ana was a dream come true for us and she always will be. She will stay in our hearts, forever loved and forever cherished. We love you Ana."


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: A charity to help other teenagers was set up in her honor by Ana's family with the Russian Irish Adoption Group (RIAG), and called ANA (Ana’s Network of Adolescents).


title: Murder of Ana Kriégel

text: Denise Fergus, the mother of James Bulger, expressed concern about the decision not to name Ana's killers.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Dana Brunetti (born June 11, 1973) is an American media executive, film producer, entrepreneur and co-founder and chief content officer of Cavalry Media.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti has been nominated for two Academy Awards for producing "The Social Network" and "Captain Phillips" and five Emmy Awards for producing the Netflix series "House of Cards".


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti grew up in Covington, Virginia, and attended secondary school at Alleghany High School. As a child, Brunetti delivered morning and evening editions of his local newspaper.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: He joined the U.S. Coast Guard in 1992 and served until 1995. During his enlistment, Brunetti moved to New York. He met actor Kevin Spacey through a chance introduction from a mutual friend while Brunetti was working at a start up digital wireless network company.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Shortly after meeting each other in 1997, Spacey hired Brunetti as his executive assistant. Brunetti worked with Spacey through several feature films, such as "American Beauty" (1999) and "The Shipping News" (2001).


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In 2001, Brunetti transformed Spacey's Trigger Street Productions website, TriggerStreet.com, originally a static homepage for Trigger Street Productions, into a platform for aspiring filmmakers. The site was a place for users to submit screenplays and short films for feedback from other members. TriggerStreet.com was relaunched in 2002 as an early social media site, hosting member profiles, providing member ratings of submitted work and interactive forums. TriggerStreet steadily gained users resulting in it being named one of the top 50 best websites of 2004 by "Time" magazine. The site became known as TriggerStreet Labs and expanded to include short story submissions, it closed down in 2015.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Soon after the launch of the new TriggerStreet.com, Brunetti started working as a motion picture producer.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In 2002, Brunetti co-produced the documentaries "Uncle Frank" and "America Rebuilds: A Year At Ground Zero" through TriggerStreet. The controversial unreleased documentary "Hackers Wanted" was also part of the early film slate of the company.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti's first feature film producing credit was as co-producer for "Beyond the Sea" (2004). His first full feature credit was "Mini's First Time". He later produced the film "The Sasquatch Dumpling Gang" (2006). He also produced the Emmy-nominated "Bernard and Doris".


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti, a "Star Wars" fan himself, eagerly produced the "Star Wars" comedy "Fanboys". The film was distributed by The Weinstein Company, and originally slated for release on August 17, 2007. However, after delays for re-shoots and disagreements over the film's final cut, the release for "Fanboys" was delayed until February 9, 2009. Brunetti discussed the film's struggles with the Weinstein Company in interviews on KCRW's "The Business" podcast and in "The New York Times".


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti's first major success was for "21" (2008), a film based on Ben Mezrich's "New York Times" best selling book "Bringing Down The House". Produced on a budget of $35 million, the film went on to a worldwide gross of nearly $158 million.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In early 2009, Brunetti teamed with Mezrich on an adaption of the book "The Accidental Billionaires", which was turned into the critically acclaimed film, "The Social Network". The screenplay adaptation was written by Aaron Sorkin, directed by David Fincher and told the story of Mark Zuckerberg and the founding of Facebook.com.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In writing the book on the founding of Facebook, Mezrich was in touch with some of the founding members but not all. He was having trouble contacting Eduardo Saverin. To facilitate that meeting, Brunetti had a screening in Boston of the movie based Mezrich's first book and invited Saverin to that screening. At the party following the screening, the three of them spent time discussing Mezrich's work. A later screening of the film in Las Vegas resulted in Saverin and his friends meeting with Brunetti and Mezrich again. Brunetti made sure to have Kevin Spacey attend the premiere and after party as well to ensure that their Facebook-related project would have all the momentum it needed.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: The 14-page proposal by Mezrich resulted in a movie being sold to Sony that became "The Social Network".


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In 2011, "The Social Network" was nominated for eight Oscars, including Best Picture, Music (Original Score), Actor in a Leading Role, Cinematography, Directing, Film Editing, Sound Mixing and Writing (Adapted Screenplay). Brunetti talked about "The Social Network" on KCRW's "The Business" podcast.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In 2016, Brunetti admitted to finding "dates" for Saverin in his attempts to gain the latter's cooperation on the movie.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti produced "Captain Phillips", which starred Tom Hanks and was directed by Paul Greengrass, which earned him his second career Academy Award nomination. In 2015, Brunetti and Michael DeLuca reunited to produce the "Fifty Shades of Grey" film adaptation for Focus Features. In 2016, Brunetti publicly criticized the Producers Guild of America for initially not awarding him a producers mark (p.g.a. mark) for the sequel to "Fifty Shades of Grey", "Fifty Shades Darker". Brunetti eventually received the mark after he won a decision on appeal. He dubbed it a victory. He was also credited on the third film, "Fifty Shades Freed".


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In January 2016 it was announced that Relativity Media, which was just emerging from Chapter 11 bankruptcy, had acquired Trigger Street Productions and that Kevin Spacey would become chairman of Relativity Studios whilst Brunetti would become the studio's president. Brunetti said in a statement. "Being a disruptor at heart, I look forward to the opportunities that being inside a studio system will present."


title: Dana Brunetti

text: When the paperwork for the studio was filed for the court it emerged that Spacey had opted out of assuming the chairmanship of the studios, and by the end of 2016 Brunetti had also left Relativity whilst both remained Executive Producers on "House of Cards" and "".


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In 2018 Brunetti and former Relativity Media Executive Keegan Rosenberger, co-founded Los Angeles-based media company Cavalry Media. Cavalry's core focus is the acquisition, development and production of premium feature films and scripted television series for global audiences.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti and Kevin Spacey's Trigger Street Productions released their series, "House of Cards", on Netflix in early 2013. The entire 13-episode first season was released on Netflix simultaneously. Spacey starred alongside Robin Wright, Kate Mara, Corey Stoll and Michael Kelly. Reed Hastings, Netflix CEO, commented on the overwhelmingly positive reaction to the release of "House of Cards" by saying, "[it's] a very nice confirmation of the premise that over the next couple of years we can build something very important."


title: Dana Brunetti

text: For his work as a producer on the show, Brunetti has earned five Emmy nominations and three PGA award nominations for Outstanding Drama Series. Brunetti remained an executive producer on the show even after Spacey was fired from the production during season 6.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In 2017 Brunetti served as an executive producer on the Discovery Channel Original series, "Manhunt, Unabomber", starring Sam Worthington and Paul Bettany. The critically acclaimed series depicts a fictionalized account of the FBI's hunt for Unabomber, Ted Kaczynski.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti's additional TV producing credits include HBO's "Bernard & Doris", starring Ralph Fiennes and Susan Sarandon, which received 10 Emmy nominations and CNN's factual series, "Race For The White House".


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In July 2011, at an event at the Talenthouse in Palo Alto, California, Brunetti offered the audience his perspective on working on "House of Cards" and told the audience, "Silicon Valley should start making content ... Netflix creating original content is a game changer." Brunetti also told the audience that he thought Amazon, Hulu and Fandor would join Netflix in producing their own content, which would lead to subscription cable companies (like HBO) to offer a la carte content in the next 5 years. In May 2012, Amazon announced plans to create original content. Hulu also announced similar plans in 2012. In August 2012, HBO began a la carte subscriptions for their service in Norway. In early 2013, Verizon unveiled plans to offer cable channels a la carte to consumers.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: He told an audience in September 2012 that web video will "destroy networks and conglomerates as we know it."


title: Dana Brunetti

text: In 2014, Brunetti sat down with former Facebook executive Randy Zuckerberg for an interview at SXSW Film Festival about the future of media, personal branding online, and how Hollywood and Silicon Valley continue to converge. On the subject of crowdfunding, Brunetti suggested it was "a genius idea that's gotten a little out of hand ... I think it's wrong when people like Zach Braff or Spike Lee utilize that same service to fund their films when they already have access", he added. "I think it overshadows the little guys who actually need the funding."


title: Dana Brunetti

text: On October 22, 2020, Brunetti was named as an associate executive producer of the "No Agenda" podcast, episode 1288. The show is hosted every Sunday and Thursday by Adam Curry and John C. Dvorak.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: As an innovator in social networking, Brunetti launched online social networking and file-sharing platform, triggerstreet.com for feedback and exposure of undiscovered writing and filmmaking talent in 2002. Anheuser-Busch forged an eight-year sponsorship with the site, which was the brewing company's longest ever sponsorship deal outside of sports. In 2012, Brunetti, Trigger Street and Jameson Irish Whiskey launched Jameson First Shot, a short-film competition for up-and-coming filmmakers. Jameson First Shot stars have included, Uma Thurman, Maggie Gyllenhaal, Willem Dafoe, Kevin Spacey, Adrien Brody and Dominic West.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: Brunetti's mother left his father, Ron Brunetti, a U.S. Postal Service mail carrier, when Brunetti was a baby. He has a stepmother, Joanne, a sister, Carla, a credit union employee in Pennsylvania; and three brothers: Brian, a helicopter pilot for Presidential Airways based in Afghanistan; Erik, a Los Angeles-based artist and designer who created the FUCT line of street wear clothing; and Alex, who works for an ophthalmologist in Kentucky.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: When Brunetti turned 18 he spent two weeks in hospital and almost lost an eye water skiing when the ski rope snapped. Around the same time he discovered in a family counseling session that his biological mother had left his father for another woman.


title: Dana Brunetti

text: He went onto have a long-term relationship with costume designer Johanna Argan from prior to 2005 which ended amicably in 2013. The couple have a daughter, born on October 10, 2012. In 2014, he dated actress Kristin Chenoweth.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: The 2022 New York Mets season was the 61st season in the franchise's history, 14th at Citi Field, and second under majority owner Steve Cohen.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: On December 2, 2021, Commissioner of Baseball Rob Manfred announced a lockout of players, following expiration of the collective bargaining agreement (CBA) between the league and the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA). On March 10, 2022, the MLB and MLBPA agreed to a new collective bargaining agreement, thus ending the lockout. Opening Day was played on April 7. Although MLB previously announced that several series would be cancelled due to the lockout, the agreement provides for a 162-game season, with originally canceled games to be made up via doubleheaders.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: On April 15, the Mets unveiled a long-awaited statue of legendary pitcher Tom Seaver by the main entrance to Citi Field. The statue which features Seaver's iconic drop-and-drive delivery, stands to the right of the Home Run Apple. It measures 10 feet high, 13½ feet long and is made of 2,000 pounds of bronze and 1,200 pounds of stainless steel, and stands on a granite mound. "The Franchise" statue came in nine separate pieces, weighs 33,600 pounds and was sculpted by William Behrends.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: On July 9, the Mets retired Keith Hernandez's No. 17, which is immortalized on the left field overhang at Citi Field. He became only the 7th Mets player to be honored.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: On August 27, the Mets retired the No. 24 jersey once worn by Hall of Fame outfielder Willie Mays as part of their Old Timers' Day ceremonies. Mays finished his historic career with the Mets. He became the 8th Mets player to have his number retired.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: On September 19, the Mets clinched their first playoff appearance since 2016. It was their 10th playoff berth in franchise history.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: After leading the National League East for most of the season (at one point, the team had a game lead in the division), the Mets endured an underwhelming September. A resurgent Atlanta Braves team, which also swept the Mets in the final weekend of the regular season, won the NL East, leaving the Mets to settle with the first Wild Card spot.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: On October 4, the Mets earned their 100th win of the season, the team's fourth 100-win season in franchise history and their first since 1988. They ended the season 101–61, the second most wins in a season in franchise history behind only the championship team of 1986.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: The Mets were defeated in the Wild Card Series by the San Diego Padres, losing in three games. The Mets are the first team in MLB history to produce only one hit in a winner-take-all playoff game. In addition to being the eighteenth 100-win team to not win a postseason series, they became the first 100+ win team to fail to reach the Division Series since it was put into effect in 1995.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: The expiration of the league's collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with the Major League Baseball Players Association occurred on December 1, 2021 with no new agreement in place. As a result, the team owners voted unanimously to lockout the players stopping all free agency and trades.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: Pursuant to the new CBA, several new rules were instituted for the 2022 season. The National League will adopt the designated hitter full-time, a draft lottery will be implemented, the postseason will expand from ten teams to twelve, and advertising patches will appear on player uniforms and helmets for the first time.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: On April 29, during a game against the Philadelphia Phillies, the Mets pitchers threw a combined no-hitter, the first in the team's history. With 159 pitches, starting pitcher Tylor Megill, along with relief pitchers Drew Smith, Joely Rodríguez, Seth Lugo and closer Edwin Díaz held batters to a total of 6 walks and 13 strikeouts. This milestone is the second no-hitter in franchise history (the first was a solo effort in 2012 by Johan Santana against the St. Louis Cardinals) and the 17th combined no-hitter in MLB history. This was the second no-hitter as a manager for Buck Showalter, previously as the manager of the New York Yankees when Jim Abbott pitched a no-hitter during the 1993 season.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: The Mets made franchise history with their biggest ninth-inning comeback in 25 years in a win over the Philadelphia Phillies on May 5. Down 7–1 entering the ninth inning, the Mets rallied with seven runs in the top of the inning to defeat the Phillies 8–7.


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: "Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; R = Runs; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; SB = Stolen bases; BB = Walks; K = Strikeouts; Avg. = Batting average; OBP = On Base Percentage; SLG = Slugging Percentage; TB = Total Bases"


title: 2022 New York Mets season

text: "Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; WHIP = Walks plus hits per inning pitched; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts"


title: Suzuki SV650

text: The Suzuki SV650 and variants are street motorcycles manufactured since 1999 for the international market by the Suzuki Motor Corporation, featuring a mid-sized V-twin engine and medium performance components. In 2009, Suzuki replaced the naked SV650 with the SFV650 Gladius. In 2016, the Gladius name was discontinued and the 2017 model was reverted to SV650.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: Suzuki introduced the SV650 in 1999 as a budget entry in the emerging naked bike market and featured both naked and fully faired versions. The bike provided a sporty though easily manageable ride. The combination of light weight, rigid chassis, strong handling, and the V-twin's strong mid-range torque appealed to beginner and experienced riders alike. The 2003 SV1000 was marketed as a bigger alternative to the second generation SV650.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: The SV650 immediately became popular, but American buyers wanted the sportier 'S' version that featured lower handlebars, higher foot pegs and a bikini fairing and windscreen, available only in the European and Canadian markets. American magazines ran articles describing how to import it into the United States. In 2000, Suzuki began importing the SV650S to the USA.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: The SV650 with its relatively low purchase price and excellent handling characteristics became popular with racers which prompted a rebirth of the "lightweight twins" racing classes across North America and the SV650 began outselling the Suzuki GS500, Honda NT650 and Kawasaki Ninja 500R, which previously populated the class.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: In 2003, Suzuki redesigned the SV650 with a new pressure-cast aluminum truss frame, bodywork, swing-arm with revised rear brake caliper mounting, exhaust, digital speedometer display and electronic fuel injection/induction system to replace the carburetor.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: The 2003 SV650s also supported some first generation parts (like the rearsets and radiator). The subframe is also angled up higher than 2004+ models. The different subframe has year-specific parts, such as the rider seat, plastic frame covers, exhaust hanger brackets and passenger pegs.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: For 2004, Suzuki used a new, 40 mm lower subframe and a seat with a narrower design in the front. This made flat footing easier for shorter riders. The trail was raised by 2 mm, and the rear fender was restyled to clean up the area under the tail lights and provide more protection against flying debris.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: In 2005, the color of the frame was changed from silver to a matte black finish and the radiator size was decreased from .


title: Suzuki SV650

text: For 2007, both SV650 and SV650S added dual spark plugs per cylinder, and an exhaust gas oxygen sensor on California models for reduced emissions. An anti-lock braking system (ABS) was also added as an option.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: For 2008, alongside the traditional SV650 and SV650S models, Suzuki offered a new SV650 Sport (UK) or SV650SF (US) model with a more traditional complete fairing. The SV650S was removed from the US market.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: In September 2008, Suzuki Australia introduced the SV650SU, a de-tuned version of the SV650S, to augment their range of motorcycles that comply with the country's Learner Approved Motorcycle Scheme (LAMS).


title: Suzuki SV650

text: The 2009 Suzuki SFV650 Gladius replaced the SV650 naked version in the USA; however, a naked 2009 SV650 was available in Canada. Although the naked version was superseded by the Gladius, the SV650S model remained in the UK and Australian line-up through to 2012.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: The 2017 model released in 2016, SV650/A has returned to the more conventional styling of the pre-Gladius naked version. Suzuki claims the wet weight for the non-ABS model is 195 kg (430 lbs), and 197 kg (434 lbs) for the ABS model. Its engine develops an additional four horsepower and features a low-speed stalling prevention system ("low RPM assist") to make the bike more suited to beginners and easier to ride in stop/go traffic. It meets Euro 4 emission regulations. It has a new slim steel frame. Seat height is 785mm (30.9"). Fuel tank capacity is 13.8 litres, or 15.5 litres in the US market. It has twin front disc brakes and new 39mm slimmer and lighter throttle bodies.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: In November 2015 Suzuki announced at EICMA 2015 that the SV650 would return in 2016 as a 2017-model year product. Preload adjusters are fitted to 2018 models. A cafe-racer version of the SV650 was launched in 2019 with a front pre-load adjustment.


title: Suzuki SV650

text: Other twin cylinder motorcycles in the class include the Yamaha MT07 / Yamaha XSR700 and Kawasaki Z650 / Kawasaki Ninja 650. The SV650 is more affordable than the likes of the Ducati Monster, Ducati Scrambler, and KTM 790 Duke, but has similar performance.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: The 2022 FA Cup Final was an association football match played at Wembley Stadium in London, England, on 14 May 2022. Chelsea and Liverpool were the finalists, the same as in the 2022 EFL Cup Final earlier in the season. This was the first time that the same pair of teams met in both the EFL Cup Final and the FA Cup Final of the same season since Arsenal and Sheffield Wednesday in 1993. Organised by the Football Association (FA), it was the 141st final of the Football Association Challenge Cup (FA Cup) and the showpiece match of English football's primary cup competition. The match also marked 150 years since the first FA Cup Final was played in 1872. The match was televised live in the United Kingdom on free-to-air channels BBC One and ITV (the first time since 1988 that both channels have simultaneously broadcast an FA Cup Final). In the UK, live radio coverage was provided by BBC Radio 5 Live and talkSPORT.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: Liverpool won the trophy following a drought since 2006, with Liverpool manager Jürgen Klopp becoming the first German-born manager to win the FA Cup. Chelsea set a record by losing a third consecutive final, after defeats to Arsenal and Leicester City in the 2020 and 2021 finals, respectively.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: As current title holders, Liverpool qualified for the UEFA Champions League tournament by their position in the 2021–22 Premier League, the 2022–23 UEFA Europa League position went to the sixth-placed Premier League team, Manchester United.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: Being from the Premier League, Chelsea entered the tournament in the third round and had the home advantage when they defeated Chesterfield at Stamford Bridge. Chelsea would continue to defeat their opponents. Defeat would continue. Plymouth Argyle F.C. was disadvantaged when they were defeated in the fourth round at Stamford Bridge. Luton could not cash in on hosting Chelsea with their loss in the fifth round.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: Chelsea were visitors when they defeated in the quarter-final match Middlesbrough at the Riverside Stadium. In the semi-final match, Chelsea was at the neutral location of Wembley Stadium where they defeated Crystal Palace.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: Being from the Premier League, Liverpool entered the tournament in the third round to defeat Shrewsbury Town at Anfield. In the fourth round, they beat Cardiff City 3–1. They beat Norwich City also at home in the fifth round. They beat Nottingham Forest away at the City Ground in the quarter-final, before defeating Manchester City at Wembley Stadium.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: This was the sides' second meeting in an FA Cup final, having met in 2012, when Chelsea won 2–1. They also met in four other title-deciding matches; the 2005 and 2022 League Cup finals, the 2006 FA Community Shield, and the 2019 UEFA Super Cup; Chelsea won the 2005 meeting and Liverpool won the other three. The two teams had met earlier in the season, in the 2022 EFL Cup Final, with Liverpool winning on penalties, with both matches between the teams in the 2021–22 Premier League ending in draws, 1–1 at Anfield and 2–2 at Stamford Bridge. This was the first time that the same pair of teams met in both the EFL Cup Final and the FA Cup Final of the same season since Arsenal and Sheffield Wednesday in 1993.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: In the 8th minute of the match Trent Alexander-Arnold passed into the path of Luis Díaz who ran in on goal and shot low from the left which was saved by Édouard Mendy and eventually cleared. In the 23rd minute, Christian Pulisic shot past the left post for Chelsea after a low cross from the right.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: Chelsea had another chance in the 27th minute with Alisson getting down to block a shot from the left by Marcos Alonso. In the 47th minute, Alisson again got down to his right to save a shot from Pulisic. A minute later Marcos Alonso hit a free-kick from the right against the back left post. In the 83rd minute Luis Díaz shot from the right of the penalty area which went wide off the outside of the right past. A minute later Andrew Robertson hit a shot against the left post from close range after a cross from the right by James Milner. Luis Díaz curled another shot just past the right post in the 90th minute.


title: 2022 FA Cup Final

text: After no goals in extra-time the match went to a penalty shoot-out. César Azpilicueta missed with Chelsea's second penalty with his shot hitting the post. After four successful penalties scored by Liverpool, Sadio Mané had the chance to win the game but his penalty was saved by Mendy down low to his left. Alisson then saved down to his left from Mason Mount which allowed Kostas Tsimikas to win the game for Liverpool when he scored his penalty, hitting it low into the left corner, sending Mendy the wrong way.


title: Boichi

text: Intending to be a manga artist from his childhood days, Boichi majored in physics in college as preparation to draw science fiction works, and also to learn the technology of performance and imaging. He went on to graduate school to major in image technology. In 1993, while still enrolled, Boichi debuted in a Korean girls manhwa magazine. Since then, he gained popularity releasing a number of works and publishing books on how to draw manga targeting a wide range of readers.


title: Boichi

text: In 2004 he transitioned into the world of Japanese manga. His "Ultimate Space Emperor Caesar", serialized in Monthly "Comic Gum", was his first tankōbon in Japan. In 2005, 9 out of 11 of Boichi's hentai one-shot serialized in the Comic Aun were reunited under the volume titled "Lovers in Winter". In 2006, he released two science fiction one-shot, "Hotel" and "Present" which, in 2008, were compiled in a volume titled "Hotel" along the other one-shots "It was all for the tuna", "Stephanos" and "Diadem".


title: Boichi

text: In 2006, Boichi's first serialized manga, "Sun-Ken Rock", was published in the bi-weekly magazine "Young King". The manga spawned a side-story based on the character Yumin in 2011 and another based on Pickaxe in 2012. Another spin-off based on Yumin was released in 2012, entitled "I want to feed Yumin" and serialized in "Monthly Young King". "I want to feed Yumin" is about the main character of Sun-Ken Rock, treating Yumin to traditional Korean food.


title: Boichi

text: Boichi also worked as the artist of a five-volume manga titled "Raqiya", written by Masao Yajima and published in 2009. He also served as the artist of the "Brutality" one-shot by Takeda Yuusuke in 2007.


title: Boichi

text: In later 2011, he started the serialization of another manga titled "H.E the hunt for energy" in a new monthly magazine: "Jump X". In this year, he won the Gran Guinigi prize for "It was all for the Tuna", about a scientist doing anything to revive the extinct tuna, experimenting on everything tuna-related and sacrificing his own happiness.


title: Boichi

text: To express his sentiment towards the Vietnam War and apologize for Korea’s actions during the war, "Sun-Ken Rock" volume 2′s royalties were donated to the Humanitarian Services for Children of Vietnam (HSCV). He asked Korean manga artists to contribute towards drawing a support page for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, giving the royalties from the proceeding to the Red Cross. He also donated the money he planned to use to buy a new car towards helping tsunami victims.


title: Boichi

text: In 2019, Boichi received two awards for "Dr. Stone" for the Shōnen category, respectively, "Origin" for the Best Manga category.


title: Boichi

text: Since 2020, Boichi is also doing the artwork for manga adaptation of One Piece novel A titled "One Piece episode A".


title: History of rape

text: The concept of rape, both as an abduction and in the sexual sense (not always distinguishable), makes its appearance in early religious texts.


title: History of rape

text: Scholars of the Ancient Near East debate whether certain pieces of legislation regarding sexual offences from various states and cultures that have survived to the present day are about "rape" or about various other offences that the individuals involved may have consented to. There are many literary problems that make interpretation of these sex laws difficult, as the meaning of words depend on the context, and the laws often do not provide information about what the people (especially the women) involved in the acts wanted or did not want, and were more concerned about which combinations of individuals were illegitimate in view of the social order. They tended to focus on what a man might do to/with a woman he was not married to, especially if this resulted in the loss of virginity, regardless of whether she consented to it or not. Consequently, one scholar may interpret a law as being about rape, while another scholar concludes it is about consensual adultery, premarital sex etc.


title: History of rape

text: According to Scholz (2021), the only law in the Code of Hammurabi (composed c. 1750 BCE) that scholars universally agree relates to rape is § 130:


title: History of rape

text: This law is similar to §6 of the Code of Ur-Nammu from Sippar (c. 2100–2050 BCE), and §26 of the Laws of Eshnunna (c. 1930 BCE). The latter has also been compared to Deuteronomy 22:25–27 by Craig S. Keener (1996), who considered both of them rape scenarios; it states the following:


title: History of rape

text: Another provision, generally regarded as a marry-your-rapist law, is found in §55 of the Middle Assyrian Laws (c. 1450–1250 BCE):


title: History of rape

text: Similarly, several provisions in the Hittite laws (also known as the 'Code of the Nesilim'; developed c. 1650–1500 BCE, in effect until c. 1100 BCE) are usually categorised by scholars as dealing with either incest, adultery or bestiality; § 197 is the only undisputed rape law:


title: History of rape

text: Because the Hittite word for 'woman' in this case does not indicate any status, such as whether she is married or unmarried, widowed, free or enslaved, the law seems to have referred to all women in general, and thus that raping a woman was always a crime, not just when she was married or engaged.


title: History of rape

text: In some rare cases, ancient laws did consider the (lack of) consent of a person (particularly a woman) involved a relevant factor in determining whether or not a sexual offence had occurred. Examples include §190 and §191 of the Hittite laws, and §12 of the Middle Assyrian Laws (this one involves a combination of lack of consent on the one hand, and force on the other).


title: History of rape

text: Scholz (2021) stated that the texts of Deuteronomy 22:25–29 'are widely recognized as rape legislation', while Deuteronomy 22:22–24 as well as Deuteronomy 21:10–14 'are more contested and are not usually characterized as rape laws'.


title: History of rape

text: According to the Encyclopaedia Judaica rape itself is not considered to be a criminal offense in Jewish law. The rapist will only be held liable to pay the girls father 50 shekels of silver (as a bride-price), “and she shall be his wife, because he has humbled her; and he may not put her away all his days” (Deut.22:28–29). The exceptions to this are when either the rape is a case of adulterous or incestuous intercourse, or a married woman is found not to be have been a virgin (though claiming to be one at the marital stage of her Erusin (kiddushin) she and her seducer are to be stoned to death if the intercourse was consensual (Deut. 22:23–24); however if the woman did not consent only the rapist is to be executed (Deut. 22:25–27).


title: History of rape

text: Under talmudic law, the rapist must also compensate the woman for physical and psychological damage (Ket. 42a–43b). If the victim refuses to marry him, he is then not compelled to marry her (Ket. 39b). If a girl was raped by several men, she can choose which one to marry (TJ, Ket. 3:6, 27d)


title: History of rape

text: From the classical antiquity of Greece and Rome into the Colonial period, rape along with arson, treason and murder was a capital offense. "Those committing rape were subject to a wide range of capital punishments that were seemingly brutal, frequently bloody, and at times spectacular."


title: History of rape

text: The rape of women or youths is a common theme in Greek mythology. Among the rapes or abductions committed by Zeus, the supreme deity of the Greek pantheon, are Europa, Ganymede, and Leda the Nymph.


title: History of rape

text: The rape of Chrysippus by Laius was known as "the crime of Laius", a term which came to be applied to all male rape. It was seen as an example of hubris in the original sense of the word, i.e., violent , and its punishment was so severe that it destroyed not only Laius himself, but also his son, Oedipus, his wife Jocasta, his grandchildren (including Antigone), and members of his extended family.


title: History of rape

text: In Roman law, "raptus" (or "raptio") meant primarily kidnapping or abduction; sexual violation was a secondary issue. The "abduction" of an unmarried girl from her father's household in some circumstances was a matter of the couple eloping without her father's permission to marry. Rape in the English sense of "forced sex" was more often expressed as "stuprum," a sex crime committed through violence or coercion ("cum vi" or "per vim"). "Raptus ad stuprum", "abduction for the purpose of committing a sex crime," emerged as a legal distinction in the late Roman Republic. The "Lex Julia de vi publica", recorded in the early 3rd century CE but dating probably from the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, defined rape as forced sex against "boy, woman, or anyone".


title: History of rape

text: Although Roman law in the historical period recognized rape as a crime, the rape of women is a pervasive theme in the myths and legends of early Rome. The Augustan historian Livy seemed "embarrassed" by the rape motif and emphasizes the redeeming political dimension of traditional stories. The "rape" of the Sabine women was interpreted as showing that Rome was constituted as a "blended" population in which people resolved violence and coexisted by consent and treaty. The rape of the exemplary woman Lucretia by the king's son led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic. In the 50s BCE, the Epicurean poet Lucretius condemned rape as a primitive behavior outside the bounds of an advanced civilization, describing it as "a man's use of violent force and imposition of sexual impulse."


title: History of rape

text: Intercourse by force or compulsion, even if it took place under circumstances that were otherwise unlawful or immoral, left the victim legally without blame. The official position under the emperor Diocletian (reigned 284–305 AD) held that:


title: History of rape

text: The laws punish the foul wickedness of those who prostitute their modesty to the lusts of others, but they do not attach blame to those who are compelled to "stuprum" by force, since it has, moreover, been quite properly decided that their reputations are unharmed and that they are not prohibited from marriage to others.


title: History of rape

text: Although the law recognized the victim's innocence, rhetoric used by the defense indicates that jurors might harbor attitudes of blame.


title: History of rape

text: As a matter of law, rape could be committed only against a citizen in good standing. The rape of a slave could be prosecuted only as damage to the owner's property. People who worked as prostitutes or entertainers, even if they were technically free, suffered "infamia", the loss of legal and social standing. A person who made his or her body available for public use or pleasure had in effect surrendered the right to be protected from sexual abuse or physical violence. Men who had been raped "by the force of robbers or the enemy in wartime "(vi praedonum vel hostium)"" were exempt by law from "infamia".


title: History of rape

text: There was no statute of limitations for rape; by contrast adultery, which was criminalized under Augustus, had to be prosecuted within five years. The rape of a freeborn male "(ingenuus)" or a female virgin is among the worst crimes that could be committed in Rome, along with parricide and robbing a temple. Rape was a capital crime, and the rapist was subject to execution, a rare penalty in Roman law.


title: History of rape

text: The victim's consent was usually not a factor in Roman rape cases, since "raptus" could refer to a successful seduction as well as abduction or forced sex. What had been violated was primarily the right of the head of household "(paterfamilias)" to give or withhold his consent. The consequences of an abduction or an elopement were considered a private matter to be determined by the couple and their families, who might choose to recognize the marriage.


title: History of rape

text: Attitudes toward rape changed when the Roman Empire became Christianized. St. Augustine believed Lucretia's suicide was likely prompted by her shame at being violated and her fear over possible accusations of complicity. He also suggests that it might have been an attempt to expiate her guilt over involuntary signs of sexual pleasure which had encouraged Sextus in his abuse. Augustine's interpretation of the rape of Lucretia (in "The City of God Against the Pagans" 1.19) has generated a substantial body of criticism, starting with a satire by Machiavelli. Historian of early Christianity Peter Brown characterized this section of Augustine's work as his most vituperative attack on Roman ideals of virtue.


title: History of rape

text: The first Christian emperor Constantine redefined rape as a public offense rather than as a private wrong. Since under Roman law "raptus" could also mean cases of abduction or elopement without the head of household's permission, Constantine ordered that if the female had consented, she should be punished along with the male "abductor" by being burnt alive. If she had not consented, she was still considered an accomplice, "on the grounds that she could have saved herself by screaming for help." As a participant to the rape, she was punished under law by being disinherited, regardless of the wishes of her family. Even if she and her family consented to a marriage as the result of an elopement, the marriage was legally void.


title: History of rape

text: Under the Emperor Justinian I, new penalties were enacted for the abduction (raptus) of nuns. Even attempting the abduction of nuns for marriage or sexual purposes was to be punished by death. Constantine's law against sexual abduction was changed to shift blame to the man, on the assumption that the participation of the woman, even if voluntary, was caused by male seduction. The law for other kinds of sexual violence continued to be handled by means of the older Roman legal principles governing cases of 'stuprum.'


title: History of rape

text: In the 12th century, kinsmen of the victim were given the option of executing the punishment themselves. "In England in the early fourteenth century, a victim of rape might be expected to gouge out the eyes and/or sever the offender's testicles herself." Despite the harshness of these laws, actual punishments were usually far less severe: in late Medieval Europe, cases concerning rapes of marriageable women, wives, widows, or members of the lower class were rarely brought forward, and usually ended with only a small monetary fine or a marriage between the victim and the rapist.


title: History of rape

text: Medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas argued that rape, though sinful, was less sinful than masturbation or coitus interruptus, because it fulfilled the procreative function of sex, while the other acts violated the purpose of sex. A lawsuit against the famous late medieval English writer, Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), demonstrates that the legal term "raptus" could not only be applied to actual cases of rape or sexual assault, but also to the unlicensed transfer of a female servant from one household to another. There was no law against rape during the 16th century in the Dutch Republic.


title: History of rape

text: In some cultures, rape was seen less as a crime against a particular girl or woman than as a crime against the head of the household or against chastity. As a consequence, the rape of a virgin was often a more serious crime than of a non-virgin, even a wife or widow, and the rape of a prostitute or other unchaste woman was, in some laws, not a crime because her chastity could not be harmed. Furthermore, the woman's consent was under many legal systems not a defense. In seventeenth-century France, even marriage without parental consent was classified as "rape".


title: History of rape

text: The penalty for rape was often a fine, payable to the father or the husband, as they were in charge of household economy.


title: History of rape

text: In some laws, the woman might marry the rapist instead of his receiving the legal penalty. This was especially prevalent in laws where the crime of rape did not include, as a necessary part, that it be against the woman's will, thus dividing the crime in the current meaning of rape, and a means for a couple to force their families to permit marriage.


title: History of rape

text: According to a Sunni "hadith", the punishment for committing rape against a fellow Muslim is death, there is no sin on the victim, nor is there any worldly punishment ascribed to her. Most scholars treat rape as "hirabah" (disorder in the land).


title: History of rape

text: Rape is defined as "zina bil jabr", fornication/adultery with the use of coercion or compulsion. Note that it has to be extra-marital, i.e. fornication/adultery; the rape charge cannot be brought against the husband by the wife, i.e. it cannot be within marriage. The Islamic law approach to rape provides a range of possible charges, and thus penalties, which the qadi may posit, hirabah being but one, yet the most severe of them. Thus the charge of zina may bring about a penalty of 100 lashes upon the perpetrator and the element of the use of force and or compulsion may be quantified, and thus punished serially or consecutively, that is a year's banishment, a prison sentence, a corporal sentence etc. It is to be noted that Hirabah is a Hadd penalty (i.e. one predicating a fixed choice, which in the case of Hirabah has three options at the discretion of the qadi). If the offence is deemed to not be a Hirabah offence, then the penalties available to the qadi would be those of ta'zeer and will not be permitted (according to some Islamic jurisprudence schools) to reach the level of either severe retributive physical harm (i.e. more than ten lashes of a whip) let alone execution, if the judge chooses to carry out physical punishment.


title: History of rape

text: The interpretation and application of these laws is very controversial, not least due to modern ill-fated legislation, such as Pakistan's Hudood Ordinance, under General Zia ul-Haq, which arguably criminalizes the victim who fails to produce four witnesses, thus perverting the aim behind the law, to protect the victim of rape and grant her justice.


title: History of rape

text: According to Professor Oliver Leaman, the required testimony of four male witnesses who eyewitnessed the actual penetration applies only to consensual illicit sexual relations (whether adultery or fornication), not to the non-consensual crime of rape. The role of the four male witnesses is to testify that they eyewitnessed not only an illicit sexual encounter, but to testify also that the participants consensually partook in it.


title: History of rape

text: The requirements for proof of rape, by contrast, are less stringent, and do not require any extraneous witness testimony, eyewitness or otherwise:


title: History of rape

text: Rape charges can be brought and a case proven based on the sole testimony of the victim, providing that circumstantial evidence supports the allegations. It is these strict criteria of proof which lead to the frequent observation that where injustice against women does occur, it is not because of Islamic law. It happens either due to misinterpretation of the intricacies of the Sharia laws governing these matters, or cultural traditions; or due to corruption and blatant disregard of the law, or indeed some combination of these phenomena.