title: Michigan Technological University

text: As of 2021, Michigan Tech has 455 faculty. Some notable faculty include:Elias C. Aifantis, Stephen Bowen, Margaret Burnett, Samantha Frojenstein, Kathy Halvorsen, Lyon Bradley King, Nancy Langston, Joshua Pearce, Joseph Rallo, Donald Shell, Martha E. Sloan, and Svitlana Winnikow.


title: Michigan Technological University

text: There are over 68,000 Michigan Tech alumni living in all 50 states and over 100 countries. Some notable alumni include:


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is a free trade area encompassing most of Africa. It was established in 2018 by the African Continental Free Trade Agreement, which has 43 parties and another 11 signatories, making it the largest free-trade area by number of member states, after the World Trade Organization, and the largest in population and geographic size, spanning 1.3 billion people across the world's second largest continent.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The agreement founding AfCFTA was brokered by the African Union (AU) and signed by 44 of its 55 member states in Kigali, Rwanda on 21 March 2018. The proposal was set to come into force 30 days after ratification by 22 of the signatory states. On 29 April 2019, the Saharawi Republic made the 22nd deposit of instruments of ratification, bringing the agreement into force on May 30; it entered its operational phase following a summit on 7 July 2019, and officially commenced 1 January 2021. AfCFTA's negotiations and implementation are overseen by a permanent secretariat based in Accra, Ghana.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: Under the agreement, AfCFTA members are committed to eliminating tariffs on most goods and services over a period of 5, 10, or 13 years, depending on the country's level of development or the nature of the products. General long-term objectives include creating a single, liberalised market; reducing barriers to capital and labor to facilitate investment; developing regional infrastructure; and establishing a continental customs union. The overall aims of AfCFTA are to increase socioeconomic development, reduce poverty, and make Africa more competitive in the global economy.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa estimates that AfCFTA will boost intra-African trade by 52 percent by 2022. A report by the World Bank anticipates that AfCFTA could lift 30 million Africans out of extreme poverty, boost the incomes of nearly 70 million people, and generate $450 billion in income by 2035. On January 13, 2022, AfCFTA took a major step towards its objective with the establishment of the Pan-African Payments and Settlements System (PAPSS), which allows payments among companies operating in Africa to be done in any local currency.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: In 1963, the Organization of African Unity was founded by the independent states of Africa. The OAU aimed to promote cooperation between African states. The 1980 Lagos Plan of Action was adopted by the organization. The plan suggested Africa should minimize reliance upon the West by promoting intra-African trade. This began as the creation of a number of regional cooperation organizations in the different regions of Africa, such as the Southern African Development Coordination Conference. Eventually this led to the Abuja Treaty in 1991, which created the African Economic Community, an organization that promoted the development of free trade areas, customs unions, an African Central Bank, and an African common currency union.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: In 2002, the OAU was succeeded by the African Union (AU), which had as one of its goals to accelerate the "economic integration of the continent". A second goal was to "coordinate and harmonize the policies between the existing and future Regional Economic Communities for the gradual attainment of the objectives of the Union."


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: At the 2012 African Union summit in Addis Ababa, leaders agreed to create a new Continental Free Trade Area by 2017. At the 2015 AU summit in Johannesburg, the summit agreed to commence negotiations. This began a series of ten negotiating sessions which took place over the next three years.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The first negotiation forum was held in February 2016 and held eight meetings until the Summit in March 2018 in Kigali. From February 2017 on the technical working groups held four meetings, where technical issues were discussed and implemented in the draft. On March 8–9, 2018 the African Union Ministers of Trade approved the draft.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: In March 2018, at the 10th Extraordinary Session of the African Union on AfCFTA, three separate agreements were signed: the African Continental Free Trade Agreement, the Kigali Declaration; and the Protocol on Free Movement of Persons. The Protocol on Free Movement of Persons seeks to establish a visa-free zone within the AfCFTA countries, and support the creation of the African Union Passport. At the summit in Kigali on 21 March 2018, 44 countries signed the AfCFTA, 47 signed the Kigali Declaration, and 30 signed the Protocol on Free Movement of People. While a success, there were two notable holdouts: Nigeria and South Africa, the two largest economies in Africa.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: One complicating factor in the negotiations was that Africa had already been divided into eight separate free trade areas and/or customs unions, each with different regulations. These regional bodies will continue to exist; the African Continental Free Trade Agreement initially seeks to reduce trade barriers between the different pillars of the African Economic Community, and eventually use these regional organizations as building blocks for the ultimate goal of an Africa-wide customs union.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: Negotiations continued in 2018 with Phase II, including policies of investment, competition and intellectual property rights. In January 2020, AU Assembly negotiations are envisaged to be concluded. A draft is expected for the January 2020 AU Assembly.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The following institutions were established to facilitate the implementation of the free trade area. As a result of Phase II negotiations more committees may be established via protocols.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The AfCFTA Secretariat will be responsible for coordinating the implementation of the agreement and shall be an autonomous body within the AU system. Though it will have independent legal personality, it shall work closely with the AU Commission and receive its budget from the AU. The Council of Ministers responsible for trade will decide on the location of the headquarter, structure, role and responsibilities.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The Assembly of the African Union Heads of State and Government is the highest decision-making body. It is likely to meet during the AU Summits. The Council of Ministers Responsible for Trade provides strategic trade policy oversight and ensures effective implementation and enforcement of the AfCFTA Agreement.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: Several committees have been established, for trade in goods, trade in services, on rules of origin, trade remedies, non-tariff barriers, technical barriers to trade and on sanitary and phytosanitary measures. Dispute resolution rules and procedures are still being negotiated, but will presumably include designation of a dispute resolution body. The Committee of Senior Trade Officials implements the Council's decisions. The Committee is responsible for the development of programs and action plans for the implementation of the AfCFTA Agreement.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The AfCFTA is set to be implemented in phases, and some of the future phases still under negotiation. Phase I covers trade in goods and trade in services. Phase II covers intellectual property rights, investment and competition policy. Phase III covers E-Commerce.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: At the 2018 Kigali summit, areas of agreement were found on trade protocols, dispute settlement procedures, customs cooperation, trade facilitation, and rules of origin. There was also agreement to reduce tariffs on 90% of all goods. Each nation is permitted to exclude 3% of goods from this agreement. This was part of Phase I of the agreement, which covers goods and services liberalization. Some Phase I issues that remain to be negotiated include the schedule of tariff concessions and other specific commitments.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: The 12th Extraordinary Session of the African Union on AfCFTA was called to launch the new agreement into its operational phase, which was hosted in Niamey on 7 July 2019. At its launch, five operational instruments that will govern the AfCFTA were activated: "the rules of origin; the online negotiating forum; the monitoring and elimination of non-tariff barriers; a digital payment system; and the African Trade Observatory."


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: Phase II and III negotiations are expected to be initiated by all AU member countries and held in successive rounds. In February 2020, the AU Assembly of Heads of State and Government decided that Phase III would begin immediately following the conclusion of Phase II negotiations, which were initially scheduled to conclude in December 2020. However, this deadline was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa, and a new date (December 31, 2021) was set as the deadline for the conclusion of Phase II and III negotiations. The AfCFTA officially but largely symbolically launched on January 1, 2021.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: Among the 55 AU member states, 44 signed the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (consolidated text), 47 signed the Kigali Declaration and 30 signed the Protocol on Free Movement of People at the end of the 2018 Kigali Summit. Benin, Botswana, Eritrea, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, and Zambia were among the 11 countries that did not initially sign the agreement. After the 2018 Kigali summit, more signatures were added to the AfCFTA. At the 31st African Union Summit in Nouakchott on 1 July 2018, South Africa (the second largest economy of Africa), Sierra Leone, Namibia, Lesotho and Burundi joined the agreement. In February 2019, Guinea-Bissau, Zambia and Botswana also joined. Kenya and Ghana were the first nations to ratify the agreement, depositing their ratification on 10 May 2018.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: Of the signatories, 22 needed to deposit the instrument of ratification of the agreement for it to come into effect, and this occurred on 29 April 2019 when both Sierra Leone and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic deposited the agreement. As a result, the agreement came into force 30 days later on 30 May 2019. At this point, only Nigeria (the continent's largest economy), Eritrea and Benin had not signed.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: President of Nigeria Muhammadu Buhari was particularly reluctant to join the AfCFTA, fearing it would hurt Nigerian entrepreneurship and local industries, and his decision not to was praised by some local groups including the Manufacturers Association of Nigeria and the Nigeria Labour Congress. The Nigerian government intended to consult further with local businesses in order to ensure private sector buy-in to the agreement, because a key concern was whether the agreement adequately prevented anti-competitive practices such as dumping. In July 2019, just months after being re-elected to a new term, Buhari agreed to adhere the Africa free trade at the 12th extraordinary session of the assembly of the union on AfCFTA.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: At the same meeting, Benin also committed to signing the agreement, leaving Eritrea as the only of the 55 African Union Member States not to sign up to the deal. Formally, Eritrea was not part of the initial agreement due to an ongoing state of war, but the 2018 peace agreement between Ethiopia and Eritrea ended the conflict and ended the barrier to Eritrean participation in the free trade agreement.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: As of May 2022, there are 54 signatories, of which 43 (80%) have deposited their instruments of ratification. Additionally, one country (Somalia) completed its domestic ratification, but had not yet deposited their ratification with the depository by May 2020. Eritrea is the only AU member state which had not signed the agreement by 2019.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: Eritrea has not signed due to tensions with Ethiopia, but as of 2019, following the 2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit, the AU Commissioner for Trade and Industry expected that Eritrea would eventually sign the agreement.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: A July 2017 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa report argues that the CFTA may contribute to tackling poverty and inequality as its wide scope will facilitate structural changes in African economies. It is seen as a step towards meeting the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and the Sustainable Development Goals. The document was targeted to ensuring human rights were considered within the negotiations.


title: African Continental Free Trade Area

text: According to Food and Agriculture Organization, recognizing the intersections of gender, agriculture, and trade, it is critical to ensure that the implementation of the AfCFTA addresses the nuanced and varied challenges that women face. It is vital that the operationalization of the AfCFTA agreement ensures that future trade policies, practices, and regulations promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls on the African continent, especially in supporting women to seize the new opportunities created ‘in agriculture’ by the AfCFTA. Implementation of the agreement that is not inclusive of women could result in a widening gender gap by negatively affecting women-led micro, small, or medium-sized enterprises and those who rely on informal trade (including cross border) for their livelihoods.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani (translation: "This is a Story of Love") is an Indian supernatural television series produced by Ekta Kapoor that aired on STAR One from 18 October 2010 to 15 December 2011. Developed under the working title "Fanaa", it was regarded as one of the more ambitious projects by producer Ekta Kapoor. Starring Vivian Dsena and Sukirti Kandpal, the show was the first youth-centric supernatural series in India inspired by "The Vampire Diaries" and "Twilight Saga". Vivian Dsena's portrayal of a vampire helped establish his public notability.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: The story follows Abhay, a 200-year-old vampire who falls for a human Piya, who resembles his soulmate when he was human, princess Maithili.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: The series begins with Piyashree Jaiswal, a bright girl from an orphanage getting a scholarship for a prominent college in Dehradun, the Mount College. Piya and her mother Sugandh Jaiswal were abandoned by her father, Arnab Dobriyal, when she was a kid. After her mother's death due to cancer, she lived in the orphanage for ten years. She is befriended by Misha Dobriyal at the Mount College, who introduces her to Kabir Singh Rathore, who falls in love with Piya at first sight, and his ex-girlfriend Tanushree Ambolkar, also known as T. The first day, as the four go mountain rappelling, Piya falls, and an unknown person saves her. Misha introduces her elder sister Panchi Dobriyal and her mother Madhu Dobriyal to Piya. At a party that night, she meets Panchi's fiancé Danish Singh Rathore who is Kabir's cousin. T insults Piya at the party and Piya leaves the venue. In the forest, she meets her unknown saviour for the second time. Piya's roommate plots against her in a case of drugs. Misha requests her father to save Piya. Piya's hostel mistress discovers the plot and takes the culprits to the police station.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: When Piya sees Misha's father, she is shocked to learn that he is in fact her father. She learns that Madhu is her stepmother and Panchi and Misha are her half-sisters. Next day, Misha introduces her to Ruhi Juneja or Tracker, her friend. An unknown guy she met earlier when arriving in Dehradun is revealed to be Abhay Raichand, who comes to seek admission into the college. The Raichands become a big name in the city as they arrive, buying an old empty house on the outskirts, and transact many deals with prominent businesspeople like Mr. Dobriyal. Abhay is rude and arrogant, and when the principal does not give him admission, the family has the principal replaced.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Panchi is the director of a skit in which Piya plays Juliet and Kabir, Romeo. Abhay wants the role of Romeo which leads to a contest that Abhay wins. The Raichands host a party, where Abhay excludes Piya's name as he doesn't want her in the party but Misha forgets her invitation card in her room and asks Piya to bring it over. When Abhay sees Piya in the party, he hurts her. Haseena Raichand, Abhay's mother, asks him to apologize. Abhay does so in front of the guests and asks her to dance with him, which makes Kabir jealous.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: The next day when Piya visits the Raichands' house to give sweets to them for her birthday, Abhay's father, Chand Raichand is shocked to see her face as she resembles Abhay's ex-girlfriend. Abhay and Piya collide several times and fight every time. Kabir writes a love letter to Piya and tells her that if she reciprocates, she should wear a yellow dress the next day. Instead of putting the letter in Piya's locker, he drops it into Misha's. Misha is shocked to read the letter and places the letter beside T's locker which makes T believe that Kabir still loves her. The letter then reaches Tracker by mistake. Misha tries the next day to hide from Kabir. Piya accidentally spills juice on her, and gives her a yellow top to wear. Misha reluctantly agrees to wear it. Kabir sees Piya wearing a yellow skirt, and assumes she likes him too, which makes Abhay jealous. When they both are rehearsing their roles, Abhay is mesmerized by Piya because her straight hair is like that of his ex-girlfriend Mathili.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: A new roommate, Maya Sharma, arrives and befriends Piya but hides something from her. In Misha's birthday party Piya, Misha and Panchi learn that Maya is pregnant and being abused by her boyfriend. Due to certain misunderstandings, Piya thinks Abhay is her boyfriend, and Maya does not contradict this. Although Piya is utterly charmed and attracted to Abhay, his rudeness and attitude make her believe that he is the culprit. In the party, Kabir confess his love to Piya in front of everyone. Abhay asks Piya to accept Kabir's proposal and eventually she agrees. Abhay makes T stay away from Piya. One day in a club party Piya accidentally falls into Abhay's arms and Abhay remembers his past with Mathili.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Madhu learns that Piya is Arnab and Sugandh's daughter. The next day in a boxing match in college, Abhay has the better of Kabir but deliberately loses as he is smitten by Piya. Madhu meets Piya and tells her she knows that Piya is Arnab's daughter and asks her to not to tell Misha and Panchi about it. Maya has a miscarriage and Piya thinks that Abhay orchestrated it. At Danish and Panchi's engagement Maya confesses to Piya that an innocent Abhay repeatedly saved her life, Danish is the real culprit and not even Abhay knows. Piya asks Abhay why he accepted the blame and he replies that he wants everyone, including Piya, to hate him. They realize their feelings for each other. When Piya confronts Danish, he threatens her, and Abhay arrives just in time to save Piya. Abhay finds a photo of Maya with Danish but she destroys the proof. Danish goes to Piya's hostel to hurt her but she is saved by Abhay. Piya then goes to his house and finds about Abhay's ex-girlfriend. She faces immense humiliation the next day as Abhay's parents, Chand and Haseena, arrive at the college to oust the girl who spent the night at their home, but she is saved by Abhay and Arnab. Piya tries to tell the Dobriyals the truth, but Danish instead blames her, saying that she kept throwing herself at him. An angry Arnab tries to slap Piya but is saved by Abhay.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Misha gets suspicious about Danish because of a check given by Danish to Maya around November at which time he apparently didn't know her. She also wonders if Piya is telling the truth. Abhay predicts an earthquake before the students sense one. Piya tells Abhay that Misha might get stuck in the locker room. Abhay breaks the wall and saves Misha. Misha tries to finds out the truth with the help of Piya's phone which had the recorded confession, but it gets thrown into water. Abhay does not like Piya telling everyone that he saved Misha but soon he learns that T was taking credit for saving Misha. Piya finds Mathili's photo in Abhay's wallet and straightens her hair just like Maithili's. Misha apologizes to Piya for her actions and both seek to hide their friendship. Abhay is shocked to see Piya's new look, while Piya asks him why he keeps Maithili's photograph in his wallet. Abhay learns that Misha and Piya have become friends again and of their plan to expose Danish. Maya confesses the truth to Kabir in front of Piya and Misha. Abhay, in his anger, ends up calling Piya 'Maithili'. Piya and Maya dress up as ballet girls to dance at Danish's bachelor's party. With the help of Kabir, they reveal the truth. Danish tries to stab Piya but she is saved by Abhay. Piya follows Abhay as his hands were bleeding but is shocked to witness the blood vanishing. Abhay goes to a grave which Piya finds out is Mathili's.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Panchi apologizes to Piya for her deeds. Kabir also visits the Dobriyal house to apologize to her. Piya forgives Kabir but tells him that their relationship is at an end. In a college picnic, Misha learns that Angad, Kabir's best friend, loves her. Danish who gets bailed by the Raichands, tries to kidnap Piya but kidnaps Tracker mistakenly. Abhay and Piya find Tracker but are later surrounded by wolves. He scares the wolves away but Piya gets afraid and runs away too. Next day, they go to Pandher castle. Abhay is afraid of entering it and runs from there. Kabir tells Piya about the history of Pandher and asks her to accompany with him while returning to Dehradun but she refuses and instead gets stuck in the castle. Danish tries to kill Piya but Abhay realizes that Piya is in danger and saves her. In the castle, Piya sees Mathili's painting and is shocked that she was a princess of Pandher 200 years ago. Abhay tells her that he is writing a book on Pandher and that is why he keeps Mathili's picture in his wallet. Abhay brings Piya's silver chain which she lost in the castle, but when the chain falls into his hands, they bleed. Piya has seen Abhay do several things which are beyond comprehension. She questions him, but he misleads her.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Panchi gets a new job and Misha and Panchi plan to bring Abhay and Piya closer. On the other hand, Sugandh's lawyer informs Arnab that Sugandh died because of cancer and Piya is still alive; Arnab is shocked because he was told both Sugandh and Piya died in a car accident. Piya discovers that Arnab has learnt the truth, but doesn't tell him that she is his daughter. Piya finds a book in the college library which is on Pandher but is unable to read it because it is written in an old language. Piya visits the castle again and meets an old man who tells her that the book is written in Pandher's language to hide the secrets of Pandher. He narrates the story of Princess Mathili to her and tells her that the princess was in love with a pauper Abhayendra Singh. When king learnt of it, he punished his own daughter by burning her alive and Abhayendra who tries to rescue her perishes in the fire too. Piya thinks that she and Abhay are both reborn, as Abhayendra's face is similar to Abhay's. Piya gifts Abhay a book on his birthday party which contains Maithili's photo.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Piya learns that Abhay is the adopted son of Chand and Haseena. Abhay abducts Piya when she dresses up like Maithili in a party and questions his and Maithili's connection. He leaves her in a cave but retrieves after realizing his mistake. Chand and Haseena find out about Piya's quest and decide to leave the city. Piya meets with an accident and Kabir takes her to the hospital and informs Misha. Arnab donates blood to Piya and Madhu decides to disclose the truth about Piya to Arnab. Abhay realizes that Piya is in danger and visits the hospital secretly, healing her wounds with his power. Abhay visits Piya's hostel to see her. Piya realizes her love for Abhay and decides to uncover the truth of Maithili and him. She goes to an old cottage where Mathili was burnt alive but gets stuck in the cottage as it catches fire. Abhay tries to rescue her but is unable to. Having lost Maithili similarly, he decides to assume his vampire form to save Piya. Piya is shocked to witness it and contemplates running away but returns when she realises that she loves him. Abhay decides to stay away from Piya as he doesn't want her to become part of his world.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Abhay and Piya try to stay away from each other but they can't and soon Abhay discovers a CD which contains the truth about Piya's father. Piya breaks the CD. Misha wins a Mount College fashion show and holds a party to celebrate her victory. Abhay feels that Piya might be in danger so he stays near her and tells everyone that he and Piya are still in a relationship. Abhay learns that Arnab is Piya's biological father. Initially, Panchi is disgusted by her boss Siddharth's habits but soon falls for his charms as Siddharth repeatedly saves her from having to face Danish. Piya wins a scholarship from her maternal uncle Mr. Parveen Jaiswal who is a trustee of Mount College. Misha shows the scholarship certificate to Arnab who sees her full name and realizes she is his daughter. Piya refuses to stay with him as he had abandoned her, and runs away to the forest where she meets with an accident. Abhay saves Piya by healing her wounds. It is soon discovered that Siddharth is Abhay's elder brother who also loved Maithili and died in the same fire trying to save her. Chand and Haseena had saved both brothers. Abhay feels that if Siddharth learns about Piya, he will harm her. Abhay tries to keep Piya away from Siddharth, but in a party when Siddharth is in the forest with T, he senses that Piya is around and thinks of biting her. However, he is shocked to realize that Piya resembles Maithili and understands why Abhay loves Piya so much.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Misha trying to impress Shaurya Khanna. In prom night, Misha confesses to Shaurya that she loves him but Shaurya tells her that he has already given his heart to someone else. Siddharth makes Misha and Abhay prom queen and king, so that he gets an opportunity to take Piya into the forest. At one point, to save Piya from Siddharth, Abhay bites her. Although this does not turn her into a vampire, it begins the process. Only after biting her twice more on a full moon can she fully turn. Chand and Haseena ask Abhay to stay close to Piya because Siddharth might do anything to tell Piya that Abhay bit her. Later, he admits his affection for Piya. They enjoy some beautiful moments together, hidden from the entire world, in their safe little bubble. Finally, Siddharth realises that the only way to get to Piya is through Panchi and gets into a relationship with her. Haseena, out of her mother's love, tries to get Siddharth to understand, but he manipulates her. Misha learns from Piya that Shaurya is gay and loves Shankar who comes to impress Misha but fails and tells Shaurya that they can be good friends.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Arnab and Madhu's 25th anniversary arrives, and Misha prepares a collage of their old pictures, including the picture of her mother, Sugandh. Piya is very hurt because she does not want to see her father once again forsake her mother publicly, so she asks Abhay to get the CD before it is played at the party. But Abhay is caught by Kabir and Misha, who call the entire family into the office. Everyone humiliates him, but Piya tries to take his side, which leads to a fight between Misha and Piya. When Arnab discovers only the CD with Abhay, he realises what was happening. Angry at her father, who is still silent, Piya lashes out at him, asking him to act in a way at least once in his lifetime which won't humiliate her. This angers Misha, who pushes Piya into a bookshelf. Piya immediately faints. Arnab admits that he loves Piya very much, and he loved her mother too, which shocks Panchi and Misha. They call a doctor, but Abhay takes Piya away, claiming that she never wanted to do anything with Arnab then and doesn't now either. Piya has vampire blood in her, and if anyone does any tests on her, the truth would emerge, which the Raichands cannot allow. Madhu discloses that Arnab and Sugandh were in love and wanted to get married but faced many problems in their relationship. While Arnab was still depressed, Madhu took advantage of the situation and asked her father to get them married. Later, when Arnab and Sugandh met again, they were still in love and started a relationship. However, when Sugandh asked him to take a stand for them, Arnab backed away. Sugandh asked her neighbours to tell Arnab that she and her daughter died in a car crash. Misha leaves home, angry at her father for cheating. Chand and Haseena tell Piya that they will support her if necessary, but she finally decides to join her family. In a dance competition, when Piya and Abhay dance together, Siddharth buys the vote of a judge and makes Mount College lose. Danish and Arnab find out but Siddharth attacks and kidnaps Arnab. He is let go after a threat against Panchi. Arnab, Danish, and Abhay make a plan to expose Siddharth. Arnab goes to Manali, but while returning, there is a landslide. Both Arnab and Chand are stuck and hurt. Arnab tries to tell Panchi to stay away from Siddharth, but his words are misconstrued, and everyone thinks he wants them to get married. In the chaos, Misha also returns and forgives everyone, while Piya finds out that she was bitten by Abhay. She breaks up with him.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Piya goes to Siddharth to learn the truth about the Raichands. He takes her to the old Haveli, where Maithili, Abhayendra, and Siddharth lived as kids. Piya finds out that Siddharth is the elder brother, and Maithili is also alive because Siddharth changed her into a vampire that fateful night. Maithili is angry with Abhay because she thinks that he left her for dead and now loves Piya, and she intends on drinking Piya's blood: when a vampire drinks his/her doppelganger's blood, they gain immeasurable powers. However, Piya telepathically contacts Abhay, and he, Chand, and Haseena reach the place to save her. At the Dobriyal House, Arnab is well again, and he calls Mr Hasni, who deals with the supernatural, to reveal the truth about Siddharth to the family. Hasni explains about Siddharth and realizes that Siddharth wants Piya and Panchi was simply a mode to get to her. Misha and Panchi also leave with Hasni to save Piya. They get to her in the palace, but the person who comes out is Maithili in Piya's clothes. Siddharth, on realising that Piya is linked telepathically to Abhay, takes her away from the place, along with T, who had unwittingly entered the palace to expose Siddharth and Piya's 'affair'. Piya harms Siddharth with her silver chain and runs away with T. Chand and Haseena reach her and tell her to take leaves that keep her safe from vampires and run away.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Misha is soon suspicious of this Piya who is Maithili and tells her that she is happy they know they are not sisters. When Maithili agrees, she discreetly messages Panchi, and they run away while Maithili's back is turned. However, Maithili catches up with them and "mind-links" Piya to get there to save her sisters. Piya returns, Hasni and Abhay meet, and Abhay understands that they are fighting on the same side. Siddharth gets the help of a werewolf and has him attack Chand and Haseena, but Abhay reaches just in time to save them and kill the werewolf. Then he and Siddharth fight, and Abhay kills Siddharth by piercing his heart with a stake. Maithili is angry with Abhay and wants to fight him, and Abhay tells Piya to run away. Piya meets her family but doesn't want to leave Abhay alone. In the forest, Hasni is dead because of Siddhath biting him, and Maithili is fighting with Abhay. She tells him that she loves him so she cannot kill him, he loved her, so he cannot kill her, and she cannot kill Piya because she is Abhay's love now. So she puts a slab of ice on Abhay and tells him that until Piya is dead of natural causes and Abhay forgets her, he will remain there frozen. After Piya dies, Maithili will return for him. In his last moments, Abhay gets to Piya and wipes her memory of him. He gets buried under the snow, frozen, as Arnab and Madhu arrive to take Piya with them.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: One year has passed, and Piya returns to Dehradun from Paris, where Arnab and Madhu had sent her with Misha for peace. Piya is now a supermodel. She doesn't remember anything about her time at Dehradun, yet she is repeatedly attracted to the spot where Abhay is left frozen. She meets Jeh Khurana, who is a new student in Mount College. A mysterious guy is in a hunt for Abhay to take retribution on him for killing his brother. Piya saves Abhay from his condition. He is again impolite and mean to her, and she is confused about her thoughts, feeling both repulsed and fascinated by him. The Raichand family returns to Dehradun and a business rivalry starts between them and the Khuranas. Khuranas, which include Depanita, Nil and Jeh, now live in the same mansion which was once owned by Raichands.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Chand, while wandering in the jungle gets attacked by werewolves and is mortally wounded. Abhay and Haseena locate him and take him home. Abhay finds a college ID card belonging to an unknown Mount College student. In order to save Chand, he needs the blood of a werewolf within 7 days. Abhay rejoins the college and traces the ID number which leads him to a Chiragh Doshi. Thinking him to be a werewolf and in order to kill him, Abhay asks the college principal to immediately organize an inter college boxing competition. He intentionally sets up his match against Chiragh. A day before the match, Abhay also gets attacked by a werewolf. He successfully defends himself and inflicts a scratch on the werewolf's chest so that he can identify him later. The boxing match begins and Abhay injures Chiragh with a single punch. Nil, sitting as a judge, interrupts the fight along with his brother Jeh but both get knocked out by Abhay. Abhay looks at Chiragh's chest but finds no scratch mark there and realizes that he pinpointed the wrong person.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: Hopeless and running out of time, Abhay with his blood-filled hands brings Chand in contact with the blood. Chand recovers and a surprised Abhay then realizes that he had seen the scratch mark on Nil's chest. Meanwhile, Danish brings information about Khuranas to the Raichands and tells them that they have no past and they came from nowhere. The Raichands conclude that Khuranas are in fact, the werewolves. Chand and Haseena plan to kill Nil without involving Abhay. Abhay and Misha start a fake relationship to keep Piya away from remembering anything about her past. Panchi tells Misha that she hates Nil and wants to end her engagement with him. Misha goes to Nil and warns him. Nil gets kidnapped by Chand and Haseena and is critically injured. Misha goes to find him and is also caught by the two but Abhay arrives in time and frees Misha and take Nil back to his home. Chand and Haseena also follow him and wait for him outside the Khuranas house. Inside the house, Abhay finds the picture of the werewolf he killed while fighting against Sidharth. He realizes that the Khuranas are here to take revenge for their dead family member and to bring him back to life with Abhay's blood. Depanita calls two werewolves as backup who fight and cage Chand and Haseena. Abhay kills the two attacking werewolves. He now wants to save Piya from Jeh because he knows his true identity.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: In the meantime, Piya and Jeh become best of friends. Battles begin between the witty vampires and the cunning werewolves. Piya uses Misha's bike to go home from the college but loses control while avoiding an oncoming vehicle. She loses consciousness after getting hit by a boulder. Both Jeh and Abhay go to save her and Jeh decides to take her to his home. The person from the oncoming vehicle is later revealed to be Jeh's sister, Alina, who was held captive for three years by Depanita. Piya gets better and Abhay takes her back to her home. Meanwhile, Arnab invites both Khuranas and Raichands to a dinner and discusses his suspicions about the Raichands being the vampires with Depanita. After the dinner, both families go to their homes but on the way, Depanita stops the Raichands and challenges them to a battle. Haseena gets injured during the fight and Depanita attacks Chand but Abhay intercepts and kills her with a blunt wooden stick. Piya watches and informs Jeh about this. Jeh quickly arrives and takes Depanita home. He knows that Depanita can only be saved by a woman who is the direct descendant of Depanita within a span of 6 hours. Piya contacts the police and Abhay is arrested for murder. The police also summons Jeh but both Jeh and Abhay deny the allegations. Police want to see Depanita. Jeh calls Nil and tells him that they have only 15 minutes. Nil asks Alina to save her mother; she refuses initially but later agrees. She tries to revive Depanita but is not strong enough to do it. As a last resort, she consumes the remaining spirit of her dead brother and uses it to revive Depanita. Depanita is alive but is angry with Alina because she lost her son in the process. Depanita commands her children to take revenge for their dead brother and to eliminate Abhay. The Jeh and Abhay rivalry reaches its peak.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: At the same time, an employee of Khuranas named Tyagi is working secretly for the Raichands. Depanita realizes this, kills Tyagi and pins the blame on Raichands. Police arrest Haseena for the murder. Abhay makes a plan to trap Depanita. He uses a fake witness to make Depanita confess. The police arrest Depanita and release Haseena. The vampire clan, impressed by Abhay's intelligence and strength, declare him their new leader. Jeh kidnaps Piya and asks Abhay to return his mother in exchange for Piya. Jeh hands Piya over to Nil. Alina tells Misha about this. Misha, Panchi and Danish track Nil and rescue Piya. Depanita escapes from prison and leaves the city. Nil is killed by Raichands the next day and his body is found by Arnab and Madhu. Arnab finds vampire bites on Nil's neck and informs Jeh. Abhay is also angry with his parents for killing Nil.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: At this crucial point, Piya regains her memory and gets reunited with Abhay. However, he worries about her safety, so they tell nobody about their relationship. Alina, Jeh's sister, falls in love with Abhay, and he agrees to be with her only to shield Piya. Now Mathili is back and casts a spell on Haseena, compelling her to kill Tanushree and uses her body to hide her presence. When Abhay and Alina are looking for a magical potion, he tells her about his past. A clash takes place between Haseena and Dipanita leading Piya to learn the truth about Khuranas. The vampires and werewolves fight and Mathili uses the opportunity and takes Haseena's form to put a spell on Abhay. In Mount College's Halloween Party, Abhay tries to kill Piya by drinking her blood under the spell but emerges from the spell in time. Mathili impersonates Piya to locate the magical potion. Another clash takes place, during which Haseena kills Dipanita Mathili bites Panchi. Abhay saves Piya from Mathili's spell and Jeh murders Abhay. Chand and Haseena take Abhay's body back to their home. They need the potion to save Abhay within twelve hours. The clan leader sends some vampires over to extract Abhay's soul and use it to gain more power. The vampires make a symbolic formation and perform black magic on Abhay. Chand and Haseena suspect there's something wrong with the ritual and go to Arnab. He tells them the truth about the symbology. Piya tries to find the magical potion with the help of clues given by Abhay and Piya and Alina succeed in saving Abhay.


title: Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani

text: The vampires imprison Chand, Haseena and Arnab. Jeh, along with Maithli, enters the Raichands' house. He frees Chand and Haseena and helps them save Abhay. Now, Abhay turns into a human being with the help of the potion and Maithili is killed by vampires after she and Siddharth get exposed. Arnab asks the vampire to let him see his family one last time. He sees them without meeting them and is then taken away by the vampire. Abhay and Piya go to hospital to save Panchi but Abhay, now a human being, is unable to save her leading to her death. Piya informs Misha about Abhay. Three months later, Jeh kidnaps Piya for revenge and Alina hates her brother for this action. Abhay knows that he can't stand against Jeh so he goes to the vampire leader for help. The acting leader of vampires is revealed to be Arnab. Abhay offers his soul for helping him. Learning that Piya is in danger, Arnab agrees to help Abhay. Alina tells Abhay that Piya is held captive by Jeh in Pandher Palace. A battle ensues, and Jeh is killed by Arnab. Both Abhay and Arnab return to the vampire clan and ask the Supreme Leader for his decision on their lives. The leader spares both of them because of their human emotions. At last, Arnab changes into a human and attends Misha and Kabir's wedding. The next day, the show ends on a happy note with the wedding of Abhay and Piya.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, alters biotic interactions or opens new environmental niches. Starting with a single ancestor, this process results in the speciation and phenotypic adaptation of an array of species exhibiting different morphological and physiological traits. The prototypical example of adaptive radiation is finch speciation on the Galapagos ("Darwin's finches"), but examples are known from around the world.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Adaptive radiations are thought to be triggered by an ecological opportunity or a new adaptive zone. Sources of ecological opportunity can be the loss of antagonists (competitors or predators), the evolution of a key innovation or dispersal to a new environment. Any one of these ecological opportunities has the potential to result in an increase in population size and relaxed stabilizing (constraining) selection. As genetic diversity is positively correlated with population size the expanded population will have more genetic diversity compared to the ancestral population. With reduced stabilizing selection phenotypic diversity can also increase. In addition, intraspecific competition will increase, promoting divergent selection to use a wider range of resources. This ecological release provides the potential for ecological speciation and thus adaptive radiation.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: A 2020 study found there to be no direct causal relationship between the proportionally most comparable mass radiations and extinctions in terms of "co-occurrence of species", substantially challenging the hypothesis of "creative mass extinctions".


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Darwin's finches are an often-used textbook example of adaptive radiation. Today represented by approximately 15 species, Darwin's finches are Galapagos endemics famously adapted for a specialized feeding behavior (although one species, the Cocos finch ("Pinaroloxias inornata"), is not found in the Galapagos but on the island of Cocos south of Costa Rica). Darwin's finches are not actually finches in the true sense, but are members of the tanager family Thraupidae, and are derived from a single ancestor that arrived in the Galapagos from mainland South America perhaps just 3 million years ago. Excluding the Cocos finch, each species of Darwin's finch is generally widely distributed in the Galapagos and fills the same niche on each island. For the ground finches, this niche is a diet of seeds, and they have thick bills to facilitate the consumption of these hard materials. The ground finches are further specialized to eat seeds of a particular size: the large ground finch ("Geospiza magnirostris") is the largest species of Darwin's finch and has the thickest beak for breaking open the toughest seeds, the small ground finch ("Geospiza fuliginosa") has a smaller beak for eating smaller seeds, and the medium ground finch ("Geospiza fortis") has a beak of intermediate size for optimal consumption of intermediately sized seeds (relative to "G. magnirostris" and "G. fuliginosa"). There is some overlap: for example, the most robust medium ground finches could have beaks larger than those of the smallest large ground finches. Because of this overlap, it can be difficult to tell the species apart by eye, though their songs differ. These three species often occur sympatrically, and during the rainy season in the Galapagos when food is plentiful, they specialize little and eat the same, easily accessible foods. It was not well-understood why their beaks were so adapted until Peter and Rosemary Grant studied their feeding behavior in the long dry season, and discovered that when food is scarce, the ground finches use their specialized beaks to eat the seeds that they are best suited to eat and thus avoid starvation.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: The other finches in the Galapagos are similarly uniquely adapted for their particular niche. The cactus finches ("Geospiza" sp.) have somewhat longer beaks than the ground finches that serve the dual purpose of allowing them to feed on Opuntia cactus nectar and pollen while these plants are flowering, but on seeds during the rest of the year. The warbler-finches ("Certhidea" sp.) have short, pointed beaks for eating insects. The woodpecker finch ("Camarhynchus pallidus") has a slender beak which it uses to pick at wood in search of insects; it also uses small sticks to reach insect prey inside the wood, making it one of the few animals that use tools.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: The mechanism by which the finches initially diversified is still an area of active research. One proposition is that the finches were able to have a non-adaptive, allopatric speciation event on separate islands in the archipelago, such that when they reconverged on some islands, they were able to maintain reproductive isolation. Once they occurred in sympatry, niche specialization was favored so that the different species competed less directly for resources. This second, sympatric event was adaptive radiation.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: The haplochromine cichlid fishes in the Great Lakes of the East African Rift (particularly in Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, and Lake Victoria) form the most speciose modern example of adaptive radiation. These lakes are believed to be home to about 2,000 different species of cichlid, spanning a wide range of ecological roles and morphological characteristics. Cichlids in these lakes fill nearly all of the roles typically filled by many fish families, including those of predators, scavengers, and herbivores, with varying dentitions and head shapes to match their dietary habits. In each case, the radiation events are only a few million years old, making the high level of speciation particularly remarkable. Several factors could be responsible for this diversity: the availability of a multitude of niches probably favored specialization, as few other fish taxa are present in the lakes (meaning that sympatric speciation was the most probable mechanism for initial specialization). Also, continual changes in the water level of the lakes during the Pleistocene (which often turned the largest lakes into several smaller ones) could have created the conditions for secondary allopatric speciation.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Lake Tanganyika is the site from which nearly all the cichlid lineages of East Africa (including both riverine and lake species) originated. Thus, the species in the lake constitute a single adaptive radiation event but do not form a single monophyletic clade. Lake Tanganyika is also the least speciose of the three largest African Great Lakes, with only around 200 species of cichlid; however, these cichlids are more morphologically divergent and ecologically distinct than their counterparts in lakes Malawi and Victoria, an artifact of Lake Tanganyika's older cichlid fauna. Lake Tanganyika itself is believed to have formed 9–12 million years ago, putting a recent cap on the age of the lake's cichlid fauna. Many of Tanganyika's cichlids live very specialized lifestyles. The giant or emperor cichlid ("Boulengerochromis microlepis") is a piscivore often ranked the largest of all cichlids (though it competes for this title with South America's "Cichla temensis", the speckled peacock bass). It is thought that giant cichlids spawn only a single time, breeding in their third year and defending their young until they reach a large size, before dying of starvation some time thereafter. The three species of "Altolamprologus" are also piscivores, but with laterally compressed bodies and thick scales enabling them to chase prey into thin cracks in rocks without damaging their skin. "Plecodus straeleni" has evolved large, strangely curved teeth that are designed to scrape scales off of the sides of other fish, scales being its main source of food. "Gnathochromis permaxillaris" possesses a large mouth with a protruding upper lip, and feeds by opening this mouth downward onto the sandy lake bottom, sucking in small invertebrates. A number of Tanganyika's cichlids are shell-brooders, meaning that mating pairs lay and fertilize their eggs inside of empty shells on the lake bottom. "Lamprologus callipterus" is a unique egg-brooding species, with 15 cm-long males amassing collections of shells and guarding them in the hopes of attracting females (about 6 cm in length) to lay eggs in these shells. These dominant males must defend their territories from three types of rival: (1) other dominant males looking to steal shells; (2) younger, "sneaker" males looking to fertilize eggs in a dominant male's territory; and (3) tiny, 2–4 cm "parasitic dwarf" males that also attempt to rush in and fertilize eggs in the dominant male's territory. These parasitic dwarf males never grow to the size of dominant males, and the male offspring of dominant and parasitic dwarf males grow with 100% fidelity into the form of their fathers. A number of other highly specialized Tanganyika cichlids exist aside from these examples, including those adapted for life in open lake water up to 200m deep.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: The cichlids of Lake Malawi constitute a "species flock" of up to 1000 endemic species. Only seven cichlid species in Lake Malawi are not a part of the species flock: the Eastern happy ("Astatotilapia calliptera"), the sungwa ("Serranochromis robustus"), and five tilapia species (genera "Oreochromis" and "Coptodon"). All of the other cichlid species in the lake are descendants of a single original colonist species, which itself was descended from Tanganyikan ancestors. The common ancestor of Malawi's species flock is believed to have reached the lake 3.4 million years ago at the earliest, making Malawi cichlids' diversification into their present numbers particularly rapid. Malawi's cichlids span a similarly range of feeding behaviors to those of Tanganyika, but also show signs of a much more recent origin. For example, all members of the Malawi species flock are mouth-brooders, meaning the female keeps her eggs in her mouth until they hatch; in almost all species, the eggs are also fertilized in the female's mouth, and in a few species, the females continue to guard their fry in their mouth after they hatch. Males of most species display predominantly blue coloration when mating. However, a number of particularly divergent species are known from Malawi, including the piscivorous "Nimbochromis livingtonii", which lies on its side in the substrate until small cichlids, perhaps drawn to its broken white patterning, come to inspect the predator - at which point they are swiftly eaten.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Lake Victoria's cichlids are also a species flock, once composed of some 500 or more species. The deliberate introduction of the Nile Perch ("Lates niloticus") in the 1950s proved disastrous for Victoria cichlids, and the collective biomass of the Victoria cichlid species flock has decreased substantially and an unknown number of species have become extinct. However, the original range of morphological and behavioral diversity seen in the lake's cichlid fauna is still mostly present today, if endangered. These again include cichlids specialized for niches across the trophic spectrum, as in Tanganyika and Malawi, but again, there are standouts. Victoria is famously home to many piscivorous cichlid species, some of which feed by sucking the contents out of mouthbrooding females' mouths. Victoria's cichlids constitute a far younger radiation than even that of Lake Malawi, with estimates of the age of the flock ranging from 200,000 years to as little as 14,000.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Hawaii has served as the site of a number of adaptive radiation events, owing to its isolation, recent origin, and large land area. The three most famous examples of these radiations are presented below, though insects like the Hawaiian drosophilid flies and "Hyposmocoma" moths have also undergone adaptive radiation.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: The Hawaiian honeycreepers form a large, highly morphologically diverse species group of birds that began radiating in the early days of the Hawaiian archipelago. While today only 17 species are known to persist in Hawaii (3 more may or may not be extinct), there were more than 50 species prior to Polynesian colonization of the archipelago (between 18 and 21 species have gone extinct since the discovery of the islands by westerners). The Hawaiian honeycreepers are known for their beaks, which are specialized to satisfy a wide range of dietary needs: for example, the beak of the ʻakiapōlāʻau ("Hemignathus wilsoni") is characterized by a short, sharp lower mandible for scraping bark off of trees, and the much longer, curved upper mandible is used to probe the wood underneath for insects. Meanwhile, the ʻiʻiwi ("Drepanis coccinea") has a very long curved beak for reaching nectar deep in "Lobelia" flowers. An entire clade of Hawaiian honeycreepers, the tribe Psittirostrini, is composed of thick-billed, mostly seed-eating birds, like the Laysan finch ("Telespiza cantans"). In at least some cases, similar morphologies and behaviors appear to have evolved convergently among the Hawaiian honeycreepers; for example, the short, pointed beaks of "Loxops" and "Oreomystis" evolved separately despite once forming the justification for lumping the two genera together. The Hawaiian honeycreepers are believed to have descended from a single common ancestor some 15 to 20 million years ago, though estimates range as low as 3.5 million years.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Adaptive radiation is not a strictly vertebrate phenomenon, and examples are also known from among plants. The most famous example of adaptive radiation in plants is quite possibly the Hawaiian silverswords, named for alpine desert-dwelling "Argyroxiphium" species with long, silvery leaves that live for up to 20 years before growing a single flowering stalk and then dying. The Hawaiian silversword alliance consists of twenty-eight species of Hawaiian plants which, aside from the namesake silverswords, includes trees, shrubs, vines, cushion plants, and more. The silversword alliance is believed to have originated in Hawaii no more than 6 million years ago, making this one of Hawaii's youngest adaptive radiation events. This means that the silverswords evolved on Hawaii's modern high islands, and descended from a single common ancestor that arrived on Kauai from western North America. The closest modern relatives of the silverswords today are California tarweeds of the family Asteraceae.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Hawaii is also the site of a separate major floral adaptive radiation event: the Hawaiian lobelioids. The Hawaiian lobelioids are significantly more speciose than the silverswords, perhaps because they have been present in Hawaii for so much longer: they descended from a single common ancestor who arrived in the archipelago up to 15 million years ago. Today the Hawaiian lobelioids form a clade of over 125 species, including succulents, trees, shrubs, epiphytes, etc. Many species have been lost to extinction and many of the surviving species endangered.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Anole lizards are distributed broadly in the New World, from the Southeastern US to South America. With over 400 species currently recognized, often placed in a single genus ("Anolis"), they constitute one of the largest radiation events among all lizards. Anole radiation on the mainland has largely been a process of speciation, and is not adaptive to any great degree, but anoles on each of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica) have adaptively radiated in separate, convergent ways. On each of these islands, anoles have evolved with such a consistent set of morphological adaptations that each species can be assigned to one of six "ecomorphs": trunk–ground, trunk–crown, grass–bush, crown–giant, twig, and trunk. Take, for example, crown–giants from each of these islands: the Cuban "Anolis luteogularis", Hispaniola's "Anolis ricordii", Puerto Rico's "Anolis cuvieri", and Jamaica's "Anolis garmani" (Cuba and Hispaniola are both home to more than one species of crown–giant). These anoles are all large, canopy-dwelling species with large heads and large lamellae (scales on the undersides of the fingers and toes that are important for traction in climbing), and yet none of these species are particularly closely related and appear to have evolved these similar traits independently. The same can be said of the other five ecomorphs across the Caribbean's four largest islands. Much like in the case of the cichlids of the three largest African Great Lakes, each of these islands is home to its own convergent "Anolis" adaptive radiation event.


title: Adaptive radiation

text: Presented above are the most well-documented examples of modern adaptive radiation, but other examples are known. Populations of three-spined sticklebacks have repeatedly diverged and evolved into distinct ecotypes. On Madagascar, birds of the family Vangidae are marked by very distinct beak shapes to suit their ecological roles. Madagascan mantellid frogs have radiated into forms that mirror other tropical frog faunas, with the brightly colored mantellas ("Mantella") having evolved convergently with the Neotropical poison dart frogs of Dendrobatidae, while the arboreal "Boophis" species are the Madagascan equivalent of tree frogs and glass frogs. The pseudoxyrhophiine snakes of Madagascar have evolved into fossorial, arboreal, terrestrial, and semi-aquatic forms that converge with the colubroid faunas in the rest of the world. These Madagascan examples are significantly older than most of the other examples presented here: Madagascar's fauna has been evolving in isolation since the island split from India some 88 million years ago, and the Mantellidae originated around 50 mya. Older examples are known: the K-Pg extinction event, which caused the disappearance of the dinosaurs and most other reptilian megafauna 65 million years ago, is seen as having triggered a global adaptive radiation event that created the mammal diversity that exists today.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: HMS "Dragon" is the fourth ship of the Type 45 or "Daring"-class air-defence destroyers built for the Royal Navy. She was launched in November 2008 and commissioned on 20 April 2012.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: "Dragon"s construction began at the then BAE Systems Naval Ships (later BAE Systems Surface Fleet Solutions) yard at Scotstoun on the River Clyde in December 2005, and by December 2007 the bow section was in place on the Govan slipway for mating with the other modules. "Dragon" launched from the slipway at Govan on 17 November 2008 at 3:00pm. Her sponsor was Mrs Susie Boissier, wife of Vice Admiral Paul Boissier, Deputy Commander-in-Chief Fleet and Chief of Staff. She was fitted out at Scotstoun.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: "Dragon" joined the Royal Navy Surface Fleet on Friday, 20 April 2012. On Friday 27 April, she made her maiden visit to Liverpool, staying for three days. She opened to the public on Saturday 28 April, with visitors able to see the inside of the ship, including the operations room.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: In August 2013, it was reported "Dragon" was sailing with the carrier group in the Arabian Sea, acting as the main point ship for aircraft control. In August 2013, several Typhoons from No. 6 Squadron RAF were exercising with "Dragon" and US fighters in the Gulf. It sailed westward to the Eastern Mediterranean.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: In April 2014, "Dragon" was deployed to waters north of Scotland, after sailing from Portsmouth to track the Russian warship . She was part of the Royal Navy's Atlantic Patrol Tasking in late 2014, visiting places such as the South Georgia Islands, the Falkland Islands, and a transit through the Panama Canal.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: October 2016, "Dragon" tracked two Russian corvettes in the Atlantic Ocean and Bay of Biscay during a major deployment of Russian naval forces near the United Kingdom.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: On 11 February 2017, "Dragon" rescued the fourteen crew of the dismasted and adrift British yacht "Clyde Challenger" in the Atlantic Ocean south west of Land's End, Cornwall. "Clyde Challenger" was subsequently scuttled.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: A 26 November 2018 press-release claimed "Dragon" discovered a suspicious boat while on operation in the Middle East. Sailors and Royal Marines boarded the vessel, and found 148 bags containing 3,048kg of hashish.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: 15 March 2019, "Dragon" made its seventh drug seizure: 224kg of heroin from a fishing vessel in the Arabian Sea. During her time in the Arabian Sea, "Dragon" made eight drug busts and seized over eighteen tons of narcotics, a record for the number of successful busts and the total weight of drugs seized by a Royal Navy ship in the Middle East.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: "Dragon" features a red Welsh Dragon on each side of her bow, the only Royal Navy ship to be adorned in this way. The dragons were there when she was launched, but were removed in a 2011 refit. They were restored in 2016 following a fundraising campaign led by the British Warships Association.


title: HMS Dragon (D35)

text: "Dragon" appeared in "No Time to Die", the 25th film of the "James Bond" series. The film inaccurately depicts the Type 45’s Aster Surface-to-Air missiles as land attack missiles. Shooting for "Dragon’s" role in the film’s finale took place off the Faroe Islands in September of 2019.


title: Plaza Mayor, Madrid

text: The Plaza Mayor (English: "Town square") is a major public space in the heart of Madrid, the capital of Spain. It was once the centre of Old Madrid. It was first built (1580–1619) during the reign of Philip III. Only a few blocks away is another famous plaza, the Puerta del Sol.


title: Plaza Mayor, Madrid

text: The Plaza Mayor dates back to the 15th century where it was originally called the "Plaza del Arrabal" and was used as the main market of the town. In 1561, the plaza was transferred to the city of Madrid. King Philip II commissioned Classical architect Juan de Herrera to remodel the area. Construction did not begin until Philip III's reign in 1617. Juan Gómez de Mora continued on the architectural renovation, and was finished two years later in 1619. The Plaza Mayor has suffered 3 major fires in its history. The first was in 1631. Juan Gómez de Mora took on the reconstructions of the plaza following this fire. The second of the fires occurred in 1670, with the architect Tomás Román in charge of the reconstruction. The last fire consumed a third of the square and took place in 1790. Today, the Plaza Mayor's architecture is credited to Juan de Villanueva. He handled the reconstruction following the massive fire in 1790. Prior to this, the buildings that enclosed the square were five stories. Juan de Villanueva lowered the square's surrounding buildings to three stories, closed the corners and created large entrances into the squares. Construction after Juan de Villanueva's death by Antonio López Aguado and Custodio Moreno and was finished in 1854.


title: Plaza Mayor, Madrid

text: Today, the Plaza Mayor is rectangular in shape and highlights the uniformity of the architecture. The Plaza measures 129 m x 94 m (423 ft x 308 ft). 237 balconies are present on the three-story residential buildings that face inward towards the Plaza. To enter or exit The Plaza Mayor, there are ten entrances to choose from, however, there are nine gates. The entrances are named: 7 de Julio, Arco de Triunfo and Felipe III to the North; Sal, Zaragoza and Gerona to the East; Botoneras, Toledo and Cuchilleros to the South; Ciudad Rodrigo to the West. In the center of the square stands the statue of Philip III on a horse, which was placed in 1848. The Plaza Mayor has been the scene of multitudinous events. It has hosted executions in history. Today, it is the location of the annual Christmas market. It has also hosted bullfights and soccer games. Every Sunday and holidays it hosts stamp collecting and coin collecting market in the mornings.


title: Plaza Mayor, Madrid

text: In 1880, the "Casa de la Panadería" was restored by Joaquín María de la Vega. The "Casa de la Panadería" is the piece of the façade framed by two two-angled towers. It has been used for many different purposes in history. Its name originates from its original use of the main city bakery.


title: Plaza Mayor, Madrid

text: In 1921 the farmhouse was reformed, and then again in 1935 by Fernando García de Mercadal. In 1960s, the plaza closed itself to road traffic and added underground parking below the plaza. The last of the performances in the Plaza Mayor, held in 1992, consisted of mural decoration, the work of Carlos Franco, of the Casa de la Panadería, which represents mythological figures such as the goddess Cibeles. Today, the Plaza Mayor is a major tourist spot, but is also celebrated by the citizens of Madrid and has become a piece of Spanish culture. Next to the Plaza Mayor at Arco de Cuchilleros Street is the Restaurante Botin, the oldest restaurant of the world.


title: Plaza Mayor, Madrid

text: The name of the plaza has changed over time. It has been known as "Plaza del Arrabal", "Plaza de la Constitución", "Plaza Real", "Plaza de la República" and now "Plaza Mayor". These names reflect events, history and reign in Spanish history.


title: Plaza Mayor, Madrid

text: "Plaza del Arrabal" was the original name of the present day "Plaza Mayor". The "Plaza del Arrabal" was once the site of the most popular marketplace until the end of 15th century. Following the Constitution of 1812, all major plazas in Spain were renamed "Plaza de la Constitución". It also held this name 1820 to 1823, 1833 to 1835, 1840 to 1843, and 1876 to 1922. When the Borbón king was restored in 1814, it became known as the "Plaza Real". In 1873, the name changed to "Plaza de la República". At the end of the Spanish Civil War the plaza received its present name of "Plaza Mayor".


title: Plaza Mayor, Madrid

text: There is a bronze statue of King Philip III at the center of the square, created in 1616 by Jean Boulogne and Pietro Tacca. Giambologna's equestrian statue of Philip III dates to 1616, but it was not placed in the center of the square until 1848. The statue was a gift from the Duke of Florence at that time. It was Queen Isabel II ordered to move it from Casa de Campo to become the centerpiece of the Plaza Mayor.


title: MAPP gas

text: MAPP gas was a trademarked name, belonging to The Linde Group, a division of the former global chemical giant Union Carbide, for a fuel gas based on a stabilized mixture of methylacetylene (propyne), propadiene and propane. The name comes from the original chemical composition, methylacetylene-propadiene propane. "MAPP gas" is also widely used as a generic name for UN 1060 stabilised methylacetylene-propadiene (unstabilised methylacetylene-propadiene is known as MAPD).


title: MAPP gas

text: MAPP gas is widely regarded as a safer and easier-to-use substitute for acetylene. In early 2008, true MAPP gas production ended in North America when production was discontinued at the only remaining plant in North America that still manufactured it. However, many current products labeled "MAPP" are, in fact, MAPP "substitutes." These versions contain mostly propylene with some propane, dimethyl ether is included as a 3rd ingredient in some versions.


title: MAPP gas

text: Genuine MAPP gas can be used in combination with oxygen for heating, soldering, brazing and even welding because of its high flame temperature of 2925 °C (5300 °F) in oxygen. Although acetylene has a higher flame temperature (3160 °C, 5720 °F), MAPP has the advantage that it requires neither dilution nor special container fillers during transport, allowing a greater volume of fuel gas to be transported at the same given weight, and it is much safer in use.


title: MAPP gas

text: A MAPP/oxygen flame is not entirely appropriate for welding steel, due to the high concentration of hydrogen in the flame – higher than acetylene, but lower than any of the other petroleum fuel gases. The hydrogen infuses into the molten steel and renders the welds brittle. For small-scale welding with MAPP this is not a serious problem, as the hydrogen escapes readily, and MAPP/oxygen can in practice be used for welding small steel parts.


title: MAPP gas

text: MAPP/oxygen was advantageously used in underwater cutting, which requires high gas pressures (under such pressures acetylene can decompose explosively, making it dangerous to use). However, underwater oxy/fuel gas cutting of any kind has been largely replaced by exothermic cutting because it cuts more quickly and safely.


title: MAPP gas

text: MAPP gas is also used in combustion with air for brazing and soldering, where it has a slight advantage over competing propane fuel because of its higher combustion temperature of 2,020 °C (3,670 °F) in air.


title: MAPP gas

text: The biggest disadvantage of MAPP gas is cost; it is typically one-and-a-half times as expensive as propane at the refinery, and up to four times as expensive to the consumer. It is no longer used much in any large-scale industry – for larger scale users acetylene/oxygen is more economic than MAPP/oxygen when high flame temperatures are needed, and propane/air is more economic when big overall heating is needed.


title: MAPP gas

text: However, for the small-scale user a MAPP/oxygen flame is still highly desirable, having higher flame temperatures and energy densities than any flame other than acetylene/oxygen, but without the dangers and inconveniences of acetylene/oxygen. Jewellers, glassbead makers, and many others find it very useful. Plumbers, refrigeration and HVAC engineers and other tradesmen also value the high heat capacity of the MAPP/air flame; MAPP was until recently widely used, supplied in small to medium size containers.


title: MAPP gas

text: Blowtorches are used to brown and sear food cooked by low-temperature sous-vide techniques. Myhrvold recommends in "Modernist cuisine: the art and science of cooking" that MAPP gases should be used in preference to cheaper butane or propane as they produce higher temperatures with less risk of giving the food a gas flavour, as can happen with incompletely combusted gas.


title: MAPP gas

text: MAPP is colorless in both liquid and gas form. The gas has a pronounced acetylene-like or fishy odor at concentrations above 100 ppm, due to the addition of substituted amines as a polymerization inhibitor. Low molecular weight alkynes have strong odors. MAPP gas is toxic if inhaled at high concentrations.


title: MAPP gas

text: The composition of the supplied gas has varied widely, with the gases as supplied by different repackagers/resellers at any one time varying, as well as the general composition varying over time, but a typical composition for an early Dow gas might be: methylacetylene (propyne) 48%, propadiene 23%, propane 27%. For a later Dow/Petromont gas propyne 30%, propadiene 14%, propylene 43%, propane 7%, CH (isobutane, butane) 6% might be more typical.


title: MAPP gas

text: MAPP has an energy content of 21000 BTU/lb (13.57 kWh/kg) while acetylene's energy content is 25000 BTU/lb (16.15 kWh/kg).


title: MAPP gas

text: People can be exposed to MAPP gas or its substitutes in the workplace by inhaling the gas or skin/eye contact with the liquid. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit for MAPP gas exposure in the workplace as 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday and 1250 ppm (2250 mg/m) for short-term exposure. At levels of 3400 ppm, 10% of the lower explosive limit, MAPP gas is immediately dangerous to life and health.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: Swimming Pool is a 2003 erotic thriller film directed by François Ozon and starring Charlotte Rampling and Ludivine Sagnier. The plot focuses on a British crime novelist, Sarah Morton, who travels to her publisher's upmarket summer house in Southern France to seek solitude in order to work on her next book. However, the arrival of Julie, who claims to be the publisher's daughter, induces complications and a subsequent crime. Both lead characters are bilingual, and the film's dialogue is a mixture of French and English.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: "Swimming Pool" premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on 18 May 2003, and was released theatrically in France three days later with a U cinema rating, meaning it was deemed suitable for all ages. It was given a limited release in the United States that July and was edited to avoid an NC-17 rating due to its sexual content and nudity. It was subsequently released in North America on DVD in an unrated cut.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: The film ignited controversy with audiences because of its ambiguous nature and unclear conclusion which can be interpreted in various ways. In France many comparisons were made with Jacques Deray's 1969 film "La Piscine" ("The Swimming Pool"), starring Romy Schneider and Alain Delon.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: Sarah Morton, a middle-aged English mystery author, who has written a successful series of detective novels, is having writer's block that is impeding her next book. Her publisher, John Bosload, offers her his country house near Lacoste, France, for some rest and relaxation. Sarah takes him up on the offer, hinting that she hopes John may visit. After becoming comfortable with the run of the spacious, sun-filled house and meeting the groundskeeper, Marcel, Sarah's quietude is disrupted by a young woman claiming to be the publisher's daughter, Julie. She shows up late one night explaining that she is taking time off from work herself. She eventually tells Sarah that her mother used to be Bosload's mistress, but that he would not leave his family.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: Julie's sex life consists of one-night stands with various men, and a competition of personalities develops between the two women. At first, Sarah regards Julie as a distraction from her writing. She uses earplugs to sleep during Julie's noisy nighttime adventures, but develops a voyeuristic fascination with them, abandoning the earplugs during one of Julie's trysts. Sarah sneaks into Julie's room and steals her diary, using it in the novel she is working on. The competition comes to the fore when a local waiter, Franck, is involved. Julie wants him but he appears to prefer the more mature Sarah, having struck up a relationship with her during her frequent lunches at the bistro.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: An unexpected tragedy occurs after a night of flirting among the three. After swimming together in the pool, Franck refuses to allow Julie to continue performing oral sex on him once Sarah, who watches them from the balcony, throws a rock into the water. Franck tells Julie he is leaving. The next day, Franck is missing. While investigating Franck's disappearance, Sarah is told that Julie's mother died years earlier, though Julie had spoken of her mother as if she were alive. She returns to the villa, where a confused Julie thinks Sarah is her mother and has a breakdown. Julie eventually recovers and confesses that Franck is dead because she repeatedly hit him over the head with a rock as he tried to leave her at the pool. His body is in one of the sheds.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: When Marcel becomes suspicious of the mound of fresh soil where Sarah and Julie have buried Franck's body, Sarah seduces him to distract him. Julie leaves, thanking Sarah for her help and leaving her the manuscript of an unpublished novel she claims her mother wrote, which she had previously said John made her mother burn. Sarah uses the mother's manuscript in her novel.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: Sarah returns to England and visits John at his publishing office with her new novel, which she anticipated he would reject, so she had it printed by another publisher. His daughter, Julia, shows up just as Sarah is leaving, but is revealed to be a different person than the girl who came to John's French house.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: The intentionally ambiguous ending sparked much confusion and controversy. One interpretation is that Sarah was alone at the villa the entire time. This would mean that Julie is a fiction conjured by Sarah for the purpose of her new book – also titled "Swimming Pool" – which she presents defiantly to Bosload at the end of the film. Ozon has said:


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: "Swimming Pool" grossed $10,130,108 in the United States and $12,311,215 internationally for a worldwide total of $22,441,323. It had a budget of €6.1 million (about US$7.8 million), meaning that it was a financial success.


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: The film was well received and earned "freshness" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with most critics' praise centering on the two leads. The site's critical consensus reads, "A sensual thriller with two engaging performers demanding our undivided attention." On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 70 out of 100 based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews".


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film a positive review, writing, "François Ozon, the director and co-writer (with Emmanuèle Bernheim), understands as Hitchcock did the small steps by which a wrong decision grows in its wrongness into a terrifying paranoid nightmare".


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: Neil Smith of the BBC also praised the film, calling it a "compelling psychological melodrama" and "Hitchcockian thriller." Sarmad Iqbal of the International Policy Digest wrote that the film's "intriguing yet mystifying mix of erotica and thriller set in a part of France that is a far cry from bustling Paris makes you fall in love with it. It is not just the plot, the setting and the way actors have immaculately performed their roles will make you shower praise on this film but also the soundtrack by Philippe Rombi".


title: Swimming Pool (2003 film)

text: Moira Macdonald of "The Seattle Times" called film's director a "master of mood", while "Variety"s David Rooney called the film a "sophisticated [and] unpredictable mystery".


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Daredevil is the name of several comic book titles featuring the character Daredevil and published by Marvel Comics, beginning with the original "Daredevil" comic book series which debuted in 1964.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: While "Daredevil" had been home to the work of comic-book artists such as Everett, Kirby, Wally Wood, John Romita Sr., Gene Colan, and Joe Quesada, among others, Frank Miller's influential tenure on the title in the early 1980s cemented the character as a popular and influential part of the Marvel Universe.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Daredevil debuted in Marvel Comics' "Daredevil" #1 (cover date April 1964), created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist Bill Everett, with character design input from Jack Kirby, who devised Daredevil's billy club. When Everett turned in his first-issue pencils extremely late, Marvel production manager Sol Brodsky and Spider-Man co-creator Steve Ditko inked a large variety of different backgrounds, a "lot of backgrounds and secondary figures on the fly and cobbled the cover and the splash page together from Kirby's original concept drawing".


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Wally Wood, known for his 1950s EC Comics stories, penciled and inked issues #5–10, introducing Daredevil's modern red costume in issue #7. Issue #7, featuring Daredevil's battle against the Sub-Mariner, has become one of the most iconic and reprinted stories of the series.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Issue #12 began a brief run by Jack Kirby (layouts) and John Romita Sr. The issue marked Romita's return to superhero penciling after a decade of working exclusively as a romance-comic artist for DC. Romita had felt he no longer wanted to pencil, in favor of being solely an inker. He recalled in 1999,


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: When Romita left to take over "The Amazing Spider-Man", Lee gave "Daredevil" to what would be the character's first signature artist, Gene Colan, who began with issue #20 (September 1966). Though #20 identifies Colan as a fill-in penciller, Romita's work load prevented him from returning to the title, and Colan ended up penciling all but three issues through #100 (June 1973), plus the 1967 annual, followed by ten issues sprinkled from 1974 to 1979. He would return again for an eight-issue run in 1997.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Lee never gave Colan a full script for an issue of Daredevil; instead, he would tell him the plot, and Colan would tape record the conversation to refer to while drawing the issue, leaving Lee to add the script in afterwards. Though Colan is consistently credited as penciler only, Lee would typically give him the freedom to fill in details of the plot as he saw fit. Lee explained "If I would tell Gene who the villain was and what the problem was, how the problem should be resolved and where it would take place, Gene could fill in all the details. Which made it very interesting for me to write because when I got the artwork back and had to put in the copy, I was seeing things that I'd not expected." The 31-issue Lee/Colan run on the series included "Daredevil" #47, in which Murdock defends a blind Vietnam veteran against a frameup; Lee has cited it as the story he is most proud of out of his entire career. With issue #51, Lee turned the writing chores over to Roy Thomas (who succeeded him on a number of Marvel's titles), but would remain on board as editor for another 40 issues.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: 18-year-old Gerry Conway took over as writer with issue #72, and turned the series in a pulp science fiction direction. He also moved Daredevil to San Francisco beginning with "Daredevil" #86, and simultaneously brought on the Black Widow as co-star. Conway explained, Concerning the Black Widow, he said, "I was a fan of Natasha [Romanoff, the Black Widow], and thought she and Daredevil would have interesting chemistry." She served as Daredevil's co-star and love interest from #81–124 (November 1971–August 1975), of which #93-108 were cover titled "Daredevil and the Black Widow". The series had been suffering from slowly declining popularity, and in November 1971 Marvel announced that "Daredevil" and "Iron Man" would be combined into a single series, but the addition of the Black Widow revitalized interest in the comic. Due to the Comics Code Authority's restrictions on the depiction of cohabitation, the stories made explicit that though Daredevil and the Black Widow were living in the same apartment, they were sleeping on separate floors, and that Natasha's guardian Ivan Petrovich was always close at hand.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Steve Gerber came on board with issue #97, initially scripting over Conway's plots, but Gene Colan's long stint as Daredevil's penciler had come to an end. Gerber recollected, "Gene and I did a few issues together, but Gene was basically trying to move on at that point. He'd just started the "Dracula" book, and he'd been doing "Daredevil" for God knows how many years. I think he wanted to do something else." After six issues with fill-in pencilers, including several with Don Heck, Bob Brown took over as penciller.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Tony Isabella succeeded Gerber as writer, but editor Len Wein disapproved of his take on the series and sent him off after only five issues, planning to write it himself. Instead, he ended up handing both writing and editing jobs to his friend Marv Wolfman with issue #124, which introduced inker Klaus Janson to the title. It also wrote the Black Widow out of the series and returned Daredevil to Hell's Kitchen; the post-Conway writers had all felt that Daredevil worked better as a solo hero, and had been working to gradually remove the Widow from the series. Wolfman's 20-issue run included the introduction of one of Daredevil's most popular villains, Bullseye. He was dissatisfied with his work and quit, later explaining, "I felt DD needed something more than I was giving him. I was never very happy with my DD—I never found the thing that made him mine the way Frank Miller did a year or two later. So I was trying to find things to do that interested me and therefore, I hoped, the readers. Ultimately, I couldn't find anything that made DD unique to me and asked off the title." His departure coincided with Brown's death from leukemia.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: With issue #144, Jim Shooter became the writer and was joined by a series of short-term pencilers, including Gil Kane, who had been penciling most of Daredevil's covers since #80 but had never before worked on the comic's interior. The series's once solid sales began dropping during this period, and was downgraded to bi-monthly status with issue #147. Shooter still had difficulty keeping up with the schedule, and the writing chores were shortly turned over to Roger McKenzie.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: McKenzie's work on Daredevil reflected his background in horror comics, and the stories and even the character himself took on a much darker tone. McKenzie created chain-smoking "Daily Bugle" reporter Ben Urich, who deduces Daredevil's secret identity over the course of issues #153–163.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Halfway through his run, McKenzie was joined by penciler Frank Miller, who had previously drawn Daredevil in "The Spectacular Spider-Man" #27 (February 1979), with issue #158 (May 1979).


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Sales had been declining since the end of the Wolfman/Brown run, and by the time Miller became Daredevil's penciler, the series was in danger of cancellation. Moreover, Miller disliked Roger McKenzie's scripts, and Jim Shooter (who had since become Marvel's editor-in-chief) had to talk him out of quitting. Seeking to appease Miller, and impressed by a short backup feature he had written, new editor Denny O'Neil fired McKenzie so that Miller could write the series. The last issue of McKenzie's run plugs a two-part story which was pulled from publication, as its mature content encountered resistance from the Comics Code Authority, though part one eventually saw print in "Daredevil" #183, by which time Code standards had relaxed.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Miller continued the title in a similar vein to McKenzie. Resuming the drastic metamorphosis the previous writer had begun, Miller took the step of essentially ignoring all of Daredevil's continuity prior to his run on the series; on the occasions where older villains and supporting cast were used, their characterizations and history with Daredevil were reworked or overwritten. Spider-Man villain Kingpin was introduced as Daredevil's new nemesis, displacing most of his large rogues gallery. Daredevil himself was gradually developed into an antihero. Comics historian Les Daniels noted that "Almost immediately, [Miller] began to attract attention with his terse tales of urban crime." Miller's revamping of the title was controversial among fans, but it clicked with new readers, and sales began soaring, the comic returning to monthly status just three issues after Miller came on as writer.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Miller introduced previously unseen characters who had played a major part in his youth, such as Elektra, an ex-girlfriend turned lethal ninja assassin. Elektra was killed fighting Bullseye in issue #181 (April 1982), an issue which saw brisk sales.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: With #185, inker Janson began doing the pencils over Miller's layouts, and after #191 Miller left the series entirely. O'Neil switched from editor to writer. O'Neil was not enthusiastic about the switch, later saying "I took the gig mostly because there didn't seem to be (m)any other viable candidates for it." He continued McKenzie and Miller's noir take on the series, but backed away from the antihero depiction of the character. Janson left shortly after Miller, replaced initially by penciler William Johnson and inker Danny Bulanadi, who were both supplanted by David Mazzucchelli. Miller returned as the title's regular writer, co-writing #226 with O'Neil. Miller and Mazzucchelli crafted the acclaimed "Daredevil: Born Again" storyline in #227–233. Miller intended to produce an additional two-part story with artist Walt Simonson but the story was never completed and remains unpublished.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Three fill-in issues followed before Steve Englehart (under the pseudonym "John Harkness") took the post of writer, only to lose it after one issue due to a plot conflict with one of the fill-ins. Ann Nocenti was brought on as a fill-in writer but became the series's longest-running regular writer, with a four-and-a-quarter-year run from #238 to #291 (January 1987 – April 1991). The shuffle of short-term artists continued for her first year, until John Romita Jr. joined as penciller from #250 to #282 (January 1988 – July 1990) alongside inker Al Williamson, who stayed on through #300.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: The team returned Murdock to law by co-founding with Page a nonprofit drug and legal clinic, while Nocenti crafted stories confronting feminism, drug abuse, nuclear proliferation, and animal rights-inspired terrorism.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: New writer D. G. Chichester and penciler Lee Weeks continued from where Nocenti left off. The critically acclaimed "Last Rites" arc from #297–300 saw Daredevil regaining his attorney's license and finally bringing the Kingpin to justice.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: The creative team of Chichester and penciler Scott McDaniel changed the "status quo" with their "Fall From Grace" storyline in issues #319–325 (August 1993 – February 1994). Elektra, who was resurrected in #190 but had not been seen since, finally returned.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Under writers Karl Kesel and later Joe Kelly, the title gained a lighter tone, with Daredevil returning to the lighthearted, wisecracking hero depicted by earlier writers. Gene Colan returned to the series during this time, but though initially enthusiastic about drawing Daredevil again, he quit after seven issues, complaining that Kesel and Kelly's scripts were too "retro".


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: In 1998, "Daredevil"s numbering was rebooted, with the title "canceled" with issue #380 and revived a month later as part of the Marvel Knights imprint. Joe Quesada drew the new series, written by filmmaker Kevin Smith. Its first story arc, "Guardian Devil", depicts Daredevil struggling to protect a child whom he is told could either be the Messiah or the Anti-Christ.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Smith was succeeded by writer-artist David Mack, who contributed the seven-issue "Parts of a Hole" (vol. 2, #9–15).


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: David Mack brought independent-comics colleague Brian Michael Bendis to Marvel to co-write the following arc, "Wake Up" in vol. 2, #16–19 (May 2001 – August 2001). Following Mack and Bendis were "Back to the Future" screenwriter Bob Gale and artists Phil Winslade and David Ross for the story "Playing to the Camera". Mack continued to contribute covers, while Brian Michael Bendis wrote further stories such as "".


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Issue #26 (December 2001) brought back Brian Michael Bendis, working this time with artist Alex Maleev. IGN called Bendis's four-year-run "one of the greatest creative tenures in Marvel history" and commented that it rivaled Frank Miller's work.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Writer Ed Brubaker and artist Michael Lark became the new creative team with "Daredevil" vol. 2, #82 (February 2006), no longer under the Marvel Knights imprint.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: The series returned to its original numbering with issue #500 (October 2009), which followed vol. 2, #119 (August 2009). New writer Andy Diggle revised the status quo, with Daredevil assuming leadership of the ninja army the Hand.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Following this came the crossover story arc "Shadowland". Murdock then leaves New York, leaving his territory in the hands of the Black Panther in the briefly retitled series' "Black Panther: Man Without Fear" #513.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: In July 2011, "Daredevil" relaunched with vol. 3, #1 (September 2011), with writer Mark Waid and penciler Paolo Rivera. Waid said he was interested in "tweaking the adventure-to-depression ratio a bit and letting Matt win again". "Daredevil" vol. 3 ended at issue #36 in February 2014.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: "Daredevil" volume 4 launched under Waid and Chris Samnee with a new issue #1 (March 2014) as part of the All-New Marvel NOW! storyline.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: "Daredevil" volume 4 officially ended with issue #18 in September 2015. A new volume began as part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel branding, written by Charles Soule with art by Ron Garney with the first two issues released in December 2015. Charles Soule released his final Daredevil storyline "Death of Daredevil" during the October and November 2018 releases, in a 4-part bimonthly release which ended the series.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: Afterwards the series went on hiatus for two months and resumed distribution in February 2019, with a brand-new volume written by Chip Zdarsky. The primary artist on the series is Marco Checchetto. In August 2021, it was confirmed that volume 6 of the series would end in November 2021, at issue #36. The series lead into the crossover event "Devil's Reign" with the same creative team. Following the conclusion of that series, "Daredevil" volume 7, also written by Zdarsky, was launched in July 2022.


title: Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)

text: "Empire" praised Frank Miller's era, and referenced Brian Michael Bendis, Jeph Loeb, and Kevin Smith's tenures on the series. IGN ranked "Daredevil" as the third best series from Marvel Comics in 2006


title: Badmaash Company

text: Badmaash Company () is a 2010 Hindi-language crime comedy film written and directed by actor Parmeet Sethi and produced by Aditya Chopra. The film stars Shahid Kapoor, Anushka Sharma, Vir Das and Meiyang Chang. The film was released on 7 May 2010 under the banner of Yash Raj Films, and was a commercial success at the box office.