title: Fukrey Returns

text: After their admission into college, life in Delhi is enjoyed by Vikas Gulati/Hunny (Pulkit Samrat), Dilip Singh/Choocha (Varun Sharma), Lali (Manjot Singh), and Zafar (Ali Fazal). Hunny and Zafar are dating Priya (Priya Anand) and Neetu (Vishakha Singh) respectively, planning to marry them.


title: Fukrey Returns

text: Bholi Punjaban (Richa Chaddha) is released from jail after 12 months. She sends her henchmen to fetch the quartet. The four are brought to her place along with their acquaintance Panditji (Pankaj Tripathi). She asks them about their plan to fool her. As the boys convince her, she gives them one chance and invests some money to open a Lottery Shop.


title: Fukrey Returns

text: People are given numbers to which they invest some money. Choocha begins to distribute leaflets around the city and more people invest. Meanwhile, Minister Babulal Bhatia (Rajeev Gupta) who belongs to Janta Vikas Party, argues with the CM over the next election and bets him to win. The police around the city conduct raids on drugs and fake lottery shops. After finding out the quartet's shop, Babulal uses his power to change the lottery number and everyone who invested money is angered. The people gather around to beat them but they escape by jumping off a flyover in the river. They regain consciousness at a construction area and are spotted by Panditji.


title: Fukrey Returns

text: It is here that Choocha discovers he can see the future. He sees a tiger in his dream which later attacks them. The group is later caught by Bholi who is angered due to their foolishness, and orders to kill them. But Choocha's ability impresses her and she forgives them. The next day, Bholi asks them to find a treasure to which they agree if she releases them. Babulal fears that people will recover their money so he invites the boys to his residence. Panditji is sent in disguise to keep an eye on them. At dinner, the boys are forced to take an oath to help Babulal for their welfare in return. The next day, the boys take the blame instead of Babulal who misused people's money while Bholi goes to the CM to hand some factory papers related to Babulal and after the boys leave, police arrives and captures Babulal. The boys return home and see the disappointment in their loved ones. They decide to scheme up to earn more money. The next day, at Panditji's place, Choocha is forced to see a dream where Lali holds a tiger cub.


title: Fukrey Returns

text: Meanwhile, Babulal discovers Bholi's plan and ambushes her place. However, he forgives her murder on the pretext to find a treasure. To do so, Bholi calls Hunny for it who requests a tiger cub which she sold. The four friends and Bholi's guards return to the park where they are joined by Priya and Neetu. They dig a hole and enter a cave where they are spotted by the cub's mother. However, after escaping, they are led to a factory with huge stack of illegal goods. They find out the products to be worth 400 million. Babulal arrives at the place only to find out that the warehouse actually constains Babulal's trade inventory. He is angered and orders to banish them but police arrives on the scene. In a flashback, while estimating worth, Zafar called the police knowing Babulal bought this from China. Choocha proposes to Bholi to which she responds with a kiss, surprising everyone. Later, the four friends inaugurate an electronics shop with the products they found in the warehouse. The film ends with Hunny, Choocha, and Zafar respectively getting married to Priya, Bholi, and Neetu in Goa.


title: Fukrey Returns

text: On 30 January 2016, a sequel to "Fukrey" was announced, featuring the original cast, again directed by Lamba and produced by Excel Entertainment. Filming began in August 2016 in Delhi.


title: Fukrey Returns

text: The music of the film is composed by Shaarib-Toshi, Sumeet Bellary, Prem-Hardeep, Jasleen Royal, Gulraj Singh, Shree D and Ishq Bector while the lyrics have been penned by Kumaar, Satya Khare, Aditya Sharma, Shree D, Mrighdeep Singh Lamba, Vipul Vig and Raftaar. The first track of the film titled as "Mehbooba" which is sung by Neha Kakkar, Yasser Desai, Mohammed Rafi and rapped by Raftaar was released on 15 November 2017. The soundtrack was released by Zee Music Company on 16 November 2017.


title: Fukrey Returns

text: The film met with mixed reviews from critics. Times of India gave it a rating of 3.5/5. Koimoi gave it a rating of 3.5/5 and wrote, "Retains the magic of the first part". Bollywood Hungama gave it a rating of 3 stars out of 5 and wrote, "Fukrey Returns begins on a great note but then turns silly and unconvincing becoming a fun, clean film that works despite the illogical and slightly unconvincing plot." Deccan Chronicle gave it a rating of 3 stars out of 5 and wrote, "Choocha's hilarious act saves this gritty comedy." Kriti Tulsiani of News18 gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 and said that, "Watch Fukrey Returns if you like but don’t expect the spark of the original. Plus, the giggles are more like a reminder of the original Fukrey and nothing more." Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times gave the film a rating of 1.5 out of 5 saying that, "Blame it on the success of the original or the four-year-gap between the two films, Fukrey Returns isn’t even a patch on Fukrey. Fukrey Returns is a tedious 141-minute watch which is unfunny, unintelligent and repetitive." Namrata Joshi of The Hindu said that, "The novelty and freshness of sleeper hit ‘Fukrey’ wear down drastically in the sequel." Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express gave the film a rating of 1.5 out of 5 and said that, "This Pulkit Samrat and Varun Sharma starrer is relentlessly juvenile. The situations are so tired and contrived there’s nothing that even such capable hands as Richa Chadha and Pankaj Tripathi can do, to retain our interest." Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 and said that, "Fukrey Returns comes nowhere near being the rip-roaring ride that the 2013 sleeper hit Fukrey. For a film that aspires to be a full-on laugh riot, Fukrey Returns is a bit of a trudge."


title: Fukrey Returns

text: Rachit Gupta of Filmfare gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 and said that, "Fukrey Returns is a sequel that wants to be bigger, better and funnier than the original. In all fairness, it does manage to fulfil its ambitions on two accounts. It is bigger, it is funnier but it's certainly not better." Uday Bhatia of LiveMint wasn't impressed with the movie and said that, "Fukrey was rooted in the everyday: the comedy seemed to arise naturally from the slackers’ surroundings. The sequel, though, has the desperation and unfocussed energy of a work that's not sure why it exists." Sukanya Verma of Rediff gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 and said that "Fukrey Returns" is "a clumsily conceived sequel, a foolhardy endeavour to milk a fluke, an outright bore". Suhani Singh of India Today felt that the "film has little apart from Varun Sharma" and gave it a rating of 1.5 out of 5.


title: Fukrey Returns

text: A sequel titled "Fukrey 3" commenced shooting on 13 March 2022 with the cast of the previous two films reprising their roles and Mrighdeep Singh Lamba as the director.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: Geoffrey G. Diehl (born April 23, 1969) is an American politician from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. A Republican, he represented the 7th Plymouth district in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 2011 to 2019.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: Diehl was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for the U.S. Senate in 2018 and for governor of Massachusetts in 2022, losing both elections in landslides to Democrats Elizabeth Warren and Maura Healey respectively.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: Geoff Diehl was born in Austin, Texas. At the age of 3, his family moved to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. He attended Lake Forest Academy and graduated from Lehigh University in 1992 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in government and urban studies.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: After graduating, Diehl moved to New York City and worked in advertising. He later worked in television production in Los Angeles, California. In 2001, he moved to his wife's hometown of Whitman, Massachusetts, where he worked as a business development executive in the sign industry. He also supported his wife in successfully starting and running a performing arts school, Boss Academy.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: Diehl began his campaign to represent the 7th Plymouth District on February 22, 2010. Diehl received support from previous representatives from the same district, including Andrew Card, Michael Sullivan, Ned Kirby, and Ronald Whitney. Diehl also received the endorsement of U.S. Senator Scott Brown.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: He was a member of the Joint Committee on Housing, House Committee on Global Warming and Climate Change, and the House Committee on Technology and Intergovernmental Affairs.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: Geoff Diehl was a lead supporter of the successful ballot question campaign to repeal the Massachusetts gas tax indexing law in 2014.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: In April 2017, Diehl announced his intent to challenge Elizabeth Warren for her U.S. Senate seat. In the Republican primary election held on September 4, 2018, Diehl finished first in a field of three candidates. The incumbent, Elizabeth Warren, defeated Diehl by 24 percentage points.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: On July 4, 2021, Geoff Diehl announced he was running for governor of Massachusetts. In October 2021, Donald Trump endorsed Geoff Diehl for Governor.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: He was Massachusetts state co-chair of Trump's 2016 presidential campaign and a Trump delegate to the 2016 Republican National Convention. Diehl also supported Jim Lyons, the chairman of the Massachusetts Republican Party, who in January 2021 was reelected to the party chairmanship after defeating a challenge from Shawn Dooley.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: As a candidate, Diehl criticized federal and state mandates put in place during the COVID-19 pandemic and continuously supported workers and first responders being fired for not taking the vaccine. He is a proponent of parents who want to decide for their children whether or not they would like a vaccine.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: At the state party convention on May 21, Diehl was officially endorsed by the Massachusetts Republican Party with 71% of the delegates' votes. He won the Republican nomination on September 6. On November 8, Attorney General of Massachusetts and Democratic nominee Maura Healey handily defeated Diehl in the general election.


title: Geoff Diehl

text: Before he entered politics, Diehl was a member of the Whitman Finance Committee. He remains a member of the MetroSouth Chamber of Commerce and South Shore Chamber of Commerce. Diehl is also an Eagle Scout. Diehl and his wife, KathyJo, have two daughters. They live in Whitman, Massachusetts.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir is a 2018 adventure comedy film directed by Ken Scott and starring Dhanush. It is based on a novel by Romain Puertolas titled "The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir Who Got Trapped in an Ikea Wardrobe", which was originally written in French. The film was shot in India, Brussels, Paris and Rome.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: The film released on 30 May 2018 in France. It was released in India, USA, Canada, Singapore and Malaysia on 21 June 2019. It was released in 7 different languages; English, French, Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: Ajatashatru "Aja" Lavash Patel (Dhanush), who has lived all his life in a small Mumbai neighborhood, is a street magician and trickster who tricks people into believing that he possesses special magic powers. He narrates his story to three kids caught by police and are now going for a four year judicial custody.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: After his mother's untimely death, he sets off on a journey to find his estranged father in Paris with a fake EUR 100 note. There, he meets a woman named Marie Riviere (Erin Moriarty) in a furniture store whom he initially swindles, but is quickly attracted to her personality. Aja then experiences a series of wide-ranging adventures around the world, initially in an IKEA wardrobe to London, England, then a Louis Vuitton suitcase to Rome, Italy, and a hot air balloon to a ship heading to Tripoli, Libya. In the ship, he gets robbed the money he earned by selling the shirt on which he wrote an emotional incident from his childhood. In Libya, he meets a Somali man named Wiraj (Barkhad Abdi), an illegal immigrant whom he met on the way to London. Together with Wiraj and group of other friends he gets back the money. In the refugee camp where Wiraj lives, he distributes all the money to the people in the camp. He has just enough money for a fake passport and ticket to India. But before going to India he goes to Paris where he meets Marie, who is now dating another guy.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: He comes back to India and starts working as a teacher in school. One day Marie comes to the school and tells Aja that she has left her fiance, and then they kiss. And with this he ends his story to the three kids. He then offers those kids to be pardoned for the four year custody if they attend Aja's school daily, which they agree to.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: Just before the movie ends, one of Aja's colleagues asks "Was that a true story?" and Aja replies "Only the important parts.".


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: The film was launched in January 2016 with Iranian director Marjane Satrapi and actors Dhanush, Uma Thurman, and Alexandra Daddario in the lead roles. However, the director left the project and was replaced by Canadian director Ken Scott. Thurman's role was given to French actress Bérénice Bejo. The filming began in May 2017 in Mumbai. In its first schedule the principal photography took place in India, Brussels, Paris and Rome.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: The film trailer for Australia was launched in August 2018 by Icon Films Australia & New Zealand on YouTube. For release in India the official trailer was launched on 3 June 2019 by Zee Music Company. It fetched more than 5 million views since its release on YouTube.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: The film was released in India, USA, Canada, UK, Singapore and Malaysia on 21 June 2019. The film was also dubbed in Tamil as "Pakkiri" benefiting off Dhanush's popularity. The makers had previously considered the title "Vaazhkaiyai Thedi Naanum Poren" for the dubbed version. The film was made available to stream on Amazon Prime Video.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: The music of the songs is composed by Amit Trivedi, with lyrics by Anvita Dutt. The chorus singers are Rajiv Sundaresan and Suhas Sawant in the song


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: The film won two international awards: in 2018 it won in Norwegian International Film Festival the Ray of Sunshine Award and in 2019 in Barcelona Sant-Jordi International Film Festival, it won an award for Best Comedy.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The critics consensus reads, ""The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir" is undermined by its mawkish indulgences, but Dhanush's charming central performance is difficult to resist." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100, based on 8 critics.


title: The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir

text: "The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir" fared poorly at the box office, grossing $3.26 million against a $20 million budget.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: The British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) was a British aircraft manufacturer formed from the government-pressured merger of English Electric Aviation Ltd., Vickers-Armstrongs (Aircraft), the Bristol Aeroplane Company and Hunting Aircraft in 1960. Bristol, English Electric and Vickers became "parents" of BAC with shareholdings of 20%, 40% and 40% respectively. BAC in turn acquired the share capital of their aviation interests and 70% of Hunting Aircraft several months later.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: BAC's origins can be traced to a statement issued by the British government that it expected the various companies involved in the aircraft, guided weapons and engine industries to consolidate and merge with one another. Furthermore, the government also promised incentives to motivate such restructuring; the maintenance of government research and development spending and the guarantee of aid in launching "promising new types of civil aircraft". One particularly high-profile incentive was the contract for a new large supersonic strike aircraft, which would become the BAC TSR-2.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: Accordingly, during 1960, BAC was created as a jointly-owned corporation by Vickers, English Electric and Bristol. Internally, the business had two divisions – the Aircraft Division under Sir George Edwards and the Guided Weapons Division under Viscount Caldecote. The aircraft operations of the three parents were now subsidiaries of BAC; "Bristol Aircraft Ltd", "English Electric Aviation Ltd" (with Viscount Caldecote as general manager) and "Vickers-Armstrongs (Aircraft) Ltd" (under Sir George Edwards). BAC also had a controlling interest in Hunting Aircraft. The parents still had significant aviation interests outside BAC. English Electric had Napier & Son aero-engines, Bristol had 50% of Bristol Aerojet and Bristol Siddeley engines and smaller investments in Westland and Short Brothers & Harland.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: Upon the formation of BAC, the Bristol Aeroplane Company (Car Division) was not included in the consolidation. Instead, it was carved off by Sir George White, whose family had founded the British and Colonial Aeroplane Company in 1910 (later the Bristol Aeroplane Company).


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: BAC's head office was on the top floors of the 100 Pall Mall building in the City of Westminster, London.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: The majority of BAC's aircraft designs had been inherited from the individual companies that formed it. BAC did not apply its new identity retrospectively, hence the VC10 remained the Vickers VC10. Instead the company applied its name to marketing initiatives, the VC10 advertising carried the name "Vickers-Armstrongs (Aircraft) Limited, a member company of the British Aircraft Corporation". The first model to bear the BAC name was the BAC One-Eleven (BAC 1–11), a Hunting Aircraft study, in 1961. Given the numerous government contract cancellations during the 1960s, the BAC 1–11, which had been launched as a private venture, probably saved the company.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: Prior to the merger, Bristol had eschewed the subsonic airliner market in favour of working on the Bristol 223 supersonic transport, The effort continued under BAC and was eventually merged with similar efforts underway at the French aircraft company Sud Aviation, resulting in the Anglo-French Concorde. Described by "Flight International" as an "aviation icon" and "one of aerospace's most ambitious but commercially flawed projects", sales of the type were lackluster against conventional subsonic airliners, primarily due to the emergence of wide-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, which made subsonic airliners significantly more efficient. While by March 1969, the consortium had arrangements totalling 74 options from 16 airlines, only two airlines, Air France and the British Overseas Airways Corporation, would proceed with their orders. Scheduled services commenced on 21 January 1976 on both the London–Bahrain and Paris–Rio de Janeiro routes.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: In 1963, BAC acquired the previously autonomous guided weapons divisions of English Electric and Bristol to form a new subsidiary, British Aircraft Corporation (Guided Weapons). The company enjoyed some success, including development of the Rapier, Sea Skua and Sea Wolf missiles. BAC eventually expanded this division to include electronics and space systems and, in 1966, started what was to become a fruitful relationship with Hughes Aircraft. Hughes awarded major contracts to BAC, including sub-systems for Intelsat satellites.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: BAC had inherited the aerospace activities of several companies via its formation, and research into various space-related ventures continued at the new entity. One of BAC's research teams, headed by engineer Tom Smith, Chief of the Aerospace Department at BAC, that was initially investigating supersonic and hypersonic flight problems, became interested in the application of such a vehicle for space-related activities, leading to the BAC Mustard, a reusable launch system that comprised several near-identical winged vehicles. In the most detailed design, Mustard was to have weighed roughly 420 tonnes prior to launch, and been capable of delivering a three tonne payload to a geostationary earth orbit (GEO). According to author Nigel Henbest, Britain was likely unable to pursue Mustard's development alone, but suggested organising a multinational European venture, similar to the conventional Europa and Ariane launchers. The knowledge and expertise developed on this project was subsequently harnessed on later efforts, most prominently the re-usable HOTOL spaceplane project of the 1980s.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: Development of the TSR-2 was one of the company's most high-profile projects. However, as the programme proceeded, continuous cost rises were incurred, while inter-service rivalry led to frequent challenges of its necessity. During April 1965, the British government announced that it had decided to withdraw its order for the TSR-2, leaving it without an established customer. By this point, the programme was already in the prototype phase and the aircraft had already flown, but political pressure forced development work to cease, leading to the remaining airframes and most supporting equipment and documentation to be destroyed. The TSR-2's last minute termination has been widely viewed as a major blow not only to BAC but the wider British aircraft industry.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: On 17 May 1965, the British and French governments announced the signing of a pair of agreements to cover the two joint projects; one based on the French aircraft company Breguet Aviation Br.121 ECAT ("Tactical Combat Support Trainer") proposal; this would evolve into the SEPECAT Jaguar. The other was the BAC/Dassault AFVG (Anglo-French Variable Geometry), a larger, variable geometry carrier-capable fighter aircraft for the French Navy ("Aéronavale") as well as fulfilling interceptor, tactical strike and reconnaissance roles for the RAF. The AFVG was to be jointly developed by BAC and Dassault Aviation, while the proposed M45G turbofan engine to power the aircraft was to also be jointly developed by SNECMA and Bristol Siddeley. However, during June 1967, the French government announced its withdrawal from the AFVG effort ostensibly on the grounds of cost.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: During May 1966, BAC and Breguet formally created SEPECAT, a joint venture company, to develop, market, and produce the Anglo-French Jaguar strike fighter. The Jaguar programme ultimately took the place of several earlier efforts, including the AFVG. The first of the Jaguar's eight prototypes flew on 8 September 1968. During 1973, service entry was achieved with the French Air Force, by which time Breguet had become part of Dassault Aviation. SEPECAT received various export orders for the Jaguar, overseas nations that flew the type included India, Ecuador, Nigeria and Oman. Dassault were less supportive of SEPECAT, preferring to promote its own aircraft; several potential customers for the Jaguar were convinced to order Dassault's Mirage series instead.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: During 1964, both BAC and its principal domestic rival, Hawker Siddeley, conducted detailed studies on the prospects of producing stretched versions of their existing airliners, the VC10 and the Hawker Siddeley Trident. In the first half of the following year, BAC submitted its proposals for the production of two separate double-decker versions of the VC10, which was commonly referred to as the "Super VC10"; however, it was quickly recognised that the British government would be required substantial support for the initiative to succeed, involving "several tens of millions of pounds". According to aviation author Derek Wood, the enlarged double-decker, which was to be equipped with the proposed Rolls-Royce RB178 turbofan engine, would have had good commercial prospects, yet financing for the programme was not forthcoming and the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) has ultimately opted to procure the rival Boeing 747 instead.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: In 1967, the British, French and German governments agreed to start development of the 300-seat Airbus A300. BAC argued against the proposal in favour of their BAC Three-Eleven project, intended as a large wide-bodied airliner like the Airbus A300, Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed TriStar. Like the One-Eleven, it would have carried two Rolls-Royce turbofan engines, mounted near the tail, but have been able to accommodate up to 245 passengers seated in an eight abreast configuration at a 34-inch pitch (or up to 300 passengers at a 30-inch pitch). The British national airline British European Airways (BEA) was publicly interested in the type; during August 1970, BEA's chairman, Sir Anthony Milward, declared his personal optimism for the Three-Eleven. However, Britain's potential Common Market partners warned that, since the Three-Eleven would directly compete against the European Airbus, around which they had largely coalesced, the project effectively undermined British loyalty to the EEC which, at this point, the British government was interested in joining. On 2 December 1970, Frederick Corfield, the Minister for Aviation Supply, announced in the House of Commons that there would be no official backing from the government for the Three-Eleven programme.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: During the early 1960s, the Saudi Arabian government announced its intention to launch a massive defence acquisition programme involving the replacement of the country's fighter aircraft and the establishment of an advanced air defence and communications network. American companies seemed guaranteed to win much of this work, however, the Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) would ultimately be supplied with large amounts of British-made aircraft and equipment to fulfill their needs.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: By 1964, BAC conducted demonstration flights of their Lightning in Riyadh and, in 1965, Saudi Arabia signed a letter of intent to purchase Lightning and Strikemaster aircraft as well as Thunderbird surface-to-air missiles. The main contract was signed in 1966 for forty Lightnings and twenty-five (ultimately forty) Strikemasters. In 1973, the Saudi government signed an agreement with the British government which specified BAC as the contractor for all parts of the defence system (AEI was previously contracted to supply the radar equipment and Airwork Services provided servicing and training). Overall spending by the RSAF was over £1 billion GBP.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: BAC, with the Lightning/Strikemaster contract; British Aerospace, with the Al Yamamah contracts; and most recently BAE Systems, with the order for Typhoon multi-role fighters, have all benefited from large arms contracts with Saudi Arabia.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: In June 1967, the AFVG was cancelled due to the withdrawal of French participation. Britain then turned to a national project, the UK Variable Geometry (UKVG), for which BAC Warton was given a design contract by the Ministry of Technology. These studies eventually became known as the BAC Advanced Combat Aircraft programme. In 1968, Britain was invited to join Canada and the F-104 Consortium (a grouping of Germany, Italy, Belgium and the Netherlands), all of whom wished to replace their current aircraft with a common design, subsequently described as the Multi Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA).


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: On 26 March 1969, Panavia Aircraft GmbH was formed by BAC, MBB, Fiat and Fokker. In May, a "project definition phase" was commenced, concluding in early 1970. Two aircraft designs resulted: the single-seat Panavia 100 and the twin-seat Panavia 200. The RAF favoured the 200, as did Germany after its initial enthusiasm for the 100.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: In September 1971, the governments of Britain, Italy and Germany signed an Intention to Proceed (ITP) with the Panavia Tornado. On 30 October 1974, the first British prototype (the second to fly) took off from the BAC airfield at Warton. The three governments signed the contract for Batch 1 of the aircraft on 29 July 1976. BAC and subsequently British Aerospace would deliver 228 Tornado GR1s and 152 Tornado F3s to the RAF.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: For most of its history, BAC was the subject of rumour and speculation that it was to merge with Hawker Siddeley Aviation (HSA). On 21 November 1966, Fred Mulley, the Minister of Aviation, announced in the House of Commons that:


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: The government envisaged acquiring BAC's capital and merging it with Hawker Siddeley. The ownership of BAC would thus give the government a minority stake in the new company. Although BAC's parent companies were prepared to sell their shares for a reasonable price, the government proposal, in their view, undervalued the group. By August 1967, the success of the BAC 1–11 and defence sales to Saudi Arabia made the prospect of the parent companies selling their shares less likely. In December 1967, Tony Benn, the Minister of Technology, while reiterating his desire to see a merged BAC and HSA, admitted it would not be possible.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: Akin to BAC, the Hawker Siddeley Group was expanded by merger, while engine design and manufacturing was concentrated at Rolls-Royce and the newly formed Bristol-Siddeley Engines. Helicopter development was given to Westland Helicopters.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: During 1966, Rolls-Royce acquired Bristol Aeroplane from BAC, integrating the firm into its Bristol Siddeley aero-engine business, but declared it had no interest in the BAC shareholding. Despite this, Rolls-Royce still had not disposed of its BAC shareholding when the business was declared to be bankrupt during 1971. The 20% share was eventually acquired from receivership by Vickers and GEC, which had acquired English Electric during 1968.


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: On 29 April 1977, BAC, the Hawker Siddeley Group and Scottish Aviation were nationalised and merged under the provisions of Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act 1977. This new group was established as a statutory corporation, British Aerospace (BAe).


title: British Aircraft Corporation

text: In addition BAC continued with the Bristol Bloodhound and English Electric Thunderbird surface-to-air missiles.


title: Bennett Miller

text: Bennett Miller (born December 30, 1966) is an American film director, known for directing the acclaimed films "Capote" (2005), "Moneyball" (2011), and "Foxcatcher" (2014). He has been nominated twice for the Academy Award for Best Director.


title: Bennett Miller

text: Miller was born in New York City, to a painter mother and an engineer father. In his youth he knew writer Dan Futterman and actor Philip Seymour Hoffman. He and Futterman were classmates at Mamaroneck High School, and all three participated in the New York State Summer School of the Arts. The three would later collaborate on "Capote".


title: Bennett Miller

text: Miller attended New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, with Hoffman again as a classmate, but dropped out shortly before he would have graduated.


title: Bennett Miller

text: While attending NYU, Miller was a founding member of the short-lived Bullstoi Ensemble theater company along with Hoffman and fellow actor Steven Schub. It was during this time that Miller, Hoffman and Schub made a pact that if any of them ever won an Academy Award, their entire acceptance speech would have to consist of nothing but barking.


title: Bennett Miller

text: Miller began his film career directing the 1998 documentary "The Cruise". As described by Wheeler Winston Dixon, the film documented the "tough life of a tour guide on a New York City bus", and was made using handheld digital cameras. It was a surprise hit, and opened up numerous doors for Miller.


title: Bennett Miller

text: Miller turned down several offers of film projects, until he was able to get support to make the film "Capote" with Philip Seymour Hoffman, who played Truman Capote. The film premiered in September 2005 at the Telluride Film Festival and was released by Sony Pictures Classics.


title: Bennett Miller

text: In 2006 Miller directed the Bob Dylan music video "When the Deal Goes Down" starring Scarlett Johansson. Then, in 2008 he directed Johansson's music video for her Tom Waits cover of "Falling Down" featuring an appearance by Salman Rushdie.


title: Bennett Miller

text: In 2009, Miller was hired by Columbia Pictures to direct the film "Moneyball", based on the 2003 book of the same name by Michael Lewis, after its previously-hired director, Steven Soderbergh, clashed with producers over the tone of the film. The resulting film, released in 2011, was a critical and commercial success.


title: Bennett Miller

text: Miller's most recent film is "Foxcatcher" (2014), starring Steve Carell, Channing Tatum and Mark Ruffalo, a film he began developing in 2006 with Gary Oldman as the lead. The film, produced by Annapurna Pictures and released by Sony Pictures Classics, became a critical success. In his review for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers called the film "a new peak" for Miller, who "takes a scalpel to the privileged worlds of Olympic sports and inherited wealth." It was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Director (Miller), Best Actor (Carell), Best Supporting Actor (Ruffalo), and Best Original Screenplay (E. Max Frye and Dan Futterman).


title: Bennett Miller

text: Miller has directed 6 actors to Oscar nominations: Philip Seymour Hoffman and Catherine Keener for "Capote", Brad Pitt and Jonah Hill for "Moneyball", and Steve Carell and Mark Ruffalo for "Foxcatcher". Hoffman won the Oscar for his work in "Capote".


title: Bennett Miller

text: , Miller appears to be working on a documentary on the topic of future technologies featuring contributions by academics and experts in the field such as Danny Hillis, Ray Kurzweil, Kevin Esvelt and Sherry Turkle.


title: Bennett Miller

text: In a 2014 interview, Miller described himself as "a tumbleweed", saying, "I don't have a company. I don't have a staff. I don't own anything -- I've never owned a car or an apartment."


title: Bennett Miller

text: Miller was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for "Capote" (2005) and "Foxcatcher" (2014). He was also nominated for the David Lean Award for Direction at the BAFTAs in 2006.


title: Bennett Miller

text: He won the Best Director Award () at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival for "Foxcatcher", which was also part of the main competition for the Palme d'Or.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Sang-e-Mar Mar (, ), previously titled "Daasi", is a Pakistani drama serial that aired on Hum TV from 1 September 2016 to 9 March 2017. It stars Nauman Ijaz, Sania Saeed, Mikaal Zulfiqar, Kubra Khan in leading roles with Omair Rana, Paras Masroor, Uzma Hassan, Tipu Sharif and Kaif Ghaznavi in supporting roles. It is directed by Saife Hassan and written by Mustafa Afridi. Focuses on the honour culture in tribal areas, it states that how love and revenge annihilates relations.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: "Sang-e-Mar Mar" is centred around childhood friends Shireen and Aurang. Shireen mistakenly believes that Aurang is the love of her life since their youth, even though they have not seen each other for many years. Aurang, much to the disapproval of his father, has moved to the city to study and is completely unaware of Shireen's love for him. He has feelings for Palwasha, his brother-in-law's sister. Other important characters include Aurang's sister (Bano) and her husband (Torah), Aurang's mother (Shameem), father (Gulistan Khan), and brothers (Saifullah and Goher).


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: "Sang-e-Mar Mar" follows a Pashtun family, which is headed by Gulistan Khan and his wife Shameem. They have three sons—Safiullah, Aurang, and Goher—and a daughter, Bano. The drama begins with the death of Gulistan's aged father Baran Khan whom he kills with his own hands at Baran's request.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Gulistan follows strict Pashtun traditions, such as avoiding western clothing, which is considered a threat to Pashtun traditional values. Gulistan's youngest son Aurang was sent to Peshawar University and, unlike his elder siblings, possesses urban and literal views. His only emotional attachment is to his mother, who is the reason he often visits his village Garhi Baran.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: A second storyline involves Shireen (nicknamed Shiri), the younger sister of Saif-ur-Rehman, a contractor. Shireen lives with her elder brother and his scheming and selfish wife, Pari. As a child, Shireen had a crush on Aurang when they studied at the same madrasa, but since both families live in different villages and Saif-ur-Rehman despises Gulistan, it has been difficult for Shireen and Aurang to interact.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: The third storyline involves Gulistan Khan's daughter, Shehr Bano (nicknamed Bano), who is in an forced marriage with Torah Khan (her cousin) by his late grandfather. Bano is an abusive wife who hates her husband, as she feels she is too beautiful for him (because of her light skin and "pure" Pashtun heritage). Torah is Gulistan's nephew, and is ostracized by the family due to his mother's Bengali heritage.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: The storylines converge with Gulistan's second son Goher, a womanizer who sets his sights on Durkhanay (Shireen's friend). He writes love letters to Durkhanay, who falls in love with him and confides to Shireen. Shireen warns Durkhanay in vain that he is conning her. Pari, Shireen's sister-in-law, manipulates Shireen. Torah finds out about Goher's love affair and sends one of his spies, Bulbul, after him. Goher meets Durkhanay by a stream where he tries to trap Durkhanay but she refuses to show her veiled face. Goher asks Durkhanay to meet him again next week, and gifts her with bangles and a ('braid band').


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Bulbul sees Goher and Durkhanay together. When she leaves for her home, Bulbul starts spying on her. Durkhanay goes to Shireen's home (typically known as Saif-ur-Rehman's home), and Bulbul mistakenly assumes that Shireen is the girl, and reports back to Torah. Meanwhile, Durkhanay shows Shireen the bangles and and asks her to keep the for herself. Despite Shireen's protests, Durkhanay ties the in Shireen's braid. A village midwife arrives at Shireen's home to see Pari, who is pregnant. The woman, Gul, sells and recognizes the in Shireen's braid. She tells Pari that Gulistan's son bought the from her some days ago for someone, and suggests Shireen must be having an affair with him. Pari plans to tell Saif-ur-Rehman so that Shireen is married off as soon as possible.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Torah decides to tell Saif-ur-Rehman about his sister's affair while Aurang plans to leave for Peshawar. Shireen and Durkhanay learn that Goher is Gulistan's son and that he is going to cheat Durkhanay, so both girls decide to return the gifts to him. Pari reveals that she "knows" about Shireen's affair, confronting her about it. This time, Shireen wants to go on behalf of Durkhanay to meet Goher and return the gifts, but Durkhanay insists she should go instead. Torah's spy lies to Saif-ur-Rehman about Shireen meeting Goher, and in a rage, he leaves to go kill them in the name of honor. Durkhanay returns the gifts to Goher and tells him that if he truly loves her to send a proposal to her house. He makes excuses and eventually tries to grab her. Saif-ur-Rehman arrives with his men, catch Goher, and kill him. They do not find Durkhanay, but Saif-ur-Rehman believes it was Shireen. Durkhanay is left heartbroken, and Shireen, Durkhanay, and Pari are the ones who know that Shireen is innocent. Shireen takes the blame for Durkhanay when she discovers the villagers have already been gossiping about her, and no one tells the truth.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Gulistan and his eldest son, Safiullah, are enraged by Goher's murder and decide to kill Saif-ur-Rehman when they find out that he is the killer. However, Pari goes to Gulistan, begs for mercy, and offers Shireen as "vani". Shireen is overjoyed thinking that she is going to marry the love of her life, Aurang, but finds out that she has to marry Safiullah on her wedding day as the Mullah reads her "nikah". Heartbroken and betrayed, she leaves to start her new life as Safiullah's wife and a woman who was given in "vani". Shireen is harassed by Bano and her sister-in-law.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Shameem reveals to Aurang about Gulistan's past killing of his sister-in-law Rakhi (Torah's mother) because she wore a sari and danced in the rain, which he felt was inappropriate. Bulbul tells Safiullah that it was Goher who met with his new wife Shireen, not knowing it was actually Durkhanay.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Safiullah asks Aurang to secretly take Gulalai to the city to see a gynecologist. Shameem overhears and stops Aurang from taking Gulalai; if Gulistan found out, he would be angry, as he finds the city corrupt. Gulalai accuses Shireen of eavesdropping on the conversation and reporting it to Shameem. Although Shireen is innocent, Safiullah believes Gulalai and hits Shireen. Shameem tells Gulalai that Shireen did not report any conversation and forces Gulalai to apologize to Shiri for blaming her, and Gulalai gives a fake apology to Shireen and promises Shameem that she will not go to the city. Aurang witnesses Shireen's abuse, but only supports her on a minimal level. Gulalai leaves for her brother's house in another village at Gulistan's request. Gulalai and Safiullah have other plans: she is to leave with Aurang for the city from her brother's house.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Before Aurang leaves for the city, he and Shameem visit Bano. Aurang and Palwasha have a romantic conversation between them, and Bano interrupts angrily when Aurang says that he one day is going to marry Palwasha. When Bano tells her mother, Shameem is secretly happy but appeases Bano by telling her Aurang is not interested in marrying a village girl. Later, when an overjoyed Shameem tells this to Shireen, she is heartbroken but aware there is no future between her and Aurang, since she is his brother's wife.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Shireen gives Palwasha the peacock feather that Aurang gave to Shiri when they were young, a sign that Shireen understands that Aurang is destined to be Palvasha's and not hers.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: To get his revenge for his brother's death, Safiullah kills Saif-ur-Rehman, goaded on by Torah, who wants to set up the deaths of both Saif-ur-Rehman and Safiullah. Torah wants to amass more property, as he believes it belonged to his own father, and hates Gulistan for killing his mother and the family for using him and making snide remarks about his mother and her skin colour, as well as his own. Aurang and Gulalai return to their village from the city, after discovering that she is only anaemic. On the way home, Gulalai is hit by a fast-approaching truck and dies. As the news of the three deaths is revealed to the respective families, everyone mourns.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Aurang is now the only remaining son of Gulistan, and the two repair their relationship. Gulistan reveals the "mad dog" that he feels is cursing his life, and partakes in the haram practice of usury. Shameem breaks down at dinner, begging Gulistan to stop taking interest under the guise of business; Aurang wraps all of his father's accounting books with the yellow sheet traditionally laid over someone that has been infected by rabies and burns them. Palvasha arrives at Aurang's house at night under the guise of bringing Shameem food, but Aurang sees through her attempts. Unbeknownst to them, Shireen stands outside and becomes heartbroken as they flirt.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Zarri, one of Pari's aunts, convinces her to set up her son, Kalimullah, with Durkhanay. Pari agrees in order to eliminate the last person who knows the truth about Goher's affair, and when Durkhanay's brother Sharifullah, a laborer from Dubai, arrives, he consents to the proposal. Durkhanay mourns the deaths happening around her and blames herself for Shireen's suffering; she goes to offer Shireen her condolences, and at her brother's request, vows to cheer her up. Shiri insists that Durkhanay look forward to the life ahead of herself instead of craving death, wistfully reciting the days of the wedding Durkhanay will have that Shiri herself did not experience. Meanwhile, Sharifullah stays in Pakistan and works for Pari as a , and at first wanted to remarry Shirreen, but is dissuaded by Pari's hateful words against her, who she resents again for having a share in Saif-ur-Rehman's will. Sharifullah forbids Durkhanay to visit Shireen again.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Shireen does not know what to do; in the meantime Gulistan asks Shireen if she would like to marry Aurang. Durkhanay tells Sharifullah that it was her who used to see Gauhar, not Shireen, and gives him a pistol and a Quraan, expecting him to kill her. He does not as he hears the call to prayer and decides against killing her. He says he would like to marry Shireen and Durkhanay, and he goes to Gulistan's house to ask for Shireen's hand in marriage without Pari's knowledge. When Durkhanay and Shireen meet, Shiri tells Durkhanay that her childhood dream of marrying Aurang is coming true. Durkhanay tells Shiri that her brother wants to marry Shireen after learning the truth, but after hearing about the possible match between Shiri and Aurang, she backs off and is happy for her.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: The relationship between Gulistan and Aurang slightly improves but Aurang overhears his father telling Shameemm that he killed Baraan Khan as a mercy killing. He is angry and leaves the house. Pari hears about Aurang and Shireen's match and contacts Bano, who tells Aurang that Shireen is "impure" and is responsible for the murders of Safiullah and Gauhar because her warped thoughts are suggesting that Shireen is responsible for all her problems. Pari falsely swears on the Quran and subsequently gives birth to a stillborn child. She slowly loses touch with reality and becomes completely delusional. Durkhanay sees this and is afraid of her own fate since she also has concealed the truth. She goes to Garhi Baraan and speaks to Gulistan. Meanwhile, Aurang tells Shireen that he has never loved her but fell in love with Palwasha for as long as he knew what love was. Shireen becomes angry and curses Aurang. As she appears to have lost everything, she holds scissors to Bano's throat after Bano taunts her about telling everyone she was responsible for all her brother's deaths. Bano causes a commotion and tells everyone that Shireen attacked her. Shireen lies and tells everyone that she is indeed responsible for the death of Gauhar since she was the one who had an affair with him. Shameem slaps her and Bano attacks her with a stick while Aurang, Palwasha, Gulistan Khan, Shamim and Torah quietly watch this happen. Torah intervenes after getting flashbacks of his mother being beaten by Gulistan. When Bano hits Torah in the head, Palwasha stops Aurang from intervening.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Durkhanay arrives with the letter that Goher gave her and confesses the entire truth about Goher. Upon hearing this, everyone feels stricken. Shameem begs for Shireen's forgiveness on a prayer mat, but Aurang leaves for the city with Palwasha. Torah asks Shireen to marry him as he is tired of getting bullied for his skin colour, but Shireen refuses. A day later, Torah tells Bano that if she does anything wrong he will divorce her in the name of Allah; at that moment, Shireen arrives and says she accepts Torah's request for marriage. Bano, heartbroken, goes to her father's house. The day after, Torah wants Shireen to wear his mother's sari but she is uncomfortable with the idea and makes excuses. He tells her he would help her and slaps her saying that she tried to hurt his sister Palwasha by loving Aurang. Both of them go to Gulistan's house; after Shireen goes inside, he points his gun at Gulistan to avenge his mother's death, saying that if he did not let Bano go with him, he will kill him just like he killed Safiullah and Goher. As he is about to shoot Gulistan, Shameem overhears that Torah Khan killed her sons, and shoots and kills him, claiming that she took Safiullah's and Goher's deaths in revenge.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: "Sang-e-Mar Mar" was developed by Hum TV's senior producer Momina Duraid of MD Productions. The channel hired the director Saife Hassan to direct the series who previously directed "Tum Mere Paas Raho" for the same channel. The story of the series was Written by Mustafa Afridi who also wrote the series such as "Firaaq" and "Aseerzadi" for the channel while script composing is done by Muhammad Wasi-ul-Din who previously scripted "Diyar-e-Dil". The show approximately airs weekly episode for 35–40 minutes (minus commercials) every Thursday.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Song composition is done by Sahir Ali Bagga who previously composed "Sajna ve Sajna" for channel's 2016 series "Udaari". while background music is given by MAD Music. Rahat Fateh Ali Khan was finalised to perform the OST, it marks his return to Hum TV after he performed the OST of "Zara Yaad Kar". The series was given the "Pakeezah" time slot of Thursdays 8:00pm.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Producer Momina Duraid, and director Saife Haasan mutually chose the cast which includes Mikaal Zulfiqar, From 2015, actor Mikaal Zulfiqar was given several shows for the channel including "Diyar-e-Dil", "Maan" and "Sangat" all of which were a commercial success for the channel itself, after channels 2015's success in "Sangat", Zulfiqar once again was finalised to portray the role of "Aurang". Alongside Zulfiqar, Kubra Khan was finalised to portray the role of "Shireen" who made her television debut by this serial. The actress was finalised to portray the character after her debut performance in 2014 film "Na Maloom Afraad". The role was earlier offered to Armeena Rana Khan who could not play it due to date issues.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Veteran actor Noman Ijaz and Sania Saeed was finalised to portray the one of the main roles of "Gulistan Khan" and "Shameen" respectively, made fourth on-screen appearance as a couple after "Jhumka Jan", "Khamoshiyan" and "Aao Kahani Buntay Hain". Uzma Hassan was selected to portray the negative character of "Shehrbano", made her second appearance with Ijaz and Saeed after "Aao Kahani Bunatay Hain" and second with Tipu Sharif as well after "Mohabbat Aag Si". The actress also made her second appearance with Zulfiqar after her appearance in "Tum Meray Hi Rehna". Theater actor Paras Masroor was selected to portray a negative role of "Tora Khan", which was earlier offered to TV director Mohammed Ehteshamuddin who rejected it due his date clashes as he was on the shoot of "Udaari" at that time. Actor Omair Rana was selected to portray the character of "Safiullah" who made her third appearance with Mikaal Zulfiqar after "Maan" and "Tum Mere Kya Ho". Sharmeen Ali and Kaif Ghaznavi were selected to play supporting roles of "Plawasha" and "Pari" respectively while PTV famed actress and host Najiba Faiz was chosen to play the character "Gulalai".


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: The entire production was shot in the Swat District, mainly in the village of Ronyal and its outskirts.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: The title song of "Sang-e-Mar Mar" was composed by musician Sahir Ali Bagga. The lines of the song are frequently used during the course of the show. The original soundtrack was released on 28 September 2016. The song along with production is produced by Momina Duraid under her production company M.D Productions.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: First half soundtrack teaser of the serial was released on 13 August 2016 while full soundtrack was released on 26 August 2016. The OST of the serial received critical acclaim and became the best television OST for 2017 Television season.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: "Sang-e-Mar Mar" premiered on 1 September 2016. "Sang-e-Mar Mar" airs a weekly episode on every Thursday succeeding "Pakeezah", starting from its premiere date, with time slot of 8:00 pm. It was aired on Hum Europe in UK, on Hum TV USA in USA and Hum TV Mena on UAE, with same timings and premiered date. All International broadcasting aired the series in accordance with their standard timings.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: "Sang-e-Mar Mar" was also uploaded on YouTube alongside its airing on TV but In 2017, Hum Network protected all its episodes from YouTube and the series had no episodes available in the Pakistani region. iflix contracted Hum Network and screened all of Hum TV's Shows after syndication, the series remained the part of the same contract. In April 2020, the drama serial was made available on Hum TV's Official site. It is also available on Indian streaming platform MX Player.


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Sadaf Haider of "Dawn News" praised "Sang-e-Mar Mar" saying it is the best critique about honor. Express Tribune wrote, "What’s brilliant about the play is that it uncovers the various social connotations that go into the construct of ‘honour’. The play doesn’t offer judgment but humanises characters and shows just how powerful the effect of revenge can be."


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Writing for Express Tribune, Mahwash Badar called it a MASTERPIECE and praised the writer, Mustafa Afridi and performances of Sania Saeed and Noman Ijaz stating, ""The drama heartrendingly explains how abuse becomes a set DYNAMIC IN HOUSEHOLDS and how it ruins so many families and lives. The performances are categorically flawless and no doubt we see that Sania Saeed and Noman Ijaz are one of the best actors of our generation"". Rizina Bhutto of HIP praised the stellar performances and storyline of the serial stating, ""It is a well-made drama serial with beautiful locations, simple dialogues, strong performances, and a gripping story"".


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: Sadaf Haider of Dawn praised the "Sang-e-Mar Mar"'s direction and writing saying ""Like the recent "Udaari", this serial is set on a broad canvas, touching on social issues, exploring the lives of many characters; introducing us to a world as cold and beautiful as the marble in its title."" While reviewing 10th episode of the serial, Mahwah Ajaz of The Nation praised the series's dialogues and writing saying, ""The dialogues in the play and the situations depicted are brutal and honest and heartbreaking"."


title: Sang-e-Mar Mar

text: In June 2021, Saife Hassan revealed in an exclusive interview that he is set to revive the serial "Sang-e-Mar Mar" with a sequel, titled as 'Sang-e-Mah'. The upcoming series will feature the star cast of Atif Aslam, Kubra Khan, Hania Amir and others. It is basically a trilogy including the third sequel 'Sang-e-Siyah'. "Sang-e-Mah" will be the debut of the singer Atif Aslam on television.


title: Intel 8051

text: The Intel MCS-51 (commonly termed 8051) is a single chip microcontroller (MCU) series developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. The architect of the Intel MCS-51 instruction set was John H. Wharton. Intel's original versions were popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, and enhanced binary compatible derivatives remain popular today. It is an example of a complex instruction set computer (but also possessing some of the features of RISC architectures, such as a large register set and register windows) and has separate memory spaces for program instructions and data.


title: Intel 8051

text: Intel's original MCS-51 family was developed using N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (NMOS) technology, like its predecessor Intel MCS-48, but later versions, identified by a letter C in their name (e.g., 80C51) use complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology and consume less power than their NMOS predecessors. This made them more suitable for battery-powered devices.


title: Intel 8051

text: The family was continued in 1996 with the enhanced 8-bit MCS-151 and the 8/16-bit/32-bit MCS-251 family of binary compatible microcontrollers. While Intel no longer manufactures the MCS-51, MCS-151 and MCS-251 family, enhanced binary compatible derivatives made by numerous vendors remain popular today. Some derivatives integrate a digital signal processor (DSP) or a floating point unit (coprocessor, FPU). Beyond these physical devices, several companies also offer MCS-51 derivatives as IP cores for use in field-programmable gate array (FPGA) or application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) designs.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 8051 architecture provides many functions (central processing unit (CPU), random-access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), input/output (I/O) ports, serial port, interrupt control, timers) in one package:


title: Intel 8051

text: One feature of the 8051 core is the inclusion of a boolean processing engine, which allows bit-level boolean logic operations to be carried out directly and efficiently on select internal registers, ports and select RAM locations. Another feature is the inclusion of four bank selectable working register sets, which greatly reduce the time required to perform the context switches to enter and leave interrupt service routines. With one instruction, the 8051 can switch register banks, avoiding the time-consuming task of transferring the critical registers to RAM.


title: Intel 8051

text: Once a UART, and a timer if necessary, has been configured, the programmer needs only write a simple interrupt routine to refill the "send" shift register whenever the last bit is shifted out by the UART and/or empty the full "receive" shift register (copy the data somewhere else). The main program then performs serial reads and writes simply by reading and writing 8-bit data to stacks.


title: Intel 8051

text: , new derivatives are still being developed by many major chipmakers, and major compiler suppliers such as IAR Systems, Keil and Altium Tasking continuously release updates.


title: Intel 8051

text: MCS-51 based microcontrollers typically include one or two UARTs, two or three timers, 128 or 256 bytes of internal data RAM (16 bytes of which are bit-addressable), up to 128 bytes of I/O, 512 bytes to 64 KB of internal program memory, and sometimes a quantity of extended data RAM (ERAM) located in the external data space. External RAM and ROM share the data and address buses. The original 8051 core ran at 12 clock cycles per machine cycle, with most instructions executing in one or two machine cycles. With a 12 MHz clock frequency, the 8051 could thus execute 1 million one-cycle instructions per second or 500,000 two-cycle instructions per second. Enhanced 8051 cores are now commonly used which run at six, four, two, or even one clock per machine cycle (denoted "1T"), and have clock frequencies of up to 100 MHz, and are thus capable of an even greater number of instructions per second. All Silicon Labs, some Dallas (now part of Maxim Integrated) and a few Atmel (now part of Microchip) devices have single cycle cores.


title: Intel 8051

text: 8051 variants may include built-in reset timers with brown-out detection, on-chip oscillators, self-programmable flash ROM program memory, built-in external RAM, extra internal program storage, bootloader code in ROM, EEPROM non-volatile data storage, IC, SPI, and USB host interfaces, CAN or LIN bus, ZigBee or Bluetooth radio modules, PWM generators, analog comparators, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters, RTCs, extra counters and timers, in-circuit debugging facilities, more interrupt sources, extra power saving modes, more/less parallel ports etc. Intel manufactured a mask programmed version, 8052AH-BASIC, with a BASIC interpreter in ROM, capable of running user programs loaded into RAM.


title: Intel 8051

text: MCS-51 based microcontrollers have been adapted to extreme environments. Examples for high-temperature variants are the Tekmos TK8H51 family for −40°C to +250°C or the Honeywell HT83C51 for −55°C to +225°C (with operation for up to 1 year at +300°C). Radiation-hardenend MCS-51 microcontrollers for use in spacecraft are available; e.g., from Cobham (formerly Aeroflex) as the UT69RH051 or from NIIET as the 1830VE32 ().


title: Intel 8051

text: In some engineering schools, the 8051 microcontroller is used in introductory microcontroller courses.


title: Intel 8051

text: 8051 is the original name by Intel with 4 KB ROM and 128 byte RAM. Variants starting with 87 have a user programmable EPROM, sometimes UV erasable. Variants with a C as the third character are some kind of CMOS. 8031 and 8032 are ROM-less versions, with 128 and 256 bytes RAM. The last digit can indicate memory size, e.g. 8052 with 8 KB ROM, 87C54 16 KB EPROM, and 87C58 with 32 KB EPROM, all with 256 byte RAM.


title: Intel 8051

text: The MCS-51 has four distinct types of memory: internal RAM, special function registers, program memory, and external data memory. To access these efficiently, some compilers utilize as many as 7 types of memory definitions: Internal RAM, single-bit access to internal RAM, special function registers, single-bit access to selected (divisible by 8) special function registers, program RAM, external ram accessed using a register indirect access, using one of the standard 8-bit registers, and register indirect external RAM access utilizing the 16-bit indirect access register.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 8051's instruction set is designed as a Harvard architecture with segregated memory (data and instructions); it can only execute code fetched from program memory, and has no instructions to write to program memory. However, the bus leaving the IC has a single address and data path, and strongly resembles a Von Neumann architecture bus.


title: Intel 8051

text: Most 8051 systems respect the instruction set, and require customized features to download new executable programs, e.g. in flash memory.


title: Intel 8051

text: Internal RAM (IRAM) has an 8-bit address space, using addresses 0 through 0xFF. IRAM from 0x00 to 0x7F contains 128 directly addressable 1-byte registers, which can be accessed using an 8-bit absolute address that is part of the instruction. Alternatively, IRAM can be accessed indirectly: the address is loaded into R0 or R1, and the memory is accessed using the @R0 or @R1 syntax, or as stack memory through the stack pointer SP, with the PUSH and POP operations; and *CALL and RET operations.


title: Intel 8051

text: The original 8051 has only 128 bytes of IRAM. The 8052 added IRAM from 0x80 to 0xFF, which can "only" be accessed indirectly (e.g. for use as stack space). Most 8051 clones also have a full 256 bytes of IRAM.


title: Intel 8051

text: Direct accesses to the IRAM addresses 80-FF are, instead, mapped onto the special function registers (SFR), where the accumulators A, B, carry bit C, and other special registers for control, status, etc., are located.


title: Intel 8051

text: Special function registers (SFR) are located in the same address space as IRAM, at addresses 0x80 to 0xFF, and are accessed directly using the same instructions as for the lower half of IRAM. They cannot be accessed indirectly via @R0 or @R1 or by the stack pointer SP; indirect access to those addresses will access the second half of IRAM, instead.


title: Intel 8051

text: The special function registers (SFR) include the accumulators A (or ACC, at E0) and B (at F0) and program status word (or PSW, at D0), themselves, as well as the 16-bit data pointer DPTR (at 82, as DPL and 83 as DPH). In addition to these, a small core of other special function registers - including the interrupt enable IE at A8 and interrupt priority IP at B8; the I/O ports P0 (80), P1 (90), P2 (A0), P3 (B0); the serial I/O control SCON (98) and buffer SBUF (99); the CPU/power control register PCON (87); and the registers for timers 0 and 1 control (TCON at 88) and operation mode (TMOD at 89), the 16-bit timer 0 (TL0 at 8A, TH0 at 8C) and timer 1 (TL1 at 8B, TH1 at 8D) - are present on all versions of the 8051. Other addresses are version-dependent; in particular, the timer 2 registers for the 8052: the control register T2CON (at C8), the 16-bit capture/latch (RCAP2L at CA, RCAP2H at CB) and timer 2 (TL2 at CC and TH2 at CD), are not included with the 8051.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 32 bytes in IRAM from 0x00–0x1F contains space for four eight-byte register windows, which the 8 registers R0–R7 map to. The currently active window is determined by a two-bit address contained in the program status word.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 16 bytes (128 bits) at IRAM locations 0x20–0x2F contains space for 128 1-bit registers, which are separately addressable as bit registers 00-7F.


title: Intel 8051

text: The remaining bit registers, addressed as 80-FF, are mapped onto the 16 special function registers 80, 88, 90, 98, ..., F0 and F8 (those whose addresses are multiples of 8), and therefore include the bits comprising the accumulators A, B and program status word PSW. The register window address, being bits 3 and 4 on PSW, is itself addressable as bit registers D3 and D4, respectively; while the carry bit C (or CY), at bit 7 of the PSW, is addressable as bit register D7.


title: Intel 8051

text: Program memory (PMEM, though less common in usage than IRAM and XRAM) is up to 64 KB of read-only memory, starting at address 0 in a separate address space. It may be on- or off-chip, depending on the particular model of chip being used. Program memory is read-only, though some variants of the 8051 use on-chip flash memory and provide a method of re-programming the memory in-system or in-application.


title: Intel 8051

text: In addition to code, it is possible to store read-only data such as lookup tables in program memory, retrieved by the or instructions. The address is computed as the sum of the 8-bit accumulator and a 16-bit register (PC or DPTR).


title: Intel 8051

text: Special jump and call instructions ( and ) slightly reduce the size of code that accesses local (within the same 2 KB) program memory.


title: Intel 8051

text: When code larger than 64K is required, a common system makes the code bank-switched, with general-purpose I/O selecting the upper address bits. Some 8051 compilers make provisions to automatically access paged code. In these systems the interrupt vectors and paging table are placed in the first 32K of code, and are always resident.


title: Intel 8051

text: External data memory (XRAM) is a third address space, also starting at address 0, and allowing 16 bits of address space. It can also be on- or off-chip; what makes it "external" is that it must be accessed using the (move external) instruction. Many variants of the 8051 include the standard 256 bytes of IRAM plus a few kilobytes of XRAM on the chip.


title: Intel 8051

text: The first 256 bytes of XRAM may be accessed using the , , , and instructions. The full 64KB may be accessed using and . The 16-bit address requires the programmer to load the 16-bit index register. For this reason, RAM accesses with 16-bit addresses are substantially slower.


title: Intel 8051

text: To permit the use of this feature, some 8051-compatible microcontrollers with internal RAM larger than 256 bytes, or an inability to access external RAM access internal RAM as if it were external, and have a special function register (e.g. PDATA) that permits them to set the upper address of the 256-byte page. This emulates the MCS8051 mode that can page the upper byte of a RAM address by setting the general-purpose I/O pins.


title: Intel 8051

text: When RAM larger than 64K is required, a common system makes the RAM bank-switched, with general-purpose I/O selecting the upper address bits. Some 8051 compilers make provisions to automatically access paged data.


title: Intel 8051

text: The only register on an 8051 that is not memory-mapped is the 16-bit program counter (PC). This specifies the address of the next instruction to execute. Relative branch instructions supply an 8-bit signed offset which is added to the PC.


title: Intel 8051

text: Eight general-purpose registers R0–R7 may be accessed with instructions one byte shorter than others. They are mapped to IRAM between 0x00 and 0x1F. Only eight bytes of that range are used at any given time, determined by the two bank select bits in the PSW.


title: Intel 8051

text: The following is a partial list of the 8051's registers, which are memory-mapped into the special function register space:


title: Intel 8051

text: 256 single bits are directly addressable. These are the 16 IRAM locations from 0x20–0x2F, and the 16 special function registers 0x80, 0x88, 0x90, ..., 0xF8. Any bit of these bytes may be directly accessed by a variety of logical operations and conditional branches.


title: Intel 8051

text: Note that the PSW does not contain the common negative (N), or zero (Z) flags. For the former, the most significant bit of the accumulator can be addressed directly, as it is a bit-addressable SFR. For the latter, there are explicit instructions to jump on whether or not the accumulator is zero. There is also a two-operand compare and jump operation.


title: Intel 8051

text: The parity (P) bit is often used to implement serial modes that include parity. To support this, the standard MCS51 UARTs could send 9 bits.


title: Intel 8051

text: The microarchitecture of the Intel MCS8051 is proprietary, but published features suggest how it works. It is a multi-cycle processor. The MCS8051 used 12 clock cycles for most instructions. Many instructions utilize an accumulator. In contrast, most compatible computers execute instructions in one to three cycles, except for the multiply and divide instructions. The much higher speed is a major reason why these have replaced the MCS8051 in most applications.


title: Intel 8051

text: Each interrupt has four priorities. Within each priority, the interrupts of devices are in a fixed priority.


title: Intel 8051

text: Instructions are all 1 to 3 bytes long, consisting of an initial opcode byte, followed by up to 2 bytes of operands.


title: Intel 8051

text: The most significant nibble specifies the operation as follows. Not all support all addressing modes; the immediate mode in particular is unavailable when the primary operand is written to. Instruction mnemonics use "destination", "source" operand order.


title: Intel 8051

text: Only the , , and instructions set PSW flags. The , , and logical instructions do not. The instruction modifies the C bit only, to the borrow that results from .


title: Intel 8051

text: The irregular instructions comprise 64 opcodes, having more limited addressing modes, plus several opcodes scavenged from inapplicable modes in the regular instructions.


title: Intel 8051

text: The (short jump) opcode takes a signed relative offset byte operand and transfers control there relative to the address of the following instruction. The / opcodes combine the three most significant bits of the opcode byte with the following byte to specify an 11-bit destination that is used to replace 11 bottom bits of the PC register (top 5 bits of PC register remain intact). For larger addresses, the and instructions allow a 16-bit destination.


title: Intel 8051

text: One of the reasons for the 8051's popularity is its range of operations on single bits. Bits are always specified by absolute addresses; there is no register-indirect or indexed addressing. Instructions that operate on single bits are:


title: Intel 8051

text: A bit operand is written in the form . Because the carry flag is bit 7 of the bit-addressable program status word, the , and instructions are shorter equivalents to , and .


title: Intel 8051

text: Although most instructions require that one operand is the accumulator or an immediate constant, opcode 0x85 performs directly between two internal RAM locations.


title: Intel 8051

text: There are various high-level programming language compilers for the 8051. Several C compilers are available for the 8051, most of which allow the programmer to specify where each variable should be stored in its six types of memory, and provide access to 8051 specific hardware features such as the multiple register banks and bit manipulation instructions. There are many commercial C compilers. Small Device C Compiler (SDCC) is a popular open source C compiler.


title: Intel 8051

text: BASIC, Object Pascal, Pascal, PL/M and Modula-2 are available for the 8051, but they are less widely used than C and assembly.


title: Intel 8051

text: Because IRAM, XRAM, and PMEM (read only) all have an address 0, C compilers for the 8051 architecture provide compiler-specific pragmas or other extensions to indicate where a particular piece of data should be stored (i.e. constants in PMEM or variables needing fast access in IRAM). Since data could be in one of three memory spaces, a mechanism is usually provided to allow determining to which memory a pointer refers, either by constraining the pointer type to include the memory space, or by storing metadata with the pointer.


title: Intel 8051

text: Intel discontinued its MCS-51 product line in March 2007; however, there are plenty of enhanced 8051 products or silicon intellectual property added regularly from other vendors.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 8051's predecessor, the 8048, was used in the keyboard of the first IBM PC, where it converted keypresses into the serial data stream which is sent to the main unit of the computer. An Intel 8049 served a similar role in the Sinclair QL. The 8048 and derivatives are still used for basic model keyboards.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 8031 was a reduced version of the original 8051 that had no internal program memory (read-only memory, ROM). To use this chip, external ROM had to be added containing the program that the 8031 would fetch and execute. An 8051 chip could be sold as a ROM-less 8031, as the 8051's internal ROM is disabled by the normal state of the EA pin in an 8031-based design. A vendor might sell an 8051 as an 8031 for any number of reasons, such as faulty code in the 8051's ROM, or simply an oversupply of 8051s and undersupply of 8031s.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 8052 was an enhanced version of the original 8051 that featured 256 bytes of internal RAM instead of 128 bytes, 8 KB of ROM instead of 4 KB, and a third 16-bit timer. Most modern 8051-compatible microcontrollers include these features.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 8751 was an 8051 with 4 KB EPROM instead of 4 KB ROM. They were identical except for the non-volatile memory type. This part was available in a ceramic package with a clear quartz window over the top of the die so UV light could be used to erase the EPROM. Related parts are: 8752 had 8 KB EPROM, 8754 had 16 KB EPROM, 8758 had 32 KB EPROM.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 80C537 (ROM-less) and 80C517 (8 KB ROM) are CMOS versions, designed for the automotive industry. Enhancements mostly include new and enhanced peripherals. The 80C5x7 has fail-safe mechanisms, analog signal processing facilities, enhanced timer capabilities, and a 32-bit arithmetic peripheral. Other features include:


title: Intel 8051

text: Today, 8051s are still available as discrete parts, but they are mostly used as silicon intellectual property cores. Available in hardware description language source code (such as VHDL or Verilog) or FPGA netlist forms, these cores are typically integrated within embedded systems, in products ranging from USB flash drives to washing machines to complex wireless communication systems on a chip. Designers use 8051 silicon IP cores, because of the smaller size, and lower power, compared to 32 bit processors like ARM Cortex-M series, MIPS and BA22.


title: Intel 8051

text: Modern 8051 cores are faster than earlier packaged versions. Design improvements have increased 8051 performance while retaining compatibility with the original MCS 51 instruction set. The original Intel 8051 ran at 12 clock cycles per machine cycle, and most instructions executed in one or two machine cycles. A typical maximum clock frequency of 12 MHz meant these old 8051s could execute one million single-cycle instructions, or 500,000 two-cycle instructions, per second. In contrast, enhanced 8051 silicon IP cores now run at one clock cycle per machine cycle, and have clock frequencies of up to 450 MHz. That means an 8051-compatible processor can now execute instructions per second.


title: Intel 8051

text: Several variants with an additional 16-bit digital signal processor (DSP) (for example for MP3 or Vorbis coding/decoding) with up to 675 million instructions per second (MIPS) and integrated USB 2.0 interface or as intellectual property exist.


title: Intel 8051

text: In 1996 Intel announced the MCS-151 family, an up to 6 times faster variant, that's fully binary and instruction set compatible with 8051. Unlike their 8051 MCS-151 is a pipelined CPU, with 16-bit internal code bus and is 6x the speed. The MCS-151 family was also discontinued by Intel, but is widely available in binary compatible and partly enhanced variants.


title: Intel 8051

text: The 80251 8/16/32-bit microcontroller with 16 MB (24-bit) address-space and 6 times faster instruction cycle was introduced by Intel in 1996. It can perform as an 8-bit 8051, has 24-bit linear addressing, an 8-bit ALU, 8-bit instructions, 16-bit instructions, a limited set of 32-bit instructions, 16 8-bit registers, 16 16-bit registers (8 16-bit registers which do not share space with any 8-bit registers, and 8 16-bit registers which contain 2 8-bit registers per 16-bit register), and 10 32-bit registers (2 dedicated 32-bit registers, and 8 32-bit registers which contain 2 16-bit registers per 32-bit register).


title: Intel 8051

text: It features extended instructions – see also the programmer's guide – and later variants with higher performance, also available as intellectual property (IP). It is 3-stage pipelined. The MCS-251 family was also discontinued by Intel, but is widely available in binary compatible and partly enhanced variants from many manufacturers.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: New Keynesian economics is a school of macroeconomics that strives to provide microeconomic foundations for Keynesian economics. It developed partly as a response to criticisms of Keynesian macroeconomics by adherents of new classical macroeconomics.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: Two main assumptions define the New Keynesian approach to macroeconomics. Like the New Classical approach, New Keynesian macroeconomic analysis usually assumes that households and firms have rational expectations. However, the two schools differ in that New Keynesian analysis usually assumes a variety of market failures. In particular, New Keynesians assume that there is imperfect competition in price and wage setting to help explain why prices and wages can become "sticky", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: Wage and price stickiness, and the other market failures present in New Keynesian models, imply that the economy may fail to attain full employment. Therefore, New Keynesians argue that macroeconomic stabilization by the government (using fiscal policy) and the central bank (using monetary policy) can lead to a more efficient macroeconomic outcome than a "laissez faire" policy would.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: New Keynesianism became part of the new neoclassical synthesis that incorporated parts of both it and new classical macroeconomics, and forms the theoretical basis of mainstream macroeconomics today.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: The first wave of New Keynesian economics developed in the late 1970s. The first model of "Sticky information" was developed by Stanley Fischer in his 1977 article, "Long-Term Contracts, Rational Expectations, and the Optimal Money Supply Rule". He adopted a "staggered" or "overlapping" contract model. Suppose that there are two unions in the economy, who take turns to choose wages. When it is a union's turn, it chooses the wages it will set for the next two periods. This contrasts with John B. Taylor's model where the nominal wage is constant over the contract life, as was subsequently developed in his two articles: one in 1979, "Staggered wage setting in a macro model", and one in 1980, "Aggregate Dynamics and Staggered Contracts". Both Taylor and Fischer contracts share the feature that only the unions setting the wage in the current period are using the latest information: wages in half of the economy still reflect old information. The Taylor model had sticky nominal wages in addition to the sticky information: nominal wages had to be constant over the length of the contract (two periods). These early new Keynesian theories were based on the basic idea that, given fixed nominal wages, a monetary authority (central bank) can control the employment rate. Since wages are fixed at a nominal rate, the monetary authority can control the real wage (wage values adjusted for inflation) by changing the money supply and thus affect the employment rate.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: In the 1980s the key concept of using menu costs in a framework of imperfect competition to explain price stickiness was developed. The concept of a lump-sum cost (menu cost) to changing the price was originally introduced by Sheshinski and Weiss (1977) in their paper looking at the effect of inflation on the frequency of price-changes. The idea of applying it as a general theory of nominal price rigidity was simultaneously put forward by several economists in 1985–86. George Akerlof and Janet Yellen put forward the idea that due to bounded rationality firms will not want to change their price unless the benefit is more than a small amount. This bounded rationality leads to inertia in nominal prices and wages which can lead to output fluctuating at constant nominal prices and wages. Gregory Mankiw took the menu-cost idea and focused on the welfare effects of changes in output resulting from sticky prices. Michael Parkin also put forward the idea. Although the approach initially focused mainly on the rigidity of nominal prices, it was extended to wages and prices by Olivier Blanchard and Nobuhiro Kiyotaki in their influential article "Monopolistic Competition and the Effects of Aggregate Demand". Huw Dixon and Claus Hansen showed that even if menu costs applied to a small sector of the economy, this would influence the rest of the economy and lead to prices in the rest of the economy becoming less responsive to changes in demand.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: While some studies suggested that menu costs are too small to have much of an aggregate impact, Laurence M. Ball and David Romer showed in 1990 that real rigidities could interact with nominal rigidities to create significant disequilibrium. Real rigidities occur whenever a firm is slow to adjust its real prices in response to a changing economic environment. For example, a firm can face real rigidities if it has market power or if its costs for inputs and wages are locked-in by a contract. Ball and Romer argued that real rigidities in the labor market keep a firm's costs high, which makes firms hesitant to cut prices and lose revenue. The expense created by real rigidities combined with the menu cost of changing prices makes it less likely that firm will cut prices to a market clearing level.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: Even if prices are perfectly flexible, imperfect competition can affect the influence of fiscal policy in terms of the multiplier. Huw Dixon and Gregory Mankiw developed independently simple general equilibrium models showing that the fiscal multiplier could be increasing with the degree of imperfect competition in the output market. The reason for this is that imperfect competition in the output market tends to reduce the real wage, leading to the household substituting away from consumption towards leisure. When government spending is increased, the corresponding increase in lump-sum taxation causes both leisure and consumption to decrease (assuming that they are both a normal good). The greater the degree of imperfect competition in the output market, the lower the real wage and hence the more the reduction falls on leisure (i.e. households work more) and less on consumption. Hence the fiscal multiplier is less than one, but increasing in the degree of imperfect competition in the output market.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: In 1983 Guillermo Calvo wrote "Staggered Prices in a Utility-Maximizing Framework". The original article was written in a continuous time mathematical framework, but nowadays is mostly used in its discrete time version. The Calvo model has become the most common way to model nominal rigidity in new Keynesian models. There is a probability that the firm can reset its price in any one period (the hazard rate), or equivalently the probability () that the price will remain unchanged in that period (the survival rate). The probability is sometimes called the "Calvo probability" in this context. In the Calvo model the crucial feature is that the price-setter does not know how long the nominal price will remain in place, in contrast to the Taylor model where the length of contract is known "ex ante".


title: New Keynesian economics

text: Coordination failure was another important new Keynesian concept developed as another potential explanation for recessions and unemployment. In recessions a factory can go idle even though there are people willing to work in it, and people willing to buy its production if they had jobs. In such a scenario, economic downturns appear to be the result of coordination failure: The invisible hand fails to coordinate the usual, optimal, flow of production and consumption. Russell Cooper and Andrew John's 1988 paper "Coordinating Coordination Failures in Keynesian Models" expressed a general form of coordination as models with multiple equilibria where agents could coordinate to improve (or at least not harm) each of their respective situations. Cooper and John based their work on earlier models including Peter Diamond's 1982 coconut model, which demonstrated a case of coordination failure involving search and matching theory. In Diamond's model producers are more likely to produce if they see others producing. The increase in possible trading partners increases the likelihood of a given producer finding someone to trade with. As in other cases of coordination failure, Diamond's model has multiple equilibria, and the welfare of one agent is dependent on the decisions of others. Diamond's model is an example of a "thick-market externality" that causes markets to function better when more people and firms participate in them. Other potential sources of coordination failure include self-fulfilling prophecies. If a firm anticipates a fall in demand, they might cut back on hiring. A lack of job vacancies might worry workers who then cut back on their consumption. This fall in demand meets the firm's expectations, but it is entirely due to the firm's own actions.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: New Keynesians offered explanations for the failure of the labor market to clear. In a Walrasian market, unemployed workers bid down wages until the demand for workers meets the supply. If markets are Walrasian, the ranks of the unemployed would be limited to workers transitioning between jobs and workers who choose not to work because wages are too low to attract them. They developed several theories explaining why markets might leave willing workers unemployed. The most important of these theories, new Keynesians was the efficiency wage theory used to explain long-term effects of previous unemployment, where short-term increases in unemployment become permanent and lead to higher levels of unemployment in the long-run.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: In efficiency wage models, workers are paid at levels that maximize productivity instead of clearing the market. For example, in developing countries, firms might pay more than a market rate to ensure their workers can afford enough nutrition to be productive. Firms might also pay higher wages to increase loyalty and morale, possibly leading to better productivity. Firms can also pay higher than market wages to forestall shirking. Shirking models were particularly influential.Carl Shapiro and Joseph Stiglitz's 1984 paper "Equilibrium Unemployment as a Worker Discipline Device" created a model where employees tend to avoid work unless firms can monitor worker effort and threaten slacking employees with unemployment. If the economy is at full employment, a fired shirker simply moves to a new job. Individual firms pay their workers a premium over the market rate to ensure their workers would rather work and keep their current job instead of shirking and risk having to move to a new job. Since each firm pays more than market clearing wages, the aggregated labor market fails to clear. This creates a pool of unemployed laborers and adds to the expense of getting fired. Workers not only risk a lower wage, they risk being stuck in the pool of unemployed. Keeping wages above market clearing levels creates a serious disincentive to shirk that makes workers more efficient even though it leaves some willing workers unemployed.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: In the early 1990s, economists began to combine the elements of new Keynesian economics developed in the 1980s and earlier with Real Business Cycle Theory. RBC models were dynamic but assumed perfect competition; new Keynesian models were primarily static but based on imperfect competition. The new neoclassical synthesis essentially combined the dynamic aspects of RBC with imperfect competition and nominal rigidities of new Keynesian models. Tack Yun was one of the first to do this, in a model that used the Calvo pricing model. Goodfriend and King proposed a list of four elements that are central to the new synthesis: intertemporal optimization, rational expectations, imperfect competition, and costly price adjustment (menu costs). Goodfriend and King also find that the consensus models produce certain policy implications: whilst monetary policy can affect real output in the short-run, but there is no long-run trade-off: money is not neutral in the short-run but it is in the long-run. Inflation has negative welfare effects. It is important for central banks to maintain credibility through rules based policy like inflation targeting.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: In 1993, John B Taylor formulated the idea of a Taylor rule, which is a reduced form approximation of the responsiveness of the nominal interest rate, as set by the central bank, to changes in inflation, output, or other economic conditions. In particular, the rule describes how, for each one-percent increase in inflation, the central bank tends raise the nominal interest rate by more than one percentage point. This aspect of the rule is often called the Taylor principle. Although such rules provide concise, descriptive proxies for central bank policy, they are not, in practice, explicitly proscriptively considered by central banks when setting nominal rates.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: Taylor's original version of the rule describes how the nominal interest rate responds to divergences of actual inflation rates from "target" inflation rates and of actual gross domestic product (GDP) from "potential" GDP:


title: New Keynesian economics

text: In this equation, formula_2 is the target short-term nominal interest rate (e.g. the federal funds rate in the US, the Bank of England base rate in the UK), formula_3 is the rate of inflation as measured by the GDP deflator, formula_4 is the desired rate of inflation, formula_5 is the assumed equilibrium real interest rate, formula_6 is the logarithm of real GDP, and formula_7 is the logarithm of potential output, as determined by a linear trend.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: The New Keynesian Phillips curve was originally derived by Roberts in 1995, and has since been used in most state-of-the-art New Keynesian DSGE models. The new Keynesian Phillips curve says that this period's inflation depends on current output and the expectations of next period's inflation. The curve is derived from the dynamic Calvo model of pricing and in mathematical terms is:


title: New Keynesian economics

text: The current period expectations of next period's inflation are incorporated as formula_9, where formula_10 is the discount factor. The constant formula_11 captures the response of inflation to output, and is largely determined by the probability of changing price in any period, which is formula_12:


title: New Keynesian economics

text: The less rigid nominal prices are (the higher is formula_12), the greater the effect of output on current inflation.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: The ideas developed in the 1990s were put together to develop the new Keynesian dynamic stochastic general equilibrium used to analyze monetary policy. This culminated in the three-equation new Keynesian model found in the survey by Richard Clarida, Jordi Gali, and Mark Gertler in the "Journal of Economic Literature". It combines the two equations of the new Keynesian Phillips curve and the Taylor rule with the "dynamic IS curve" derived from the optimal dynamic consumption equation (household's Euler equation).


title: New Keynesian economics

text: These three equations formed a relatively simple model which could be used for the theoretical analysis of policy issues. However, the model was oversimplified in some respects (for example, there is no capital or investment). Also, it does not perform well empirically.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: Whilst the models of the 1990s focused on sticky prices in the output market, in 2000 Christopher Erceg, Dale Henderson and Andrew Levin adopted the Blanchard and Kiyotaki model of unionized labor markets by combining it with the Calvo pricing approach and introduced it into a new Keynesian DSGE model.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: To have models that worked well with the data and could be used for policy simulations, quite complicated new Keynesian models were developed with several features. Seminal papers were published by Frank Smets and Rafael Wouters and also Lawrence J. Christiano, Martin Eichenbaum and Charles Evans The common features of these models included:


title: New Keynesian economics

text: The idea of sticky information found in Fischer's model was later developed by Gregory Mankiw and Ricardo Reis. This added a new feature to Fischer's model: there is a fixed probability that a worker can replan their wages or prices each period. Using quarterly data, they assumed a value of 25%: that is, each quarter 25% of randomly chosen firms/unions can plan a trajectory of current and future prices based on current information. Thus if we consider the current period: 25% of prices will be based on the latest information available; the rest on information that was available when they last were able to replan their price trajectory. Mankiw and Reis found that the model of sticky information provided a good way of explaining inflation persistence.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: Sticky information models do not have nominal rigidity: firms or unions are free to choose different prices or wages for each period. It is the information that is sticky, not the prices. Thus when a firm gets lucky and can re-plan its current and future prices, it will choose a trajectory of what it believes will be the optimal prices now and in the future. In general, this will involve setting a different price every period covered by the plan. This is at odds with the empirical evidence on prices. There are now many studies of price rigidity in different countries: the United States, the Eurozone, the United Kingdom and others. These studies all show that whilst there are some sectors where prices change frequently, there are also other sectors where prices remain fixed over time. The lack of sticky prices in the sticky information model is inconsistent with the behavior of prices in most of the economy. This has led to attempts to formulate a "dual stickiness" model that combines sticky information with sticky prices.


title: New Keynesian economics

text: The 2010s saw the development of models incorporating household heterogeneity into the standard New Keynesian framework, commonly referred as 'HANK' models (Heterogeneous Agent New Keynesian). In addition to sticky prices, a typical HANK model features uninsurable idiosyncratic labor income risk which gives rise to a non-degenerate wealth distribution. The earliest models with these two features include Oh and Reis (2012), McKay and Reis (2016) and Guerrieri and Lorenzoni (2017).


title: New Keynesian economics

text: The name "HANK model" was coined by Greg Kaplan, Benjamin Moll and Gianluca Violante in a 2018 paper that additionally models households as accumulating two types of assets, one liquid and the other illiquid. This translates into rich heterogeneity in portfolio composition across households. In particular, the model fits empirical evidence by featuring a large share of households holding little liquid wealth: the 'hand-to-mouth' households. Consistent with empirical evidence, about two-thirds of these households hold non-trivial amounts of illiquid wealth, despite holding little liquid wealth. These households are known as wealthy hand-to-mouth households, a term introduced in a 2014 study of fiscal stimulus policies by Kaplan and Violante.