title: Human development (economics)

text: The Human Development Index is a way for people and nations to see the policy flaws of regions and countries. Although the releasing of this information is believed to encourage countries to alter their policies, there is no evidence demonstrating changes nor is there any motivation for countries to do so.


title: Human development (economics)

text: The Human Development Index (HDI) is the normalized measure of life expectancy, education and per capita income for countries worldwide. It is an improved standard means of measuring well-being, especially child welfare and thus human development. Although this index makes an effort to simplify human development, it is much more complex than any index or set of indicators.


title: Human development (economics)

text: The 2007 report showed a small increase in world HDI in comparison with the previous year's report. This rise was fueled by a general improvement in the developing world, especially of the least developed countries group. This marked improvement at the bottom was offset with a decrease in HDI of high income countries.


title: Human development (economics)

text: To reflect gaps in the Human Development Index, the United Nations came out with the Human Poverty Index (HPI) in 1997. The HPI measures the deficiencies in the three indexes of the human development index: long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. The HPI is meant to provide a broader view of human development and is adapted to developed countries to reveal social exclusion.


title: Human development (economics)

text: The Social Progress Index is published by the non-profit Social Progress Imperative. It combines indicators related to social welfare, equality, personal freedom and sustainability.


title: Human development (economics)

text: In an attempt to promote human development, the United Nations supports decennial Earth Summits where the members to the UN bring together the best of humanity. In several rounds they discuss what are humanities biggest problems, quantify them and develop a plan of action on how to solve these problems. This plan of action is called Agenda 21an agenda to make sure humanity will still be around after the year 2100. Thousands of cities now have a local Agenda 21 and more and more companies and organisations also align their strategic plan with the strategic plan of Agenda21. With the approaching of the year 2000, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan was compelled to develop something that existed in the private sector: setting out a long term plan, a mid term plan and a short term planning. This endeavour supports on Agenda21 and was named the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which ran from 2000–2015. The United Nations made a commitment to accomplish these goals by 2015 and thus make an attempt to promote human development.


title: Human development (economics)

text: As the experience of this exercise was perceived successful, a follow-up program was developed and named as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).


title: Human development (economics)

text: In 2020, the International Science Council (ISC) and the Human Development Programme (UNDP) have started an initiative on Rethinking Human Development exploring the multiple dimensions and viewpoints regarding what Human Development means in today’s world.


title: Human development (economics)

text: Leandro Prados de la Escosura has an alternative dataset for human development, which he calls the Augmented Human Development Index.


title: Taj Gibson

text: Taj Jami Gibson (born June 24, 1985) is an American professional basketball player for the Washington Wizards of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Gibson played college basketball for the USC Trojans and was selected 26th overall by the Chicago Bulls in the 2009 NBA draft. The power forward played mostly a sixth man role off the bench for the Bulls before being traded to the Oklahoma City Thunder in 2017, later signing with the Minnesota Timberwolves the same year. In 2019, he signed with the Knicks.


title: Taj Gibson

text: Gibson was born on June 24, 1985, in Brooklyn, New York. He attended P.S. 67 Charles A. Dorsey School in Brooklyn's Fort Greene neighborhood. Gibson began his high school career at Brooklyn's High School of Telecommunication Arts and Technology. He then attended Stoneridge Prep as a sophomore and junior in Tarzana, California. During his senior year in 2006, he attended Calvary Christian in San Fernando, California.


title: Taj Gibson

text: Gibson played at the University of Southern California, where he was a member of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity. As one of the oldest freshmen in the country at age 21 in 2007 he was named to the Pac-10 All-Freshman team. He helped beat rival UCLA in 2008. Gibson was named to the 2009 All-Pac 10 Tournament Team by helping the Trojans win the Pacific-10 tournament championship at the Staples Center.


title: Taj Gibson

text: Gibson declared for the 2009 NBA draft, and was selected 26th overall by the Chicago Bulls. Along with fellow draft pick James Johnson, he signed with the Bulls in July 2009. Gibson was the starting power forward for most of his rookie season with the Bulls and impressed many people with his high energy and good defense. During the All-Star Weekend, Gibson played in the Rookie Challenge, where the Rookie team won for the first time since 2002. The Bulls made the playoffs, securing the 8th seed in the Eastern Conference. Gibson averaged 7.6 points per game and 7.0 rebounds while the Bulls lost to the Cleveland Cavaliers in the first round. At the end of his first season, he was selected to the NBA All-Rookie First Team.


title: Taj Gibson

text: During the 2010 off-season, the Bulls signed power forward Carlos Boozer, who was expected to start at the beginning of the season rather than Gibson. But Boozer broke his hand before the pre-season, and Gibson started the first 15 games of the season. After Boozer's return, Gibson moved into a bench role for most of the season. He was selected as a starter for the Sophomore squad in the 2011 NBA Rising Stars challenge at the All-Star weekend, which the Rookie team won 148–140. Gibson played 18 minutes and recorded 8 points. At the end of the season, the Bulls made the playoffs as the first seed in the Eastern Conference. On May 10, 2011, Gibson helped his team take a 3–2 lead in the Eastern Conference semifinals against Atlanta, making all of his 11 points in the fourth quarter.


title: Taj Gibson

text: In May 2012, Gibson was named to the US Select Team, joining the likes of Jeremy Lin, DeMarcus Cousins, and Kyrie Irving in practicing with the US Olympic Team in preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. On October 31, 2012, Gibson signed a multi-year rookie scale contract extension with the Bulls. Playing mostly a bench role in 2013–14, Gibson averaged 13 points and 6.8 rebounds on the season and was among the league leaders in blocked shots per game. He finished second in the NBA's Sixth Man of the Year Award, losing to Jamal Crawford. On June 16, 2015, Gibson underwent arthroscopic surgery on his left ankle and was ruled out for four months. During the 2015–16 season, he appeared in 73 games and averaged 8.6 points and 6.9 rebounds.


title: Taj Gibson

text: On February 23, 2017, Gibson was traded, along with Doug McDermott and an unprotected 2018 second-round draft pick, to the Oklahoma City Thunder in exchange for Joffrey Lauvergne, Anthony Morrow, and Cameron Payne.


title: Taj Gibson

text: On July 10, 2017, Gibson signed with the Minnesota Timberwolves, reuniting himself with coach Tom Thibodeau. He became the second NBA player ever to wear No. 67, in honor of his Brooklyn elementary school, P.S. 67. On November 22, 2017, he scored a season-high 24 points in a 124–118 win over the Orlando Magic. On February 15, 2018, Gibson scored a season-high 28 points against the Los Angeles Lakers.


title: Taj Gibson

text: On July 9, 2019, Gibson signed with the New York Knicks. On November 19, 2020, the Knicks waived Gibson. On January 7, 2021, Gibson re-signed with the Knicks.


"Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh (A Letter from Camp)" is a novelty song recorded by Allan Sherman. The melody is taken from the ballet "Dance of the Hours" from the Opera "La Gioconda" by Amilcare Ponchielli, while the lyrics were written by Allan Sherman and Lou Busch.


title: Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh (A Letter from Camp)

text: Allan based the lyrics on letters of complaint which he received from his son Robert who was attending Camp Champlain, a summer camp in Westport, New York.


text: In 2020, the song was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". The song's mention of "Leonard Skinner", a boy at the camp who "got ptomaine poisoning last night after dinner", was an inspiration for the name of the band Lynyrd Skynyrd, although the band's name was also inspired by a physical education instructor of the same name.


text: The song is a parody that complains about the fictional "Camp Granada" and is set to the tune of Amilcare Ponchielli's "Dance of the Hours", from the opera "La Gioconda". The name derives from the first lines:


text: The lyrics go on to describe unpleasant, dangerous, and tragic developments, such as fellow campers going missing or contracting deadly illnesses. He asks how his "precious little brother" is doing, and begs to be taken home, afraid of being left out in the forest and fearing getting eaten by a bear, promising to behave, and even letting his aunt Bertha hug and kiss him. At the end, he notes that the rain has stopped and fun activities have begun (such as swimming, sailing, and baseball), and asks his parents to "kindly disregard this letter".


text: The song scored No. 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 list for three weeks beginning on August 24, 1963. It was kept from No. 1 by both "Fingertips" by "Little" Stevie Wonder and "My Boyfriend's Back" by The Angels. This song hit number 1 in Hong Kong, where there are no summer camps in existence, according to Alan Sherman in his book "A Gift of Laughter" (1965). Sherman wrote a new "back at Camp Granada" version, "Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh! 64", for a May 27, 1964, performance on "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson". Sherman began that version by giving a camp whistle, followed by his spelling Granada's name, and then sticks out his tongue. In that version, the narrator is back at camp, recovering from his compound fracture, where some things, like the food have improved, "because the little black things in it are not moving". However, no one knows where his bunk, trunk, or the skunk is. The narrator wishes that the showers, that have thin doors, were moved indoors. The narrator takes swimming lessons from an overweight woman. ("A Whale in a Bikini"). Lenny Bruce was scheduled to entertain there at the camp. The narrator loves the camp, missing the poker games, and requesting Unguentine. The narrator is taking care of his once homesick younger brother, who does not know how to blow his nose, and who has a bedwetting problem. This version was released as a single in 1964. Sherman wrote a third version for, and acted in, a 1965 TV commercial for a board game about Camp Granada, a "real rotten camp". The original version also reached #9 on the Pop-Standard Singles chart.


text: The song won the 1964 Grammy Award for Best Comedy Performance. It was played frequently on the "Dr. Demento Show" and is featured on the Rhino Records compilation album, "Dr. Demento 20th Anniversary Collection". It was played over the end credits of the 1993 film "Indian Summer" and was briefly heard in "The Simpsons" episode "Marge Be Not Proud" after Bart Simpson switches the family's answering machine cassette tapes, to which Homer got confused and assumed it was Lisa phoning from a summer camp. It was featured in the final scene of The King of Queens episode "Tube Stakes", during which main character Arthur Spooner performs his morning stretches.


text: The song remains a favorite at summer camps; despite Sherman largely being forgotten on oldies radio, the song has passed down through the oral tradition through parents and camp counselors, a rare example of a song maintaining popularity through means other than mass media.


text: Variations of the song include adaptations in Swedish ("Brev från kolonien" by Cornelis Vreeswijk), Finnish ("Terve mutsi, terve fatsi, tässä teidän ihmelapsi") and Norwegian ("Brev fra leier'n" by Birgit Strøm). The Finnish version is included in the Finnish Boy Scouts' songbook. The Swedish version notably does not revolve around the camper hating the camp, but is about the kids running roughshod over it and having run off all the counselors, one of whom has committed suicide after they let a snake into the mess hall, and the organizer of the camp being arrested by police after the kids start a forest fire. The song begins with the boy writing the letter asking his parents to send more money, because he has lost all his pocket money playing dice with the other campers. The song then ends with the boy having to wrap up the letter as he is about to join the others in burning down the neighboring camp lodge.


text: The Hebrew version was translated by playwright Hanoch Levin, and performed by the IDF's Armored Corps band's lead singer Tiki Dayan. The girl camper, in this version, goes through similar situations to the English original, but the camp itself is hinted to be more like a prison (e.g. she is writing from "my cell"). The camper wishes she could be back in school with its abusive teachers and principal.


text: The Dutch version "Brief uit la Courtine" sung by Rijk de Gooyer is not about a children's summer camp, but about a soldier in the Dutch army camp at La Courtine, France.


text: The Austrian comedian Paul Pizzera presented a German interpretation with the title "Jungscharlager" in 2013.


text: The American Jewish singer/comedian Country Yossi sings a Yiddish version called "Camp Zlateh" on his 1988 album "Captured".


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Since the early Islamic states of the eighth and ninth centuries, Sharia always existed alongside other normative systems.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis), based on Islamic scriptural sources and various legal methodologies. In the modern era, statutes inspired by European codes replaced traditional laws in most parts of the Muslim world, with classical sharia rules retained mainly in personal status (family) laws. These laws were codified by legislative bodies which sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for full implementation of sharia, including "hudud" capital punishments, such as stoning, which in some cases resulted in traditionalist legal reform. Some countries with Muslim minorities use sharia-based laws to regulate marriage, inheritance and other personal affairs of their Muslim population.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia is a religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, "sunnah" (authentic hadith), "qiyas" (analogical reasoning), and "ijma" (juridical consensus). Different legal schools—of which the most prominent are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and Jafari (Shia)—developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources. Traditional jurisprudence ("fiqh") distinguishes two principal branches of law, "ʿibādāt" (rituals) and "muʿāmalāt" (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics. Thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Classical jurisprudence was elaborated by private religious scholars, largely through legal opinions (fatwas) issued by qualified jurists (muftis). It was historically applied in sharia courts by ruler-appointed judges, who dealt mainly with civil disputes and community affairs. Sultanic courts, the police and market inspectors administered criminal justice, which was influenced by sharia but not bound by its rules. Non-Muslim (dhimmi) communities had legal autonomy to adjudicate their internal affairs. Over the centuries, Sunni muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, and fiqh was complemented by various economic, criminal and administrative laws issued by Muslim rulers. The Ottoman civil code of 1869–1876 was the first partial attempt to codify sharia.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In the modern era, traditional laws in the Muslim world have been widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education were likewise brought in line with European practice. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislators who codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for full implementation of sharia, including "hudud" capital punishments, such as stoning. In some cases, this resulted in traditionalist legal reform, while other countries witnessed juridical reinterpretation of sharia advocated by progressive reformers. While "hudud" punishments hold symbolic importance for their proponents and have attracted international attention, in countries where they make part of the legal system, they have been used infrequently or not at all, and their application has varied depending on local political climate.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Some Muslim-minority countries recognize the use of sharia-based family laws for their Muslim populations. The adoption and demand for sharia in the legal system of nations with significant Muslim-minorities is an active topic of international debate. Reintroducing sharia in Muslim-majority nations has been described as "a longstanding goal for Islamist movements", and attempts to introduce or expand sharia have been accompanied by controversy, violence, and even warfare.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The legal systems of Muslim countries may be grouped as: mixed systems, classical sharia systems, and secular systems.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Under this system, shared by a small minority of modern countries, classical sharia is formally equated with national law and to a great extent provides its substance. The state has a ruler who functions as the highest judiciary and may promulgate and modify laws in some legal domains, but traditional religious scholars ("ulama") play a decisive role in interpreting sharia. The classical sharia system is exemplified by Saudi Arabia and some other Gulf states. Iran shares many of the same features, but also possesses characteristics of mixed legal systems, such as a parliament and codified laws.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Secular systems are those where sharia plays no role in the nation's legal system and religious interference in state affairs, politics, and law is not permitted. Turkey has been an example of a Muslim-majority nation with a secular system, although its secularism has recently come under intense pressure. Several states in West Africa and Central Asia also describe themselves as secular.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Most Muslim countries have mixed legal systems that postulate a constitution and Rule of Law, while also allowing rules of traditional Islamic jurisprudence to influence certain areas of national law. These systems possess large bodies of codified laws, which may be based on European or Indian codes. In these systems, the central legislative role is played by politicians and modern jurists rather than traditional religious scholars. Pakistan, Egypt, Malaysia, and Nigeria are examples of states having mixed systems. Some countries with Muslim minorities, such as Israel, also have mixed systems that administer Sharia for their Muslim population.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Most Muslim-majority countries incorporate sharia at some level in their legal framework. Their constitutions commonly refer to sharia as a source or the main source of law, though these references are not in themselves indicative of how much the legal system is influenced by sharia, and whether the influence has a traditionalist or modernist character. The same constitutions usually also refer to universal principles such as democracy and human rights, leaving it up to legislators and the judiciary to work out how these norms are to be reconciled in practice. Conversely, some countries (e.g., Algeria), whose constitution does not mention sharia, possess sharia-based family laws. Nisrine Abiad identifies Bahrain, Iran, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia as states with "strong constitutional consequences" of sharia "on the organization and functioning of power".


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Except for secular systems, Muslim-majority countries possess sharia-based family laws (marriage, inheritance, etc.). These laws generally reflect influence of various modern-era reforms and tend to be characterized by ambiguity, with traditional and modernist interpretations often manifesting themselves in the same country, both in legislation and court decisions. In Greece (Only in Thrace. Rest of country does not use sharia family law whatsoever), Indonesia (Outside of Aceh, and in most circumstances except a few.), and Nigeria (outside the states using sharia law), Senegal (Sharia personal laws are not used whatsoever outside succession), and in the UK (Sharia law in personal matters is used only in extrajudicial courts and is not used whatsoever in the British legal system) people can choose whether to pursue a case in a sharia or secular court.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Countries in the Muslim world generally have criminal codes influenced by French law or common law, and in some cases a combination of Western legal traditions. Saudi Arabia has never adopted a criminal code and Saudi judges still follow traditional Hanbali jurisprudence. In the course of Islamization campaigns, several countries (Libya, Pakistan, Iran, Sudan, Mauritania, and Yemen) inserted Islamic criminal laws into their penal codes, which were otherwise based on Western models. In some countries only "hudud" penalties were added, while others also enacted provisions for "qisas" (law of retaliation) and "diya" (monetary compensation). Iran subsequently issued a new "Islamic Penal Code". The criminal codes of Afghanistan and United Arab Emirates contain a general provision that certain crimes are to be punished according to Sharia, without specifying the penalties. Some Nigerian states have also enacted Islamic criminal laws. Laws in the Indonesian province of Aceh provide for application of discretionary ("ta'zir") punishments for violation of Islamic norms, but explicitly exclude "hudud" and "qisas". Brunei has been implementing a "Sharia Penal Code", which includes provisions for stoning and amputation, in stages since 2014. The countries where "hudud" penalties are legal do not use stoning and amputation routinely, and generally apply other punishments instead.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 222 of the Family Code of 1983 specifies sharia as the residuary source of laws. According to the U.S. State Department, the sharia-derived family code treats women as minors under the legal guardianship of a husband or male relative, though in practice the implied restrictions are not uniformly enforced.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The legal system is based on both Sharia and remnants of the French legal code. According to the article 229-7 of the Penal Code, any Muslim who makes use of products forbidden by Sharia can be punished by imprisonment of up to six months.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The Family Code is mainly derived from Sharia and regulates personal status matters such as marriage, divorce, child custody and inheritance. Sharia does not apply to criminal law.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 2 of Egypt's 2014 Constitution declares the principles of Islamic sharia to be the main source of legislation. Egypt's law and enforcement system are in flux since its 2011 Revolution; however, the declaration of Sharia's primacy in Article 2 is a potential ground for unconstitutionality of any secular laws in Egyptian legal code. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of Justice. The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Muslims are required to use sharia courts for cases dealing with marriage, inheritance and family of Muslims.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Muslims are required to use sharia law for cases regarding marriage, divorce, maintenance, guardianship of minors (only if both parties are Muslims). Also included are cases concerning waqfs, gifts, succession, or wills, provided that donor is a Muslim or deceased was a Muslim at time of death.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 7 of the constitution identifies sharia as source of law in matters of personal status and inheritance among members of communities to which it applies.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Ghana is a secular state. Any other laws inconsistent with the national constitution are deemed null and void. No religious laws are applied in civil or criminal cases .


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia is applied by Kadhis' Courts where "all the parties profess the Muslim religion". Under article 170, section 5 of the constitution, the jurisdiction of Kadhis' court is limited to matters relating to "personal status, marriage, divorce or inheritance in proceedings in which all the parties profess the Muslim religion, and Muslims are then required to use the jurisdiction of the Kadhi’s courts".


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Muammar Gaddafi merged civil and sharia courts in 1973. Civil courts now employ sharia judges who sit in regular courts of appeal and specialise in sharia appellate cases. The personal status laws are derived from Sharia.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: It has a civil law system influenced by customary law. In urban areas, positive law is common. In rural areas the customary law usually dominates. Local rural versions of sharia are the predominant sources for customary law. Article 25 in Title II of Mali's constitution declares it to be a secular state.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The Penal Code contains Sharia crimes such as heresy, apostasy, atheism, refusal to pray, adultery and alcohol consumption. Punishments include lapidation, amputation and flagellation.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Muslim Personal Laws apply to Muslims. Polygamy is allowed but the government officially recognize monogamous marriage.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In 1956, a Code of Personal Status (Mudawana) was issued, based on dominant Maliki school of Sharia jurisprudence. Regional Sharia courts also hear personal status cases on appeal. In matters of family law, a woman's testimony is worth only half of that of a man. With 2003 reforms of its criminal law, Article 222 of its new criminal code is derived from Sharia; Articles 220–221, 268–272 of its criminal law similarly codify those activities as crimes that are prohibited under Sharia. Morocco adopted a new constitution in 2011; Article 41 of this constitution granted sole power to the Superior Council of the Ulemas to guide its laws through Fatwas from principles, precepts and designs of Islam.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Paula Rainha states that, "Mozambique’s legal system can be considered civil law based (at least the formal legal system) and legislation is the primary source of law."


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia states: Until 1999, Sharia applied primarily to civil matters, but twelve of Nigeria's thirty-six states have since extended Sharia to criminal matters. Sharia courts can order amputations, and a few have been carried out. The twelve sharia states are Zamfara, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Niger, Sokoto and Yobe.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The legal system of Senegal is based on French civil law. The 1972 Family Code ("Code de la famille") is secular in nature. Sharia is allowed by article 571 of the Family Code only in the case of intestate successions, and only if the person had demonstrated in life a wish that his succession would be regulated by Sharia. Most succession cases are decided under this provision. There has been growing political attempts to introduce more sharia regulations.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia was adopted in 2009. Article 2 of Somali 2012 Constitution states no law can be enacted that is not compliant with the general principles and objectives of Sharia. Sharia currently influences all aspects of "Xeer" as well as Somalia's formal legal system.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia has been previously declared the chief source of all legislation in Sudan's 1968, 1973 and 1998 Constitutions. In 2005, Sudan adopted an interim national constitution; it removed some references to Sharia, but included Sharia-derived criminal, civil and personal legal codes, as well as Sharia-mandated hudud punishments. The Criminal Act of 1991 prescribes punishments which include forty lashes for drinking alcohol, amputation of the right hand for theft of a certain value and stoning for adultery. However, there is no record of either any amputation or stoning ever having taken place in Sudan.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The use of Sharia in Sudan ended in September 2020, when Sudan officially became a secular state after Sudan's transitional government agreed to separate religion from the state, ending 30 years of Islamic rule and Islam as the official state religion in the North African nation. It also scrapped the apostasy law and public flogging.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: However after 1 year of military coup took place, sharia got installed once again and harsh punishment like floggings still exist according to article 146.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia is applicable to Muslims under the Judicature and Applications of Laws Act, empowering courts to apply Sharia to matters of succession in communities that generally follow Sharia in matters of personal status and inheritance. Unlike mainland Tanzania, Zanzibar retains Islamic courts.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Tunisia has a long secular tradition with a legal system based on French civil law. The Law of Personal Status, considered a reference in secular family law across the Arab world, bans polygamy and extrajudicial divorce. Sharia courts were abolished in 1956. Secular inheritance laws are indirectly based on Islamic jurisprudence, with religion never being mentioned in the Code of Personal Status; these laws accord to women half the share of property due to men.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 129 (1) (d) of the constitution allows the parliament to establish by law "Qadhi’s courts for marriage, divorce, inheritance of property and guardianship".


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia is explicitly banned in Quebec, Canada, upheld by a unanimous vote against it in 2005 by the National Assembly of Quebec, while the province of Ontario allows family law disputes to be arbitrated only under Ontario law.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In the United States, various states have outlawed sharia, or passed some form of ballot measure that prohibits state courts from considering foreign, international or religious law in their decisions. these include Alabama, Arizona, Kansas, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Dakota and Tennessee.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Criminal law in Afghanistan continues to be governed in large part by Sharia. The 1976 Criminal Code introduced a quasi-secular system for all "tazir" offenses, but provided for application of "hudud", "qisas" and "tazir" according to the principles of Hanafi jurisprudence. In practice, as of 2003, the 1976 code was not widely applied, and virtually all courts, including the Supreme Court of Afghanistan, relied on Sharia directly.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 2 of Bahrain's 2002 Constitution as originally adopted, as well as after February 2012 amendment, declares Islamic Sharia is a chief source of legislation. Four tiers of ordinary courts have jurisdiction over cases related to civil, administrative and criminal matters, with Court of Cassation the highest civil court in Bahrain; in all matters, the judges are required to resort to Sharia in case legislation is silent or unclear. Sharia courts handle personal status laws.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: A personal status law was codified in 2009 to regulate personal status matters. It applies only to Sunni Muslims; there is no codified personal status law for Shiites. In a Shari’a court a Muslim woman's testimony is worth half of that of a Muslim man.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Bangladesh has a secular constitution but marriage, divorce, alimony and property inheritance are regulated by Sharia for Muslims. The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937 (XXVI of 1937) applies to Muslims in all matters relating to family affairs. Islamic family law is applied through the regular court system. There are no limitations on interfaith marriages.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia courts decide personal status cases or cases relating to religious offences. Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah declared in 2011 his wish to establish Islamic criminal law as soon as possible. A new penal code enacted in May 2014 prescribes sharia punishments, including the severing of limbs for property crimes and death by stoning for adultery and homosexuality.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act 1937 directs the application of Muslim personal law to Muslims in a number of different areas, mainly related to family law.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Aceh is the only part of Indonesia to apply Sharia to criminal law. Islamic courts in Aceh had long handled cases of marriage, divorce and inheritance. After special autonomy legislation was passed in 2001, the reach of courts extend to criminal justice. Offences such as being alone with an unrelated member of the opposite gender and gambling can be punished with canings. In 2014, the provincial government of Aceh extended sharia's reach to non-Muslims whose offenses also involve a Muslim. If a non-Muslim commits an offense covered by the secular criminal code, the non-Muslim may choose to be punished under either the secular national criminal code (KUHP) or under Acehnese Sharia Law.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In other parts of Indonesia, religious courts have jurisdiction over civil cases between Muslim spouses on matters concerning marriage, divorce, reconciliation, and alimony. The competence of religious courts is not exclusive, and parties can apply to District Courts for adjudication on basis of Roman Dutch law or local adat. Suharto's New Order expanded the reach of Sharia, first with the 1974 Marriage Act, which assigned jurisdiction over the marriage and divorce of Muslims to the Islamic courts (), and with the 1989 Religious Judicature Act, which elevated Islamic courts by making them a parallel legal system, equal to state courts and gave them jurisdiction over inheritance ("wasiyyah"), gifts ("hibah") and religious endowments. Muslim litigants could originally choose whether to have inheritance questions decided by the Islamic courts or by the civil courts, but a 2006 amendment eliminated this possibility; the same amendment gave Islamic courts new jurisdiction over property disputes, including financial and economic matters. Muslims seeking a divorce must also file their claim in Islamic courts. The Compilation of Islamic Law 1991 () regulates marriage, inheritance, and charitable trusts (wakaf). Sharia falls outside the jurisdiction of the Constitutional Court.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 167 of the constitution states that all judicial rulings must be based upon "authoritative Islamic sources and authentic fatwa". Book 2 of the Islamic Penal Code of Iran is entirely devoted to hudud punishments. Iranian application of sharia has been seen by scholars as highly flexible and directly contradicting traditional interpretations of the sharia.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 1 of Civil Code identifies Sharia as a main source of legislation. The 1958 Code, made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16. In 1995, Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offenses.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Iraq's legal system is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari (Shi’ite) interpretations of Sharia. Article 41 of the constitution allows for personal status matters (such as marriage, divorce and inheritance) to be governed by the rules of each religious group. The article has not yet been put into effect, and a unified personal status law remains in place that builds on the 1959 personal status code.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia is one of the sources of legislation for Muslim citizens. Sharia is binding on personal law issues for Muslim citizens. The Sharia Courts of Israel arose as a continuation of the Ottoman sharia courts, whose jurisdiction was restricted under the British Mandate. The Sharia Courts operate under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Justice and adjudicate matters relating to marriages, divorce, financial maintenance, legal capacity and guardianship, custody of children, paternity, prevention of domestic violence, conversion to Islam, and inheritance, among others.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Jordan has Sharia courts and civil courts. Sharia courts have jurisdiction over personal status laws, cases concerning Diya (blood money in cases of crime where both parties are Muslims, or one is and both the Muslim and non-Muslim consent to Sharia court's jurisdiction), and matters pertaining to Islamic Waqfs. The Family Law in force is the Personal Status Law of 1976, which is based on Sharia . In Sharia courts, the testimony of two women is equal to that of one man.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 2 of Kuwait's constitution identifies Islamic Sharia as one of the main sources of legislation. According to the United Nations, Kuwait's legal system is a combination of British common law, French civil law, Egyptian civil law and Sharia. The sharia-based personal status law for Sunnis is based on the Maliki fiqh and for Shiites, their own school of Islam regulates personal status. Kuwait attempts to block some internet content prohibited by Sharia, such as pornography.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Lebanon's legal system is based on a combination of Civil Law, Sharia and Ottoman laws. There are eighteen official religions in Lebanon, each with its own family law and religious courts. For the application of personal status laws, there are three separate sections: Sunni, Shia and non-Muslim. The Law of 16 July 1962 declares that Sharia governs personal status laws of Muslims, with Sunni and Ja'afari Shia jurisdiction of Sharia.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Schedule 9 of Malaysian constitution recognizes Sharia as a state subject; in other words, the states of Malaysia have the power to enact and enforce sharia. Islamic criminal law statutes have been passed at the state level in Terengganu, Kelantan and Perlis, but as of 2014, none of these laws have been implemented, as they contravene the Federal Constitution.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In 2007, Malaysia's Federal court ruled that apostasy matter lay "within the exclusive jurisdiction of Sharia Courts". Malaysian Muslims can be sentenced to caning for such offences as drinking beer, and adultery. Several sharia crimes, such as "khalwat" (close proximity of unmarried man and woman) are punishable only in Sharia courts of Malaysia. Publishing an Islamic book that is different from official Malaysian version, without permission, is a crime in some states. Other sharia-based criminal laws were enacted with "Syariah Criminal Offences (Federal Territory) Act of 1997".


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Muslims are bound by Sharia on personal matters, while members of other faiths follow civil law. Muslims are required to follow Sharia in family, property and religious matters. In 1988, the constitution was amended to state that civil courts cannot hear matters that fall within the jurisdiction of Sharia courts.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 15 of the Act Number 1/81 (Penal Code) allows for hudud punishments. Article 156 of the constitution states that law includes the norms and provisions of sharia.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In Myanmar, sharia has been applied for personal status issues since colonial times, under section 13 of Burma Law Act, 1898. Court precedents also decided that Waqf matters are to be decided under Sharia. The 1952 Myanmar Muslim Dissolution of Marriage Act states that a Muslim woman has the right to divorce her husband with appropriate cause. Matters relating to sharia family law are decided by civil courts.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Islamic Sharia is the basis for legislation in Oman per Article 2 of its Constitution, and promulgated as Sultani Decree 101/1996. The Personal Statute (Family) Law issued by Royal Decree 97/32 codified provisions of Sharia. Sharia Court Departments within the civil court system are responsible for personal status matters. A 2008 law stipulates that the testimonies of men and women before a court are equal.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Oman's criminal law is based on a combination of Sharia and English common law. Omani commercial law is largely based on Sharia; Article 5 of its Law of Commerce defaults to primacy of Sharia in cases of confusion, silence or conflict.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The Constitution of Pakistan acknowledges God as the sole sovereign of the universe and the Parliament as a delegate. The Constitution of Pakistan requires that all laws conform with Islam and not conflict with the Quran or Sunnah. The Council of Islamic Ideology reviewed the British era legislation and found most of it did not conflict with Sharia. Sharia was declared the Supreme Law of Pakistan in the 1991 Enforcement of Shariat Act. Section 4 stipulates that courts select an interpretation of law consistent with Islamic jurisprudence and principles.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The Federal Shariat Court was formed to judge the conformity of Pakistani laws with Islam according to the Quran and Sunnah. It has appellate, original and revisional jurisdiction. It consists of 8 judges including three ulama who are required to be qualified in Sharia. The Federal Shariat Court invalidated 55 federal statutes and 212 provincial statutes over 30 years. Originally certain legislative documents such as the Muslim Personal Law, the Constitution, fiscal and procedural laws were excluded from the original jurisdiction of the Federal Shariat Court. In its 1994 judgement the Supreme Court declared that the term "Muslim personal law" used in Article 203B, which excludes the Federal Shariat Court's jurisdiction under Article 203D only referred to the personal law of each Muslim sect according to their interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah. Hence, the Federal Shariat Court judgement in 2000 held that all other legislation which applied to Muslims in general were under the jurisdiction of the Federal Shariat Court under Article 203D. The court also held that the Constitution had not intended to reduce the role of the Federal Shariat Court.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Pakistani evidence law has been brought into conformity with Sharia. However, only 9 sections needed to be changed from the British era 1872 evidence act. The differences in the Islamic version focus more on rules concerning the number, character and competence of eyewitnesses. For example, in financial or future matters, the Law of Evidence says that evidence must be attested to by two men, or one man and two women. The Law of Evidence also requires a court to determine competence of a witness by reference to the Islamic injunctions in the Quran and Sunnah.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Qisas and Diyat laws prescribe retaliatory punishments or compensatory blood money for offenses such as murder and injury. The Qisas and Diyat laws in Pakistan make offences such as murder a private offence against the victim and their family, instead of classifying them as a public offence against the state as it had been during the British rule who had abandoned the Qisas and Diyat laws because they made enforcing law and order difficult since the victim or victim's family could pardon or take blood money as compensation. The Qisas and Diyat laws were first introduced by presidential ordinance in 1990 and were then enshrined in law in 1997.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Most offences in Pakistani law fall under tazir and siyasah. The Pakistan Penal Code is regarded as a code of tazir offences although it includes siyasah offences too even though the term siyasah is not mentioned. The Hudood Ordinance divides the crimes of zina, qazf, drinking and theft into two categories: those liable to hadd and those liable to tazir. Shariah leaves tazir punishments to discretion. If the strict evidentiary requirements for hadd offences are not fulfilled, the tazir (discretionary) punishments can be awarded to hadd offences too. Tazir punishments can include forms of punishments such as fines, imprisonment and whipping.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: There are very strict conditions for imposing the hadd punishment of amputation on thieves. The principle used is that the accused will be spared from hadd punishment for any minor doubt and the court will use all legitimate means to avoid imposing a hadd punishment. For this reason, no amputation has ever been occurred for theft. Theft which is committed under pressure is not liable to hadd. Other factors taken into consideration are the relationship between a victim and the culprit as well as the value of the stolen property. However, Section 13 of the Ordinance states that theft which is not liable to hadd can be punished under tazir. The punishment under Pakistan Penal Code such as fines or imprisonment are applied to theft liable to tazir. Pakistani law also classifies robbery (harabah) as a hadd offence.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: President Zia ul Haq introduced the Zakat system to Pakistan through the Zakat and Ushr Ordinance (1980). In Ramadan Pakistani banks deduct 2.5 percent from bank accounts above the "Nisab" amount. The banks send the collection to the Ministry of Finance. The Zakat and Ushr Ordinance specify which categories of people are eligible for receiving zakat. These include religious students, orphans and the sick. Pakistani ushr law levies 5 percent tax on harvests from artificially irrigated lands and 10 percent tax on lands which are not artificially irrigated.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Pakistan eliminated interest from domestic transactions but not from foreign debt. Profit and loss sharing schemes and contract markups were started. However, the ulama considered profit and loss to also be a form of riba. The Finance Minister Ghulam Ishaq Khan admitted this in 1984 and said that illegal profiteering and hoarding had to be eliminated. In 1991, the Federal Shariat Court declared riba to be haram and struck down 32 financial laws for being unIslamic. Two private banks challenged this ruling on the grounds that while they accepted the ruling, there was no alternative available. The federal law minister stated: "the government does not challenge the contention that interest is against the Quran, but the system is so deeply entrenched that it cannot be eliminated overnight."


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Punishment for apostasy have been effectuated through Pakistan's blasphemy laws. In 2006 the government sent a bill to the parliamentary committee for consideration which would impose the death penalty on apostates. The bill has not been passed yet. The principle is that a lacuna in statute law is to be filled with Sharia. Martin Lau hypothesized that even though there was no statutory provision concerning apostasy, it may already be punishable by death in Pakistan because of this principle. In 2010, the Federal Shariat Court held that apostasy and treason are both hadd offences.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In 2010, the Court also invalidated those sections of the 2006 Women's Protection Act which had overrode the clauses of the zina and qazf Ordinances.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The Egyptian personal status law of 1954 is applied. The personal status law is based on Sharia and regulates matters related to inheritance, marriage, divorce and child custody. Shari’a courts hear cases related to personal status. The testimony of a woman is worth only half of that of a man in cases related to marriage, divorce and child custody.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: There are sharia trial and circuit trial courts in Mindanao, which is home to the country's significant Filipino Muslim minority. Sharia District Courts (SDCs) and Sharia Circuit Courts (SCCs) were created in 1977 through Presidential Decree 1083, which is also known as the Code of Muslim Personal Laws. Sharia only applies to civil cases involving all Muslims nationwide.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Cases are handled in Bangsamoro and a couple of Mindanao provinces outside the autonomous region by both sharia district and circuit courts, organised into five sharia districts. Outside these areas, sharia-related cases are processed in civil courts under a session from the five sharia districts. All other cases, including criminal ones, are dealt with by local civil courts.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia is the main source of Qatari legislation according to Qatar's Constitution. Sharia is applied to laws pertaining to family law, inheritance, and several criminal acts (including adultery, robbery and murder). In some cases in Sharia-based family courts, a female's testimony is worth half a man's and in some cases a female witness is not accepted at all.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Flogging is used in Qatar as a punishment for alcohol consumption or illicit sexual relations. Article 88 of Qatar's criminal code declares the punishment for adultery is 100 lashes. Adultery is punishable by death when a Muslim woman and a non-Muslim man are involved. In 2006, a Filipino woman was sentenced to 100 lashes for adultery. In 2012, six expatriates were sentenced to floggings of either 40 or 100 lashes. More recently in April 2013, a Muslim expatriate was sentenced to 40 lashes for alcohol consumption. In June 2014, a Muslim expatriate was sentenced to 40 lashes for consuming alcohol and driving under the influence.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Judicial corporal punishment is common in Qatar due to the Hanbali interpretation of Sharia. Article 1 of the Law No. 11 of 2004 (Penal Code) allows for the application of "Sharia provisions" for the crimes of theft, adultery, defamation, drinking alcohol and apostasy if either the suspect or the victim is a Muslim.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Saudi law is based entirely on sharia. No codified personal status law exists, which means that judges in courts rule based on their own interpretations of sharia. See Legal system of Saudi Arabia. However as of 2021, Saudi Arabia has implemented codified personal status laws, including the Personal Status Law, the Civil Transactions Law, the Penal Code for Discretionary Sanctions, and the Law of Evidence implemented by reformist crown prince Mohammed Bin Salman.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Sharia courts may hear and determine actions in which all parties are Muslims or in which parties involved were married under Muslim law. Court has jurisdiction over cases related to marriage, divorce, betrothal, nullity of marriage, judicial separation, division of property on divorce, payment of dowry, maintenance, and muta.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Private matters of Muslims are governed by Muslim Law, including marriage, divorce custody and maintenance. Muslim law principles have been codified in the Act No. 13 of 1951 Marriage and Divorce (Muslim) Act; Act No. 10 of 1931 Muslim Intestate Succession Ordinance and Act No. 51 of 1956 Muslim Mosques and Charitable Trusts or Wakfs Act.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 3 of the 1973 Syrian constitution declares Islamic jurisprudence one of Syria's main sources of legislation. The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) is essentially a codified Sharia. The Code of Personal Status is applied to Muslims by Sharia courts. In Sharia courts, a woman's testimony is worth only half of a man's.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In Yala, Narathiwat, Pattani and Satun provinces, Sharia is allowed for settling family and inheritance issues under a 1946 law.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: As part of Atatürk's reforms, sharia was abolished in April 1924, with the "Law Regarding the Abolition of Islamic Law Courts and Amendments Regarding the Court Organization".


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Article 11 of the constitution declares that religious groups are separate from the state and the state educational system. But the legal system is civil law with Islamic influences


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: The court system comprises Sharia courts and civil courts. Judicial corporal punishment is a legal form of punishment in UAE due to the Sharia courts. Flogging is used in UAE as a punishment for criminal offences such as adultery, premarital sex and prostitution. In most emirates, floggings of Muslims are frequent, especially for adultery, prostitution and drunkenness, with sentences ranging from 80 to 200 lashes. Between 2007 and 2013, many people were sentenced to 100 lashes. Moreover, in 2010 and 2012, several Muslims were sentenced to 80 lashes for alcohol consumption. Under UAE law, premarital sex is punishable by 100 lashes.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Stoning is a legal form of judicial punishment in UAE. In 2006, an expatriate was sentenced to death by stoning for committing adultery. Between 2009 and 2013, several people were sentenced to death by stoning. In May 2014, an Asian housemaid was sentenced to death by stoning in Abu Dhabi. Sharia dictates the personal status law, which regulate matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody. The Sharia-based personal status law is applied to Muslims and sometimes non-Muslims.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Non-Muslim expatriates are liable to Sharia rulings on marriage, divorce and child custody. Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction to hear family disputes, including matters involving divorce, inheritances, child custody, child abuse and guardianship of minors. Sharia courts may also hear appeals of certain criminal cases including rape, robbery, and related crimes.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Apostasy is a crime punishable by death in the UAE. UAE incorporates hudud crimes of Sharia into its Penal Code – apostasy being one of them. Article 1 and Article 66 of UAE's Penal Code requires hudud crimes to be punished with the death penalty, therefore apostasy is punishable by death in the UAE. Emirati women must receive permission from male guardian to remarry. The requirement is derived from Sharia, and has been federal law since 2005.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Included in Federal law No. 28 is that men may unilaterally divorce their wives, however for a woman to get divorced she must apply for a court order. Women may also lose their right to maintenance if they refuse to have sexual relations with her husband without a lawful excuse. In 2010 the Federal Supreme Court provided an amendment to the law stating sanctioning the beating and punishment of women by men provided there is no physical mark left on the woman.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In all emirates, it is illegal for Muslim women to marry non-Muslims. In the UAE, a marriage union between a Muslim woman and non-Muslim man is punishable by law, since it is considered a form of "fornication".


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Law 20/1992 regulates personal status. The constitution mentions sharia. Penal law provides for application of hadd penalties for certain crimes, although the extent of implementation is unclear. Article 263 of the 1994 penal code states that "the adulterer and adulteress without suspicion or coercion are punished with whipping by one hundred strokes as a penalty if not married. [...] If the adulterer or the adulteress are married, they are punished by stoning them to death."


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: Under certain conditions, Sharia rules on domestic relations are recognized by German courts based on private international law if no party has German citizenship. As a result, cases such as marriage, divorce, as well as many personal cases cannot be handled under German law if it is between Muslims who are not citizens (For example, let's say a couple from Pakistan moves to Germany, they don't have citizenship and then a divorce happens, unlike in other Western societies like Canada or the UK, the couple cannot get the divorce done under secular German law but only under sharia.) The outcome in most circumstances must not violate the principles of the German legal system according to the ordre public. The only times it can violate the German legal system are situations like for example when a non-citizen Muslim woman wants an equal inheritance but because of the use of sharia law in the German legal system, the woman does not have that choice, no matter if the deceased relative lived in Germany or abroad.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In Western Thrace, under the terms of the 1920 Treaty of Sevres and 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, sharia courts historically had exclusive jurisdiction over the Muslim population in issues related to family law. Since 2018, Muslims in the region have been given the choice of registering a civil marriage and pursuing civil cases in the national court system. The Treaty of Lausanne also allows for the establishment of waqfs.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In other parts of Greece, all people are subjected exclusively to the provisions of the civil code, regardless of their religion.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: England and Wales: Sharia councils, which have no legal status and no legal jurisdiction, are consulted by many Muslims as a source of religious guidance and as an instance granting religious divorces. Likewise, Muslim Arbitration Tribunals are afforded limited recognition as purveyors of arbitration.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: In 2018, a British court recognized Sharia in a divorce ruling in 2018, noting that a Muslim couple married under Sharia will also be recognized under British law and that the woman may claim her share of assets in a divorce.


title: Application of Sharia by country

text: It has a secular legal system with heavy influence from the modern-day Turkish legal system. It is unclear if Northern Cyprus is a civil law system, or if it uses common law.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Next Unit of Computing (NUC) is a line of small-form-factor barebone computer kits designed by Intel. It was previewed in 2012 and launched in early 2013. The NUC has developed over ten generations, spanning from Sandy Bridge-based Celeron CPUs in the first generation through Ivy Bridge-based Core i3 and i5 CPUs in the second generation to Gemini Lake-based Pentium and Celeron CPUs and Kaby Lake-based Core i3, i5, and i7 CPUs in the seventh and eighth generations. The NUC motherboard usually measures approximately , although some models have had different dimensions.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: The barebone kits consist of the board, in a plastic case with a fan, an external power supply, and a VESA mounting plate. Intel does sell just the NUC motherboards, which have a built-in CPU, although () the price of a NUC motherboard is very close to the corresponding cased kit; third-party cases for the NUC boards are also available.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: The first generation Intel NUC launched in the first quarter of 2013. This UCFF motherboard and system kit are codenamed "Ski Lake" (DCP847SK) and "Deep Canyon" (DCCP847DY) respectively.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: The base UCFF motherboard and kit without Thunderbolt or USB 3 are codenamed "Golden Lake" (D33217GK) and "Ice Canyon" (DC3217IY) respectively. The Thunderbolt capable UCFF motherboard and kit are codenamed "Campers Lake" (D33217CK) and "Box Canyon" (DC3217BY) respectively. The USB 3 capable UCFF motherboard and kit are codenamed "Rend Lake" (D53427RK) and "Horse Canyon" (DC53427HY) respectively.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: The stripped-down DC3217BY model has a signature red top cover and no Ethernet. This model, while stocks were still available, generally sold for a deep discount. The absence of Ethernet may be mitigated by using a USB 2.0 to 10/100 fast Ethernet dongle based upon the Kawasaki LSI one-chip adapter (KL5KUSB102, for example), or a similar dongle based upon a Realtek chip; the Kawasaki Logic dongle requires a proprietary driver for macOS X, whereas the driver for the Realtek dongle is built into macOS X. The DC3217BY runs macOS X (10.9, and any of its updates) flawlessly as the processor's HD4000 is fully supported by macOS X.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: This UCFF motherboard (DN2820FYB) and system kit (DN2820FYKH) model were codenamed "Forest Canyon". The DN2820FYKH product itself is mis-marked DN2820FYK, but the retail package, all retail documentation, and Intel's web site correctly identify this product as DN2820FYKH. The "H" indicates support for internal 2.5" media, SSD or HDD. There is no "non-H" version of this product as it does not include an on-board mSATA connector, hence media which is external to the board is mandatory, and hence the "H" version.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: This product introduces for the first time a new 12V 3A "wall wart", in place of the traditional 19V 3.42A power brick and its "Mickey Mouse" AC power cord. Four region-specific plug-on adapters, including North America and three overseas countries, are included in the retail package.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: These models shipped with the problematic BIOS revision 13, however this revision did not recognise most low voltage SO-DIMMs and would report as having zero capacity. Keyboard escapes for BIOS interfacing had been problematic, legacy booting was not supported, and it had been elected to only include UEFI booting. BIOS revision 48 has been released and resolved the problems, enabling the recognition of most low voltage SO-DIMMs, keyboard escapes and legacy booting.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: UCFF motherboard (D34010WYB and D54250WYB) and system kit (D34010WYK/D34010WYKH and D54250WYK/D54250WYKH) models were designated "Wilson Canyon" containing Haswell processors were revealed in June 2013.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: In early 2015 a new generation of NUCs, powered by 5th generation Intel processors was released and in Q2 2015 the first NUC with Core i7 processor (NUC5i7RYH) would become available. The collection of 5th generation of NUCs include adaptive/smart performance technology and Turbo Boost Technology 2.0.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: UCFF motherboard (NUC5i3RYB, NUC5i5RYB and NUC5i7RYB) and system kit (NUC5i5RYK/NUC5i3RYH, NUC5i5RYK/NUC5i5RYH and NUC5i7RYH) models were designated "Rock Canyon". UCFF motherboard (NUC5i3MYBE and NUC5i5MYBE) and system kit (NUC5i3MYHE and NUC5i5MYHE) models were codenamed "Maple Canyon".


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: In Q4 2018 and Q1 2019 two new SKUs of "Rock Canyon" - Refresh have been launched and become two of a few available models still supporting Windows* 7 (NUC5i3RYHSN and NUC5i5RYHS). These modes have updated CPU revisions and other minor changes.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: These UCFF system kit (NUC5CPYH and NUC5PPYH) models, formerly known as "Pinnacle Canyon", are based on 5th generation Celeron and Pentium-branded Braswell 14 nm processor family. There is also the UCFF complete system (NUC5PGYH) model, formerly known as "Grass Canyon", which is based on 5th generation Pentium-branded Braswell 14 nm processor family and comes with 2 GB of RAM and 32 GB of eMMC with Windows 10 installed.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: UCFF system kit (NUC6i3SYK/NUC6i3SYH and NUC6i5SYK/NUC6i5SYH) models were designated "Swift Canyon", containing Skylake processors. UCFF system kit (NUC6i7KYK) models were codenamed "Skull Canyon", containing Skylake processors. They were launched in Q4/2015, except for NUC6i7KYK, which was launched in Q2/2016.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: These UCFF system kit (NUC6CAYS and NUC6CAYH) models formerly known as "Arches Canyon", are based on the 6th generation Celeron-branded Apollo Lake SoC 14 nm processor family. The main difference between the two systems are that NUC6CAYS adds 32GB of eMMC storage. They were launched in Q4/2016.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel seventh generation NUC models, codenamed "Baby Canyon", are based on their Kaby Lake-U processors. They were launched in Q1/2017 and Q2/2017.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: A refresh of the seventh generation NUC models, codenamed "Dawson Canyon", saw a replacement of the USB 3.1 Type-C port with a second HDMI 2.0a port. This refresh also updated the CPU's in the i5 models while still using Kaby Lake-U processors, and the i7 models to Kaby Lake-R processors. The i3 models saw no change in the CPU. Intel Optane M.2 support remains, but no models with a preinstalled module were released. M.2 support was updated from a single 22×42/80 slot to dual 22×30 (key E) and 22×80 (key M) slots. They were launched in Q2/2017.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: The UCFF system kit (NUC7PJYH and NUC7CJYH) models, codenamed "June Canyon", based on 7th generation Pentium & Celeron-branded Gemini Lake SoC 14 nm processor family. They were launched in Q1/2018.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Officially as stated in intel ark for NUC7PJYH model max memory size is 8GB. There have been reports of "over-ramming" to 16GB and 24GB without any problems while running in 24x7 environments.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eighth generation NUC models, codenamed "Hades Canyon", is based on their Kaby Lake-G processors with a TDP from 65 W to 100 W. It features a custom AMD GPU, based on Vega and Polaris technologies. They were launched in Q1/2018.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eighth generation NUC models, codenamed "Bean Canyon", is based on their Coffee Lake-U processors with a TDP of 28 W. They were launched in Q3/2018.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eighth generation NUC models, codenamed "Crimson Canyon", is based on their 10 nm Cannon Lake-U processors. They come with Windows 10 Home x64 preinstalled along with a 1TB SATA3 HDD. They were launched in Q3/2018.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eighth generation NUC models, codenamed "Islay Canyon", is based on their Whiskey Lake-U processors with a TDP of 15 W. They were launched in Q2/2019.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eighth generation NUC models, codenamed "Provo Canyon" and marketed as NUC 8 Pro, is based on their Whiskey Lake-U processors with a TDP of 15 W and optional vPro. They were launched in Q1/2020.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eighth generation NUC models, codenamed "Chaco Canyon", is based on their Apollo Lake processors with a TDP of 15 W, and 64 GB of eMMC. The 4GB of RAM are soldered directly to the motherboard and are therefore non-upgradeable.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel ninth generation NUC models, codenamed "Ghost Canyon" and marketed as "NUC 9 Extreme", is based on their Coffee Lake Refresh-H processors with a TDP of 45 W. They newly support an 8" desktop discrete graphic cards and a NUC compute element for CPU upgrades. They have a 5.0-liter case instead of the 0.67-liter case of most previous NUCs. They were launched in Q1/2020.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel ninth generation NUC models, codenamed "Quartz Canyon" and marketed as "NUC 9 Pro", is based on their Xeon E-2200M and Coffee Lake Refresh-H processors with a TDP of 45 W. They were launched in Q1/2020.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel tenth generation NUC models, codenamed "Frost Canyon" and marketed as "NUC 10 Performance", is based on their Comet Lake-U processors with a TDP of 25 W. They were launched in November 2019.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eleventh generation NUC models, codenamed "Phantom Canyon" and marketed as "NUC 11 Enthusiast", is based on their Tiger Lake-U processors with a TDP from 150 W. It features an Nvidia GeForce RTX 2060 discrete GPU. They were launched on January 13, 2021.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eleventh generation NUC models, codenamed "Panther Canyon" and marketed as "NUC 11 Performance", is based on their Tiger Lake-U processors with a TDP of 40 W. They were launched on January 13, 2021.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel eleventh generation NUC models, codenamed "Tiger Canyon" and marketed as "NUC 11 Pro", is based on their Tiger Lake-U processors with a TDP of 15 or 28 W. They were launched on first quarter 2021.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: The UCFF system kit (NUC11ATKPE and NUC11ATKC4) models, codenamed "Atlas Canyon", based on Pentium Silver & Celeron-branded Jasper Lake SoC 10 nm processor family. They were launched in Q1/2022.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel released its 12th generation NUC compute elements in Q1 2022, code named "Eden Bay". The complete kit was code named "Dragon Canyon." It uses 12th generation Intel CPUs. 12th generation also supports PCI Express Gen 5.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Intel twelfth generation NUC models, codenamed Wall Street Canyon and marketed as NUC 12 Pro, is based on their Alder Lake-P processors with a TDP of 35 W. They were launched on third quarter 2022.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: The NUC was seen by some reviewers as Intel's response to (or adoption of) the Apple Mac Mini format, although it is actually smaller, physically. Given its kit nature, other reviewers have seen it as a more powerful Raspberry Pi, particularly since the NUC boards could be bought without a case. The NUC can also be seen as an extension or continuation of Intel's earlier mobile-on-desktop (MoDT) initiative that was spearheaded by AOpen as early as 2004.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Most of the third-generation NUCs come in two case sizes, one with room for a 2.5-inch drive, and one without. The smaller case, although lacking room for a 2.5" drive, still has an internal SATA connector (including SATA power). Some larger third-party cases have appeared that can fit such drives.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: The Intel case is actively cooled with a fan. Silent PC Review notes that “The original Intel NUC had "the distinction of being the quietest fan-cooled mini-computer we've come across." The NUC D54250WYK [Haswell-based], with the same cooling system, sounds exactly the same. In normal use, you can't hear the fan until your ear is inches from the unit.” Nevertheless, passively cooled third-party cases have appeared on the market as well.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: A review by the Tech Report of the pre-production 2012-vintage NUC found that the NUC would seize up after a few gigabytes were transferred over wireless and that the problem could be alleviated by better cooling of the NUC case. Intel later increased the default fan speed for production machines through a BIOS update (downloadable from Intel's web site for "early adopters").


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Regarding power consumption, in their review of the D54250WYK with a Haswell i5-4250, Silent PC Review concluded that "An idle power level of just 6 W and typical use power barely into two digits is very impressive in one sense; in another sense, it's what you find in current Ultrabooks using similar components."


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: Other companies have subsequently adopted a form factor similar, but not identical, to Intel's NUC. For example, Gigabyte Technology launched their BRIX series, which attempts to differentiate itself using more powerful components, up to the i7-4770R processor, which embeds Intel Iris Pro Graphics.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: NUCs support UEFI compatible operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, as well as most distributions of Linux. Additionally, they can be used for virtualization with VMware vSphere; multiple NUCs can be used together to create a home lab for learning purposes.


title: Next Unit of Computing

text: It is technically possible, with some limitations in functionality, to install an unauthorized copy of MacOS on a NUC, creating a "Hackintosh". The pre-Haswell Core i3 and Core i5 NUCs will run OS X 10.9 Mavericks well.


title: Community health

text: Community health refers to simple health services that are delivered by laymen outside hospitals and clinics. Community health is also the subset of public health that is taught to and practiced by clinicians. Community health volunteers and community health workers work with Primary Care Providers to facilitate entry into, exit from and utilization of the formal health system by community members.


title: Community health

text: Community health volunteers are members of the local community who have considerable knowledge of the health services available to the community and are used to identify and link beneficiaries or those in need and the registered providers. Community health workers (Community health assistants and Community health officers) are employees who do not necessarily come from the local community but have vocational, professional or academic qualifications which enable them to provide training, supervisory, administrative, teaching and research services in community health departments.


title: Community health

text: Community health volunteers are members of the local community who have considerable knowledge of the health services available to the community and are used to identify and link those in need and the registered providers. The community Health Volunteers report directly to Community Health Assistants or Community Health officers (CHAs/CHOs) popularly known as the Community Health Extension Workers. Community health Assistants/Officers do not necessarily come from the local community but have professional training and academic qualifications which enable them to provide supervisory, administrative, teaching and research services in community health departments.


title: Community health

text: The community Health Volunteers title changes to Community Health Worker immediately if they are on monthly stipend program or salary.


title: Community health

text: Community health volunteers provide the most basic services such as distribution of Water chlorination tablets, mosquito nets and Health education material but will normally involve or work with registered clinicians when they encounter sick or recovering patients or those with complex or on-going needs.


title: Community health

text: It is a major field of study within the medical and clinical sciences which focuses on the maintenance, protection, and improvement of the health status of population groups and communities. It is a distinct field of study that may be taught within a separate school of public health or Preventive Healthcare. The WHO defines community health as:Environmental, Social, and Economic resources to sustain emotional and physical well being among people in ways that advance their aspirations and satisfy their needs in their unique environment.Medical interventions that occur in communities can be classified as three categories: Primary care, Secondary care, and Tertiary care. Each category focuses on a different level and approach towards the community or population group. In the United States, Community health is rooted within Primary healthcare achievements. Primary healthcare programs aim to reduce risk factors and increase health promotion and prevention. Secondary healthcare is related to "hospital care" where acute care is administered in a hospital department setting. Tertiary healthcare refers to highly specialized care usually involving disease or disability management.


title: Community health

text: The success of community health programs relies upon the transfer of information from health professionals to the general public using one-to-one or one-to-many communication (mass communication). The latest shift is towards health marketing.


title: Community health

text: Community health is generally measured by Geographical Information Systems and Demographic data. Geographic Information Systems can be used to define sub-communities when neighborhood location data is not enough. Traditionally Community health has been measured using sampling data which was then compared to well-known data sets, like the National Health Interview Survey or National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. With technological development, information systems could store more data for small-scale communities, cities, and towns; as opposed to census data that only generalize information about small populations based on the overall population. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can give more precise information about community resources, even at neighborhood levels. The ease of use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), advances in multilevel statistics, and spatial analysis methods make it easier for researchers to procure and generate data related to the built environment.


title: Community health

text: Social media can also play a big role in health information analytics. Studies have found social media being capable of influencing people to change their unhealthy behaviors and encourage interventions capable of improving health status. Social media statistics combined with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) may provide researchers with a more complete image of community standards for health and well being.


title: Community health

text: Community-based health promotion emphasizes Primary Prevention and population-based perspective (traditional prevention). It is the goal of Community Health to have individuals in a certain community improve their lifestyle or seek medical attention. Primary Healthcare is provided by health professionals, specifically the ones a patient sees first that may refer them to Secondary or Tertiary care.


title: Community health

text: Primary prevention refers to the early avoidance and identification of risk factors that may lead to certain diseases and disabilities. Community-focused efforts including immunizations, classroom teaching, and awareness campaigns are all good examples of how primary prevention techniques are utilized by communities to change certain health behaviors. Prevention programs, if carefully designed and drafted, can effectively prevent problems that children and adolescents face as they grow up. This finding also applies to all groups and classes of people. Prevention programs are one of the most effective tools health professionals can use to significantly impact individual, population, and community health.


title: Community health

text: Community health can also be improved with improvements in individuals' environments. Community health status is determined by the environmental characteristics, behavioral characteristics, social cohesion in the environment of that community. Appropriate modifications in the environment can help to prevent unhealthy behaviors and negative health outcomes.


title: Community health

text: Secondary prevention refers to improvements made in a patient's lifestyle or environment after the onset of disease or disability. This sort of prevention works to make life easier for the patient since it's too late to prevent them from their current disease or disability. An example of secondary prevention is when those with occupational low back pain are provided with strategies to stop their health status from worsening; the prospects of secondary prevention may even hold more promise than primary prevention in this case.


title: Community health

text: In Tertiary healthcare, community health can only be affected with professional medical care involving the entire population. Patients need to be referred to specialists and undergo advanced medical treatment. In some countries, there are more sub-specialties of medical professions than there are primary care specialists. Health inequalities are directly related to social advantage and social resources.


title: Community health

text: The complexity of community health and its various problems can make it difficult for researchers to assess and identify solutions. Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) is a unique alternative that combines community participation, inquiry, and action. Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) helps researchers address community issues with a broader lens and also works with the people in the community to find culturally sensitive, valid, and reliable methods and approaches.


title: Community health

text: Other issues involve access and cost of medical care. A great majority of the world does not have adequate health insurance. In low-income countries, less than 40% of total health expenditures are paid for by the public/government. Community health, even Population health, is not encouraged as health sectors in developing countries are not able to link the national authorities with the local government and community action.


title: Community health

text: In the United States, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) changed the way community health centers operate and the policies that were in place, greatly influencing community health. The ACA directly affected community health centers by increasing funding, expanding insurance coverage for Medicaid, reforming the Medicaid payment system, appropriating $1.5 billion to increase the workforce and promote training. The impact, importance, and success of the Affordable Care Act is still being studied and will have a large impact on how ensuring health can affect community standards on health and also individual health.


title: Community health

text: Ethnic disparities in health statuses among different communities are also a cause of concern. Community coalition-driven interventions may bring benefits to this segment of society. This also relates to language usage, where results from a 2019 systematic review found that patients with limited English proficiency who received care from physicians who communicate in the patient's own preferred language generally had improved health outcomes.


title: Community health

text: Each community is different and should create its own Community Health Improvement Process also known as CHIP. A CHIP consists of problem identification and prioritization cycle along with an analysis and implementation cycle. Five strategies that assist the CHIP process are improving community health and well-being; community involvement, political commitment; healthy public policy; multi-sectoral collaboration; and asset-based community development. An asset-based approach involves empowering individuals and communities by focusing on community strengths along with the skills of the individuals.


title: Community health

text: The CDC makes states that Individuals who are in good physical shape, have proper vaccination, have access to clinical services and medications, and know where to get critical health and emergency alert information create a better community than those who have poor health and don't understand where to get proper treatment and medicine.


title: Community health

text: The Problem identification and prioritization cycle have three phases that help benefit the community which is forming a health coalition, collecting and analyzing data for health profile, and identifying critical health issues. The information that is gathered is also distributed to the community to help with important decision-making.


title: Community health

text: Following this cycle is the Analysis and Implementation Cycle which helps resolve community health problems by analyzing the health issue, establishing resources, creating a health improvement strategy with the resources, and allocating responsibility throughout the community. Multiple issues are analyzed in conjunction to determine which is most important. Lastly, the authority to act is implemented, sufficient funds are allocated and access to data is released in order for the members of the community to review and move accordingly.


title: Community health

text: Access to community health in the Global South is influenced by geographic accessibility (physical distance from the service delivery point to the user), availability (proper type of care, service provider, and materials), financial accessibility (willingness and ability of users to purchase services), and acceptability (responsiveness of providers to social and cultural norms of users and their communities). While the Epidemiological transition is shifting the disease burden from communicable to noncommunicable conditions in developing countries, this transition is still in an early stage in parts of the Global South such as South Asia, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Two phenomena in developing countries have created a "medical poverty trap" for underserved communities in the Global South — the introduction of user fees for public healthcare services and the growth of out-of-pocket expenses for private services. The private healthcare sector is being increasingly utilized by low and middle income communities in the Global South for conditions such as malaria, tuberculosis, and sexually transmitted infections. Private care is characterized by more flexible access, shorter waiting times, and greater choice. Private providers that serve low-income communities are often unqualified and untrained. Some policymakers recommend that governments in developing countries harness private providers to remove state responsibility from service provision.


title: Community health

text: Community development is frequently used as a public health intervention to empower communities to obtain self-reliance and control over the factors that affect their health. Community health workers are able to draw on their firsthand experience, or local knowledge, to complement the information that scientists and policy makers use when designing health interventions. Interventions with community health workers have been shown to improve access to primary healthcare and quality of care in developing countries through reduced malnutrition rates, improved maternal and child health and prevention and management of HIV/AIDS. Community health workers have also been shown to promote chronic disease management by improving the clinical outcomes of patients with diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases.


title: Community health

text: Slum-dwellers in the Global South face threats of infectious disease, non-communicable conditions, and injuries due to violence and road traffic accidents. Participatory, multi-objective slum upgrading in the urban sphere significantly improves social determinants that shape health outcomes such as safe housing, food access, political and gender rights, education, and employment status. Efforts have been made to involve the urban poor in project and policy design and implementation. Through slum upgrading, states recognize and acknowledge the rights of the urban poor and the need to deliver basic services. Upgrading can vary from small-scale sector-specific projects (i.e. water taps, paved roads) to comprehensive housing and infrastructure projects (i.e. piped water, sewers). Other projects combine environmental interactions with social programs and political empowerment. Recently, slum upgrading projects have been incremental to prevent the displacement of residents during improvements and attentive to emerging concerns regarding climate change adaptation. By legitimizing slum-dwellers and their right to remain, slum upgrading is an alternative to slum removal and a process that in itself may address the structural determinants of population health.


title: Community health

text: The current registered association for community Health professionals in Kenya is The Society of Community Health Caregivers. It was registered in the year 2020 to act as an umbrella body for the community health professionals.


title: Double-Cross System

text: The Double-Cross System or XX System was a World War II counter-espionage and deception operation of the British Security Service (a civilian organisation usually referred to by its cover title MI5). Nazi agents in Britain – real and false – were captured, turned themselves in or simply announced themselves, and were then used by the British to broadcast mainly disinformation to their Nazi controllers. Its operations were overseen by the Twenty Committee under the chairmanship of John Cecil Masterman; the name of the committee comes from the number 20 in Roman numerals: "XX" (i.e. a double cross).


title: Double-Cross System

text: The policy of MI5 during the war was initially to use the system for counter-espionage. It was only later that its potential for deception purposes was realised. Of the agents from the German intelligence services, "Abwehr" and "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD), some were apprehended, while many of the agents who reached British shores turned themselves in to the authorities; others were apprehended after they made elementary mistakes during their operations. In addition, some were false agents who had tricked the Germans into believing they would spy for them if they helped them reach England (e.g., Treasure, Fido). Later agents were instructed to contact agents who, unknown to the Abwehr, were controlled by the British. The Abwehr and SD sent agents over by parachute drop, submarine, or travel via neutral countries. The last route was most commonly used, with agents often impersonating refugees. After the war, it was discovered that all the agents Germany sent to Britain had given themselves up or had been captured, with the possible exception of one who committed suicide.


title: Double-Cross System

text: Following a July 1940 conference in Kiel, the Abwehr (German intelligence) began an espionage campaign against Britain involving intelligence gathering and sabotage. Spies were sent over from Europe in various ways; some parachuted or came off a submarine. Others entered the country on false passports or posing as refugees. Public perception in Britain was that the country was full of well-trained German spies, who were deeply integrated into society. There was widespread "spy-mania", as Churchill put it. The truth was that between September and November 1940 fewer than 25 agents arrived in the country; mostly of Eastern European extraction, they were badly trained and poorly motivated.


title: Double-Cross System

text: The agents were not difficult to spot, and it became easier still when the German Enigma machine encryption was broken. MI5, with advance warning of infiltration, had no trouble picking up almost all of the spies sent to the country. Writing in 1972, John C. Masterman (who had, later in the war, headed the Twenty Committee) said that by 1941, MI5 "actively ran and controlled the German espionage system in [the United Kingdom]." It was not an idle boast; post-war records confirmed that none of the Abwehr agents, bar one who committed suicide, went unnoticed.


title: Double-Cross System

text: Once caught, the spies were deposited in the care of Lieutenant Colonel Robin Stephens at Camp 020 (Latchmere House, Richmond). After Stephens, a notorious and brilliant interrogator, had picked apart their life history, the agents were either spirited away (to be imprisoned or killed) or if judged acceptable, offered the chance to turn double agent on the Germans.


title: Double-Cross System

text: Control of the new double agents fell to Thomas Argyll Robertson (usually called Tar, from his initials), a charismatic MI5 agent. A Scot and something of a playboy, Robertson had some early experience with double agents; just prior to the war he had been case officer to Arthur Owens (code name Snow). Owens was an oddity and it became apparent that he was playing off the Germans and British, although to what end Robertson was unable to uncover. Robertson dispatched an ex-RNAS officer called Walter Dicketts (code name Celery) to neutral Lisbon in early 1941 to meet Owens' German spymaster, Nikolaus Ritter from the Abwehr, to establish Owens' bona fides. Unknown to Dicketts, Owens had betrayed him to the Germans before Dicketts entered Germany to be interrogated by experts from the Abwehr in Hamburg. Although Dicketts managed to get himself recruited as a German agent (while continuing to report to MI5), Owens claimed that Dicketts' survival meant he had been 'turned' by the Germans. When both agents returned to England, Robertson and his team spent countless hours trying to establish which agent was telling the truth. In the end Owens was interned for endangering Dicketts' life and for revealing the important information that his German radio transmitter was controlled by MI5. The whole affair resulted in the collapse of the entire Snow network comprising the double agents Owens, GW, Biscuit, Charlie, Summer and Celery. The experiment had not appeared to be a success but MI5 had learned lessons about how Abwehr operated and how double agents might be useful.


title: Double-Cross System

text: Robertson believed that turning German spies would have numerous benefits, disclosing what information Abwehr wanted and to mislead them as part of a military deception. It would also discourage them from sending more agents, if they believed an operational network existed. Section B1A (a subordinate of B section, under Guy Liddell) was formed and Robertson was put in charge of handling the double-agent program.


title: Double-Cross System

text: Robertson's first agents were not a success, Giraffe (George Graf) was never really used and Gander (Kurt Goose; MI5 had a penchant for amusingly relevant code names), had been sent to Britain with a radio that could only transmit and both were quickly decommissioned. The next two attempts were even more farcical; Gösta Caroli and Wulf Schmidt (a Danish citizen) landed, via parachute, in September 1940. The two were genuine Nazis, had trained together and were friends. Caroli was coerced into turning double in return for Schmidt's life being spared, whilst Schmidt was told that Caroli had sold him out and in anger swapped sides.


title: Double-Cross System

text: Caroli quickly became a problem; he attempted to strangle his MI5 handler before making an escape, carrying a canoe on a motorcycle. He vaguely planned to row to Holland but came unstuck after falling off the bike in front of a policeman. He was eventually recaptured and judged too much trouble to be used. Schmidt was more of a success; codenamed 'Tate', he continued to contact Germany until May 1945. These eccentric spies made Robertson aware that handling double agents was going to be a difficult task.


title: Double-Cross System

text: The main form of communication that agents used with their handlers was secret writing. Letters were intercepted by the postal censorship authorities and some agents were caught. Later in the war, wireless sets were provided by the Germans. Eventually transmissions purporting to be from one double agent were facilitated by transferring the operation of the set to the main headquarters of MI5. On the British side, the fight against the Abwehr and SD was made much easier by the breaking of German ciphers. Abwehr hand ciphers were cracked early in the war and SD hand ciphers and Abwehr Enigma ciphers followed. The signals intelligence allowed an accurate assessment of whether the double agents were really trusted by the Germans and what effect their information had.