title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: "Rollin' (Urban Assault Vehicle)", was the original version of the song, although sometimes it is referred to as a hip-hop remix of "Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)". It features hip-hop artists DMX, Method Man and Redman, and was produced by Swizz Beatz. It is included as the second-to-last track on the "Chocolate Starfish" album. This version is also featured on the soundtrack to the 2001 film "The Fast and the Furious".


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: Rollin was created through a collaborative effort with hip-hop producer Swizz Beatz. Although sometimes referred to as a hip-hop remix, the Urban Assault Vehicle version of the song was actually the first version that was created. Fred and Swizz Beatz worked together to create this version and when it was presented to the band there was some initial frustration. The band felt the song might work better as a rock song, which led to the creation of the Air Raid Vehicle version of the song. Wes Borland would later state "we liked both versions so much that that's what it ended up being, two versions: a hip-hop version of the song and a rock version of the song."


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: The music video was filmed in September 2000 atop the South Tower of the original World Trade Center in New York City. The introduction features Ben Stiller and Stephen Dorff mistaking Fred Durst for the valet and giving him the keys to their Bentley Azure, out front of The Roxy Hotel. Also making a cameo is break dancer Mr. Wiggles. The rest of the video has several cuts to Durst and his bandmates hanging out of the Bentley as they drive about Manhattan. The song Ben Stiller is playing at the beginning is "My Generation" from the same album. The video also features scenes of Fred Durst with five girls dancing in a room. The video was filmed around the same time as the film "Zoolander", which explains Stiller and Dorff's appearance. Fred Durst has a small cameo in that film.


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: The "Rollin'" video received the award for Best Rock Video at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards. On September 10, 2001 (the day before the Twin Towers were destroyed in the September 11 attacks), Limp Bizkit received a letter and a fruit basket from the Port Authority of New York City, thanking them for featuring the twin towers in the video and congratulating the band after the video had won the VMA for video of the year at the VMAs on September 6th.


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: About the music video, Durst said: "It felt like we just started to poke fun at what people thought we were and embrace that. That’s why we made the "Rollin’" video. There were red caps everywhere, and look at Wes at the beginning of the video with his grills in. How the hell did people not realize we weren’t being serious? We thought it was hilarious."


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: In 2022, "Louder Sound" and "Kerrang" ranked the song number eight and number nine, respectively, on their lists of Limp Bizkit's greatest songs.


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: The song was released in three versions, each with a different cover color and track listing. There was also a DVD that was only released in the United Kingdom.


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: The song was parodied as "Posin'" on the television series "MADtv", and the "Air Raid Vehicle" version was listed on VH1's list of the 50 Most Awesomely Bad Songs.


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: "Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)" was well known among WWE fans as the entrance theme for professional wrestler The Undertaker from December 2000 to May 2002, and again for WrestleMania XIX in 2003 where it was performed live.


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: The song is featured as a selectable track on the Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit roller coaster at Universal Studios Florida.


title: Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song)

text: A short section of the song plays before the nighttime drag race in the first "The Fast and the Furious" film. It is also the song in the intro video of "NHL Hitz 20-02", and is heard in the menus and gameplay as well. The song was also the goal song for the Buffalo Sabres of the NHL from 2005 to 2007.


title: Athaliah

text: Athaliah ( "Gotholía"; ) was the daughter of either king Omri, or of King Ahab and Queen Jezebel of Israel, the queen consort of Judah as the wife of King Jehoram, a descendant of King David, and later queen regnant c. 841–835 BCE.


title: Athaliah

text: Accounts of the life of Athaliah are to be found in 2 Kings 8:16–11:16 and 2 Chronicles 22:10–23:15 in the Hebrew Bible. The text states that she was the daughter of king Omri of Israel, however, she is usually considered to have been the daughter of King Ahab and his wife, Queen Jezebel. Some scholars are of the opinion that Athaliah was indeed the daughter of Omri, but that she grew up as an orphan in the court of Ahab. Athaliah was married to Jehoram of Judah to seal a treaty between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and to secure his position Jehoram killed his six brothers. Jehoram became king of Judah in the fifth year of Joram of Israel's reign (). Depending on her paternity, Joram of Israel was either Athaliah's brother or her nephew.


title: Athaliah

text: Jehoram of Judah reigned for eight years. His father Jehoshaphat and grandfather Asa were devout kings who worshiped Yahweh and walked in his ways. However, Jehoram chose not to follow their example but rejected Yahweh and married Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab in the line of Omri. Jehoram's rule of Judah was shaky. Edom revolted, and he was forced to acknowledge their independence. A raid by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians looted the king's house, and carried off all of his family except for their youngest son, Ahaziah.


title: Athaliah

text: After Jehoram's death, Ahaziah became king of Judah, and Athaliah was queen mother. Ahaziah reigned for one year from the age of 22 () and was killed during a state visit to Israel along with Jehoram of Israel. Jehu assassinated them both in Yahweh's name and became king of Israel. He had Athaliah's entire extended family in Samaria put to death, ending the Omri dynasty in Israel.


title: Athaliah

text: Upon hearing the news of Ahaziah's death, Athaliah seized the throne of Judah and ordered the execution of all possible claimants to the throne, including the remnant of her Omri dynasty. However, Jehosheba, Ahaziah's sister, managed to rescue from the purge Jehoash, a grandson of Athaliah and Jehoram of Judah, who was only one year old. Jehoash was raised in secret by Jehosheba's husband, a priest named Jehoiada.


title: Athaliah

text: As "usurper queen", Athaliah used her power to establish the worship of Baal in Judah. Six years later, Athaliah was surprised when Jehoiada revealed that Jehoash lived and proclaimed him king of Judah. She rushed to stop the rebellion, but was captured and executed.


title: Athaliah

text: William F. Albright has dated her reign to 842–837 BCE, while Edwin R. Thiele in the third edition of his "magnum opus" dates her reign from 842/841 to 836/835 BCE. However, a starting date of 842/841 for Athaliah is one year before the date of 841/840 that Thiele gave for the death of her son, Ahaziah, a conflict which Thiele never resolved.


title: Athaliah

text: In 1691, French tragedian Jean Racine wrote a play about this biblical queen, entitled "Athalie." The German composer Felix Mendelssohn, among others, wrote incidental music (his op. 74) to Racine's play, first performed in Berlin in 1845. One of the most frequently heard excerpts from the Mendelssohn music is titled "War March of the Priests" ("Kriegsmarsch der Priester").


title: Athaliah

text: In 1733, the musician and composer Handel composed an oratorio based on her life, called "Athalia," calling her a "Baalite Queen of Judah Daughter of Jezebel". Baal was the fertility god of the Canaanites, whom the ancient Israelites often fell into worshipping in the Tanakh/Old Testament.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: A scrummage, commonly simply known as a scrum, is a method of restarting play in rugby football that involves players packing closely together with their heads down and attempting to gain possession of the ball. Depending on whether it is in rugby union or rugby league, the scrum is used either after an accidental infringement or when the ball has gone out of play. Scrums occur more often, and are now of greater importance, in union than in league. Starting play from the line of scrimmage in gridiron football is derived from the scrum.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: In both forms of rugby, a scrum is formed by the players who are designated forwards binding together in three rows. The scrum then 'engages' with the opposition team so that the players' heads are interlocked with those of the other side's front row. In rugby union the initiation of the process is verbally coordinated by the referee who calls 'crouch, bind, set' as of 2013 (formerly 'crouch, touch, pause, engage', 'crouch and hold, engage' before 2007). The scrum-half from the team that did not infringe then throws the ball into the tunnel created in the space between the two sets of front rowers' legs. Both teams may then try to compete for the ball by trying to hook the ball backwards with their feet.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: A key difference between the two sports is that in rugby union both sets of forwards try to push the opposition backwards while competing for the ball and thus the team that did not throw the ball into the scrum has some minimal chance of winning the possession. In practice, however, the team with the 'put-in' usually keeps possession (92% of the time with the feed) and put-ins are not straight. Forwards in rugby league do not usually push in the scrum, scrum-halves often feed the ball directly under the legs of their own front row rather than into the tunnel, and the team with the put-in usually retains possession (thereby making the 40/20 rule workable).


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: A rugby union scrum consists of two teams' eight forwards, with each team binding in three rows. The front row is composed of the two "props" and the "hooker". The two "second row" forwards (jersey numbers four and five), commonly referred to as the locks bind together and directly behind the front row with each putting their heads between the props and the hooker. Lastly the back row is made up of the two "flankers" and the number eight. The flankers bind on each side of the scrum — next to a lock and behind a prop.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: The two forward packs form a scrum by approaching to within an arms length of each other. The referee gives the command "crouch" and the opposing front rows then crouch; as well as allowing the front rows to interlock with one another, this crouching action also serves to isometrically preload the muscles, enabling the subsequent drive to be performed more powerfully. The referee then calls "bind" and forwards grab the opposites shoulders. The referee then issues the "set" command which indicates that the two packs may come together. When this happens both front rows thrust forward with the tighthead props' heads going between the opposing hooker and loosehead prop. The scrum-half from the team that has possession then throws the ball in the gap formed between the two front rows. The two hookers (and sometimes the props) then compete for possession by trying to hook the ball backwards with their feet, while the entire pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards. The side that wins possession usually transfers the ball to the back of the scrum — which is done with their feet. Once at the back it is picked up either by the number 8, or by the scrum-half.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: Starting with the 2012/2013 rugby season the International Rugby Board has issued trial law amendments, one of which affects the call sequence. The referee will continue to start with "crouch" and "touch", but will now issue the command "set", which replaces "engage" as the indication that the packs may push forward. "Pause" has been removed in order to speed up the scrum and to minimize resets due to collapsed scrums. The command to "touch" was not used before 2007. Instead, the referee called "crouch and hold", at which time each pack crouched and held that position before the referee gave the command to "engage". Starting in 2013/2014 "touch" has been replaced with "bind".


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: There are a large number of rules regarding the specifics of what can and cannot be done during a scrum. Front rowers must engage square on, rather than "bore" in on an angle. Front-rowers are also banned from twisting their bodies, pulling opponents, or doing anything that might collapse the scrum. The back row must remain bound until the ball has left the scrum. For flankers, this means keeping one arm, up to the shoulder, in contact with the scrum. The scrum must be stable, stationary and parallel to the goal-lines when they "feed" the ball; otherwise a free kick is awarded to the non-offending team. By strict letter of the law, the ball must be fed into the middle of the tunnel with its major axis parallel to the ground and touchline; however this is becoming less strictly enforced as the photo in this article illustrates. The ball must be thrown in quickly and in a single movement — this means that a feed cannot be faked. Once the ball has left the hands of the scrum-half the scrum has begun.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: Scrums in rugby union sevens consist only of what would be the "front row" in normal rugby union. They consist of three forwards on each side, plus a scrum half to feed in the ball.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: A rugby league scrum is used to bring the ball back into play in situations where the ball has gone out of play over the touchline or a player has made a mistake, a knock-on or forward pass, except when that mistake has occurred on the last tackle of a set of six tackles. A scrum is also used in the rare event that the ball bursts or the referee interferes with the movement of the ball.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: The scrum consists of six players from each team in a 321 formation. The scrum is usually formed by each team's "forwards", though any player can participate. The front row of the formation consists of the open-side prop (8), hooker (9) and blind-side prop (10). Behind the front row are the two second row forwards (11&12), and then the loose forward (13) at the back.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: The two "packs" of forwards form a scrum before the ball is put into the scrum. The scrum-half (7) (also known as the halfback) of the team that did not commit the forward pass, knock-on or cause the ball to go out of play over the touch line puts the ball into the scrum through the tunnel formed by the front rows of each set of forwards meeting. When the ball bursts or the referee interferes with the ball, the team that had possession at the time is the one to put the ball into the scrum. Both teams may attempt to secure the ball while it is in the scrum by "hooking" for it or by pushing their opponents off the ball. The ball can be brought back into open play by the scrum-half retrieving it from the rear of the scrum or by the loose forward picking it up after detaching from the scrum.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: While restarting play, the scrum serves to keep the forwards in one area of the field for a time, thus creating more space for back play and special plays, an advantage to the side that wins the scrum. It is now uncommon for the team not awarded the scrum feed to win possession "against the feed". Prior to 1983, the loose forward would often stand outside of the scrum, leaving a "five-man scrum". In an effort to provide more space for backline play, scrum rules were changed so that in normal circumstances loose forwards must always bind into the scrum. However, if a player is sent off, five-man scrums may occur. In this situation, the rules mandate the numbers of players "not" bound into the scrum.


title: Scrum (rugby)

text: While the Laws of the Game continue to provide for competitive scrums, a convention exists that some scrum rules are not enforced. During the 1970s, scrum penalties for feeding the ball into the legs of the second row, packs moving off the "mark" or collapsing the scrum were seen as unattractive. The ability of teams to win a game purely on goals from scrum penalties was also seen as unfair. In an effort to improve this situation, changes to rules and their enforcement were made. The number of scrums was reduced with the introduction of the "handover" after a team has used a set of six tackles, the differential penalty, one which cannot be kicked at goal was brought in for offences at scrums and referees ceased enforcing some rules regarding feeding the ball into scrum. Aided by this change, it is common for professional teams not to fully contest scrums, according to their choice of tactics.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The were a pair of dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) towards the end of World War I, although they were not completed until after the war. The last of Japan's pre-Treaty capital ships, they were the first class to carry guns, the largest afloat and the first bigger than . , the lead ship of the class, frequently served as a flagship. Both ships carried supplies for the survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923. They were modernized in 1933–1936 with improvements to their armor and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style. "Nagato" and her sister ship briefly participated in the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and "Nagato" was the flagship of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto during the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 that began the Pacific War.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The sisters participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942, although they did not see any combat. "Mutsu" saw more active service than her sister because she was not a flagship and participated in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in August before returning to Japan in early 1943. One of "Mutsu"s aft magazines detonated in June, killing 1,121 crew and visitors and destroying the ship. The IJN conducted a perfunctory investigation into the cause of her loss and concluded that it was the work of a disgruntled crewmember. They dispersed the survivors in an attempt to conceal the sinking to keep up morale in Japan. Much of the wreck was salvaged after the war and many artifacts and relics are on display in Japan.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: "Nagato" spent most of the first two years of the war training in home waters. She was transferred to Truk in mid-1943, but did not see any combat until the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid-1944 when she was attacked by American aircraft. "Nagato" did not fire her main armament against enemy vessels until the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944. She was lightly damaged during the battle and returned to Japan the following month for repairs. The IJN was running out of fuel by this time and decided not to fully repair her. "Nagato" was converted into a floating anti-aircraft platform and assigned to coastal defense duties. After the war, the ship was a target for U.S. nuclear weapon tests during Operation Crossroads in mid-1946. She survived the first test with little damage, but was sunk by the second test.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The IJN considered a battle fleet of eight modern battleships and eight modern armored cruisers necessary for the defense of Japan, and the government adopted that policy in 1907. This was the genesis of the Eight-Eight Fleet Program, the development of a cohesive battle line of 16 capital ships less than eight years old. Advances in naval technology like the British battleship and the battlecruiser forced the IJN to several times re-evaluate the ships that it counted as modern. By 1910, the IJN considered none of its current ships to be modern and restarted the program in 1911 with orders for the dreadnoughts and the s. By 1915, the IJN was halfway to its goal and wanted to order four more dreadnoughts, but the Diet rejected its plan, and the 1916 budget authorized only one dreadnought, later named , and two battlecruisers. Later that year, American President Woodrow Wilson announced plans for 10 additional battleships and six battlecruisers, and the following year the Diet authorized three more dreadnoughts in response, one of which would later be named .


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: Allocated project number A-102, the "Nagato" class was designed before Commander Yuzuru Hiraga was reassigned to the Navy Technical Department (NTD) responsible for ship design, although Hiraga is often credited with the design of these ships. In contrast to earlier designs, the "Nagato" class used the American "all or nothing" armor scheme that maximized the armor thickness protecting the core of the ship by eliminating armor elsewhere. The design had two armored decks of medium thickness rather than the single thicker deck used formerly. The ships also used a new type of underwater protection system that successfully resisted penetration by torpedo warheads in full-scale trials. It consisted of a deep water-tight compartment adjacent to the hull, backed by a thick torpedo bulkhead that connected to the side and deck armor plates, with a deep fuel oil tank behind it.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: Although the United States Navy planned to arm its with guns before the "Nagato" class was designed, "Nagato"s guns made her the first dreadnought that was launched armed with guns larger than .


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: On 12 June 1917, well before "Mutsu" was laid down, Hiraga proposed a revised design for the ship that reflected the lessons from the Battle of Jutland that had occurred the previous year, and incorporated advances in boiler technology. Given project number A-125, his design added an extra twin main-gun turret, using space and weight made available by the reduction of the number of boilers from 21 to 12, while the power remained the same. He reduced the secondary armament from 20 guns to 16, although they were raised in height to improve their ability to fire during heavy weather and to improve their arcs of fire. To increase the ship's protection he proposed angling the belt armor outwards to improve its resistance to horizontal fire, and increasing the thickness of the lower deck armor and the torpedo bulkhead. Hiraga also planned to add anti-torpedo bulges to improve underwater protection. He estimated that his ship would displace as much as "Nagato", although it would cost about a million yen more. Hiraga's changes would have considerably delayed "Mutsu"s completion and were rejected by the Navy Ministry.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The ships had a length of between perpendiculars and overall. They had a beam of and a draft of . The "Nagato"-class ships displaced at standard load and at full load. Their crew consisted of 1,333 officers and enlisted men as built and 1,368 in 1935. In 1944, the crew totaled around 1,734 men.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The "Nagato" class was equipped with a unique heptapodal (seven-legged) mast designed to maximize rigidity for range-finding purposes and survivability under shellfire. It consisted of a thick vertical leg in the center surrounded by six outer legs. The central leg was large enough to accommodate an electric elevator running between the foretop and main deck. In November 1944, the tops of "Nagato"s mainmast and funnel were removed to improve the arcs of fire for her anti-aircraft guns.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: In 1927, "Mutsu"s bow was remodeled to reduce the amount of spray produced when steaming into a head sea. This increased her overall length by to . This proved successful and her sister's bow was rebuilt in 1930. During their 1934–1936 reconstruction, the ships' sterns were lengthened by to improve their speed and their forward superstructures were rebuilt into a pagoda mast. They were given torpedo bulges to improve their underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor and equipment. These changes increased their overall length to , their beam to and their draft to . Their displacement increased over to at deep load.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The ships were equipped with four Gihon geared steam turbines, each of which drove one propeller. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , using steam provided by 21 Kampon water-tube boilers; 15 of these were oil-fired while the remaining half-dozen used fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate. The boilers had a working pressure of .


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The ships had a stowage capacity of of coal and of oil, giving them a range of at a speed of . "Nagato" exceeded her designed speed of during her sea trials, reaching at and "Mutsu" reached the same speed with . The US Navy did not learn their actual speed capability until about 1937; previously it had believed that the ships were capable of only .


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: During refits in 1923–25, the fore funnel was rebuilt in a serpentine shape in an unsuccessful effort to prevent smoke interference with the bridge and fire-control systems. The rebuilt fore funnel was eliminated during the ships' 1930s reconstructions when their boilers were replaced by 10 oil-fired Kampon boilers, which had a working pressure of and temperature of . The turbines were also replaced by lighter, more modern, units and their propellers were replaced by larger ones. When the ships conducted their post-reconstruction trials, they reached a speed of with . Additional fuel oil was stored in the bottoms of the newly added torpedo bulges, which increased their capacity to and thus their range to at 16 knots.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The main armament of the "Nagato"-class ships consisted of eight 45-caliber 3rd Year Type naval guns, mounted in two pairs of twin-gun, superfiring turrets fore and aft. Numbered one through four from front to rear, the hydraulically powered turrets gave the guns an elevation range of −2 to +35 degrees. The rate of fire for the guns was around two rounds per minute. Their turrets were replaced in the mid-1930s using the turrets stored from the unfinished s. While in storage they were modified to increase their range of elevation to −3 to +43 degrees, which increased the gun's maximum range from .


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: By World War II, the guns used Type 91 armor-piercing, capped shells. Each of these shells weighed and had a muzzle velocity of . Also available was a high-explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of . A special Type 3 "Sankaidan" incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti-aircraft use.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The ships' secondary armament of twenty 50-caliber 3rd Year Type naval gun was mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull and in the superstructure. The latter guns had a maximum elevation of +20 degrees and the former could elevate to +25 degrees which gave them ranges of and respectively. Each gun could fire a high-explosive projectile at a rate up to 10 rounds per minute. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by four 40-caliber 3rd Year Type 3-inch AA guns in single mounts. The high-angle guns had a maximum elevation of +75 degrees, and had a rate of fire of 13 to 20 rounds per minute. They fired a projectile with a muzzle velocity of to a maximum height of . The ships were also fitted with eight torpedo tubes, four on each broadside, two above water and two submerged. They used the 6th Year Type torpedo which had a warhead of Shimose powder. It had three settings for range and speed: at , at , or at .


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: Around 1926, the four above-water torpedo tubes were removed and the ships received three additional 76-millimeter AA guns that were situated around the base of the foremast. They were replaced by eight 40-caliber 12.7-centimeter Type 89 dual-purpose guns in 1932, fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin-gun mounts. When firing at surface targets, the guns had a range of . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute, but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute. Two twin-gun mounts for license-built Vickers 2-pounder light AA guns were also added to the ship that same year. They had a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: When the ships were reconstructed in 1934–36, the remaining torpedo tubes and the two forward 14-centimeter guns were removed from the hull. All of the remaining 14-centimeter guns had their elevation increased to +35 degrees which increased their range to . An unknown number of license-built 13.2-millimeter Hotchkiss machine guns in twin mounts were also added. The maximum range of these guns was , but the effective range against aircraft was . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute, but the need to change the 30-round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The 2-pounders were replaced in 1939 by 20 license-built Hotchkiss 25-millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in a mixture of twin-gun and single mounts. This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II, but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon. According to historian Mark Stille, the twin and triple mounts "lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets; the gun exhibited excessive vibration; the magazine was too small, and, finally, the gun produced excessive muzzle blast". These guns had an effective range of . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15-round magazines. As far as is known, no additional AA guns were installed aboard "Mutsu" before her loss. Additional 25-millimeter guns were installed aboard "Nagato" during the war; on 10 July 1944, she was reported to have 98 guns on board. An additional 30 guns were added during a refit in Yokosuka in November. Two more twin 127-millimeter gun mounts were added at the same time abreast the funnel and all of her 14-centimeter guns were removed as she was now a floating anti-aircraft battery.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The "Nagato"-class ships' waterline armor belt was made from Vickers cemented armor and protected of the hull between the barbettes of the end turrets. The lower strake was thick, high, and tapered to a thickness of at its bottom edge; above it was a strake of armor that was high. Approximately of the armor belt was below the waterline. The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 305 mm on the face, on the sides, and on the roof. The barbettes were protected by armor 305 mm thick, while the casemates of the 140 mm guns were protected by 25 mm armor plates. The sides of the conning tower were thick.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The main deck armor consisted of three layers of high-tensile steel (HTS) thick that connected to the top of the upper strake of side armor. The flat portion of the lower deck had one layer of Ducol steel 25 mm thick with two layers of HTS of equal thickness above it. About from the side of the hull, this deck, now composed of three layers of HTS, totaling in thickness, sloped downwards where it met a short horizontal armored (three layers of HTS with a total thickness of ) deck that connected to the main armored belt and the torpedo bulkhead. This was also made up of three 25 mm layers of HTS and curved up and outwards to meet the short horizontal armored deck. It enclosed a water-tight compartment that was from the side of the ship. It was backed by fuel oil tanks deep. The outermost void was designed to allow the explosive force of a torpedo's warhead to dissipate as much as possible while the oil tank was supposed to stop any fragments from penetrating the innermost bulkhead protecting the ship's vital areas.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The new 41 cm turrets installed during their reconstruction were more heavily armored than the original ones. Face armor was increased to , the sides to , and the roof to . The armor over the machinery and magazines was increased by on the upper deck and 25 mm on the upper armored deck. The torpedo bulges added at the same time were high and deep. They were divided into four compartments, the lower two of which were filled with oil and the others remained empty. These additions increased the weight of each ship's armor to , 32.6 percent of their displacement. In early 1941, as a preparation for war, the uppermost compartment of the bulges was filled with sealed steel crushing tubes and the barbette armor of both ships was reinforced with 100 mm armor plates above the main deck and plates below it.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The "Nagato"-class ships were fitted with a rangefinder in the forward superstructure; and anti-aircraft rangefinders were added in the early 1920s. The rangefinders in the two superfiring turrets were replaced by 10-meter units in 1932–33.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: They were initially fitted with a Type 13 fire-control system derived from Vickers equipment received during World War I, but this was replaced by an improved Type 14 system around 1925. It controlled the main and secondary guns; no provision was made for anti-aircraft fire until the Type 31 fire-control director was introduced in 1932. A modified Type 14 fire-control system was tested aboard "Nagato" in 1935, and later approved for service as the Type 34. A new anti-aircraft director, designated the Type 94, used to control the 127 mm AA guns, was introduced in 1937, although it is unknown when they were installed on the ships. The 25 mm AA guns were controlled by a Type 95 director that was also introduced in 1937.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: As far as is known, no radars were installed aboard "Mutsu" before her loss. While in drydock in May 1943, a Type 21 air-search radar was installed aboard "Nagato" on the roof of the 10-meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast. On 27 June 1944, two Type 22 surface-search radars were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radars were fitted on her mainmast.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: "Nagato" was briefly fitted with an aircraft flying-off platform on No. 2 turret in August 1925. Yokosuka Ro-go Ko-gata and Heinkel HD 25 floatplanes were tested from it before it was removed early the following year. An additional boom was added to the mainmasts of both ships in 1926 to handle the Yokosuka E1Y then assigned to them. A Hansa-Brandenburg W.33 floatplane was tested aboard "Nagato" that same year. A catapult was fitted between the mainmast and No. 3 turret in mid-1933, a collapsible crane was installed in a portside sponson, and the ships were equipped to operate two or three floatplanes, although no hangar was provided. The sisters began to operate Nakajima E4N2 biplanes until they were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938. A more powerful catapult was installed in November 1938 to handle heavier aircraft like the one Kawanishi E7K that was added in 1939–40. Mitsubishi F1M biplanes replaced the E8Ns on 11 February 1943.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: While "Mutsu" was still fitting out, the American government decided to call a conference in Washington, D.C. to forestall the massively expensive naval arms race between the United States, the United Kingdom and the Empire of Japan that was developing. The Washington Naval Conference convened on 12 November, and the Americans proposed to scrap virtually every capital ship under construction or fitting out among the participating nations. "Mutsu" was specifically listed among those to be scrapped even though she had been commissioned a few weeks earlier. This was unacceptable to the Japanese delegation and they agreed to a compromise that allowed them to keep "Mutsu" in exchange for scrapping the obsolete dreadnought and a similar arrangement for several American "Colorado"-class dreadnoughts that were fitting out.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: Upon commissioning, the sister ships were assigned to the 1st Battleship Division, although "Nagato" became the flagship of Rear Admiral Sōjirō Tochinai, a role she often fulfilled during her career. The ships hosted Edward, Prince of Wales, and his aide-de-camp Lieutenant Louis Mountbatten in 1922 during the prince's visit to Japan. After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, both ships loaded supplies from Kyushu for the victims on 4 September. They sank the hulk of the obsolete battleship on 7 September 1924 during gunnery practice in Tokyo Bay in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty. "Nagato" became flagship of the Combined Fleet on 1 December 1925, flying the flag of Admiral Keisuke Okada. The sisters were placed in reserve several times during the 1920s while they were being modernized. "Mutsu" served as flagship of Emperor Hirohito during the 1927 naval maneuvers and fleet review and again in 1933.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The ships were reconstructed from late 1933 to mid-1936. In August 1937, the sisters transported 3,749 men of the 11th Infantry Division to Shanghai during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Their floatplanes bombed targets in Shanghai on 24 August before they returned to Sasebo the following day. "Nagato" became a training ship on 1 December 1937 until she again became the flagship of the Combined Fleet on 15 December 1938. The ship participated in an Imperial Fleet Review on 11 October 1940. The sisters were refitted in 1941 in preparation for war, which included the fitting of external degaussing coils and additional armor for their barbettes.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto issued the code phrase "Niitaka yama nobore" (Climb Mount Niitaka) on 2 December 1941 from "Nagato" at anchor at Hashirajima to signal the 1st Air Fleet ("Kido Butai") to proceed with its attack on Pearl Harbor. When Japan began the Pacific War on 8 December, the sisters sortied for the Bonin Islands, along with the four ships of Battleship Division 2 and the light carrier as distant cover for the fleet attacking Pearl Harbor, and returned six days later. Yamamoto transferred his flag to the new battleship on 12 February 1942.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: In June 1942, "Mutsu" and "Nagato" were assigned to the Main Body of the 1st Fleet during the Battle of Midway, together with "Yamato", "Hōshō", the light cruiser and nine destroyers. Following the loss of all four fleet carriers of the "Kido Butai" on 4 June, Yamamoto attempted to lure the American forces west to within range of the Japanese air groups at Wake Island, and into a night engagement with his surface forces, but the American forces withdrew and "Mutsu" saw no action. After rendezvousing with the remnants of the Striking Force on 6 June, over half of the survivors from the sunken aircraft carriers of the 1st Air Fleet were transferred to "Mutsu" and "Nagato". They arrived at Hashirajima on 14 June.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: On 14 July, both ships were reassigned to Battleship Division 2 and "Nagato" became the flagship of the 1st Fleet. She remained in Japanese waters training until August 1942. "Mutsu" was transferred to the Advance Force of the 2nd Fleet on 9 August, and departed Yokosuka two days later to support operations during the Guadalcanal Campaign. She arrived at Truk on 17 August. On 20 August, while sailing from Truk to rendezvous with the main body of Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo's 3rd Fleet, "Mutsu", the heavy cruiser , and escorting destroyers unsuccessfully attempted to locate the escort carrier in response to a flying boat detection of the American ship.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: During the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 27 August, "Mutsu", assigned to the Support Force, fired four shells at enemy reconnaissance aircraft during what was her first, and only, action of the war. On 7 January 1943, "Mutsu" returned to Japan together with the carrier , the heavy cruiser and four destroyers. The ship prepared to sortie on 13 April to reinforce the Japanese garrisons in the Aleutian Islands in response to the Battle of the Komandorski Islands, but the operation was cancelled the next day and "Mutsu" resumed training.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: On 8 June 1943, "Mutsu" was moored at Hashirajima when the magazine of her No. 3 turret exploded at 12:13, cutting the ship in half. The forward section capsized almost immediately, but the rear section remained afloat until the early morning of the next day. Nearby ships were able to rescue 353 survivors from the 1,474 crew members and visitors aboard "Mutsu", meaning that 1,121 men were killed in the explosion. To avert the potential damage to morale from the loss of a battleship, "Mutsu"s loss was declared a state secret. To further prevent rumors from spreading, many survivors were reassigned to various garrisons in the Pacific Ocean.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The IJN convened a commission three days after the sinking to investigate the loss. It issued its preliminary conclusions on 25 June, well before the investigation of the wreck was completed, and decided that the explosion was the result of a disgruntled seaman. The commission failed to consider the possibility of fire, which historian Mike Williams considers to be a possible cause, as a number of observers noted smoke coming from the vicinity of No. 3 turret. The truth, however, will never be known.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: "Nagato" transferred to Truk in the Caroline Islands in August 1943. Together with the bulk of the 1st Fleet, she sortied in September and October in unsuccessful searches for American carriers. On 1 February 1944, "Nagato" departed Truk to avoid an American air raid, and arrived at Palau three days later. The ship arrived on 21 February at Lingga Island, near Singapore, and she became the flagship of Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki, commander of Battleship Division 1, on 25 February until he transferred his flag to "Yamato" on 5 May. "Nagato" remained at Lingga until 11 May when she was transferred to Tawitawi on 12 May, and assigned to the 1st Mobile Fleet, under the command of Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: Battleship Division 1 rendezvoused with Ozawa's main force on 16 June near the Mariana Islands, and "Nagato" escorted three aircraft carriers during the Battle of the Philippine Sea. She was only lightly engaged during the battle, was not damaged, and suffered no casualties. After the battle, the ship returned to Japan where she was refitted with additional radars and light AA guns. "Nagato" loaded a regiment of the 28th Infantry Division and delivered them at Okinawa on 11 July before continuing on to Lingga.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: In October 1944, the ship took part in "Operation "Sho"-1", an attack on the Allied landings on Leyte. Assigned to Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita's 1st Diversion Force (also known as the Center Force), "Nagato" was attacked by multiple waves of American dive bombers and fighters during the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea on 24 October en route to Leyte Gulf. She was struck twice by bombs that killed 52 crewmen, but was not seriously damaged.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The next morning, the 1st Diversion Force attacked the American forces supporting the invasion in the Battle off Samar. "Nagato" engaged the escort carriers and destroyers of Task Group 77.4.3, codenamed "Taffy 3". She opened fire on three escort carriers, the first time she had fired her guns at an enemy ship, but missed. One of the defending destroyers fired a spread of torpedoes that missed their intended target and headed for "Yamato" and "Nagato" which were on a parallel course. The two battleships were forced to turn away north to avoid the torpedoes, and were 10 miles (16 km) away from the engagement before the torpedoes ran out of fuel. Turning back, "Nagato" engaged the American ships, claiming damage to one cruiser. Later in the day, "Nagato" was hit in the bow by two bombs, but the damage was not severe.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: The ship returned to Japan for repairs in mid-November. Lack of fuel and materials meant that she could not be brought back into service and she was turned into a floating anti-aircraft battery. Her funnel and mainmast were removed to improve the arcs of fire of her AA guns, which were increased by two Type 89 mounts and nine triple 25 mm gun mounts. Her forward secondary guns were removed in compensation. A coal-burning donkey boiler was installed on the pier for heating and cooking purposes and a converted submarine chaser was moored alongside to provide steam and electricity; her anti-aircraft guns lacked full power and were only partially operational. On 20 April "Nagato" was reduced to reserve. In June 1945, all of her secondary guns and about half of her anti-aircraft armament was moved ashore, together with her rangefinders and searchlights. Her crew was therefore reduced to less than 1,000 officers and enlisted men. On 18 July 1945, the heavily camouflaged ship was attacked by carrier-based fighter bombers and torpedo bombers. "Nagato" was hit by two bombs and a rocket that killed 35 men and damaged four 25 mm guns. On 30 August, a few days before the formal surrender, American sailors took control of the ship.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: "Nagato" was selected to participate as a target ship in Operation Crossroads, a series of U.S. nuclear weapon tests held at Bikini Atoll in mid-1946. In mid-March, "Nagato" departed Yokosuka for Eniwetok, but her hull had not been repaired from the underwater damage sustained during the attack on 18 July and she leaked enough that her pumps could not keep up. The ship had a list of seven degrees to port by the time tugboats from Eniwetok arrived. She reached the atoll on 4 April and Bikini in May.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: Operation Crossroads began with the first blast (Test Able), an air burst on 1 July 1946; "Nagato" was not close to ground zero and was only lightly damaged. For Test Baker, an underwater explosion, the ship was positioned closer to ground zero. "Nagato" rode out the tsunami of water from the explosion with little apparent damage; she had a slight starboard list of two degrees after the tsunami dissipated. A more thorough assessment could not be made because she was dangerously radioactive. Her list gradually increased over the next five days and she capsized during the night of 29/30 July. Opened to divers in 1996, "Nagato" was named by "The Times" as one of the top 10 wreck diving sites in the world.


title: Nagato-class battleship

text: "Mutsu"s wreck in Japan was treated differently. In 1970, salvage operations began that lasted until 1978 and recovered about 75% of the ship. The salvagers recovered bodies of 849 crewmen killed during the explosion. In 1995, the Mutsu Memorial Museum declared that no further salvage operations were planned. The only significant portion of the ship that remains is a long section running from the bridge structure forward to the vicinity of No. 1 turret. The highest portion of the ship is below the surface. Many, but not all, artifacts are displayed at the Mutsu Memorial Museum in Tōwa-Cho. Since 1963, a memorial service has been held there every year on 8 June in honor of the crew.


title: Adamawa State

text: Adamawa state (Fula: Leydi Adamaawa 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤢𞤣𞤢𞤥𞤢𞥄𞤱𞤢) is a state in the North-East geopolitical zone of Nigeria, bordered by Borno to the northwest, Gombe to the west, and Taraba to the southwest, while its eastern border forms part of the national border with Cameroon. It takes its name from the historic emirate of Adamawa, with the emirate's old capital of Yola, serving as the capital city of Adamawa state. The state is one of the most heterogeneous in Nigeria. with over 100 indigenous ethnic groups, formed in 1991, when the former Gongola state was broken up into Adamawa and Taraba states. Since its was carved out of the old Gongola State in 1991 by the General Ibrahim Badamsi Babangida military regime, Adamawa State has had 10 men, both military and civilian, controlling the levers of power, who played crucial roles in transforming the state into what it is today.


title: Adamawa State

text: Of the 36 states in Nigeria, Adamawa state is the eighth largest in area, but the thirteenth least populous with an estimated popupation of about 4.25 million as of 2016. Geographically, the state is mainly composed of the highlands of mountains (the Atlantika, Mandara, and the Shebshi ranges) and the Adamawa Plateau, crossed by valleys and rivers, most notably the Benue and Gongola rivers. The lowlands of Adamawa are part of the West Sudanian savanna in the north and the wetter Guinean forest–savanna mosaic in parts of the south, while elevated areas are parts of the Mandara Plateau mosaic and Cameroonian Highlands forests ecoregions. In the extreme south of the state is part of the Gashaka Gumti National Park, a large wildlife park that contains large populations of bushbuck, African buffalo, patas monkey, black-and-white colobus, giant pangolin, and hippopotamus along with some of Nigeria's last remaining Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, African leopard, and African golden cat populations.


title: Adamawa State

text: What is now Adamawa state has been inhabited for years by various ethnic groups, including the Bwatiye (Bachama), Bali, Bata (Gbwata), Gudu, Mbula-Bwazza, and Nungurab (Lunguda) in the central region; the Kamwe in the north and central region; the Jibu in the far south; the Kilba, Marghi, Waga, and Wula in the north, and the Mumuye in the south, while the Fulani live throughout the state—often as nomadic herders. Adamawa state is also religiously diverse as about 55% of the population is Sunni Muslim and 30% is Christian (mainly Lutheran, EYN, ECWA, and Pentecostal), while the remaining 15% are adherents of traditional ethnic religions.


title: Adamawa State

text: In the early 1800s, the Fulani jihad captured some of modern-day Adamawa state and formed the Adamawa Emirate under the Sokoto Caliphate. About 90 years later, forces from Germany and the British Empire defeated the Emirate in the Adamawa Wars and split the area. The British-controlled area (much of the west of modern-day Adamawa) was incorporated into the Northern Nigeria Protectorate, which later merged to constitute British Nigeria, before becoming an independent state-- Nigeria, in 1960. The German-controlled area formed a part of German Kamerun until allied forces invaded and occupied Kamerun during the Kamerun campaign of World War I. After the war, what is now eastern Adamawa state became most of the Northern Cameroons within the British Cameroons, until 1961, when a referendum led to itsmerger with Nigeria. Originally, modern-day Adamawa State was a part of the post-independence Northern Region until 1967 when the region was split and the area became part of the North-Eastern State. After the North-Eastern state was split in 1976, Gongola State was formed on 3 February 1976 alongside ten other states. Fifteen years after statehood, Gongola was split with the state's south becoming Taraba State while its north became Adamawa State.


title: Adamawa State

text: As an agriculturally-based state, the Adamawa State economy mainly relies on livestock and crops, such as cotton, groundnuts, millet, cassava, guinea corn, and yams. After years of the Boko Haram insurgency affecting development in the state, Adamawa has the eleventh lowest Human Development Index in the country but as the insurgency has abated since 2016, development has renewed.


title: Adamawa State

text: Adamawa is one of the largest states of Nigeria and occupies about 36,917 square kilometers. It is bordered by the states of Borno to the northwest, Gombe to the west and Taraba to the southwest. Its eastern border forms the national eastern border with Cameroon. The Humidity and Temperature of Adamawa state, especially dry season, begins in November which is very hot, during hot period. The Harmattan period is experienced between December - February every year.


title: Adamawa State

text: Topographically, it is a mountainous land crossed by the large river valleys – Benue, Gongola and Yedsarem. The valleys of the Mount Cameroon, Mandara Mountains and Adamawa Plateau form part of the landscape.


title: Adamawa State

text: In recent years, climate change in Adamawa State has begun to be more evident. Tropical wet and dry weather prevails in Adamawa State. The wet season lasts from April to October, whereas the dry season lasts for at least five months (November to March) yearly. An upsurge in rainfall in September in recent years is usually accompanied by floods. According to Dr. Sulieman Muhammad, the Executive Secretary of the Adamawa State Emergency Management Agency, 25 people have died in the state (as of September 2022) due to floods brought on by both the discharge of water from the Lagdo Dam in Cameroon and severe rainfall.


title: Adamawa State

text: In October 2022, another floods claimed 37 lives and submerged 89,000 thousand hectares of farmlands with 58 others sustaining various degrees of injuries.


title: Adamawa State

text: The major occupation of the people is farming, as reflected in their two notable vegetational zones, the Sub-Sudan and Northern Guinea Savannah zones. Their cash crops are cotton and groundnuts, while food crops includes; maize, yam, cassava, guinea corn, millet and rice.


title: Adamawa State

text: The village communities living on the banks of the rivers, engage in fishing, while the Fulanis are cattle rearers. The state has a network of roads linking all parts of the country.


title: Adamawa State

text: The development of many communities in the state can be traced to the colonial era when the Germans ruled a swath of territory known as the Northern and Southern Kameruns from Dikwa in the North to Victoria (Limbe) on the Atlantic coast in the 19th century. These were, however, handed over as United Nations Trust Territories to the British at the end of the World War I with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. After a series of referendums, the Northern Kameruns joined Nigeria to form the then Sardauna Province, and the Southern Kameruns formed a Confederation with French speaking Cameroon.


title: Adamawa State

text: Adamawa is an Islam majority state in Nigeria, with a substantial Christian population. Historically, Adamawa is home to the major happenings of the Islamic Jihad, led by the Sokoto Caliphate in the early 1800s. Till today, the state of Adamawa is led traditionally by an Emir also known as Lamido, who is a descendant of the Islamic kings who conquered and ruled the area, prior to the amalgamation of Nigeria. Atiku Abubakar serves as the Waziri (Vizier) to the King of Adamawa. Adamawa is also home to the headquarters of two indigenous churches, the Church of the Brethren in Nigeria (EYN Church) with its headquarters in Mubi in the northern zone of the state, and the Lutheran Church of Christ in Nigeria (LCCN Church) with headquarters in Numan in the southern zone of the state. The Church of the Brethren in Nigeria (EYN church) was founded in Garkida Gombi Local Government of the state in March 1923 by American missionaries. The Lutheran Church of Christ in Nigeria (LCCN Church) was founded in Numan by Dutch missionaries in 1913.


title: Adamawa State

text: Before it became a state in Nigeria, Adamawa was a subordinate kingdom of the Sultanate of Sokoto, which also included much of northern Cameroon. The rulers bear the title of emir ("" in the local language, Fulfulde).


title: Adamawa State

text: The name "Adamawa" came from the founder of the kingdom, Modibo Adama, a regional leader of the Fulani Jihad organized by Usman dan Fodio of Sokoto in 1804. Modibo Adama came from the region of Gurin (now just a small village) and in 1806, received a green flag for leading the jihad in his native country. In the following years, Adama conquered many lands and tribes. In 1838, he moved his capital to Ribadu, and in 1839, to Joboliwo. In 1841, he founded Yola, where he died in 1848. After the European colonization (first by Germany and then by Britain), the rulers remained as emirs and the line of succession has continued to the present day.


title: Adamawa State

text: Adamawa State has been badly impacted by the Boko Haram insurgency. In January 2012, Boko Haram attacked Gombi, Mubi and Yola. By 2014, the state became home to camps housing an estimated 35,000 internally displaced people, fleeing violence from Boko Haram in locations including Mubi, Madagali, Askira Uba, Bama and Gwoza in the states of Adamawa, Borno, and Yobe. In 2014, an estimate placed the number of IDPs around Yola at 400,000. An attack occurred in Chakawa in 2014. A suicide bombing in Yola in 2015 killed over 30 people. A double suicide bombing in Madagali in 2016 killed over 50 people. Mubi is the worst affected place in Adamawa State, suffering major attacks in 2012, 2014, 2017 and 2018.


title: Adamawa State

text: Organizations serving the community include the Adamawa Peace Initiative (API)- a group of business, religious, and community leaders - and the Adamawa Muslim Council. The United States Agency for International Development has pledged to provide continuing humanitarian assistance.


title: Adamawa State

text: On 21–22 February 2020, Boko Haram terrorists launched an attack on homes and churches in Garkida, killing three soldiers and wounding civilians.


title: Adamawa State

text: The Governor of Adamawa State is the Executive, the State Legislature, Adamawa State House of Assembly, is located in Yola, the states capital.


title: Zeigarnik effect

text: Named after Lithuanian-Soviet psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik, in psychology the Zeigarnik effect occurs when an activity that has been interrupted may be more readily recalled. It postulates that people remember unfinished or interrupted tasks better than completed tasks. In Gestalt psychology, the Zeigarnik effect has been used to demonstrate the general presence of Gestalt phenomena: not just appearing as perceptual effects, but also present in cognition.


title: Zeigarnik effect

text: The Zeigarnik effect should not be confused with the Ovsiankina effect. Maria Ovsiankina, a colleague of Zeigarnik, investigated the effect of task interruption on the tendency to resume the task at the next opportunity.


title: Zeigarnik effect

text: Russian psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik first studied the phenomenon after her professor, Gestalt psychologist Kurt Lewin noticed that a waiter had better recollections of still unpaid orders. However, after the completion of the task – after everyone had paid – he was unable to remember any more details of the orders. Zeigarnik then designed a series of experiments to uncover the processes underlying this phenomenon. Her research report was published in 1927, in the journal "Psychologische Forschung."


title: Zeigarnik effect

text: The advantage of remembrance can be explained by looking at Lewin's field theory: a task that has already been started establishes a task-specific tension, which improves cognitive accessibility of the relevant contents. The tension is relieved upon completion of the task, but persists if it is interrupted. Through continuous tension, the content is made more easily accessible, and can be easily remembered.


title: Zeigarnik effect

text: The Zeigarnik effect suggests that students who suspend their study to perform unrelated activities (such as studying a different subject or playing a game), will remember material better than students who complete study sessions without a break (McKinney 1935; Zeigarnik 1927).


title: Zeigarnik effect

text: Sportswriter Matt Moore has suggested that the Zeigarnik effect could explain the widespread criticism of the National Basketball Association in allowing free throws for a player "chucking it up whenever a guy comes near them". There is a stoppage of play with each foul. When repeatedly done, it is felt to build up a cognitive bias against this move. The criticism necessitated a rule change penalizing this activity, known as the Harden Rule, named after its most prominent user, James Harden.


title: Zeigarnik effect

text: Several studies, performed later in other countries, attempting to replicate Zeigarnik's experiment, failed to find any significant differences in recall between "finished" and "unfinished" (interrupted) tasks (e.g. Van Bergen, (1968).


title: Zeigarnik effect

text: Zeigarnik effect is being used in some SaaS (Software as a service systems) to onboard users faster and effectively.


title: Hércules CF

text: Hércules de Alicante Club de Fútbol, S.A.D. () is a Spanish football team in Alicante, in the autonomous community of Valencian Community. Founded on 25 October 1922, it currently plays in Segunda División RFEF – Group 3 and plays its home games at the 29,500-capacity Estadio José Rico Pérez.


title: Hércules CF

text: Hercules C.F. has been documented since 1914 although not officially registered until 26 September 1922, alongside Mercantil de Cartagena, Federación Levantina and others. Its founder was Vicente Pastor Alfosea dubbed "El Chepa". In its early days, the club played in various locations, the foothills of la montañosa, the lands of l'Hort del tio Ron, the campo de Benalúa or the facilities of the Alicante Recreation Club.


title: Hércules CF

text: Hercules joined a youth league, becoming champion in 1918. The first official match was in 1919 against Athletic Club Benaluense, Hercules winning 2–1. At first the team played in white and red striped shirts and black pants.


title: Hércules CF

text: After first appearing in La Liga in the 1935–36 season, Hércules would play sporadically in the category for the next 40 years, playing mainly in the second division but going as low as the third. From 1961 to 1969, neighbours Alicante acted as its feeder club.


title: Hércules CF

text: After a ten-year spell in the top flight, encompassing 12 seasons in the 1970s and '80s, the club only returned again in the 1996–97 campaign. Though eventually relegated, it managed two remarkable comeback wins over Barcelona, which ultimately handed the Liga title to Real Madrid.


title: Hércules CF

text: In 2004–05, after five years in the third level, Hércules finished second, being subsequently promoted to the "silver category". After posting three consecutive solid seasons, the club narrowly missed out on a return to the top division in 2009, finishing fourth, three points behind last-promotee Tenerife.


title: Hércules CF

text: The 2009–10 campaign saw Hércules promoted back into the top flight after 14 years in dramatic fashion: losing 0–1 at half-time at Rayo Vallecano, the team fought back to win 2–1 in the penultimate game of the season and leap frogged Real Betis into third place. In the last round, a 2–0 away win against relegation-threatened Real Unión guaranteed promotion, with the 4–0 win of Betis over Levante eventually counting for nothing (all three teams – Levante, Hércules and Betis – ended equal on points).


title: Hércules CF

text: Early into the 2010–11 season, one year, three months and 19 days after Barcelona's last home defeat in the league, Hércules recorded a shock 2–0 win at the Camp Nou thanks to a brace from Nelson Valdez – Barcelona had won their last 11 home matches, scored at least three times in each of their last six league fixtures and were protecting a 17-game unbeaten streak. This was the Alicante outfit's third successive win over the Barcelona, having won both meetings in their previous top flight campaign 14 years before.


title: Hércules CF

text: In the 2013–14 campaign, they were relegated to the Segunda División B after finishing in last place in the Segunda División.


title: Hércules CF

text: In the 2016–17 Copa del Rey, the team drew 1–1 with Barcelona. In the second match at the Camp Nou (Barcelona's home), Hércules was defeated by the Catalonian side 7–0.


title: Angela Thorne

text: Angela Margaret Leslie Thorne (born 25 January 1939) is an English actress of stage, television and film who is best known for her roles in "To the Manor Born", as Audrey fforbes-Hamilton's best friend Marjory Frobisher, and as Margaret Thatcher in "Anyone for Denis?"


title: Angela Thorne

text: Angela Thorne was born in Karachi, British India, in 1939. The daughter of an Indian Army doctor father, William Herbert Alfred Thorne, and a teacher mother, Sylvia (Leslie), she spent the first five years of her life in India.  She was later a pupil at Farlington School in Horsham, West Sussex. She trained for the stage at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama. Her marriage to television actor Peter Penry-Jones lasted from 22 September 1967 until his death in 2009. They had two sons, Laurence and Rupert, both actors.


title: Angela Thorne

text: In the BBC programme "Who Do You Think You Are?" featuring son Rupert, broadcast in August 2010, it was revealed that Thorne's father William had served with the Indian Medical Corps at the Battle of Monte Cassino and that his preceding ancestors had a long-standing connection with the Indian Army.


title: Angela Thorne

text: Her first professional engagement was with the Caryl Jenner Children's Theatre. After repertory seasons at York and Sheffield, she appeared in "Night Must Fall" at Theatre Royal, Windsor and the Haymarket Theatre. She also appeared in television productions, including "Elizabeth R" as Lettice Knollys, "The Liars", and "The Canterville Ghost", playing the leading role opposite Bruce Forsyth as the Ghost. She played the part of Margaret Thatcher to critical acclaim in the satirical, comic farce "Anyone for Denis?", adapted for television in 1982.


title: Angela Thorne

text: In 1969 she starred as Nancy Chuff in the comedy series "World in Ferment". In 1984 she played the role of Susan, "The Duchess" in a West End revival of Giles Cooper's play "Happy Family", opposite Ian Ogilvy and Stephanie Beacham. In 1996 she starred in Alan Ayckbourn's "Communicating Doors" at the Savoy Theatre, London


title: Angela Thorne

text: She appeared in two episodes of Thames Television's sitcom "Get Some In!" in 1976 as Mrs Fairfax, and in one episode of the BBC sitcom "The Good Life" in 1977 as Lady Truscott, before appearing as Marjory Frobisher in "To the Manor Born" between 1979 and 1981: her husband appeared in two of the later episodes. She reprised this role for both the 10-episode radio series in 1997 and the one-off 2007 Christmas Special on television. She followed this with a lead role in another sitcom, "Three Up, Two Down". After "To the Manor Born", she also played the eponymous character in the ITV sitcom "Farrington of the F.O." written by Dick Sharples.


title: Angela Thorne

text: She appeared in an episode of "Midsomer Murders" as well as in "Foyle's War" and Heartbeat"." In 1989, she voiced the role of Elizabeth II in "The BFG", the film adaptation of Roald Dahl's book.


title: Covenant theology

text: Covenant theology (also known as covenantalism, federal theology, or federalism) is a conceptual overview and interpretive framework for understanding the overall structure of the Bible. It uses the theological concept of a covenant as an organizing principle for Christian theology. The standard form of covenant theology views the history of God's dealings with mankind, from Creation to Fall to Redemption to Consummation, under the framework of three overarching theological covenants: those of redemption, of works, and of grace.


title: Covenant theology

text: Covenentalists call these three covenants "theological" because, though not explicitly presented as such in the Bible, they are thought of as theologically implicit, describing and summarizing a wealth of scriptural data. Historical Reformed systems of thought treat classical covenant theology not merely as a point of doctrine or as a central dogma, but as the structure by which the biblical text organizes itself. The most well-known form of Covenant Theology is associated with Presbyterians and comes from the Westminster Confession of Faith. Another form is sometimes called "Baptist Covenant Theology" or "1689 Federalism", to distinguish it from the standard covenant theology of Presbyterian "Westminster Federalism". It is associated with Reformed Baptists and comes from the Second London Baptist Confession of Faith of 1689. Methodist hermeneutics traditionally use a variation of this, known as Wesleyan covenant theology, which is consistent with Arminian soteriology.


title: Covenant theology

text: As a framework for Biblical interpretation, covenant theology stands in contrast to dispensationalism in regard to the relationship between the Old Covenant (with national Israel) and the New Covenant (with the house of Israel <nowiki>[</nowiki><nowiki>]</nowiki> in Christ's blood). That such a framework exists appears at least feasible, since from New Testament times the Bible of Israel has been known as the Old Testament (i.e., Covenant; see [NRSV], "they [Jews] hear the "reading" of the "old covenant""), in contrast to the Christian addition which has become known as the New Testament (or Covenant). Detractors of covenant theology often refer to it as "supersessionism" or as "replacement theology", due to the perception that it teaches that God has abandoned the promises made to the Jews and has replaced the Jews with Christians as His chosen people on the Earth. Covenant theologians deny that God has abandoned His promises to Israel, but see the fulfillment of the promises to Israel in the person and the work of the Messiah, Jesus of Nazareth, who established the church in organic continuity with Israel, not as a separate replacement entity. Many covenant theologians have also seen a distinct future promise of gracious restoration for unregenerate Israel.


title: Covenant theology

text: God's covenantal relationship with God's creation is not made automatically or out of necessity. Rather, God chooses to establish the connection as a covenant, wherein the terms of the relationship are set down by God alone according to God's own will.


title: Covenant theology

text: The covenant of works (, also called the covenant of life) was made in the Garden of Eden between God and Adam who represented all mankind as a federal head (Romans 5:12–21). God offered Adam a perfect and perpetual life if he did not violate God's single commandment, but warned that death would follow if he disobeyed that commandment. Adam broke the covenant, thus standing condemned as representative for all mankind.


title: Covenant theology

text: The term "" was first used by Dudley Fenner in 1585, though Zacharias Ursinus had mentioned a covenant of creation in 1562. The concept of the covenant of works became commonly recognized in Reformed theology by 1590, though not by all; some members of the Westminster Assembly disagreed with the teaching in the 1640s. John Calvin writes of a probationary period for Adam, a promise of life for obedience, and the federal headship of Adam, but he does not write of a covenant of works. It is not referred to as a covenant in the opening chapters of Genesis, but is referred to as a covenant in Hosea 6:7, “But like Adam, they transgressed the covenant; there, they dealt faithlessly with Me.”


title: Covenant theology

text: Covenant theology first sees a covenant of works administered with Adam in the Garden of Eden. Upon Adam's failure, God established the covenant of grace in the promised seed Genesis 3:15, and shows His redeeming care in clothing Adam and Eve in garments of skin — perhaps picturing the first instance of animal sacrifice. The specific covenants after the fall of Adam are seen as administered under the overarching theological covenant of grace.


title: Covenant theology

text: There is debate among the reformed if the Mosaic covenant was in some way a republication of the covenant of works. The view that there was such a republication was advocated by Thomas Boston, Edward Fisher, Meredith Kline and John Owen.


title: Covenant theology

text: The covenant of grace promises eternal life for all people who have faith in Christ. God also promises the Holy Spirit to the elect to give them willingness and ability to believe. Christ is the substitutionary covenantal representative fulfilling the covenant of works on their behalf, in both the positive requirements of righteousness and its negative penal consequences (commonly described as His active and passive obedience). It is the historical expression of the eternal covenant of redemption. Genesis 3:15, with the promise of a "seed" of the woman who would crush the serpent's head, is usually identified as the historical inauguration for the covenant of grace.


title: Covenant theology

text: The covenant of grace runs through the Old and New Testaments, and is the same in substance under both the law and gospel, though there is some difference in the administration. Under the law, the sacrifices, prophesies, and other types and ordinances of the Jews signified Christ, and men were justified by their faith in Him just as they would be under the gospel. These were done away with the coming of Christ, and replaced with the much simpler sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper.


title: Covenant theology

text: Reformed orthodox theologians taught that the covenant was primarily unilateral or monopleuric () on the part of God, but also entailed conditions on the part of men. The conditions of the covenant of grace were spoken of as assumptive and confirmatory rather than duties required in order to receive the covenant. The covenant was therefore also bilateral or dipleuric (). Scholars have challenged the notion in contemporary scholarship that Genevan Reformers taught a unilateral and unconditional covenant relationship whilst the Rhineland Reformers taught a bilateral contractual relationship. Mark Jones, Richard Muller, J. Mark Beach, and John Von Rohr have argued that Leonard Trinterud's identification of the apparent polarisation between Calvin, Olevianus on the one hand and Luther, Bullinger, and the Puritans on the other hand is a faulty reading of history.


title: Covenant theology

text: The Noahic covenant is found in Genesis 8:20–9:17. Although redemption motifs are prominent as Noah and his family are delivered from the judgment waters, the narrative of the flood plays on the creation motifs of Genesis 1 as de-creation and re-creation. The formal terms of the covenant itself more reflect a reaffirmation of the universal created order, than a particular redemptive promise.


title: Covenant theology

text: The Abrahamic covenant is found in Genesis chapters 12, 15, and 17. In contrast with the covenants made with Adam or Noah which were universal in scope, this covenant was with a particular people. Abraham is promised a seed and a land, although he would not see its fruition within his own lifetime. The Book of Hebrews explains that he was looking to a better and heavenly land, a city with foundations, whose builder and architect is God (11:8–16). The Apostle Paul writes that the promised seed refers in particular to Christ (Galatians 3:16).


title: Covenant theology

text: The Mosaic covenant, found in Exodus 19–24 and the book of Deuteronomy, expands on the Abrahamic promise of a people and a land. Repeatedly mentioned is the promise of the Lord, "I will be your God and you will be my people" ("cf". Exodus 6:7, Leviticus 26:12), particularly displayed as His glory-presence comes to dwell in the midst of the people. This covenant is the one most in view when referring to the "Old Covenant".


title: Covenant theology

text: Although it is a gracious covenant beginning with God's redemptive action ("cf". Exodus 20:1–2), a layer of law is prominent. Concerning this aspect of the Mosaic Covenant, Charles Hodge makes three points in his "Commentary on Second Corinthians": (1) The Law of Moses was in first place a reenactment of the covenant of works; viewed this way, it is the ministration of condemnation and death. (2) It was also a national covenant, giving national blessings based on national obedience; in this way it was purely legal. (3) In the sacrificial system, it points to the Gospel of salvation through a mediator.


title: Covenant theology

text: Some commentators, like John Gill, see in the passage that begins in a distinct and gracious covenant, involving circumcision of the heart, which foresees the embrace of the Gentiles and which is looked back upon as distinct from the Mosaic Covenant by the Apostle Paul in .


title: Covenant theology

text: Other commentators, such as Douglas Van Dorn, recognize a separate priestly covenant, independent of the Mosaic covenant (which he takes as a prophetic covenant). In taken with the Davidic (kingly) covenant, this represents the three offices of Christ. Van Dorn argues this case on the basis of Nehemiah 13:29 which refers to "the covenant of the priesthood and the Levites", Malachi 2:8 who speaks of "the covenant of Levi," and Jeremiah 33:21 who points to the "covenant with the Levitical priests." Van Dorn argues that the covenant document for this covenant is the book of Leviticus itself.


title: Covenant theology

text: The Davidic covenant is found in 2 Samuel 7. The Lord proclaims that He will build a house and lineage for David, establishing His kingdom and throne forever. This covenant is appealed to as God preserves David's descendants despite their wickedness ("cf". 1 Kings 11:26–39, 15:1–8; 2 Kings 8:19, 19:32–34), although it did not stop judgment from finally arriving (compare 2 Kings 21:7, 23:26–27; Jeremiah 13:12–14). Among the prophets of the exile, there is hope of restoration under a Davidic king who will bring peace and justice ("cf". Book of Ezekiel 37:24–28).


title: Covenant theology

text: The New Covenant is anticipated with the hopes of the Davidic messiah, and most explicitly predicted by the prophet Jeremiah (–). At the Last Supper, Jesus alludes to this prophecy, as well as to prophecies such as Isaiah 49:8, when he says that the cup of the Passover meal is "the New Covenant in [His] blood." This use of the Old Testament typology is developed further in the Epistle to the Hebrews (esp. chs. 7–10). Jesus is the last Adam and Israel's hope and consolation: he is the fulfillment of the law and the prophets (Matthew 5:17–18). He is the prophet greater than Jonah (Matthew 12:41), and the Son over the house where Moses was a servant (Hebrews 3:5–6), leading His people to the heavenly promised land. He is the high priest greater than Aaron, offering up Himself as the perfect sacrifice once for all (Hebrews 9:12, 26). He is the king greater than Solomon (Matthew 12:42), ruling forever on David's throne (Luke 1:32). The term "New Testament" comes from the Latin translation of the Greek "New Covenant" and is most often used for the collection of books in the Bible, but can also refer to the New Covenant as a theological concept.


title: Covenant theology

text: The covenant of grace became the basis for all future covenants that God made with mankind such as with Noah (Genesis 6, 9), with Abraham (Genesis 12, 15, 17), with Moses (Exodus 19–24), with David (2 Samuel 7), and finally in the New Covenant founded and fulfilled in Christ. These individual covenants are called the biblical covenants because they are explicitly described in the Bible. Under the covenantal overview of the Bible, submission to God's rule and living in accordance with His moral law (expressed concisely in the Ten Commandments) is a response to grace – never something which can earn God's acceptance (legalism). Even in His giving of the Ten Commandments, God introduces His law by reminding the Israelites that he is the one who brought them out of slavery in Egypt (grace).


title: Covenant theology

text: Moses Amyraut and few others proposed that the Mosaic Covenant is a third kind of substance, called the Subservient Covenant, as opposed to most covenant theologians Moses Amyraut did not hold that the two substances are only the "Covenant of Grace" and "the Covenant of Works".


title: Covenant theology

text: The covenant of redemption is the eternal agreement within the Godhead in which the Father appointed the Son to become incarnate, suffer, and die as a federal head of mankind to make an atonement for their sin. In return, the Father promised to raise Christ from the dead, glorify Him, and give Him a people. Two of the earliest theologians to write about the covenant of redemption were Johannes Cocceius and John Owen, though Caspar Olevian had hinted at the idea before them. This covenant is not mentioned in the Westminster Standards, but the idea of a contractual relationship between the Father and Son is present. Scriptural support for such a covenant may be found in Psalms 2 and 110, Isaiah 53, Philippians 2:5–11 and Revelation 5:9–10. Some covenant theologians have denied the intra-Trinitarian covenant of redemption, or have questioned the notion of the Son's works leading to the reward of gaining a people for God, or have challenged the covenantal nature of this arrangement.


title: Covenant theology

text: In Reformed theology, a sacrament is usually defined as a sign and seal of the covenant of grace. Since covenant theology today is mainly Reformed in its outlook, proponents view Baptism and the Lord's Supper as the only two sacraments in this sense, which are sometimes called "church ordinances." Along with the preached word, they are identified as an ordinary means of grace for salvation. The benefits of these rites do not occur from participating in the rite itself ("ex opere operato"), but through the power of the Holy Spirit as they are received by faith.


title: Covenant theology

text: Sometimes Reformed covenantal theologians define "sacrament" to include signs and seals of the covenant of works. The Garden of Eden, the tree of life, the tree of knowledge of good and evil, and the Sabbath are commonly considered to be the sacraments of the covenant of works.


title: Covenant theology

text: The Eucharist or the Lord's Supper was instituted by Jesus at a Passover meal, to which he gave a radical reinterpretation. The festival of Passover commemorates the Israelites' deliverance from Egypt – specifically, how the lamb's blood which God commanded them to place on their door posts caused the Angel of Death to "pass over" their dwellings, so that their firstborn might be spared from the final plague. The New Testament writers understand this event typologically: as the lamb's blood saved the Israelites from the plague, so Jesus' substitutionary death saves God's New Covenant people from being judged for their sins. Calvinism has generally viewed the Eucharist as a mysterious participation in the Real Presence of Christ mediated by the Holy Spirit (that is, real spiritual presence or "pneumatic presence"). This differs from Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism which believe in the Real Presence as an actual bodily presence of Christ, as well as from the generally Baptist position that the supper is strictly a memorial commemoration.


title: Covenant theology

text: Paedobaptist Covenant theologians argue that the Abrahamic Covenant is still in force, and that God's covenantal promise "to be your God and the God of your descendants after you" still stands for every believer. The argument that the administration of all (other) Biblical covenants, including the New Covenant, include a principle of familial, corporate inclusion, or "generational succession" is therefore of secondary importance to whether infants should be baptized or not. The familial nature of the Abrahamic covenant is undisputed. Genesis 17 "You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you. 12 For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, including those born in your household or bought with money from a foreigner—those who are not your offspring. 13 Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must be circumcised."


title: Covenant theology

text: In the Acts of the Apostles 2:38–39, the promise is seen to extend to the children of believers as it always was in the Abrahamic Covenant. The Biblical covenants between God and man include signs and seals that visibly represent the realities behind the covenants. These visible signs and symbols of God's covenant redemption are administered in a corporate manner (for instance, to households — see Acts 16:14–15; 16:31–34), not in an exclusively individualistic manner.


title: Covenant theology

text: Baptism is considered to be the visible New Testament sign of entrance into the Abrahamic Covenant and therefore may be administered individually to new believers making a public profession of faith. Paedobaptists further believe this extends corporately to the households of believers which typically would include children, or individually to children or infants of believing parents (see Infant baptism). In this view, baptism is thus seen as the functional replacement and sacramental equivalent of the Abrahamic rite of circumcision (Colossians 2:11–14) and symbolizes the internal cleansing from sin, among other things.


title: Covenant theology

text: Credobaptist Covenant theologians (such as the Baptists Benjamin Keach, John Gill, and Charles Spurgeon) hold that baptism is only for those who can understand and profess their faith, and they argue that the regulative principle of worship, which many paedobaptists also advocate and which states that elements of worship (including baptism) must be based on explicit commands of Scripture, is violated by infant baptism. Furthermore, because the New Covenant is described in Jeremiah 31:31–34 as a time when all who were members of it would have the law written on their hearts and would know God, Baptist Covenant Theologians believe only those who are born again are members of the New Covenant.


title: Covenant theology

text: Concepts foundational to covenant theology can be found in the writings of Church Fathers such as Irenaeus and Augustine. Huldrych Zwingli and Johannes Oecolampadius were among the first reformers to speak of God's salvation economy under the categories of a covenant of works and a covenant of grace. John Calvin ("Institutes" 2:9–11), like Heinrich Bullinger ("A Brief Exposition of the One and Eternal Testament or Covenant of God"), focused on the continuity of the covenant of grace, but taught the substance of what became classic covenant theology in terms of Law and Gospel. Early post-reformation writings, including Zacharius Ursinus (1534–83) in "Commentary on the Heidelberg Catechism" (published posthumously, 1591), Caspar Olevianus (1536–87) in "Concerning the Substance of the Covenant of Grace between God and the Elect" ("De substantia foederis gratuiti inter deum et electos", 1585), and Scottish Theologian Robert Rollock (1555–99) in "A Treatise of our Effectual Calling" ("Tractatus de vocatione efficaci", 1597), developed the covenant of works and covenant of grace scheme along the lines of the law-gospel distinction.


title: Covenant theology

text: Classical statements of covenant theology can be found in the British Westminster Confession of Faith (particularly chap. 7, 8, 19), as well as in the writings of English theologians such as John Owen (1616–83), "Biblical Theology", and "An Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews". The classical statements among 17th century continental theologians include Johannes Cocceius (c. 1603–69) in "The Doctrine of the Covenant and Testament of God" ("Summa doctrinae de foedere et testamento dei", 1648), Francis Turretin (1623–87) in his "Institutes of Elenctic Theology", and Hermann Witsius (1636–1708) in "The Economy of the Covenants Between God and Man". It may also be seen in the writings of Jonathan Edwards (1703–58) in "Collected Writings of Jonathan Edwards", Vol 2, Banner of Truth edition, p. 950.


title: Covenant theology

text: In the United States, the Princeton theologians (Charles Hodge, A.A. Hodge, B.B. Warfield, Geerhardus Vos, and J. Gresham Machen) and, in the Netherlands, Herman Bavinck followed the main lines of the classic view, teaching the Covenant of Redemption, the Covenant of Works (Law), and the Covenant of Grace (Gospel).


title: Covenant theology

text: Recent well-known covenant theologians in the United States include Michael Horton, J. Ligon Duncan III, Meredith G. Kline, J.I. Packer, Richard L. Pratt Jr., O. Palmer Robertson and R.C. Sproul. This system is taught at schools such as Covenant Theological Seminary, Greenville Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Knox Theological Seminary, Reformed Theological Seminary, Westminster Theological Seminary, and Westminster Seminary California.


title: Covenant theology

text: There have been recent developments in classical covenant theology by Reformed (Calvinist) pastors and theologians. Wesleyan covenant theology, a variation of classical covenant theology, was designed by John Wesley, the founder of Methodism.


title: Covenant theology

text: Meredith G. Kline did pioneering work in the field of Biblical studies, in the 1960s and 1970s, building on prior work by George E. Mendenhall, by identifying the form of the covenant with the common Suzerain–Vassal treaties of the Ancient Near East in the 2nd millennium BC. One of the highlights of his work has been the comparison of the Mosaic Covenant with the Hittite Suzerainty Treaty formula. A suggested comparison of the treaty structure with the book of Deuteronomy is as follows:


title: Covenant theology

text: Kline has argued that comparisons between the suzerain-vassal treaties and royal grants of the Ancient Near East provide insight in highlighting certain distinctive features of the Mosaic covenant as a law covenant, in contrast with the other historic post-Fall covenants. Many who have embraced Kline's insights have still insisted, however, in accordance with the Westminster Confession of Faith, that the Mosaic covenant was fundamentally an administration of the Covenant of Grace.


title: Covenant theology

text: A number of major 20th-century covenant theologians including Karl Barth, Klaas Schilder, and John Murray have departed from the traditional recognition of a covenant of works in classical covenant theology to develop a monocovenantal scheme subsuming everything under one Covenant of Grace. The focus of all biblical covenants is then on grace and faith. This has not been developed consistently between the various theologians. For example, Barth, influential in the mainline churches and in certain evangelical circles, conceived of grace as the fundamental reality underlying all of creation. Influential among more conservative Calvinist churches, Murray acknowledged the traditional concept of a works principle as a condition for life with Adam in the Garden of Eden, comparing Adam's works to the works of Christ. He disputed its label as a covenant, however, preferring to call this arrangement the Adamic administration.


title: Covenant theology

text: At Westminster Theological Seminary in the late 1970s, Norman Shepherd, a professor of systematic theology was dismissed due to controversy over his teaching on justification. His views involved a reconfiguration of covenant theology that went beyond those of Murray, his predecessor. Shepherd denied any notion of a works or merit principle, leading to a denial of the imputation of Christ's active obedience to the believer. He argued that Jesus' own justification was due to His faith and obedience. In the same way then, the believer must be justified before God by faith and obedience. Shepherd's followers claim that the Covenant of Works between Adam and God in the Garden of Eden was not originally part of covenant theology, following John Murray's observation that a covenant of works at creation does not receive explicit mention in early confessions such as the French Confession (1559), the Scots Confession (1560), the Belgic Confession (1561), the Thirty-Nine Articles (1562), the Heidelberg Catechism (1563), and the Second Helvetic Confession (1566).


title: Covenant theology

text: Some of Shepherd's critics contend that the concept of a works principle distinct from a Covenant of Grace is evident in the commentaries and dogmatic works of the earliest covenant theologians, particularly in the distinction made between Law and Gospel (for instance, Zacharias Ursinus, "Commentary on the Heidelberg Catechism"). There is also explicit articulation of a Covenant of Works in the writings of those such as Olevianus and Rollock. Additionally, defenders of the merit-based view argue that the concept of this works principle operating in the pre-Fall state in the Garden of Eden as a covenant is present in the early confessions even if the Covenant of Works is not explicitly named. Examples include Belgic Confession, article 14, which speaks of Adam having received and transgressed the "commandment of life"; or Heidelberg Catechism, Question and Answer 6 affirming the goodness of man in creation. The later Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) explicitly names the Covenant of Works which Adam transgressed (7.2; 19.1), and which "continues to be a perfect rule of righteousness" in the form of the moral law (19.2, 3).


title: Covenant theology

text: In opposition to the modern revisers, Meredith Kline reemphasized the idea of a covenant of works as expressed in the Westminster Confession of Faith 7.2 as a means to protect a gospel of grace. Kline writes:


title: Covenant theology

text: Kline, Michael Horton, and others have sought to uphold the distinction of two sorts of covenant traditions: one based on merit, earned by obedience to law (works), and the other on promise (grace). While the consensus in Calvinist theology is that works are antithetical to grace as the means of justification, differences emerge in attempts to describe this antithesis.


title: Covenant theology

text: On the one hand, Calvinist theologians were more in line with Kline tend to say that works are ultimately the basis for grace, since God requires perfect upholding of the law for heavenly reward. Since this is understood to be an impossible task for the corrupted sinner, it is Christ who perfectly obeyed the law in fulfillment of the covenant of works. Jesus, earning the reward, graciously bestows it to His people ("cf." Luke 22:29). For example, R. C. Sproul writes, "Man's relationship to God in creation was based "on works". What Adam failed to achieve, Christ, the second Adam, succeeded in achieving. "Ultimately the only way one can be justified is by works"." The sinner is thus saved by Christ's works and not his own. Right standing before God is then due to an alien or imputed righteousness received by faith, not by personal faithfulness which is the fruition of salvation and not its ground.


title: Covenant theology

text: On the other hand, Calvinist theologians more in line with Murray tend to say that works were never meant to be the basis for grace, but that grace precedes the call for obedience. Consequently, works are the necessary response to grace and not the precondition for it. For example, Michael Williams writes, "The function of law within Scripture is the maintenance of relationship, not the creation of relationship. Legal obligation is not the precondition for life and relationship. Rather, life and relationship form the necessary environment for obligation." While this view still affirms the necessity of the merit of Christ, it departs from Kline's construal of merit as a fundamental principle of the covenant of works.


title: Covenant theology

text: Methodism maintains the superstructure of classical covenant theology, but being Arminian in soteriology, it discards the "predestinarian template of Reformed theology that was part and parcel of its historical development." The main difference between Wesleyan covenant theology and classical covenant theology is as follows:


title: Covenant theology

text: As such, in the Wesleyan-Arminian view, only Adam and Eve were under the covenant of works, while on the other hand, all of their progeny are under the covenant of grace. With Mosaic Law belonging to the covenant of grace, all of humanity is brought "within the reach of the provisions of that covenant." This belief is reflected in John Wesley's sermon "Righteousness of Faith": "The Apostle does not here oppose the covenant given by Moses, to the covenant given by Christ. …But it is the covenant of grace, which God, through Christ, hath established with men in all ages". The covenant of grace was therefore administered through "promises, prophecies, sacrifices, and at last by circumcision" during the patriarchal ages and through "the paschal lamb, the scape goat, [and] the priesthood of Aaron" under Mosaic Law. Under the Gospel, the covenant of grace is mediated through the greater sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper. The Methodist theologian Richard Watson, with regard to the Eucharist, stated:


title: Covenant theology

text: In Wesleyan covenant theology, the source of the covenant of grace is Jesus Christ, as "the "prophet, priest, and king", the "head" and "saviour" of His church, the "heir of all things" and "judge of the world"."


title: Covenant theology

text: As with the Reformed view, the founder of the movement, John Wesley held that the moral law, which is contained in the Ten Commandments, continues to stand today:


title: Covenant theology

text: Wesleyan covenant theology, unlike Reformed classical covenant theology, emphasizes the fact that though God initiates a covenant with humanity, humans are given the free will to follow Him, and "God is always the innocent party in cases where salvation is lost".


title: Covenant theology

text: When persons become professing members of a Methodist connexion, they personally bind themselves to a covenant with God and the Church through the making of vows. On New Year's Eve, congregations belonging to various Methodist connexions, such as the United Methodist Church, Free Methodist Church and Pilgrim Holiness Church, conduct a watchnight service in the form of the Covenant Renewal Service, so that Methodist believers can personally renew their covenant with the Creator every year; this liturgy is traditionally preceded by prayer and fasting.