title: Cryptozoo

text: The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 29, 2021 and won the Innovator Award. Shortly after, Magnolia Pictures acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film and set it for an August 20, 2021 release in the United States. The film also screened at the 71st Berlin International Film Festival in March 2021.


title: Cryptozoo

text: "Cryptozoo" holds a 72% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 89 reviews, with an average rating of 5.80/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Although its visual overstimulation threatens to derail its themes, Cryptozoo is an ambitious and unique critique of capitalistic values." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 74 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Cryptozoo

text: Jessica Kiang of "Variety" wrote: "In this zoo, the story may be tame, but the images, and the imagination that releases them, run wild."


title: East China Sea

text: The East China Sea is an arm of the Western Pacific Ocean, located directly offshore from East China. It covers an area of roughly . The sea’s northern extension between mainland China and the Korean Peninsula is the Yellow Sea, separated by an imaginary line between the eastern tip of Qidong at the Yangtze River estuary and the southwestern tip of South Korea's Jeju Island.


title: East China Sea

text: The East China Sea is bounded in the east and southeast by the middle portion of the first island chain off the eastern Eurasian continental mainland, including the Japanese island of Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands, and in the south by the island of Taiwan. It connects with the Sea of Japan in the northeast through the Korea Strait, the South China Sea in the southwest via the Taiwan Strait, and the Philippine Sea in the southeast via gaps between the various Ryukyu Islands (e.g. Tokara Strait and Miyako Strait).


title: East China Sea

text: Most of the East China Sea is shallow, with almost three-fourths of it being less than deep, its average depth being , while the maximum depth, reached in the Okinawa Trough, is .


title: East China Sea

text: The East China Sea is an arm of the Pacific Ocean and covers an area of roughly . It is bounded on the east by Kyūshū and the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, on the south by the South China Sea, and on the west by the Asian continent. It connects with the Sea of Japan through the Korea Strait; it opens in the north to the Yellow Sea.


title: East China Sea

text: Countries with borders on the sea (clockwise from north) include: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan and China.


title: East China Sea

text: The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the "Eastern China Sea (Tung Hai)" as follows:


title: East China Sea

text: The sea is called the East Sea in Chinese (; "Dōng Hǎi"), and is one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions.


title: East China Sea

text: Until World War II, the sea was referred to as ("Higashi Shina Kai"; "East Shina Sea") in Japanese. In 2004, official documents of the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched to the name (pronounced the same), which has become the standard usage in Japan.


title: East China Sea

text: Common usage in Indonesia refers to the sea as "Laut Cina Timur" (East China Sea). This name was used officially by the Indonesian government until 2014, when Indonesia switched usage from the word Cina to Tiongkok instead; since then, the name "Laut Tiongkok Timur" become standard usage in Indonesia. Despite this, many Indonesian media outlets and publications continue to use the former sea name.


title: East China Sea

text: There are disputes between the China] (PRC), Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea over the extent of their respective exclusive economic zones (EEZ).


title: East China Sea

text: The dispute between the PRC and Japan concerns the different application of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which both nations have ratified. China and Japan both claim 200 nautical miles EEZ rights, but the East China Sea width is only 360 nautical miles. China proposed the application of UNCLOS, considering the natural prolongation of its continental shelf, advocating that the EEZ extends as far as the Okinawa Trough. Its Ministry of Foreign Affairs has stated that "the natural prolongation of the continental shelf of China in the East China Sea extends to the Okinawa Trough and beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of China is measured," which is applicable to the relevant UNCLOS provisions that support China's right to the natural shelf. In 2012, China presented a submission under the UNCLOS concerning the outer limits of the continental shelf to the UN. However, Japan claims about 40,000 square kilometers part of this territory as its own EEZ because it is within 200 nautical miles (370 km) from its coast, and thus proposed the Median line division of the EEZ.


title: East China Sea

text: Rounds of disputes about island ownership in the East China Sea have triggered both official and civilian protests between China and Japan.


title: East China Sea

text: The dispute between PRC and South Korea concerns Socotra Rock, a submerged reef on which South Korea has constructed the Ieodo Ocean Research Station. While neither country claims the rock as territory, the PRC has objected to Korean activities there as a breach of its EEZ rights.


title: East China Sea

text: In their sphere of naval operations along their littoral (in the East and South China Seas), China today possesses more naval vessels than those of the US Navy. US Presidents Barack Obama and Donald Trump have given priority to US naval operations, under the US Indo-Pacific Command, to expand its sphere of influence in the Pacific Ocean, to counter China's growing strength, and to be ready for any unforeseen challenges in the future.


title: East China Sea

text: Possibly, East China Sea ("Donghai" in Chinese) is represented with the star Eta Serpentis in asterism "Left Wall", Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellation).


title: Counter (digital)

text: In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock. The most common type is a sequential digital logic circuit with an input line called the "clock" and multiple output lines. The values on the output lines represent a number in the binary or BCD number system. Each pulse applied to the clock input increments or decrements the number in the counter.


title: Counter (digital)

text: A counter circuit is usually constructed of several flip-flops connected in a cascade. Counters are a very widely used component in digital circuits, and are manufactured as separate integrated circuits and also incorporated as parts of larger integrated circuits.


title: Counter (digital)

text: An electronic counter is a sequential logic circuit that has a clock input signal and a group of output signals that represent an integer "counts" value. Upon each qualified clock edge, the circuit will increment (or decrement, depending on circuit design) the counts. When the counts have reached the end of the counting sequence (maximum counts when incrementing; zero counts when decrementing), the next clock will cause the counts to overflow or underflow, and the counting sequence will start over. Internally, counters use flip-flops to represent the current counts and to retain the counts between clocks. Depending on the type of counter, the output may be a direct representation of the counts (a binary number), or it may be encoded. Examples of the latter include ring counters and counters that output Gray codes.


title: Counter (digital)

text: Many counters provide additional input signals to facilitate dynamic control of the counting sequence, such as:


title: Counter (digital)

text: Some counters provide a Terminal Count output which indicates that the next clock will cause overflow or underflow. This is commonly used to implement counter cascading (combining two or more counters to create a single, larger counter) by connecting the Terminal Count output of one counter to the Enable input of the next counter.


title: Counter (digital)

text: The modulus of a counter is the number of states in its count sequence. The maximum possible modulus is determined by the number of flip-flops. For example, a four-bit counter can have a modulus of up to 16 (2^4).


title: Counter (digital)

text: Counters are generally classified as either synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous counters, all flip-flops share a common clock and change state at the same time. In asynchronous counters, each flip-flop has a unique clock, and the flip-flop states change at different times.


title: Counter (digital)

text: Counters are implemented in a variety of ways, including as dedicated MSI and LSI integrated circuits, as embedded counters within ASICs, as general-purpose counter and timer peripherals in microcontrollers, and as IP blocks in FPGAs.


title: Counter (digital)

text: An asynchronous (ripple) counter is a "chain" of toggle (T) flip-flops wherein the least-significant flip-flop (bit 0) is clocked by an external signal (the counter input clock), and all other flip-flops are clocked by the output of the nearest, less significant flip-flop (e.g., bit 0 clocks the bit 1 flip-flop, bit 1 clocks the bit 2 flip-flop, etc.). The first flip-flop is clocked by rising edges; all other flip-flops in the chain are clocked by falling clock edges. Each flip-flop introduces a delay from clock edge to output toggle, thus causing the counter bits to change at different times and producing a ripple effect as the input clock propagates through the chain. When implemented with discrete flip-flops, ripple counters are commonly implemented with JK flip-flops, with each flip-flop configured to toggle when clocked (i.e., J and K are both connected to logic high).


title: Counter (digital)

text: In the simplest case, a one-bit counter consists of a single flip-flop. This counter will increment (by toggling its output) once per clock cycle and will count from zero to one before overflowing (starting over at zero). Each output state corresponds to two clock cycles; consequently, the flip-flop output frequency is exactly half the frequency of the input clock. If this output is then used as the clock signal for a second flip-flop, the pair of flip-flops will form a two-bit ripple counter with the following state sequence:


title: Counter (digital)

text: Additional flip-flops may be added to the chain to form counters of any arbitrary word size, with the output frequency of each bit equal to exactly half the frequency of the nearest, less significant bit.


title: Counter (digital)

text: Ripple counters exhibit unstable output states while the input clock propagates through the circuit. The duration of this instability (the output settling time) is proportional to the number of flip-flops. This makes ripple counters unsuitable for use in synchronous circuits that require the counter to have a fast output settling time. Also, it is often impractical to use ripple counter output bits as clocks for external circuits because the ripple effect causes timing skew between the bits. Ripple counters are commonly used as general-purpose counters and clock frequency dividers in applications where the instantaneous count and timing skew is unimportant.


title: Counter (digital)

text: In a synchronous counter, the clock inputs of the flip-flops are connected, and the common clock simultaneously triggers all flip-flops. Consequently, all of the flip-flops change state at the same time (in parallel).


title: Counter (digital)

text: For example, the circuit shown to the right is an ascending (up-counting) four-bit synchronous counter implemented with JK flip-flops. Each bit of this counter is allowed to toggle when all of the less significant bits are at a logic high state. Upon clock rising edge, bit 1 toggles if bit 0 is logic high; bit 2 toggles if bits 0 and 1 are both high; bit 3 toggles if bits 2, 1, and 0 are all high.


title: Counter (digital)

text: A decade counter counts in decimal digits, rather than binary. A decade counter may have each (that is, it may count in binary-coded decimal, as the 7490 integrated circuit did) or other binary encodings. A decade counter is a binary counter designed to count to 1001 (decimal 9). An ordinary four-stage counter can be easily modified to a decade counter by adding a NAND gate as in the schematic to the right. Notice that FF2 and FF4 provide the inputs to the NAND gate. The NAND gate outputs are connected to the CLR input of each of the FFs.". It counts from 0 to 9 and then resets to zero. The counter output can be set to zero by pulsing the reset line low. The count then increments on each clock pulse until it reaches 1001 (decimal 9). When it increments to 1010 (decimal 10), both inputs of the NAND gate go high. The result is that the NAND output goes low, and resets the counter to zero. D going low can be a CARRY OUT signal, indicating that there has been a count of ten.


title: Counter (digital)

text: A ring counter is a circular shift register that is initiated such that only one of its flip-flops is the state one while others are in their zero states.


title: Counter (digital)

text: A ring counter is a shift register (a cascade connection of flip-flops) with the output of the last one connected to the input of the first, that is, in a ring. Typically, a pattern consisting of a single bit is circulated, so the state repeats every n clock cycles if n flip-flops are used.


title: Counter (digital)

text: A Johnson counter (or switch-tail ring counter, twisted ring counter, walking ring counter, or Möbius counter) is a modified ring counter, where the output from the last stage is inverted and fed back as input to the first stage. The register cycles through a sequence of bit-patterns, whose length is equal to twice the length of the shift register, continuing indefinitely. These counters find specialist applications similar to the decade counter, digital-to-analog conversion, etc. They can be implemented easily using D- or JK-type flip-flops.


title: Counter (digital)

text: In computability theory, a counter is considered a type of memory. A counter stores a single natural number (initially zero) and can be arbitrarily long. A counter is usually considered in conjunction with a finite-state machine (FSM), which can perform the following operations on the counter:


title: Counter (digital)

text: The following machines are listed in order of power, with each one being strictly more powerful than the one below it:


title: Counter (digital)

text: For the first and last, it doesn't matter whether the FSM is a deterministic finite automaton or a nondeterministic finite automaton. They have the same power. The first two and the last one are levels of the Chomsky hierarchy.


title: Counter (digital)

text: The first machine, an FSM plus two counters, is equivalent in power to a Turing machine. See the article on counter machines for a proof.


title: Counter (digital)

text: A web counter or hit counter is a computer program that indicates the number of visitors or hits a particular webpage has received. Once set up, these counters will be incremented by one every time the web page is accessed in a web browser.


title: Counter (digital)

text: The number is usually displayed as an inline digital image or in plain text or on a physical counter such as a mechanical counter. Images may be presented in a variety of fonts, or styles; the classic example is the wheels of an odometer.


title: Counter (digital)

text: "Web counter" was popular in the mid to late 1990s and early 2000s, later replaced by more detailed and complete web traffic measures.


title: Counter (digital)

text: Many automation systems use PC and laptops to monitor different parameters of machines and production data. Counters may count parameters such as the number of pieces produced, the production batch number, and measurements of the amounts of material used.


title: Counter (digital)

text: Long before electronics became common, mechanical devices were used to count events. These are known as tally counters. They typically consist of a series of disks mounted on an axle, with the digits zero through nine marked on their edge. The right-most disk moves one increment with each event. Each disk except the left-most has a protrusion that moves the next disk to the left one increment after the completion of one revolution. Such counters were used as odometers for bicycles and cars and in tape recorders, fuel dispensers, in production machinery as well as in other machinery. One of the largest manufacturers was the Veeder-Root company, and their name was often used for this type of counter.


title: Counter (digital)

text: Electromechanical counters were used to accumulate totals in tabulating machines that pioneered the data processing industry.


title: Sprained ankle

text: A sprained ankle, also known as a twisted ankle or rolled ankle, is an injury where sprain occurs on one or more ligaments of the ankle. It is the most common injury to occur in ball sports, such as basketball, volleyball, football, and racquet sports.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Knowing the symptoms that can be experienced with a sprain is important in determining that the injury is not really a break in the bone. When a sprain occurs, hematoma occurs within the tissue that surrounds the joint, causing a bruise. White blood cells responsible for inflammation migrate to the area, and blood flow increases as well. Along with this inflammation, swelling and pain is experienced. The nerves in the area become more sensitive when the injury is suffered, so pain is felt as throbbing and will worsen if there is pressure placed on the area. Warmth and redness are also seen as blood flow is increased. Also there is a decreased ability to move the joint.


title: Sprained ankle

text: The risk of a sprain is greatest during activities that involve explosive side-to-side motion, such as tennis, skateboarding or basketball. Sprained ankles can also occur during normal daily activities such as stepping off a curb or slipping on ice.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Returning to activity before the ligaments have fully healed may cause them to heal in a stretched position, resulting in less stability at the ankle joint. This can lead to a condition known as Chronic Ankle Instability (CAI), and an increased risk of ankle sprains.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Ankle sprains occur usually through excessive stress on the ligaments of the ankle. This can be caused by excessive external rotation, inversion or eversion of the foot caused by an external force. When the foot is moved past its range of motion, the excess stress puts a strain on the ligaments. If the strain is great enough to the ligaments past the yield point, then the ligament becomes damaged, or sprained.


title: Sprained ankle

text: The diagnosis of a sprain relies on the medical history, including symptoms, as well as making a differential diagnosis, mainly in distinguishing it from strains or bone fractures. The Ottawa ankle rule is a simple, widely used rule to help differentiate fractures of the ankle or mid-foot from other ankle injuries that do not require x-ray radiography. It has a sensitivity of nearly 100%, meaning that a patient who tests negative, according to the rule almost certainly does not have an ankle fracture. If ankle pain is persistent 6–8 weeks after initial sprain, MRI imaging of the joint can be considered to rule out peroneal tendon, osteochondral, or syndesmotic injury.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Depending on the amount of damage or the number of ligaments that are damaged, each sprain is classified from mild to severe. A grade 1 sprain is defined as mild damage to a ligament or ligaments without instability of the affected joint. A grade 2 sprain is considered a partial tear to the ligament, in which it is stretched to the point that it becomes loose. A grade 3 sprain is a complete tear of a ligament, causing instability in the affected joint. Bruising may occur around the ankle.


title: Sprained ankle

text: The most common type of ankle sprain occurs when the foot has a force, typically body weight, causing it to internally rotate to a higher degree than it is supposed to, affecting the lateral side of the foot. When this type of ankle sprain happens, the outer, or lateral, ligaments are stretched too much. The anterior talofibular ligament is one of the most commonly involved ligaments in this type of sprain, followed by the calcaneofibular ligament and posterior talofibular ligament respectively, the later found in more severe ankle sprains. Approximately 70–85% of ankle sprains are inversion injuries.


title: Sprained ankle

text: A less common type of ankle sprain is called an eversion injury, affecting the medial side of the foot. This happens when, instead of the ankle rotating medially resulting in an inversion injury (the foot rolling too much to the inside), the ankle rotates laterally resulting in an eversion injury (when the foot rolls too much to the outside). When this occurs, the medial, or deltoid, ligament is strained.


title: Sprained ankle

text: A high ankle sprain is an injury to the large ligaments above the ankle that join the two long bones of the lower leg, called the tibia and fibula. High ankle sprains commonly occur from a sudden and forceful outward twisting of the foot. This commonly occurs in contact and cutting sports such as football, rugby, ice hockey, roller derby, basketball, volleyball, lacrosse, softball, baseball, track, ultimate frisbee, soccer, tennis and badminton and horse riding.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Initial treatment commonly consists of rest, icing, compression and elevation (which is often referred to by the mnemonic RICE or sometimes PRICE with P being "protection"). These elements have been recommended by physicians for decades for the treatment of soft tissue damage, and sprained ankles, one of the most common soft tissue injuries. RICE helps limit the amount of swelling to the area, and "facilitates venous and lymphatic drainage". While nearly universally accepted as a treatment, there is insufficient evidence to determine its relative effectiveness as therapy for acute ankle sprains in adults, and the National Athletic Trainers Association notes that most of the rationale for using RICE or individual components is based largely on low-quality clinical trials and laboratory studies with uninjured participants or animal models


title: Sprained ankle

text: Ice is often used to reduce swelling in cycles of 15–20 minutes on and 20–30 minutes off. Icing an ankle too long can cause cold injuries, which is indicated by the area turning white. Also, it is often recommended that ice not be applied directly to the skin, but should have a thin buffer between the ice and the affected area, and some professionals think ice need not be applied at all. Recently, Gabe Mirkin, MD, who coined and popularized the acronym RICE in his "The Sportsmedicine Book" in 1978, no longer recommends "complete" rest or ice for healing a sprain. After reviewing modern studies, he notes that because ice closes off the blood vessels, "ice doesn't increase healing—it delays it," and "complete Rest may delay healing." He now advises skipping ice altogether unless needed to reduce pain from swelling. A small but growing number of doctors no longer recommend RICE for sprains.


title: Sprained ankle

text: In uncomplicated lateral ankle sprains, swelling of the soft tissue can be prevented with compression around both malleoli, elevation of the injured ankle higher than the heart, and pain-free exercises.


title: Sprained ankle

text: An orthopedic walking boot is often used for the treatment of a sprained ankle injury. Braces and crutches are also used to help alleviate the pain so the injured ankle can heal as quickly and painlessly as possible.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Although found to be less effective than casts, compression bandages are used to provide support and compression for sprained ankles. Wrapping is started at the ball of the foot and slowly continued up to the base of the calf muscle; this allows the swelling to travel up toward the center of the body so that it does not gather in the foot. In addition, other external supports such as Kinesio taping does not "improve ankle functioning or performance in people with or without ankle injuries." The "current evidence does not support or encourage the use of Kinesio taping applied to the ankle for improvements in functional performance, regardless the population."


title: Sprained ankle

text: Many different types of rehabilitation exercises can be done to aid an ankle sprain regardless of the severity of the injury. The purpose of rehabilitation gives the ability for the ankle to regain strength and flexibility. A sprained ankle becomes swollen due to the increased amount of edema within the tissue. Physiologically, edema contributes to the sensation of pain in the ankle and so priority is given to allowing the fluid to leave the ankle. This can be done instantly by implementing the RICE mechanism which is resting the ankle, applying ice, compressing, and elevating it. The emphasis of the first week of rehabilitation should be on protecting the ankle to avoid further damage. As the healing progresses, stress can be applied by different mechanisms until the ankle is fully recovered. The key to a fast recovery is to implement all the different types of ankle sprain exercises so that the range of motion will increase while the pain is decreasing.


title: Sprained ankle

text: In cases where the ankle does not heal in an appropriate amount of time, other exercises need to be implemented so that strength and flexibility can be regained. Physical therapists assign different types of ankle sprain exercises that deal with ankle flexibility, strengthening, balance, and agility. If an ankle sprain does not heal properly, the joint may become unstable and may lead to chronic pain. Receiving proper treatment and performing exercises that promote ankle function is important to strengthen the ankle and prevent further injury.


title: Sprained ankle

text: A short period of immobilization in a below-knee cast or in an Aircast leads to a faster recovery at 3 months compared to a tubular compression bandage. In contrast, a randomized controlled trial has concluded that appropriate exercise immediately after a sprain improves function and recovery. These exercises were focused on increasing ankle range of movement, activation and strengthening of ankle musculature, and restoring normal sensorimotor control, and were carried out for 20 minutes, three times a day.


title: Sprained ankle

text: After the injury, it is advisable not to walk for a couple of days. Bed rest will help to accelerate the healing process and eliminate the chance of mishandling the affected limb. Driving vehicles or operating machinery should not be attempted. Acute lateral ankle sprain (LAS) is a common injury in athletes and is often associated with decreased athletic performance and, if treated poorly, can result in chronic ankle issues, such as instability. Physical performance demands, such as cutting, hopping, and landing, involved with certain sport participation suggests that the rehabilitation needs of an athlete after LAS may differ from those of the general population. Depending on the patient's goals, early dynamic training after an acute lateral ankle sprain in athletes can result in a shorter recovery time and reduced likelihood of reinjury


title: Sprained ankle

text: The amount of therapy that a person can handle will depend on their level of pain and the grade of sprain they experienced. It is not recommended to return to sports or extreme physical activities until hopping on the ankle is possible without pain. Wearing high-top tennis shoes may also help prevent ankle sprains if the shoes used are laced snugly and if the ankle is taped with a wide, nonelastic adhesive tape.


title: Sprained ankle

text: For acute ankle sprains, manual joint mobilization/manipulation of the ankle has been found to diminish pain and increase range of motion. For treatment of subacute/chronic lateral ankle sprains, these techniques improved ankle range-of-motion, decreased pain and improved function.


title: Sprained ankle

text: To prevent sprains or re-injury from occurring, strengthening and stretching exercises should be done through a full range of ankle motion. To improve ankle mobility, ankle circles can be performed by extending the legs in front of the body and then moving the foot up and down, side to side, or rotating the foot in a circle. Another common exercise to improve mobility, as well as proprioception, is to use the toes to draw the letters of the alphabet in the air. Most importantly, the lateral aspect of the ankle joint should be strengthened with eversion exercises (i.e., underside of the foot is turned outward against resistance) to improve lateral ankle stability. Stretching is also an important component of a strengthening program, to help maintain joint flexibility.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Balance and stability training are especially important to retrain the ankle muscles to work together to support the joint. This includes exercises that are performed by standing on one foot and using the injured ankle to lift the body onto its toes. To further enhance balance and stability, exercise devices such as the wobble board can be used, progressing from double-leg to single-leg stance, first with eyes open and then with eyes closed, for enhanced effectiveness.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Flexibility exercises include a towel stretch and writing the alphabet with the toes, which will increase the range of motion.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Ankle strengthening exercises are step ups and walking on toes which will strengthen the muscles around the swollen area.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Balance exercises include the use of a balance board, which helps the whole body function to maintain balance. The use of balance boards has been shown to produce significantly positive results in gaining proper balance.


title: Sprained ankle

text: While performing balance exercises, the activity can be altered by using a single legged stance instead of a double legged stance, by opening or closing one's eyes, or changing the surface of balance to stable or unstable. This exercise can also be used for primary prevention of ankle sprains, as a meta-analysis exploring it's efficacy in prevention showed that there is a significant decrease in ankle sprain incidence among those who perform these exercises compared to people who don't.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Plyometrics exercises such as squat jumps and power skipping should not be implemented until the ankle has regained full agility.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Most people improve significantly in the first two weeks. However, some still have problems with pain and instability after one year (5–30%). Re-injury is also very common. There are currently no published evidence-based criteria to inform RTS (return to sport) decisions for patients with a lateral ankle sprain injury. Return to sport decisions following acute lateral ankle sprain injury are generally time-based.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Mild sprains (Grades 1-2) relating to over stretching or partial tears typically begin to feel better in a few days to a week and heal by six weeks. More severe ankle sprains (Grades 2-3) involving a full tear or rupture could take more than a few weeks or months to fully recover. The mean time patients return to sports is 12.9 weeks. Average time to return to work after injury range from less than one week to two months.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Ankle sprains can occur through either sports or activities of daily living, and individuals can be at higher or lower risk depending on a variety of circumstances including their homeland, race, age, sex, or profession. In addition, there are different types of ankle sprains such as eversion ankle sprains and inversion ankle sprains. Overall, the most common type of ankle sprain to occur is an inversion ankle sprain, where excessive plantar flexion and supination cause the anterior talofibular ligament to be affected. A study showed that for a population of Scandinavians, inversion ankle sprains accounted for 85% of all ankle sprains. Most ankle sprains occur in more active people, such as athletes and regular exercisers.


title: Sprained ankle

text: When an ankle sprain occurs, subsequent ankle sprains are much more likely to follow. The rate of recurrence is particularly high for athletes in high-risk sports. The most widely recommended preventative measures for recurring sprains are wearing ankle-protective gear (tape, or ankle brace) and implementing exercises designed to strengthen the ankle and improve one's balance (e.g., balance ball exercises). In a review article of ankle sprain prevention research, the authors reference a season-long study on a group of soccer players. 60 players wore ankle-protective (tape or ankle-braces) throughout the soccer season, and another 171 players were enrolled in the control group, as they wore no ankle protective gear. At the end of the season, 17% of the players who did not wear ankle braces/tape sprained their ankles, while only 3% of the players who wore protection incurred the same injury. Amongst the players who sprained their ankles and did not wear ankle-protective gear, 25% had a history of previous ankle sprains. Another peer-reviewed article references a study which concluded that ankle exercising could decrease the risk of recurring sprains by 11%.


title: Sprained ankle

text: In a study comparing the prevalence of ankle sprains between age, race, and sex, individuals who were aged 10–19 years old had highest instances of ankle sprains. It can be suggested that adolescents are more physically active, which leads to higher chances of ankle sprains. Since sports deal with high utilization of the ankle, over 50% of ankle sprains are due to sport-related injuries.


title: Sprained ankle

text: Moreover, average ankle sprains for the general U.S. population are estimated at 5–7 ankle sprains for every 1000 person-years; however, a study showed that for military cadets, instances for ankle sprains were about 10 times those of the general population


title: Sprained ankle

text: Another study comparing sex influences on ankle sprains found that male and female counterparts had similar incidence rates of ankle sprains. However, at a specific age range of 19–25 years old, males were found to have a substantially greater rate of ankle sprains than females. Furthermore, at ages 30 and over, females showed a higher incidence of ankle sprains than males. From this, it can be said that age and activity levels are better indicators of ankle sprain risks than gender.


title: Tracer (TV series)

text: Tracer () is a 2022 South Korean television series starring Im Si-wan, Go Ah-sung, Son Hyun-joo and Park Yong-woo. The series revolves around the people working at the National Tax Service. It is an original drama of OTT media service Wavve and is available for streaming on its platform. It also aired on MBC TV from January 7 to March 25, 2022.


title: 2018 Maryland gubernatorial election

text: The 2018 Maryland gubernatorial election was held on November 6, 2018. The date included the election of the governor, lieutenant governor, and all members of the Maryland General Assembly. Incumbent governor Larry Hogan and Lieutenant Governor Boyd Rutherford, both Republicans, were reelected to a second term against Democrat Ben Jealous, the former NAACP CEO, and his running mate Susan Turnbull. Hogan thus became the second Republican governor of Maryland to win reelection, and the first since 1954. This was the first Maryland gubernatorial election in which both major party candidates received over one million votes.


title: 2018 Maryland gubernatorial election

text: At the presidential level, Maryland is a staunchly Democratic state due to the large amount of Democratic voters in the Washington metropolitan area and Baltimore City. Maryland has not seen a Republican presidential candidate win its votes since 1988, and the state has not been within 15% since 2004; Hillary Clinton won the state by 26 points over Donald Trump (60% to 34%) in 2016, Barack Obama defeated Mitt Romney by 26 points in 2012 (62% to 36%), and Obama defeated John McCain by 25 points in 2008 (62% to 37%).


title: 2018 Maryland gubernatorial election

text: Hogan was elected governor in 2014, defeating then-lieutenant governor Anthony Brown by a margin of 51–47; the result was considered one of the biggest election upsets that year. Prior to Hogan's victory, Bob Ehrlich, elected in 2002, had been the only Republican elected as Governor of Maryland since Spiro Agnew. However, Ehrlich was defeated for reelection in 2006 by Martin O'Malley and defeated again in 2010, when he faced O'Malley in a rematch.


title: 2018 Maryland gubernatorial election

text: In April 2018, Hogan had a 68% approval rating, the second-highest approval of any governor in the country, only behind Governor Charlie Baker of Massachusetts, who had a 71% approval rating. Despite the state's Democratic leaning, Hogan had a high approval rating among all partisan groups (65% approval from Democrats, 64% of Independents, and 81% of Republicans).


title: 2018 Maryland gubernatorial election

text: Following the Maryland Green Party's nominating procedure, the delegates of the Coordinating Council, which is the party's State Central Committee, made the decision to nominate the gubernatorial ticket as no other candidate had filed by the party's March 30, 2018, deadline. More than one ticket seeking the nomination would have required the party to conduct a primary, an obligation not mandated by the State Board of Elections for non-principal parties.


title: 2018 Maryland gubernatorial election

text: Larry Hogan and Ben Jealous met for their one and only scheduled debate on September 24. The debate was livestreamed in the evening by the Maryland Public Television.


title: 2018 Maryland gubernatorial election

text: Hogan carried 6 of 8 congressional districts, including 5 held by Democrats. This included the district of then-House Minority Whip Steny Hoyer, which Hogan lost to Hoyer in 1992.


title: Palk Strait

text: The Palk Strait ( "Pākku Nīriṇai", "Pok Samudra Sandhiya") is a strait between the Tamil Nadu state of India and the Jaffna District of the Northern Province of the island nation of Sri Lanka. It connects the Bay of Bengal in the northeast with Palk Bay in the southwest. With a minimum depth of less than 9.1 m, it is 40 to 85 miles (64 to 137 km) wide and 85 miles long. Several rivers flow into it, including the Vaigai River of Tamil Nadu. The strait is named after Robert Palk, who was a governor of Madras (1755–1763) during the Company Raj period.


title: Palk Strait

text: The unique feature around Palk Strait is that the waves around it, to its north and south are of high contrast. To the north, the waves of Bay of Bengal are mostly swells waves while that on the south, in Palk Bay, are mostly sea waves. Despite being a sea dominated area, the significant wave heights in Palk Bay regions are relatively low. The average significant wave height in Palk Bay close to Adam's Bridge is around 0.5 m.


title: Palk Strait

text: Palk Bay is studded at its southern end with a chain of low islands and reef shoals that are collectively called Adam's Bridge, it has historically been known in Hindu Mythology as "Ram Setu", that is, the bridge of Rama. This chain extends between Dhanushkodi on Pamban Island (also known as Rameswaram Island) in Tamil Nadu and Mannar Island in Sri Lanka. The island of Rameswaram is linked to the Indian mainland by the Pamban Bridge.


title: Palk Strait

text: In 1914, there used to be regular trains from Madras/Chennai to Dhanushkodi, a ferry to Talaimannar on Mannar Island, and then a train to Colombo. In 1964, a cyclone destroyed Dhanushkodi and the railway and caused severe damage along the shores of Palk Strait and Palk Bay. Dhanushkodi was not rebuilt and the railway from Talaimannar to Mahawilachchiya in Sri Lanka was given up due to the civil war (It was later completely rebuilt). At least into the 1970s there was a ferry between small piers in Rameswaram and Talaimannar, but this was discontinued. Ferry service briefly resumed around 2010 but at this time there are no passenger connections across the Strait.


title: Palk Strait

text: The shallow waters and reefs of the strait make it difficult for large ships to pass through, although fishing boats and small craft carrying coastal trade have navigated the strait for centuries. Large ships must travel around Sri Lanka. Construction of a shipping canal through the strait was first proposed to the British government of India in 1860, and a number of commissions have studied the proposal up to the present day. The most recent study of the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project, as it is now called, was an environmental impact assessment and a technical feasibility study commissioned by the Tamil Nadu government in 2004.


title: Palk Strait

text: However, the plan encountered opposition from various religious circles. The Indian epic poem "Ramayana", written thousands of years ago in Sanskrit and an important Hindu text, recounts how Rama, with the help of an army of vanaras, built a bridge of stones across the sea to Lanka to rescue his wife Sita from the Asura king Ravana. The Ram Karmabhoomi movement, encouraged by a NASA satellite photograph of Rama's Setu, was formed to prevent the shipping canal from being built.


title: Palk Strait

text: The construction of an Undersea Bed Rail tunnel linking India and Sri Lanka has been proposed that will pass below the Palk Strait.


The 2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly elections were held in the Indian state of Gujarat in December 2012 for all 182 members of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly. Incumbent Chief Minister Narendra Modi of Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP), in power since 2002, was running for his fourth term. The leader of the opposition was Shaktisinh Gohil of the Indian National Congress (INC).


title: 2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election

text: Elections were held in two phases, the first on 13 December and the second on 17 December 2012. Total voting turnout of both phases was 71.32%, highest since 1980. Results were declared on 20 December 2012.


text: The BJP, led by Narendra Modi, won 116 seats out of total 182 seats and formed the government while INC won 60 seats. BJP has been in the power in Gujarat since 1995.


text: First phase of polling was held on 13 December 2012 witnessed 70.75% of record breaking voting. Within three hours, the voter turnout was 18 per cent and by 1 pm it was 38 per cent. The figure went up to 53 per cent by 3 pm, concluding with 70.75%.


text: With 71.85% of Phase-II voting turnout following the Phase-I turnout of 70.75%, the resultant final voting turnout stood at 72.02%


text: The average turnout percentage in Gujarat had decreased from 64.39% in 1995 to 59.77% during the last four state elections (1995, 1998, 2002, 2007)as per the Election Commission of India statistics.


text: BJP lost in 16 seats by the margin of less than 2%. The Congress won 46% seats with a margin of less than 5%.


text: Four seats became vacant in 2012-13. Bypolls for them was held by Election Commission in June 2013. All four seats were held by Indian National Congress members. Morva Hadaf MLA Savitaben Khant died in December 2012 while Limbdi MLA Soma Ganda resigned later as he chose to continue as a Member of Parliament. Jayesh Radadiya (Jetpur) and Vitthal Radadiya (Dhoraji) resigned as they left Indian National Congress and joined Bharatiya Janata Party in March 2013. In polls, INC lost all four seats and BJP won all of them.


text: The by-poll to Surat West was held on 4 December 2013, due to the death of sitting BJP MLA Kishore Wankawala. BJP candidate Purnesh Modi won against INC candidate D I Patel in a result declared on 8 December 2013. It was the first time the NOTA (None of the above) button was introduced in the election in Gujarat. It was used by 2307 voters.


text: Rapar BJP MLA Vaghjibhai Patel died on 30 January 2014 following heart attack. Lathi MLA Bavku Undhad resigned as he quit INC and joined BJP in January. GPP MLA Keshubhai Patel resigned in February following his ill health. GPP was merged with BJP on 24 February 2014. Nalin Kotadiya who was representing Dhari in assembly, joined BJP along with party. Four more MLAs Rajendrasinh Chavda, Jasabhai Barad, Chhabilbhai Patel and Parbhubhai Vasava quit INC and resigned as they joined BJP in February. Bypolls for all these seven seats were held on 30 April along with 2014 Indian general election. Voting turnout was 74.84% in Somnath, 70.19% in Abdasa, 56.62% in Rapar, 71.87% in Himmatnagar, 56.06% in Visavadar, 64.86% in Lathi and 67% in Mandvi which stood to an average of 65.92% in all seven constituencies. On 16 May 2014, the result of byepolls was declared along with 2014 Indian general election result. BJP won four while INC won three seats of seven vacant seats. Out of five constituencies which were held by INC before their representatives joined BJP, they retained only one, Abdasa. BJP candidate Bharat Patel, son of former representative Keshubhai Patel, lost to INC candidate Harshad Ribadiya in Visavadar. Shaktisinh Gohil, the former Leader of Opposition, defeated Chhabil Patel in Abdasa.


text: Following 2014 Indian general election, nine assembly members resigned as they were elected to Loksabha, the lower house of the parliament of India. They all belonged to BJP. Incumbent Chief Minister Narendra Modi resigned as MLA from Maninagar as he won from Vadodara and Varanasi and sworn in as the 14th Prime Minister of India. The eight others include Khambhalia MLA Poonam Madam (elected from Jamnagar), Anand MLA Dilip Patel (Anand), Limkheda MLA Jaswantsinh Bhabhor (Dahod), Deesa MLA Liladhar Vaghela (Patan), Matar MLA Devusinh Chauhan (Kheda), Talaja MLA Bharati Shiyal (Bhavnagar), Mangrol MLA Rajesh Chudasama (Junagadh) and Tankara MLA Mohan Kundariya (Rajkot). Byepolls were held on 13 September 2014 which recorded following voters turnout: Limkheda (64%), Maninagar (33.5%), Deesa (59.76%), Tankara (57%), Khambhalia (55.5%), Mangrol (57%), Talja (49%), Anand (57%) and Matar (54.7%). The results of September byepolls were declared on 16 September 2014. BJP retained six seats while lost three seats to INC. Vajubhai Vala, the incumbent speaker of assembly, resigned as the MLA from Rajkot West and as the speaker on 30 August 2014 following his appointment as the Governor of Karnataka. The byepoll for Rajkot West was held on 15 October 2014 and result was declared on 19 October 2014. BJP retained the seat with Vijay Rupani declared winner candidate.


text: Rajendrabhai Parabhubhai Patel, the sitting MLA from Choryasi died following dengue in August 2015. His daughter won the bypoll in January 2016. Following death of Jasubhai Barad of INC in January 2016, the bypoll was held for Talala constituency. The bypoll had 63.66 per cent turnout. Govind Parmar of BJP won the bypoll in May 2016 defeating Bhagwanji Barad of INC.


title: Street

text: A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as tarmac, concrete, cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic.


title: Street

text: Originally, the word "street" simply meant a paved road (). The word "street" is still sometimes used informally as a synonym for "road", for example in connection with the ancient Watling Street, but city residents and urban planners draw a crucial modern distinction: a road's main function is transportation, while streets facilitate public interaction. Examples of streets include pedestrian streets, alleys, and city-centre streets too crowded for road vehicles to pass. Conversely, highways and motorways are types of roads, but few would refer to them as streets.


title: Street

text: The word "street" has its origins in the Latin "strata" (meaning "paved road" - abbreviation from "via strata"); it is thus related to "stratum" and "stratification". The first recorded use of word "stratæ" referring to the road has been made by the Eutropius. Ancient Greek "stratos" means army: Greeks originally built roads to move their armies. Old English applied the word to Roman roads in Britain such as Ermine Street, Watling Street, etc. Later it acquired a dialectical meaning of "straggling village", which were often laid out on the verges of Roman roads and these settlements often became named Stretton. In the Middle Ages, a "road" was a way people travelled, with "street" applied specifically to paved ways.


title: Street

text: The street is a public easement, one of the few shared between all sorts of people. As a component of the built environment as ancient as human habitation, the street sustains a range of activities vital to civilization. Its roles are as numerous and diverse as its ever-changing cast of characters.


title: Street

text: Streets can be loosely categorized as main streets and side streets. Main streets are usually broad with a relatively high level of activity. Commerce and public interaction are more visible on main streets, and vehicles may use them for longer-distance travel. Side streets are quieter, often residential in use and character, and may be used for vehicular parking.


title: Street

text: Circulation, or less broadly, transportation, is perhaps a street's most visible use, and certainly among the most important. The unrestricted movement of people and goods within a city is essential to its commerce and vitality, and streets provide the physical space for this activity.


title: Street

text: In the interest of order and efficiency, an effort may be made to segregate different types of traffic. This is usually done by carving a road through the middle for motorists, reserving pavements on either side for pedestrians; other arrangements allow for streetcars, trolleys, and even wastewater and rainfall runoff ditches (common in Japan and India). In the mid-20th century, as the automobile threatened to overwhelm city streets with pollution and ghastly accidents, many urban theorists came to see this segregation as not only helpful but necessary in order to maintain mobility.


title: Street

text: Le Corbusier, for one, perceived an ever-stricter segregation of traffic as an essential affirmation of social order—a desirable, and ultimately inevitable, expression of modernity. To this end, proposals were advanced to build "vertical streets" where road vehicles, pedestrians, and trains would each occupy their own levels. Such an arrangement, it was said, would allow for even denser development in the future.


title: Street

text: These plans were never implemented comprehensively, a fact which today's urban theorists regard as fortunate for vitality and diversity. Rather, vertical segregation is applied on a piecemeal basis, as in sewers, utility poles, depressed highways, elevated railways, common utility ducts, the extensive complex of underground malls surrounding Tokyo Station and the Ōtemachi subway station, the elevated pedestrian skyway networks of Minneapolis and Calgary, the underground cities of Atlanta and Montreal, and the multilevel streets in Chicago.


title: Street

text: Transportation is often misunderstood to be the defining characteristic, or even the sole purpose, of a street. This has not been the case since the word "street" came to be limited to urban situations, and even in the automobile age, is still demonstrably false. A street may be temporarily blocked to all through traffic in order to secure the space for other uses, such as a street fair, a flea market, children at play, filming a movie, or construction work. Many streets are bracketed by bollards or Jersey barriers so as to keep out vehicles. These measures are often taken in a city's busiest areas, the "destination" districts, when the volume of activity outgrows the capacity of private passenger vehicles to support it. A feature universal to all streets is a human-scale design that gives its users the space and security to feel engaged in their surroundings, whatever through traffic may pass.


title: Street

text: Despite this, the operator of a motor vehicle may (incompletely) regard a street as merely a thoroughfare for vehicular travel or parking. As far as concerns the driver, a street can be one-way or two-way: vehicles on one-way streets may travel in only one direction, while those on two-way streets may travel both ways. One way streets typically have signs reading "ONE WAY" and an arrow showing the direction of allowed travel. Most two-way streets are wide enough for at least two lanes of traffic.


title: Street

text: Which lane is for which direction of traffic depends on what country the street is located in. On broader two-way streets, there is often a "centre line" marked down the middle of the street separating those lanes on which vehicular traffic goes in one direction from other lanes in which traffic goes in the opposite direction. Occasionally, there may be a median strip separating lanes of opposing traffic. If there is more than one lane going in one direction on a main street, these lanes may be separated by intermittent "lane lines", marked on the street pavement. Side streets often do not have centre lines or lane lines.


title: Street

text: Many streets, especially side streets in residential areas, have an extra lane's width on one or both sides for parallel parking. Most minor side streets allowing free parallel parking do not have pavement markings designating the parking lane. Main streets more often have parking lanes marked. Some streets are too busy or narrow for parking on the side. Sometimes parking on the sides of streets is allowed only at certain times. Curbside signs often state regulations about parking. Some streets, particularly in business areas, may have parking meters into which coins must be paid to allow parking in the adjacent space for a limited time. Other parking meters work on a credit card and ticket basis or pay and display. Parking lane markings on the pavement may designate the meter corresponding to a parking space. Some wide streets with light traffic allow "angle parking" or "herringbone parking".


title: Street

text: Sidewalks (US usage) or pavements (UK usage) are often located alongside on one or usually both sides of the street within the public land strips beyond the curbs. Sidewalks serve a traffic purpose, by making walking easier and more attractive, but they also serve a social function, allowing neighbors to meet and interact on their walks. They also can foster economic activity, such as window shopping and sidewalk cafes. Some studies have found that shops on streets with sidewalks get more customers than similar shops without sidewalks.


title: Street

text: An important element of sidewalk design is accessibility for persons with disabilities. Features that make sidewalks more accessible include curb ramps, tactile paving and accessible traffic signals. The Americans with Disabilities Act requires accessibility improvement on new and reconstructed streets within the US.


title: Street

text: In most jurisdictions, bicycles are legally allowed to use streets, and required to follow the same traffic laws as motor vehicle traffic. Where the volume of bicycle traffic warrants and available right-of-way allows, provisions may be made to separate cyclists from motor vehicle traffic. Wider lanes may be provided next to the curb, or shoulders may be provided.


title: Street

text: Bicycle lanes may be used on busy streets to provide some separation between bicycle traffic and motor vehicle traffic.


title: Street

text: The bicycle lane may be placed between the travel lanes and the parking lanes, between the parking lanes and the curb, or for increased safety for cyclists, between curb and sidewalk. These poorer designs can lead to Dooring incidents and are unsafe for cycling.


title: Street

text: A more sensible design is found in the Netherlands with a Protected Bicycle Path totally separate from the traffic which is safe for cycling.


title: Street

text: Trams are generally considered to be environmentally friendly with tramlines running in streets with a combination of tram lanes or separate alignments are used, sometimes on a segregated right of way. Signalling and effective braking reduce the risk of a tram accident.


title: Street

text: Often, a curb (British English: "Kerb") is used to separate the vehicle traffic lanes from the adjacent pavement area and where people on bicycles are considered properly are used to separate cycling from traffic as well. Street signs, parking meters, bicycle stands, benches, traffic signals, and street lights are often found adjacent to streets. They may be behind the sidewalk, or between the sidewalk and the curb.


title: Street

text: There may be a road verge (a strip of grass or other vegetation) between the carriageway (North American English: Roadway) and the pavement on either side of the street on which Grass or trees are often grown there for landscaping. These are often placed for beautification but are increasingly being used to control stormwater.


title: Street

text: Although primarily used for traffic, streets are important corridors for utilities such as electric power; communications such as telephone, cable television and fiber optic lines; storm and sanitary sewers; and natural gas lines.


title: Street

text: Practically all public streets in Western countries and the majority elsewhere (though not in Japan; see Japanese addressing system) are given a street or road name, or at least a number, to identify them and any addresses located along the streets. Alleys, in some places, do not have names. The length of a lot of land along a street is referred to as the "frontage" of the lot.


title: Street

text: A street may assume the role of a town square for its regulars. Jane Jacobs, an economist and prominent urbanist, wrote extensively on the ways that interaction among the people who live and work on a particular street—"eyes on the street"—can reduce crime, encourage the exchange of ideas, and generally make the world a better place.


title: Street

text: A street can often serve as the catalyst for the neighborhood's prosperity, culture and solidarity. New Orleans’ Bourbon Street is famous not only for its active nightlife but also for its role as the center of the city's French Quarter. Similarly, the Bowery has at various times been New York City's theater district, red-light district, skid row, restaurant supply district, and the center of the nation's underground punk scene. Madison Avenue and Fleet Street are so strongly identified with their respective most famous types of commerce, that their names are sometimes applied to firms located elsewhere. Other streets mark divisions between neighborhoods of a city. For example, Yonge Street divides Toronto into east and west sides, and East Capitol Street divides Washington, D.C. into north and south.


title: Street

text: Some streets are associated with the beautification of a town or city. Greenwood, Mississippi's Grand Boulevard was once named one of America's ten most beautiful streets by the U.S. Chambers of Commerce and the Garden Clubs of America. The 1,000 oak trees lining Grand Boulevard were planted in 1916 by Sally Humphreys Gwin, a charter member of the Greenwood Garden Club. In 1950, Gwin received a citation from the National Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution in recognition of her work in the conservation of trees.


title: Street

text: Streets also tend to aggregate establishments of similar nature and character. East 9th Street in Manhattan, for example, offers a cluster of Japanese restaurants, clothing stores, and cultural venues. In Washington, D.C., 17th Street and P Street are well known as epicenters of the city's (relatively small) gay culture. Many cities have a Radio Row or Restaurant Row. Like in Philadelphia there is a small street called Jewelers' row giving the identity of a "Diamond district". This phenomenon is the subject of urban location theory in economics. In Cleveland, Ohio, East 4th Street has become restaurant row for Cleveland. On East 4th is Michael Symon's Lola Bistro and other restaurants.


title: Street

text: A road, like a street, is often paved and used for travel. However, a street is characterized by the degree and quality of street life it facilitates, whereas a road serves primarily as a through passage for road vehicles or (less frequently) pedestrians. Buskers, beggars, boulevardiers, patrons of pavement cafés, peoplewatchers, streetwalkers, and a diversity of other characters are habitual users of a street; the same people would not typically be found on a road.


title: Street

text: In rural and suburban environments where street life is rare, the terms "street" and "road" are frequently considered interchangeable. Still, even here, what is called a "street" is usually a smaller thoroughfare, such as a road within a housing development feeding directly into individual driveways. In the last half of the 20th century these streets often abandoned the tradition of a rigid, rectangular grid, and instead were designed to discourage through traffic. This and other traffic calming methods provided quiet for families and play space for children. Adolescent suburbanites find, in attenuated form, the amenities of street life in shopping malls where vehicles are forbidden.


title: Street

text: A town square or plaza is a little more like a street, but a town square is rarely paved with asphalt and may not make any concessions for through traffic at all.


title: Street

text: There is a haphazard relationship, at best, between a thoroughfare's function and its name. For example, London's Abbey Road serves all the vital functions of a street, despite its name, and locals are more apt to refer to the "street" outside than the "road". A desolate road in rural Montana, on the other hand, may bear a sign proclaiming it "Davidson Street", but this does not make it a "street" except in the original sense of a paved road.


title: Street

text: In the United Kingdom many towns will refer to their main thoroughfare as the High Street (in the United States and Canada it would be called the Main Street—however, occasionally "Main Street" in a city or town is a street other than the "de facto" main thoroughfare), and many of the ways leading off it will be named "Road" despite the urban setting. Thus the town's so-called "Roads" will actually be more street-like than a road.


title: Street

text: Some streets may even be called highways, even though they may carry no highway designation at all: This may arise when an historic road that was built to connect distant towns was named a "street" but originally never was in the truest sense. Some roads of this type which later became highways, became identified as said highway and may continue to colloquially be labelled as such from force of habit even if sections of it are subsequently urbanized and become an actual street and has its highway status decommissioned. Hurontario Street in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada (which was formerly Ontario Highway 10, but predates it), is an example of this.


title: Street

text: In some other English-speaking countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, cities are often divided by a main "Road", with "Streets" leading from this "Road", or the cities are divided by thoroughfares known as "Streets" or "Roads" with no apparent differentiation between the two. In Auckland, for example, the main shopping precinct is located around Queen Street and Karangahape Road.


title: Street

text: Streets have existed for as long as humans have lived in permanent settlements (see civilization). However, the development of modern civilization in much of the New World was driven by transportation provided by motor vehicles. In some parts of the English-speaking world, such as North America, many think of the street as a thoroughfare for vehicular traffic first and foremost. In this view, pedestrian traffic is incidental to the street's purpose; a street consists of a thoroughfare running through the middle (in essence, a road), and may or may not have pavements (or sidewalks) along the sides.


title: Street

text: In an even narrower sense, some may think of a street as only the vehicle-driven and parking part of the thoroughfare. Thus, sidewalks (pavements) and road verges would not be thought of as part of the street. A mother may tell her toddlers, "Don't go out into the street, so you don't get hit by a car."


title: Street

text: Among urban residents of the English-speaking world, the word "street" appears to carry its original connotations (i.e., the facilitation of traffic as a prime purpose, and "street life" as an incidental benefit). For instance, a "New York Times" writer lets casually slip the observation that automobile-laden Houston Street, in lower Manhattan, is "a street that can hardly be called 'street' anymore, transformed years ago into an eight-lane raceway that alternately resembles a Nascar event and a parking lot." Published in the paper's Metro section, the article evidently presumes an audience with an innate grasp of the modern urban role of the street. To the readers of the Metro section, vehicular traffic does not reinforce, but rather detracts from, the essential "street-ness" of a street.


title: Street

text: At least one map has been made to illustrate the geography of naming conventions for thoroughfares; avenue, boulevard, circle, road, street, and other suffixes are compared and contrasted.


title: Street

text: In India, some cities have designated one or more streets as "happy street" or "fun street", closing them for motor traffic for a few hours or a day, in order to make it possible for the inhabitants to use their street for recreational activities. Cities implementing this initiative include Kolkata Madurai, Visakhapatnam and Bengaluru.


title: Storegga Slide

text: The three Storegga Slides () are amongst the largest known submarine landslides. They occurred at the edge of Norway's continental shelf in the Norwegian Sea, approximately 6225–6170 BCE. The collapse involved an estimated length of coastal shelf, with a total volume of of debris, which caused a tsunami in the North Atlantic Ocean.


title: Storegga Slide

text: Storegga (Norwegian: "Great Edge") is located at the edge of Norway's continental shelf in the Norwegian Sea, north-west of the Møre coast. In around 6200 BCE, structural failures of the shelf caused three underwater landslides, which triggered very large tsunamis in the North Atlantic Ocean. The collapses involved an estimated length of coastal shelf, with a total volume of of debris.


title: Storegga Slide

text: Based on carbon dating of plant material recovered from sediment deposited by the tsunamis, the latest incident occurred around approximately 6225–6170 BCE. In Scotland, traces of the subsequent tsunami have been recorded, with deposited sediment being discovered in Montrose Basin, the Firth of Forth up to inland and above current normal tide levels.


title: Storegga Slide

text: A possible triggering mechanism is thought to have been an earthquake that induced a catastrophic expansion of methane clathrate, a solid compound consisting of large amounts of methane suspended within a crystal water structure that forms in deep oceans under extremely high pressure. If removed from a high-pressure, low-temperature environment, one cubic metre of solid methane clathrate expands to 164 cubic metres of gaseous methane. If such an expansion occurred, it may have weakened the integrity of the surrounding rock sufficiently to trigger the slide.


title: Storegga Slide

text: Another theory is that over time, streams from melting glaciers had carried trillions of tons of sediment to the edge of the continental shelf, where it accumulated in many layers. In this case, a trigger such as an earthquake could have caused a large area of seafloor to collapse into the deep Norwegian sea, thus carrying the enormous volume of accumulated sediment along with it.


title: Storegga Slide

text: At, or shortly before, the time of the Second Storegga Slide, a land bridge known to archaeologists and geologists as Doggerland linked Britain, Denmark and the Netherlands across what is now the southern North Sea. This area is believed to have included a coastline of lagoons, marshes, mudflats and beaches, and to have been a rich hunting, fowling and fishing ground populated by Mesolithic human cultures.


title: Storegga Slide

text: Although Doggerland was permanently submerged through a gradual rise in sea level, it has been hypothesized that coastal areas of both Britain and mainland Europe, extending over areas which are now submerged, would have been temporarily inundated by a tsunami triggered by the Storegga Slide. This event would have had a catastrophic impact on the Mesolithic population at the time.


title: Storegga Slide

text: A 2021 study found that about of Scotland's northern and eastern coastline were affected, with water encroaching inland. With present-day populations and sea levels, a similar event today could devastate and destroy seafront and port areas of Arbroath, Stonehaven, Aberdeen, Inverness, Wick, and Montrose.


title: Storegga Slide

text: While the tsunami caused by the Second Storegga Slide would have been devastating for those within the run-in zone, ultimately the tsunami was neither universally catastrophic nor the reason behind the inundation of the last vestiges of Doggerland.


title: Storegga Slide

text: Storegga has been thoroughly investigated as part of the preparation activities for the Ormen Lange gas field off the coast of Norway. The prevalent conclusion is the slide was caused by glacial deposits left behind after the previous glacial period, making any recurrence only possible following a new ice age. After facts and arguments supporting this conclusion were published in 2004, the development of the Ormen Lange gas field was considered unlikely to increase the risk of triggering a new slide.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In computer science, conditionals (that is, conditional statements, conditional expressions and conditional constructs,) are programming language commands for handling decisions. Specifically, conditionals perform different computations or actions depending on whether a programmer-defined boolean "condition" evaluates to true or false. In terms of control flow, the decision is always achieved by selectively altering the control flow based on some condition (apart from the case of branch predication).


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Although dynamic dispatch is not usually classified as a conditional construct, it is another way to select between alternatives at runtime.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In imperative programming languages, the term "conditional statement" is usually used, whereas in functional programming, the terms "conditional expression" or "conditional construct" are preferred, because these terms all have distinct meanings.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: The codice_1 construct (sometimes called codice_2) is common across many programming languages. Although the syntax varies from language to language, the basic structure (in pseudocode form) looks like this:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In the example code above, the part represented by "(boolean condition)" constitutes a conditional "expression", having intrinsic value (e.g., it may be substituted by either of the values codice_3 or codice_4) but having no intrinsic meaning. In contrast, the combination of this expression, the codice_5 and codice_6 surrounding it, and the consequent that follows afterward constitute a conditional "statement", having intrinsic meaning (e.g., expressing a coherent logical rule) but no intrinsic value.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: When an interpreter finds an codice_5, it expects a boolean condition – for example, codice_8, which means "the variable x contains a number that is greater than zero" – and evaluates that condition. If the condition is codice_9, the statements following the codice_10 are executed. Otherwise, the execution continues in the following branch – either in the codice_11 block (which is usually optional), or if there is no codice_11 branch, then after the codice_13.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In early programming languages, especially some dialects of BASIC in the 1980s home computers, an codice_1 statement could only contain codice_16 statements (equivalent to a branch instruction). This led to a hard-to-read style of programming known as spaghetti programming, with programs in this style called "spaghetti code". As a result, structured programming, which allows (virtually) arbitrary statements to be put in statement blocks inside an codice_17 statement, gained in popularity, until it became the norm even in most BASIC programming circles. Such mechanisms and principles were based on the older but more advanced ALGOL family of languages, and ALGOL-like languages such as Pascal and Modula-2 influenced modern BASIC variants for many years. While it is possible while using only codice_16 statements in codice_1 statements to write programs that are not spaghetti code and are just as well structured and readable as programs written in a structured programming language, structured programming makes this easier and enforces it. Structured codice_2 statements like the example above are one of the key elements of structured programming, and they are present in most popular high-level programming languages such as C, Java, JavaScript and Visual Basic .


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: The codice_11 keyword is made to target a specific codice_1 statement preceding it, but for nested codice_1 statements, classic programming languages such as ALGOL 60 struggled to define which specific statement to target. Without clear boundaries for which statement is which, an codice_11 keyword could target any preceding codice_1 statement in the nest, as parsed.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: depending on whether the codice_11 is associated with the first codice_17 or second codice_17. This is known as the dangling else problem, and is resolved in various ways, depending on the language (commonly via the codice_29 statement or codice_30 brackets).


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: By using codice_31, it is possible to combine several conditions. Only the statements following the first condition that is found to be true will be executed. All other statements will be skipped.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In the example above, if the discount is 10%, then the first if statement will be evaluated as true and "you have to pay $30" will be printed out. All other statements below that first if statement will be skipped.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: The codice_32 statement, in the Ada language for example, is simply syntactic sugar for codice_11 followed by codice_17. In Ada, the difference is that only one codice_29 is needed, if one uses codice_32 instead of codice_11 followed by codice_17. PHP uses the codice_32 keyword both for its curly brackets or colon syntaxes. Perl provides the keyword codice_40 to avoid the large number of braces that would be required by multiple codice_17 and codice_11 statements. Python uses the special keyword codice_43 because structure is denoted by indentation rather than braces, so a repeated use of codice_11 and codice_17 would require increased indentation after every condition. Some implementations of BASIC, such as Visual Basic, use codice_46 too. Similarly, the earlier UNIX shells (later gathered up to the POSIX shell syntax) use elif too, but giving the choice of delimiting with spaces, line breaks, or both.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: However, in many languages more directly descended from Algol, such as Simula, Pascal, BCPL and C, this special syntax for the codice_31 construct is not present, nor is it present in the many syntactical derivatives of C, such as Java, ECMAScript, and so on. This works because in these languages, any "single" statement (in this case codice_48...) can follow a conditional without being enclosed in a block.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: This design choice has a slight "cost". Each codice_31 branch effectively adds an extra nesting level. This complicates the job for the compiler (or the people who write the compiler), because the compiler must analyse and implement arbitrarily long codice_31 chains recursively.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: If all terms in the sequence of conditionals are testing the value of a single expression (e.g., codice_51 ... codice_52 ... codice_53...), an alternative is the switch statement, also called case-statement or select-statement. Conversely, in languages that do not have a switch statement, these can be produced by a sequence of codice_31 statements.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Many languages support "if expressions", which are similar to if statements, but return a value as a result. Thus, they are true expressions (which evaluate to a value), not statements (which may not be permitted in the context of a value).


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In dialects of Lisp– Scheme, Racket and Common Lisp– the first of which was inspired to a great extent by ALGOL:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: (define myvariable (if (> x 12) 1 2)) ; Assigns 'myvariable' to 1 or 2, depending on the value of 'x'


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In Haskell 98, there is only an "if expression", no "if statement", and the codice_11 part is compulsory, as every expression must have some value. Logic that would be expressed with conditionals in other languages is usually expressed with pattern matching in recursive functions.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Because Haskell is lazy, it is possible to write control structures, such as "if", as ordinary expressions; the lazy evaluation means that an "if function" can evaluate only the condition and proper branch (where a strict language would evaluate all three). It can be written like this:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: C and C-like languages have a special ternary operator () for conditional expressions with a function that may be described by a template like this:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: which can be compared to the Algol-family if–then–else "expressions" (in contrast to a "statement") (and similar in Ruby and Scala, among others).


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: To accomplish the same using an if-statement, this would take more than one line of code (under typical layout conventions), and require mentioning "my_variable" twice:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Some argue that the explicit if/then statement is easier to read and that it may compile to more efficient code than the ternary operator, while others argue that concise expressions are easier to read than statements spread over several lines containing repetition.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: First, when the user runs the program, a cursor appears waiting for the reader to type a number. If that number is greater than 10, the text "My variable is named 'foo'." is displayed on the screen. If the number is smaller than 10, then the message "My variable is named 'bar'." is printed on the screen.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In Visual Basic and some other languages, a function called codice_58 is provided, which can be used as a conditional expression. However, it does not behave like a true conditional expression, because both the true and false branches are always evaluated; it is just that the result of one of them is thrown away, while the result of the other is returned by the IIf function.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: invokes a function named codice_17 passing 2 arguments: The first one being the condition and the second one being the true branch. Both arguments are passed as strings (in Tcl everything within curly brackets is a string).


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In the above example the condition is not evaluated before calling the function. Instead, the implementation of the codice_17 function receives the condition as a string value and is responsible to evaluate this string as an expression in the callers scope.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In Rust, codice_17 is always an expression. It evaluates to the value of whichever branch is executed, or to the unit type codice_67 if no branch is executed. If a branch does not provide a return value, it evaluates to codice_67 by default. To ensure the codice_17 expression's type is known at compile time, each branch must evaluate to a value of the same type. For this reason, an codice_11 branch is effectively compulsory unless the other branches evaluate to codice_67, because an codice_17 without an codice_11 can always evaluate to codice_67 by default.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Up to Fortran 77, the language Fortran has an "arithmetic if" statement which is halfway between a computed IF and a case statement, based on the trichotomy This was the earliest conditional statement in Fortran:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Because this arithmetic IF is equivalent to multiple codice_16 statements that could jump to anywhere, it is considered to be an unstructured control statement, and should not be used if more structured statements can be used. In practice it has been observed that most arithmetic codice_76 statements referenced the following statement with one or two of the labels.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: This was the only conditional control statement in the original implementation of Fortran on the IBM 704 computer. On that computer the test-and-branch op-code had three addresses for those three states. Other computers would have "flag" registers such as positive, zero, negative, even, overflow, carry, associated with the last arithmetic operations and would use instructions such as 'Branch if accumulator negative' then 'Branch if accumulator zero' or similar. Note that the expression is evaluated "once only", and in cases such as integer arithmetic where overflow may occur, the overflow or carry flags would be considered also.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In contrast to other languages, in Smalltalk the conditional statement is not a language construct but defined in the class codice_77 as an abstract method that takes two parameters, both closures. codice_77 has two subclasses, codice_3 and codice_4, which both define the method, codice_3 executing the first closure only, codice_4 executing the second closure only.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: JavaScript uses if-else statements similar to those in C languages or similar. A boolean value is accepted within parentheses between the reserved "if" keyword and a left curly bracket.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: The above example takes the conditional of codice_83 which outputs codice_9 if a random float value between 0 and 1 is greater than 0.5. The statement uses it to randomly choose between outputting codice_85 or codice_86 to the console. Else and else-if statements can also be chained after the curly bracket of the statement preceding it as many times as necessary, as shown below:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In Lambda calculus, the concept of an if-then-else conditional can be expressed using the expressions:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: note: if ifThenElse is passed two functions as the left and right conditionals; it is necessary to also pass an empty tuple () to the result of ifThenElse in order to actually call the chosen function, otherwise ifThenElse will just return the function object without getting called.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In a system where numbers can be used without definition (like Lisp, Traditional paper math, so on), the above can be expressed as a single closure below:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Here, true, false, and ifThenElse are bound to their respective definitions which are passed to their scope at the end of their block.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: First example shows the first branch being taken, while second example shows the second branch being taken.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Smalltalk uses a similar idea for its true and false representations, with True and False being singleton objects that respond to messages ifTrue/ifFalse differently.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Haskell used to use this exact model for its Boolean type, but at the time of writing, most Haskell programs use syntactic sugar "if a then b else c" construct which unlike ifThenElse does not compose unless


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Switch statements (in some languages, "case statements" or multiway branches) compare a given value with specified constants and take action according to the first constant to match. There is usually a provision for a default action ('else','otherwise') to be taken if no match succeeds. Switch statements can allow compiler optimizations, such as lookup tables. In dynamic languages, the cases may not be limited to constant expressions, and might extend to pattern matching, as in the shell script example on the right, where the '*)' implements the default case as a regular expression matching any string.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Pattern matching may be seen as an alternative to both "if–then–else", and "case" statements. It is available in many programming languages with functional programming features, such as Wolfram Language, ML and many others. Here is a simple example written in the OCaml language:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: The power of pattern matching is the ability to "concisely" match not only actions but also "values" to patterns of data. Here is an example written in Haskell which illustrates both of these features:


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: This code defines a function "map", which applies the first argument (a function) to each of the elements of the second argument (a list), and returns the resulting list. The two lines are the two definitions of the function for the two kinds of arguments possible in this case – one where the list is empty (just return an empty list) and the other case where the list is not empty.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: Pattern matching is not strictly speaking "always" a choice construct, because it is possible in Haskell to write only one alternative, which is guaranteed to always be matched – in this situation, it is not being used as a choice construct, but simply as a way to bind names to values. However, it is frequently used as a choice construct in the languages in which it is available.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In programming languages that have associative arrays or comparable data structures, such as Python, Perl, PHP or Objective-C, it is idiomatic to use them to implement conditional assignment.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: In languages that have anonymous functions or that allow a programmer to assign a named function to a variable reference, conditional flow can be implemented by using a hash as a dispatch table.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: An alternative to conditional branch instructions is predication. Predication is an architectural feature that enables instructions to be conditionally executed instead of modifying the control flow.


title: Conditional (computer programming)

text: This table refers to the most recent language specification of each language. For languages that do not have a specification, the latest officially released implementation is referred to.


title: Peter Outerbridge

text: Peter Outerbridge (born June 30, 1966) is a Canadian actor, best known for his role as Ari Tasarov in the CW action series "Nikita", Dr. David Sandström in the TMN series "ReGenesis", Henrik "Hank" Johanssen in "Orphan Black", Bob Corbett in "Bomb Girls", William Easton in "Saw VI", George Brown in the television film "", and Black Mask in "Batwoman". He also played the lead role of Detective William Murdoch in a three-episode mini-series, "The Murdoch Mysteries", in its initial run on Canadian television, with two episodes shown in 2004 and a third in 2005.


title: Peter Outerbridge

text: Outerbridge was born and raised in Toronto, Ontario, the son of a lawyer and youngest of five siblings.


title: Peter Outerbridge

text: After high school Outerbridge enrolled at the University of Victoria to study acting. Afterwards he toured Canada for four years with the theatre group "Way Off Broadway". In 1997 and 2002 he was nominated in the Canadian Genie Awards as the best actor in the films "Kissed" and "Marine Life", respectively. He was also nominated in the Gemini Awards for his achievements. Outerbridge won a 2013 Canadian Screen Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Featured Supporting Role in a Dramatic Program or Series for his role in "".


title: Peter Outerbridge

text: In May 2000, he married actress Tammy Isbell. Together they have twins, Samuel and Thomas (born 2004).


title: Peter Outerbridge

text: Outerbridge had a recurring role in the second season of "Orphan Black", portraying the character Henrik "Hank" Johanssen, a Prolethean religious leader who is against the scientific processes that created the clones.


title: Water potential

text: Water potential is the potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water in reference conditions. Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to another due to osmosis, gravity, mechanical pressure and matrix effects such as capillary action (which is caused by surface tension). The concept of water potential has proved useful in understanding and computing water movement within plants, animals, and soil. Water potential is typically expressed in potential energy per unit volume and very often is represented by the Greek letter ψ.


title: Water potential

text: Water potential integrates a variety of different potential drivers of water movement, which may operate in the same or different directions. Within complex biological systems, many potential factors may be operating simultaneously. For example, the addition of solutes lowers the potential (negative vector), while an increase in pressure increases the potential (positive vector). If the flow is not restricted, water will move from an area of higher water potential to an area that is lower potential. A common example is water with dissolved salts, such as seawater or the fluid in a living cell. These solutions have negative water potential, relative to the pure water reference. With no restriction on flow, water will move from the locus of greater potential (pure water) to the locus of lesser (the solution); flow proceeds until the difference in potential is equalized or balanced by another water potential factor, such as pressure or elevation.


title: Water potential

text: Many different factors may affect the total water potential, and the sum of these potentials determines the overall water potential and the direction of water flow:


title: Water potential

text: All of these factors are quantified as potential energies per unit volume, and different subsets of these terms may be used for particular applications (e.g., plants or soils). Different conditions are also defined as reference depending on the application: for example, in soils, the reference condition is typically defined as pure water at the soil surface.


title: Water potential

text: Pressure potential is based on mechanical pressure and is an important component of the total water potential within plant cells. Pressure potential increases as water enter a cell. As water passes through the cell wall and cell membrane, it increases the total amount of water present inside the cell, which exerts an outward pressure that is opposed by the structural rigidity of the cell wall. By creating this pressure, the plant can maintain turgor, which allows the plant to keep its rigidity. Without turgor, plants will lose structure and wilt.


title: Water potential

text: The pressure potential in a plant cell is usually positive. In plasmolysed cells, pressure potential is almost zero. Negative pressure potentials occur when water is pulled through an open system such as a plant xylem vessel. Withstanding negative pressure potentials (frequently called "tension") is an important adaptation of the xylem. This tension can be measured empirically using the Pressure bomb.


title: Water potential

text: Pure water is usually defined as having an osmotic potential (formula_3) of zero, and in this case, solute potential can never be positive. The relationship of solute concentration (in molarity) to solute potential is given by the van 't Hoff equation:


title: Water potential

text: where formula_10 is the concentration in molarity of the solute, formula_11 is the van 't Hoff factor, the ratio of amount of particles in solution to amount of formula units dissolved, formula_12 is the ideal gas constant, and formula_13 is the absolute


title: Water potential

text: For example, when a solute is dissolved in water, water molecules are less likely to diffuse away via osmosis than when there is no solute. A solution will have a lower and hence more negative water potential than that of pure water. Furthermore, the more solute molecules present, the more negative the solute potential is.


title: Water potential

text: Osmotic potential has important implications for many living organisms. If a living cell is surrounded by a more concentrated solution, the cell will tend to lose water to the more negative water potential (formula_14) of the surrounding environment. This can be the case for marine organisms living in sea water and halophytic plants growing in saline environments. In the case of a plant cell, the flow of water out of the cell may eventually cause the plasma membrane to pull away from the cell wall, leading to plasmolysis. Most plants, however, have the ability to increase solute inside the cell to drive the flow of water into the cell and maintain turgor.


title: Water potential

text: A soil solution also experiences osmotic potential. The osmotic potential is made possible due to the presence of both inorganic and organic solutes in the soil solution. As water molecules increasingly clump around solute ions or molecules, the freedom of movement, and thus the potential energy, of the water is lowered. As the concentration of solutes is increased, the osmotic potential of the soil solution is reduced. Since water has a tendency to move toward lower energy levels, water will want to travel toward the zone of higher solute concentrations. Although, liquid water will only move in response to such differences in osmotic potential if a semipermeable membrane exists between the zones of high and low osmotic potential. A semipermeable membrane is necessary because it allows water through its membrane while preventing solutes from moving through its membrane. If no membrane is present, movement of the solute, rather than of the water, largely equalizes concentrations.


title: Water potential

text: Since regions of soil are usually not divided by a semipermeable membrane, the osmotic potential typically has a negligible influence on the mass movement of water in soils. On the other hand, osmotic potential has an extreme influence on the rate of water uptake by plants. If soils are high in soluble salts, the osmotic potential is likely to be lower in the soil solution than in the plant root cells. In such cases, the soil solution would severely restrict the rate of water uptake by plants. In salty soils, the osmotic potential of soil water may be so low that the cells in young seedlings start to collapse (plasmolyze).


title: Water potential

text: When water is in contact with solid particles (e.g., clay or sand particles within soil), adhesive intermolecular forces between the water and the solid can be large and important. The forces between the water molecules and the solid particles in combination with attraction among water molecules promote surface tension and the formation of menisci within the solid matrix. Force is then required to break these menisci. The magnitude of matrix potential depends on the distances between solid particles—the width of the menisci (also capillary action and differing Pa at ends of the capillary)—and the chemical composition of the solid matrix (meniscus, macroscopic motion due to ionic attraction).