title: 1949 Ford

text: Alongside the redesign of the car, Ford updated its model nomenclature for 1949. The previous Custom, De Luxe, and Super De Luxe names were replaced by new Standard and Custom trims, with Tudor and Fordor sedans (two-door and four-door, respectively), fastback Club Coupe and Business Coupe (the latter, rear seat delete), Convertible Club Coupe, and two-door Station Wagon styles. In the center of the "Bullet-nose" grille emblem, Ford embossed either a "6" or an "8" on top of a red circle, denoting the fitment of an inline-6 or V8 engine.


title: 1949 Ford

text: While using a different body than Lincoln-Mercury, Ford Motor Company used ponton styling across all three of its divisions for 1949, with the Ford sharing similar styling as the Mercury Eight and the Lincoln. The center-mounted "Bullet-nose" grille became a styling element adopted by Studebaker for the 1950 facelift of the Studebaker Starlight. During the 1950s, the slab-sided exterior design would go on to influence many European manufacturers, including Mercedes Benz, Borgward, Austin, Volvo and many others.


title: 1949 Ford

text: For 1949, Ford returned to first place among American manufacturers, selling 1,118,740 Ford cars. While bolstered by an extended 16-month model year, the 1949 Ford was met with success.


title: 1949 Ford

text: For 1950, the Ford saw minor changes, primarily to the exterior. In a badging change, the "FORD" lettering was replaced by an all-new crest badge; in various forms, Ford used a crest emblem on its full-size line for the next four decades. The trim nomenclature underwent revision, as Standard and Custom became Deluxe and Custom Deluxe, respectively. A Deluxe Business Coupe served as the most affordable Ford line. In response to negative consumer feedback, the door latch mechanism underwent multiple safety upgrades.


title: 1949 Ford

text: To compete with the Chevrolet Bel Air hardtop, Ford introduced the Ford Crestliner "sport sedan". The first stand-alone American Ford nameplate, the Crestliner was a premium variant of the Tudor, fitted with two-tone paint and a vinyl roof. The two-door station wagon was renamed the Ford Country Squire; in a functional upgrade, the station wagon received flat-folding rear seats.


title: 1949 Ford

text: For 1951, the Ford underwent several revisions, distinguished externally by the introduction of a "dual-bullet" grille. The Victoria name (last used for 1934) returned for a two-door hardtop, giving Ford a competitor against the Chevrolet Bel Air and the Plymouth Belvedere; the Tudor-based Crestliner also made a return. Outselling the Bel Air by nearly 10%, the Ford Victoria was a marketplace success.


title: 1949 Ford

text: Alongside the Victoria, Crestliner, and Country Squire, the Ford sedan line underwent minor trim revisions, with Custom Deluxe becoming Custom.


title: 1949 Ford

text: Introduced in November 1950 as an option, the three-speed Ford-O-Matic became the first automatic transmission offered in a Ford vehicle. In a functional upgrade, Ford replaced the starter button with a keyed ignition.


title: 1949 Ford

text: For 1949, Ford of Canada introduced the Meteor brand, intended as an entry-level brand to be marketed within the Lincoln-Mercury dealership network; in smaller communities, the two brands did not share dealership networks. Using a Ford body, chassis, and V8 drivetrain with a Mercury grille (and brand-specific trim), Meteor gave Lincoln-Mercury a lower-price vehicle, effectively giving Ford Canada a brand to compete against Pontiac and Dodge.


title: 1949 Ford

text: For 1949 to 1951, Meteor-brand vehicles shared their model names with Ford vehicles, including a Custom Deluxe Victoria coupe.


title: 1949 Ford

text: The 1949 Ford V8 generation was also produced by Ford Australia from 1949 to 1951, serving the Australian market. Alongside a right-hand drive Fordor 4-door sedan, a two-door coupe utility was produced; the latter was developed specifically for sale in Australia.


title: 1949 Ford

text: By 1950, locally-produced models of Ford Australia had adopted a level of 80% Australian-sourced content.


title: 1949 Ford

text: For 2001, Ford debuted the Ford Forty-Nine concept car at the 2001 North American International Auto Show. Designed by J Mays and Chip Foose (designer of the Plymouth Prowler), the concept car was intended as a design successor to the revived Ford Thunderbird. Derived on the chassis of the Lincoln LS (and sharing its V8 engine with both the LS and the Thunderbird), the Forty-Nine was developed as a modern interpretation of the 1949 Ford Club Coupe; doing away with the "bullet-nose", the two-door adopted an all-glass roof.


title: 1949 Ford

text: In a fashion similar to the Volkswagen New Beetle, Audi TT, Ford Thunderbird, and Chrysler PT Cruiser, the Ford Forty-Nine was intended as a preview of a possible production vehicle. Alongside the glass-roof coupe, Ford also produced a (non-running) Forty-Nine convertible. After the disappointing launch of the Ford Thunderbird, Ford ended further development on a production version of the Forty-Nine.


title: Adams political family

text: The Adams family was a prominent political family in the United States from the late 18th through the early 20th centuries. Based in eastern Massachusetts, they formed part of the Boston Brahmin community. The family traces to Henry Adams of Barton St David, Somerset, in England. The two presidents and their descendants are also descended from John Alden, who came to the United States on the "Mayflower".


title: Adams political family

text: The Adams family is one of four families to have produced two presidents of the United States by the same surname, the others being the Bush, Roosevelt, and Harrison families.


title: Adams political family

text: John Adams was born on October 30, 1735 (October 19, 1735, Old Style, Julian calendar), to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two younger brothers: Peter (1738–1823) and Elihu (1741–1775). Adams was born on the family farm in Braintree, Massachusetts. His mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a deacon in the Congregational Church, a farmer, a cordwainer, and a lieutenant in the militia. John Sr. served as a selectman (town councilman) and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship. Adams's great-great-grandfather Henry Adams immigrated to Massachusetts from Braintree, Essex, England, around 1638.


title: Adams political family

text: Though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt pressured to live up to his heritage. His family was descended from Puritans, whose strict religious doctrines had profoundly shaped New England's culture, laws, and traditions. By the time of John Adams's birth, Puritan tenets such as predestination had waned and many of their severe practices moderated, but Adams still "considered them bearers of freedom, a cause that still had a holy urgency". Adams recalled that his parents "held every Species of Libertinage in ... Contempt and horror", and detailed "pictures of disgrace, or baseness and of Ruin" resulting from any debauchery. Adams later noted that "As a child I enjoyed perhaps the greatest of blessings that can be bestowed upon men – that of a mother who was anxious and capable to form the characters of her children."


title: Adams political family

text: Adams, as the eldest child, was compelled to obtain a formal education. This began at age six at a dame school for boys and girls, conducted at a teacher's home, and was centered upon "The New England Primer". Shortly thereafter, Adams attended Braintree Latin School under Joseph Cleverly, where studies included Latin, rhetoric, logic, and arithmetic. Adams's early education included incidents of truancy, a dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer. All discussion on the matter ended with his father's command that he remain in school: "You shall comply with my desires." Deacon Adams hired a new schoolmaster named Joseph Marsh, and his son responded positively.


title: Adams political family

text: Adams was raised a Congregationalist but left the denomination as a young man. By his early 20s he identified as a Unitarian, a recently formed denomination. Adams always felt pressured to live up to his heritage. His family was descended from Puritans, whose strict religious doctrines had profoundly shaped New England's culture, laws, and traditions. By the time of his birth, the Congregationalists no longer called themselves "Puritans"; their severe practices had largely been dropped in the First Great Awakening of the 1730s. Adams praised them historically as bearers of freedom, a cause that still had a holy urgency". Adams recalled that his parents "held every Species of Libertinage in ... Contempt and horror", and detailed "pictures of disgrace, or baseness and of Ruin" resulting from any debauchery.


title: Adams political family

text: According to Dr. Sara Georgini, the editor of the John Adams Papers: From John Adams through his grandson Charles Francis, the Adams family creed was conventionally Unitarian. They believed in a guiding Providence. They trusted that human will empowered them to freely accept or reject God’s grace. They turned away from miracles and revelation, preferring biblical criticism and lay inquiry to broaden the mind beyond the passive reception of dogma. Acknowledging Jesus as a “master workman” and gifted moral teacher, they grew fuzzy about his divinity, opting instead to scrutinize his teachings and doctrines as they related to contemporary culture. In line with their Protestant peers, most Adamses mistrusted the sensory emphasis and hierarchical nature of “Romish” Catholicism, but they revered Judaism as a source of lawmaking and ethics.


title: Adams political family

text: The following is a selective family tree of notable members of the Adams family relative to Charles Francis Adams IV:


title: Adams political family

text: Adams House, one of twelve residential colleges at Harvard, is named after John Adams and later members of the Adams family.


title: Facebook Watch

text: Facebook Watch is a video on demand service operated by American company Meta Platforms (previously named Facebook, Inc.). The company announced the service in August 2017 and was available to all U.S. users that month. Facebook Watch's original video content is produced for the company by others, who earn 55% of advertising revenue (Facebook keeps the other 45%).


title: Facebook Watch

text: Facebook Watch offers personalized recommendations for videos to watch, as well as categorized content bundles depending on factors such as popularity and social media engagement. Facebook wants both short-form and long-form entertainment on its platform. The company reported a total budget of $1 billion for content through 2018. Facebook monetizes videos through mid-roll advertising breaks and planned to test pre-roll advertising in 2018. On August 30, 2018, Facebook Watch became available to all Facebook users worldwide.


title: Facebook Watch

text: As of September 2020, Facebook reported that Facebook Watch had more than 1.25 billion monthly visitors, 46% of its monthly active user base at that time.


title: Facebook Watch

text: On August 9, 2017, Facebook, Inc. announced that it would be launching its own video on demand service. During the same announcement it was stated that the new service would be called Facebook Watch. The video on demand service was launched for a small group of U.S. users a day later, with a rollout to all U.S. users beginning at the end of August.


title: Facebook Watch

text: In May and June 2018, Facebook launched around six news programs from partners including BuzzFeed, Vox, CNN, and Fox News. These programs, developed by Facebook's head of news partnerships Campbell Brown, reportedly had an overall budget of US$90 million.


title: Facebook Watch

text: On July 25, 2018, Facebook gave their first presentation ever at the annual Television Critics Association's annual summer press tour. During Facebook's allotted time, Fidji Simo, the Vice President of Product for Video, and Ricky Van Veen, the Head of Global Creative Strategy, showcased Facebook's continuing ramp-up of original programming on Facebook Watch. On August 30, 2018, Facebook Watch became available internationally to all users of the social network worldwide.


title: Facebook Watch

text: For short-form videos, Facebook originally had a budget of roughly $10,000-$40,000 per episode, though renewal contracts have placed the budget in the $50,000-$70,000 range. Long-form TV-length series have budgets between $250,000 to over $1 million. "The Wall Street Journal" reported in September 2017 that the company was willing to spend up to $1 billion on original video content through 2018.


title: Facebook Watch

text: Facebook keeps 45% of ad-break revenue for content shown on Facebook Watch, while its content-producing partners receive 55% of ad revenue. In January 2017, the company announced that it would be adding "mid-roll" advertising to its videos, in which ads will appear in videos after users have watched at least 20 seconds. In December 2017, "Ad Age" reported that Facebook was lifting a long-time ban on "pre-roll" ads, an advertising format that shows promotional content before users start the actual video. Facebook had resisted using pre-roll ads because the format has a "reputation for annoying viewers" who want to get to the desired content, though the report stated that the company would nevertheless try the format.


title: Facebook Watch

text: Steve Ellis, CEO of WhoSay, a social influencer marketing company, told "Ad Age" that "YouTube already established that people will sit through and tolerate pre-roll" and that "It's proven that they haven't sent consumers fleeing, so it makes sense that Facebook would pursue a similar strategy as it builds out its original content experience". Two weeks after "Ad Age"s report, Facebook updated its blog to note that the pre-roll advertising format would begin testing in 2018, and that there were going to be changes to mid-roll ads; specifically, they cannot appear until a minute into a video, and are only available for videos that run for at least three minutes, as opposed to the original rule of appearing after 20 seconds on videos potentially as short as 90 seconds.


title: Facebook Watch

text: In addition to original programming, Facebook Watch also distributes content licensed from other companies. On November 30, 2018, it was announced that the streaming service had struck a deal with 20th Century Fox Television to stream television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Angel", and "Firefly".


title: Facebook Watch

text: Morgan Stanley analyst Brian Nowak estimates that "Facebook Watch" can bring in $565 million in revenue to Facebook by the end of 2018. Jefferies analyst Brent Thill has predicted that the service has the potential to earn $12 billion in revenue by 2022.


title: Opah

text: Opahs, also commonly known as moonfish, sunfish (not to be confused with Molidae), kingfish, redfin ocean pan are large, colorful, deep-bodied pelagic lampriform fishes comprising the small family Lampridae (also spelled Lamprididae).


title: Opah

text: The family comprises two genera: "Lampris" (from the Ancient Greek "λαμπρός" : lamprós, "brilliant" or "clear") and the monotypic "Megalampris" (known only from fossil remains). The extinct family, Turkmenidae, from the Paleogene of Central Asia, is closely related, though much smaller.


title: Opah

text: In 2015, "Lampris guttatus" was discovered to have near-whole-body endothermy in which the entire core of the body is maintained at around 5 °C above the surrounding water. This is unique among fish as most fish are entirely cold blooded or are capable of warming only some parts of their bodies.


title: Opah

text: Two living species were traditionally recognized, but a taxonomic review in 2018 found that more should be recognized (the result of splitting "L. guttatus" into several species, each with a more restricted geographic range), bringing the total to six. The six species of "Lampris" have mostly non-overlapping geographical ranges, and can be recognized based on body shape and coloration pattern.


title: Opah

text: Opahs are deeply keeled, compressed, discoid fish with conspicuous coloration: the body is a deep red-orange grading to rosy on the belly, with white spots covering the flanks. Both the median and paired fins are a bright vermilion. The large eyes stand out, as well, ringed with golden yellow. The body is covered in minute cycloid scales and its silvery, iridescent guanine coating is easily abraded.


title: Opah

text: Opahs closely resemble in shape the unrelated butterfish (family Stromateidae). Both have falcated (curved) pectoral fins and forked, emarginated (notched) caudal fins. Aside from being significantly larger than butterfish, opahs have enlarged, falcated pelvic fins with about 14 to 17 rays, which distinguish them from superficially similar carangids—positioned thoracically; adult butterfish lack pelvic fins. The pectorals of opahs are also inserted (more or less) horizontally rather than vertically. The anterior portion of an opah's single dorsal fin (with about 50–55 rays) is greatly elongated, also in a falcated profile similar to the pelvic fins. The anal fin (around 34 to 41 rays) is about as high and as long as the shorter portion of the dorsal fin, and both fins have corresponding grooves into which they can be depressed.


title: Opah

text: The snout is pointed and the mouth small, toothless, and terminal. The lateral line forms a high arch over the pectoral fins before sweeping down to the caudal peduncle. The larger species, "Lampris guttatus", may reach a total length of and a weight of . The lesser-known "Lampris immaculatus" reaches a recorded total length of just .


title: Opah

text: The opah is the only fish known to exhibit whole body endothermy where all the internal organs are kept at a higher temperature than the surrounding water. This feature allows opahs to maintain an active lifestyle in the cold waters they inhabit. Unlike birds and mammals, the opah is not a homeotherm despite being an endotherm: while its body temperature is raised above the surrounding water temperature, it still varies with the external temperature and is not held constant. In addition to whole body endothermy, the opah also exhibits regional endothermy by raising the temperature of its brain and eyes above that of the rest of the body. Regional endothermy also arose by convergent evolution in tuna, lamnid sharks and billfishes where the swimming muscles and cranial organs are maintained at an elevated temperature compared to the surrounding water.


title: Opah

text: The large muscles powering the pectoral fins generate most of the heat in the opah. In addition to the heat they generate while moving, these muscles have special regions that can generate additional heat without contracting. The opah has a thick layer of fat that insulates its internal organs and cranium from the surrounding water. However, fat alone is insufficient to retain heat within a fish's body. The gills are the main point of heat loss in fishes as this is where blood from the entire body must continuously be brought in close contact with the surrounding water. Opahs prevent heat loss through their gills using a special structure in the gill blood vessels called the rete mirabile. The rete mirable is a dense network of blood vessels where the warm blood flowing from the heart to the gills transfers its heat to the cold blood returning from the gills. Hence, the rete mirabile prevents warm blood from coming in contact with the cold water (and losing its heat) and also ensures that the blood returning to the internal organs is warmed up to body temperature. Within the rete, the warm and cold blood flow past each other in opposite directions through thin vessels to maximise the heat transferred. This mechanism is called a counter-current heat exchanger.


title: Opah

text: In addition to the rete mirable in its gills, the opah also has a rete in the blood supply to its brain and eyes. This helps to trap heat in the cranium and further raise its temperature above the rest of the body. While the rete mirabile in the gills is unique to the opah, the cranial rete mirable has also evolved independently in other fishes. Unlike in billfish which have a specialised noncontractile tissue that functions as a brain heater, the opah cranium is heated by the contractions of the large eye muscles.


title: Opah

text: On July 18, 2021, a 3-1/2 foot-long opah, weighing 100 pounds, was found washed up on the Northern Oregon coast. Heidi Dewar, a research biologist with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries, was quoted as saying that the stranding was "unusual", and that climate change may have played a role in it.


title: Opah

text: Almost nothing is known of opah biology and ecology. They are presumed to live out their entire lives in the open ocean, at mesopelagic depths of 50 to 500 m, with possible forays into the bathypelagic zone. They are apparently solitary, but are known to school with tuna and other scombrids. The fish propel themselves by a lift-based labriform mode of swimming, that is, by flapping their pectoral fins. This, together with their forked caudal fins and depressible median fins, indicates they swim at constantly high speeds like tuna.


title: Opah

text: "Lampris guttatus" are able to maintain their eyes and brain at 2 °C warmer than their bodies, a phenomenon called cranial endothermy and one they share with sharks in the family Lamnidae, billfishes, and some tunas. This may allow their eyes and brains to continue functioning during deep dives into water below 4 °C.


title: Opah

text: Squid and euphausiids (krill) make up the bulk of the opah diet; small fish are also taken. Pop-up archival transmitting tagging operations have indicated that, aside from humans, large pelagic sharks, such as great white sharks and mako sharks, are primary predators of opah. The tetraphyllidean tapeworm, "Pelichnibothrium speciosum", has been found in "L. guttatus", which may be an intermediate or paratenic host.


title: Opah

text: The planktonic opah larvae initially resemble those of certain ribbonfishes (Trachipteridae), but are distinguished by the former's lack of dorsal and pelvic fin ornamentation. The slender hatchlings later undergo a marked and rapid transformation from a slender to deep-bodied form; this transformation is complete by 10.6 mm standard length in "L. guttatus". Opahs are believed to have a low population resilience.


title: Identity Evropa

text: Identity Evropa () was an American neo-Nazi and white supremacist organization established in March 2016. It was rebranded as the American Identity Movement in March 2019. In November 2020, the group disbanded. Leaders and members of Identity Evropa, such as former leader Elliot Kline, praised Nazi Germany and pushed for what they described as the "Nazification of America".


title: Identity Evropa

text: The white supremacist slogan "You will not replace us" originated from the group. In an attempt to boost its numbers, Identity Evropa allied itself with the broader alt-right and identitarian movements and the group targeted college campuses and students in particular by distributing slogans on fliers, posters, and stickers. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Identity Evropa was one of several groups which contributed to the growth of white supremacism in the United States during the 2010s, with the organization being designated by it as an influential hate group during its four-year existence.


title: Identity Evropa

text: In March 2018, it was reported that the group was seeing steep declines in membership. The collapse was similarly seen in other alt-right groups, and was attributed to a widespread public backlash against white supremacist organizations that occurred after the 2017 Charlottesville rally. In March 2019, following a leak of the group's Discord messages published by the non-profit left-wing media collective Unicorn Riot, Patrick Casey, the group's leader, rebranded the group with the new name "American Identity Movement" with an Americana aesthetic, despite initially claiming they were unrelated organizations.


title: Identity Evropa

text: The organization's founder, Nathan Damigo (), is a self-described member of the identitarian movement. Damigo grew up in San Jose, California, and was a member of the U.S. Marine Corps from 2004 to 2007. In November 2007, Damigo robbed a La Mesa, California, taxicab driver at gunpoint, believing that the man was Iraqi. Damigo was convicted of armed robbery and was incarcerated for a year in county jail and four years in state prison. He said of the event that "it's something that I'm certainly not proud of," attributing his behavior to "major issues" after returning from Iraq.


title: Identity Evropa

text: In prison, Damigo began to read works by far-right figures, including David Duke. He was also influenced by J. Philippe Rushton and Nicholas Wade. After being released from prison in 2014, Damigo led the National Youth Front, the youth wing of the American Freedom Party. The group was classified as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) and Anti-Defamation League, with the SPLC reporting that it was founded by "racist Southern California skinheads that aims to deport immigrants and return the United States to white rule." The National Youth Front later disbanded. Damigo founded Identity Evropa in March 2016. His activities with "racist organizations" has been disavowed by his father.


title: Identity Evropa

text: In the aftermath of the Unite the Right rally, the leadership position passed onto Elliot Kline, aka Eli Mosley. The group participated in the planning for the October 19, 2017 speech by Richard B. Spencer, a white supremacist, at the University of Florida, where Mosley also spoke. In addition to Spencer and Mosley, the speakers included Mike Enoch, a white nationalist blogger. The event drew about 2,500 protesters, vastly outnumbering Spencer's supporters.


title: Identity Evropa

text: In March 2019, the non-profit left-wing media collective Unicorn Riot released more than 770,000 messages leaked from Discord channels related to the group. The leaks had been published on the "Discord Leaks platform" established by Unicorn Riot. Within the leaked chat logs, members of the groups are discovered to have laid out plans to "infiltrate" local Republican parties and win public offices, plans to influence local media to garner positive coverage, as well as plans for rebranding the group's racism and antisemitism with the "identitarian" label and innocuous-sounding slogans such as "Make America Beautiful Again". The Southern Poverty Law Center commented that the group's rebrands "offers further cover to smuggle white nationalist views into mainstream politics", and that its attempts to influence media for spreading propaganda and recruiting were "often successful". Shortly after the leak, Patrick Casey said that the group "has been retired" and announced the formation a new group, "American Identity Movement". The SPLC commented that the new group will continue Identity Evropa's efforts at "quietly working to normalize their ideas within the Republican Party." After the leak, Discord removed Identity Evropa chat channels from the platform. The group switched to Slack, but was again removed shortly. Zelle stated that they would investigate and remove associated accounts, after journalists informed the platform that Identity Evropa was using it to raise funds. Legal documents filed to the Arizona Corporation Commission under the AIM front group "Foundation for American Society" was found to have used Identity Evropa's email address.


title: Identity Evropa

text: The leak of Identity Evropa's Discord messages led to journalists and antifascist activists exposing the identities of many of its members. Following the leak, an investigation by "HuffPost" reported that seven Identity Evropa members were also currently serving in the U.S. armed forces and were actively disseminating Identity Evropa materials in their communities. According to military spokespersons, several of them were being investigated by their military branches. A Chesterfield County Police officer in Virginia who was working as a school resource officer at a local high school was also identified as a pledge coordinator for Identity Evropa. The officer was suspended from his position, and the Chesterfield police chief began the process for him to be fired per state law. In April 2019, a teacher at Valley Christian School near San Jose, California was placed on paid leave while the school investigated allegations he was a member of the group, based on leaked chat logs. In the same month, a master sergeant of the U.S. Air Force's 50th Space Wing was being investigated by the military as a possible member, again based on leaked chat logs. The sergeant had allegedly posted photographs of himself applying group stickers, holding banners, and painting Identity Evropa's logo on an underpass in Colorado Springs. Also in April, a 19-year-old National Guard recruit from Chaska, Minnesota and a member of the group, was recalled from basic training and investigated by the Minnesota National Guard.


title: Identity Evropa

text: In late April 2019, "Unicorn Riot" published several audio recordings of the group's weekly meetings. These audio recordings reveal that, despite Casey's claim that American Identity Movement is not a rebrand of Identity Evropa, the two are in fact the same group. Matthew Warner, the group's second-in-command, admitted in the recordings that Identity Evropa's membership list and dues payments directly carry over to the AIM, and reiterated that the group would only accept non-Jewish White Americans. After the Discord leak, the groups has used stricter vetting processes in an attempt to prevent future leaks, where members are required to make two Skype calls and one in-person meeting before being given "sensitive information" such as the location of the group's new headquarter in Washington D.C.. After the rebrand, Identity Evropa continued its attempts to coordinate its members to edit the group's Wikipedia page into more favorable terms. Leaders of the group expressed fear that the existing page for IE would simply be renamed into AIM, which would foil the groups's rebranding attempts. In the recordings, Casey urged members to rebrand their social media accounts as well, saying that the groups's new Americana aesthetic would help its members avoid being held accountable for their membership. Discussing the group's strategy, Casey said in the recordings that the group would appeal to the "boomer patriot crowd", and would ideally exploit political crises to seize control of the United States government, and replacing it with a white-only "identitarian" regime.


title: Identity Evropa

text: In June 2020, during the George Floyd protests, Identity Evropa set up a false flag account on Twitter purporting to represent the antifascist movement antifa. The account urged violence, with comments such as "Tonight's the night, Comrades ... Tonight we say 'Fuck The City' and we move into the residential areas... the white hoods... and we take what's ours." According to a spokesperson for Twitter, it was not the first time that Identity Evropa had created such fake accounts. Before the account was closed down by Twitter, it had been cited by United States law enforcement officials as an example of left-wing radicals attempting to foment violence. A comment on the account was re-posted on Instagram by Donald Trump Jr., who commented about antifa, "They're not even pretending anymore." John Cohen, a former senior Department of Homeland Security official, said, "Time and time again we have seen public figures, media personalities and even government officials amplifying disinformation and extremist rhetoric intended to inspire violence. ... A great step in deescalating the violence currently facing the Nation would be for this to end." Facebook also took action against supposed antifa accounts, and had prevented the Twitter postings from being distributed on its platform.


title: Identity Evropa

text: In 2017, Data & Society, a non-profit research organization, documented how fake antifa accounts are used to damage the movement, writing, "Various white supremacist groups have consistently tried to damage Antifa's reputation in the media by 'doxing' protesters (releasing their personal information) or impersonating them online ... Throughout 2017, right-wing manipulators utilized parody to discredit Antifa, taking advantage of available Twitter handles and public confusion about the organization and their motives."


title: Identity Evropa

text: Identity Evropa is a neo-Nazi and white supremacist group; the organization espouses white supremacist and white separatist views. The group endorses racial segregation. It "bills itself as a 'generation of awakened Europeans' who 'oppose those who would defame our history and rich cultural heritage'". Damigo describes it as "an identitarian organization" and says that the group's aim is to "act as a fifth column, over time shifting the edifice of our political establishment" in favor of what he describes as "pro-white" interests. Identity Evropa's spokesman and director of administration, Reinhard Wolff, states that Identity Evropa is engaged in a "culture war" in an effort to create a "90 percent white" America.


title: Identity Evropa

text: The white supremacist slogan "You will not replace us" originated from the group, according to the Anti-Defamation League, after Damigo and other members of Identity Evropa appeared on camera chanting the words during LaBeouf, Rönkkö & Turner's "HEWILLNOTDIVIDE.US" project at New York's Museum of the Moving Image in February 2017.


title: Identity Evropa

text: Identity Evropa excludes Jews from membership because Damigo regards Jews as non-white. Only those "of European, non-Semitic heritage" may join the group. Damigo claims that "Jewish power, Jewish influence" has "been extraordinarily negative for people of European heritage". He has refused to say whether he acknowledges the Holocaust.


title: Identity Evropa

text: The Anti-Defamation League has labeled Identity Evropa a white supremacist group, and the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), which tracks extremist groups in the United States, has designated it as a hate group. Their campus-centric advertising posters depict photos of classical Greek sculptures of men overlaid with various short slogans which urge whites to embrace cultural elitism. Mark Potok, a senior fellow at the SPLC, states, "Identity Evropa is merely the latest iteration of the white-supremacist movement. Although you might think, based on their propaganda, that they're all about Plato and Aristotle and Socrates, in fact they're merely a gussied-up version of the Klan." Anna North, writing in "The New York Times", states that the group promotes racism under the guise of white racial pride and cultural identity for those who are of European ancestry.


title: Identity Evropa

text: In December 2016, the group had roughly 200 members. In a February 2017 interview, Damigo claimed a membership of 300. The group has distributed fliers on dozens of college campuses including the University of Virginia, Virginia Tech, Lynchburg College, Liberty University, University of Massachusetts Amherst, UCLA, San Diego State University, University of California, San Diego, Penn State, Ohio State, and the University of Washington. According to an ADL count, Identity Evropa was by far the most active white supremacist group on college campuses in 2017, responsible for 158 of the 346 incidents nationwide of the posting of white supremacist propaganda fliers. These fliers typically show photos of classical and neoclassical sculpture. According to art critic Ben Davis, the random use of dissimilar photos demonstrates a poor understanding of European culture and art history.


title: Identity Evropa

text: At Ohio State, the group has considered seeking recognized student organization status. The group's "#ProjectSiege" aims to "siege" college campuses with literature in order to combat what Damigo describes as a "false anti-white narrative" by professors, whom Damigo calls "charlatans."


title: Identity Evropa

text: In late 2016, Damigo and Identity Evropa members traveled to Washington, D.C., for a post-election conference hosted by the white supremacist National Policy Institute, at which keynote speaker Richard B. Spencer and several other attendees rendered a Nazi salute.


title: Identity Evropa

text: During the 2017 Berkeley protests, Damigo punched a young woman, captured on video that subsequently went viral. Footage showed Damigo punching the woman in the face, then running away into the crowd. The attack prompted calls for Damigo's arrest or expulsion from Cal State Stanislaus, where he is a student; the university subsequently said that it was investigating Damigo.


title: Identity Evropa

text: Damigo has been identified as a leader in the August 2017 Unite the Right rally. A news source that has interviewed him states that "Damigo has made these rallies a key driver for recruiting new members of the group". Additionally, Peter Cvjetanovic, one of the members of Identity Evropa, was dubbed as the "angry torch guy" in the Unite the Right rally.


title: Identity Evropa

text: On July 28, 2018, around 45 members of Identity Evropa, some dressed as construction workers, demonstrated outside the Mexican consulate in Manhattan, New York City, holding large letters that spelled out "Build the Wall". The government of Mexico said it had written a diplomatic note to the State Department protesting the incident. Later that day, a group of several dozen Identity Evropa members hung a banner in Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan. The banner, which said "Stop the invasion, end immigration", overlooked the Henry Hudson Parkway. The response of the Washington Heights and Inwood communities was to hold a "vigil against hate" at the same site on July 31.


title: Identity Evropa

text: On February 9, 2019, eleven Identity Evropa members went to the University of Utah’s Block U carrying colored smoke flares and a banner that read, "End immigration!" Patrick Casey stated that the action was in response to the University's condemning of the organization earlier in the year, after it had posted stickers around the campus. Police were called, but the members left before they arrived.


title: Identity Evropa

text: On April 27, 2019, hours after the Poway synagogue shooting in California, around ten members of Identity Evropa disrupted a book discussion event at the Politics and Prose bookstore at Washington D.C. The book discussed at the event was "Dying of Whiteness: How the Politics of Racial Resentment is Killing America's Heartland", by Jonathan Metzl, which discusses how working class white Americans who were attracted by the Trump administration's promises end up having a greater risk of illness and a shorter life expectancy as a result of its policies. Members of the group interrupted Metzl's speech using a bullhorn, said "You would have the white working class trade their homeland for handouts. But we, as nationalists and identitarians, can offer the workers of this country a homeland, their birthright, in addition to health care, good jobs and so forth.", and chanted "This land is our land" while walking through the bookstore, before exiting ten minutes later. Washington D.C. mayor, Muriel Bowser, condemned the Poway shooting and the bookstore disruption in a tweet, denouncing the former as "horrific act of hate and antisemitism" and the latter as "ignorance and hate".


title: Identity Evropa

text: The 2019 leaks also disclosed that the organizations were targeting college conservatives, attempting to convert them to their ideology.


title: Identity Evropa

text: Casey announced the dissolution of American Identity Movement (AIM) in a statement posted online on November 2, 2020.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Siblings play a unique role in one another's lives that simulates the companionship of parents as well as the influence and assistance of friends. Because siblings often grow up in the same household, they have a large amount of exposure to one another, like other members of the immediate family. However, though a sibling relationship can have both hierarchical and reciprocal elements, this relationship tends to be more egalitarian and symmetrical than with family members of other generations. Furthermore, sibling relationships often reflect the overall condition of cohesiveness within a family.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Siblings normally spend more time with each other during their childhood than they do with parents or anyone else; they trust and cherish each other, so betrayal by one sibling could cause problems for that person physically as well as mentally and emotionally. Sibling relationships are often the longest-lasting relationship in individuals' lives.


title: Sibling relationship

text: The content and context of sibling relationships varies between cultures. In industrialized cultures, sibling relationships are typically discretionary. People are encouraged to stay in contact and cooperate with their brothers and sisters, but this is not an obligation. Older siblings in these cultures are sometimes given responsibilities to watch over a younger sibling, but this is only occasional, with parents taking on the primary role of caretaker. In contrast, close sibling relationships in nonindustrialized cultures are often obligatory, with strong cultural norms prompting cooperation and close proximity between siblings. In India, the brother-sister sibling relationship is so cherished that a festival is held in observance called Raksha Bandhan. At this celebration, the sister presents the brother with a woven bracelet to show their lasting bond even when they have raised their own families. These cultures also extend caregiving roles to older siblings, who are constantly expected to watch over younger siblings.


title: Sibling relationship

text: A relationship begins with the introduction of two siblings to one another. Older siblings are often made aware of their soon-to-be younger brother or sister at some point during their mother's pregnancy, which may help facilitate adjustment for the older child and result in a better immediate relationship with the newborn. Parents pay attention not only to the newborns but to the older children to avoid sibling rivalry; interactions that can contribute to the older sibling's social aptitude can cognitively stimulate the younger sibling. Older siblings even adapt their speech to accommodate for the low language comprehension of the younger sibling, much like parents do with baby talk.


title: Sibling relationship

text: The attachment theory used to describe an infant's relationship to a primary caregiver may also be applied to siblings. If an infant finds an older sibling to be responsive and sees him or her as a source of comfort, a supportive bond may form. On the contrary, a negative bond may form if the older sibling acts in an aggressive, neglectful, or otherwise negative manner. Sibling attachment is further accentuated in the absence of a primary caregiver when the younger sibling must rely on the older one for security and support.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Even as siblings age and develop, their relationships have considerable stability from infancy through middle childhood, during which positive and negative interactions remain constant in frequency. Still, this time period marks great changes for both siblings. Assuming an age gap of only a few years, this marks the time when the older sibling is beginning school, meeting peers, and making friends. This shift in environment reduces both children's access to one another and depletes the older sibling's dependency on the younger for social support, which can now be found outside the relationship. When the younger sibling begins school, the older sibling may help him or her become acclimated and advise on the new struggles that come with being a student. At the same time, the older sibling is also available to answer questions and discuss topics that the younger sibling may not feel comfortable bringing up with a parent.


title: Sibling relationship

text: The nature of sibling relationships changes from childhood to adolescence. While young adolescents often provide one another with warmth and support, this period of development is also marked by increased conflict and emotional distance. However, this effect varies based on the sex of siblings. Mixed-sex sibling pairs often experience more drastic decreases in intimacy during adolescence, while same-sex sibling pairs experience a slight rise in intimacy during early adolescence followed by a slight drop. In both instances, intimacy once again increases during young adulthood. This trend may be the result of an increased emphasis on peer relationships during adolescence. Often, adolescents from the same family adopt differing lifestyles which further contributes to emotional distance between one another.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Siblings may influence one another in much the same way that peers do, especially during adolescence. These relationships may even compensate for the negative psychological impact of not having friends and may provide individuals with a sense of self-worth. Older siblings can effectively model good behaviour for younger siblings. For instance, there is evidence that communication about safe sex with a sibling may be just as effective as with a parent. Conversely, an older sibling may encourage risky sexual behaviour by modelling a sexually advanced lifestyle, and younger siblings of teen parents are more likely to become teen parents themselves.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Research on adolescents suggests positive sibling influences can promote healthy and adaptive functioning while negative interactions can increase vulnerabilities and problem behaviours. Intimate and positive sibling interactions are an important source of support for adolescents and can promote the development of prosocial behaviour. However, when sibling relationships are characterized by conflict and aggression, they can promote delinquency, and antisocial behaviour among peers.


title: Sibling relationship

text: When siblings reach adulthood, it is more likely that they will no longer live in the same place and that they will become involved in jobs, hobbies, and romantic interests that they do not share and therefore cannot use to relate to one another. In this stage the common struggles of school and being under the strict jurisdiction of parents is dissolved. Despite these factors, siblings often maintain a relationship through adulthood and even old age. Proximity is a large factor in maintaining contact between siblings; those who live closer to one another are more likely to visit each other frequently. In addition, gender also plays a significant role. Sisters are most likely to maintain contact with one another, followed by mixed-gender dyads. Brothers are least likely to contact one another frequently.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Communication is especially important when siblings do not live near one another. Communication may take place in person, over the phone, by mail, and with increasing frequency, by means of online communication such as email and social networking. Often, siblings will communicate indirectly through a parent or a mutual friend of relative. Between adult and elderly siblings, conversations tend to focus on family happenings and reflections of the past.


title: Sibling relationship

text: In adulthood, siblings still perform a role similar to that of friends. Friends and siblings are often similar in age, with any age gap seeming even less significant in adulthood. Furthermore, both relationships are often egalitarian in nature, although unlike sibling relationships, friendships are voluntary. The specific roles of each relationship also differ, especially later in life. For elderly siblings, friends tend to act as companions while siblings play the roles of confidants.


title: Sibling relationship

text: It is difficult to make long-term assumptions about adult sibling relationships, as they may rapidly change in response to individual or shared life events. Marriage of one sibling may either strengthen or weaken the sibling bond. The same can be said for change of location, birth of a child, and numerous other life events. However, divorce or widowhood of one sibling or death of a close family member most often results in increased closeness and support between siblings.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Sibling relationships are important within the family system. Family systems theory (Kerr and Bowen, 1988) is a theory of human behavior that defines the family unit as a complex social system, in which members interact to influence each other's behavior These relationships have an effect on child development, behavior, and support throughout their life span. A child's development is influenced by the dynamic system as a result of the family system. The relationship between siblings is the most important, but isn't focused on as much as other family relationships. Within the family system, not all roles amongst siblings are the same or shared. An older sibling can be placed in a position to fulfill the shoes of a parental role. This makes the older sibling a role model and caretaker to the younger sibling. A positive impact on the younger siblings' development may occur.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Sibling rivalry describes the competitive relationship or animosity between siblings, blood-related or not. Often competition is the result of a desire for greater attention from parents. However, even the most conscientious parents can expect to see sibling rivalry in play to a degree. Children tend to naturally compete with each other for not only attention from parents but for recognition in the world.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Siblings generally spend more time together during childhood than they do with parents. The sibling bond is often complicated and is influenced by factors such as parental treatment, birth order, personality, and people and experiences outside the family. According to child psychologist Sylvia Rimm, sibling rivalry is particularly intense when children are very close in age and of the same gender, or where one child is intellectually gifted. Sibling rivalry involves aggression and insults, especially between siblings close in age.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Siblings may be jealous of and harbor resentment toward one another. The main causes of sibling rivalry are lack of social skills, concerns with fairness, individual temperaments, special needs, parenting style, parent's conflict resolution skills and culture. In many families, the children count their siblings among their friends. But it's also common for siblings to be great friends on one day and hateful to one another on the next.


title: Sibling relationship

text: There are many things that can influence and shape sibling rivalry. According to Kyla Boyse from the University of Michigan, each child in a family competes to define who they are as individuals and want to show that they are separate from their siblings. Children may feel they are getting unequal amounts of their parents' attention, discipline, and responsiveness. Children fight more in families where there is no understanding that fighting is not an acceptable way to resolve conflicts, and no alternative ways of handling such conflicts. Stress in the parents' and children's lives can create more conflict and increase sibling rivalry.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Sigmund Freud saw the sibling relationship as an extension of the Oedipus complex, where brothers were in competition for their mother's attention and sisters for their father's. For example, in the case of Little Hans, Freud postulated that the young boy's fear of horses was related to jealousy of his baby sister, as well as the boy's desire to replace his father as his mother's mate. This view has been largely discredited by modern research.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Formulated by Robert Trivers, parent-offspring theory is important for understanding sibling dynamics and parental decision-making. Because parents are expected to invest whatever is necessary to ensure the survival of their offspring, it is generally thought that parents will allocate the maximum amount of resources available, possibly to their own detriment and that of other potential offspring. While parents are investing as much as possible to their offspring, offspring may at the same time attempt to obtain more resources than the parents are able to give to maximize its own reproductive success. Therefore, there is a conflict between the wants of the individual offspring and what the parent is able or willing to give. An extension of Trivers' theory leads to predict that it will pay siblings to compete intensely with one another. It can pay to be selfish even to the detriment of not only one's parents but also to one's siblings, as long as the total fitness benefits of doing do outweigh the total costs.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Alfred Adler saw siblings as "striving for significance" within the family and felt that birth order was an important aspect of personality development. The feeling of being replaced or supplanted is often the cause of jealousy on the part of the older sibling. In fact, psychologists and researchers today endorse the influence of birth order, as well as age and gender constellations, on sibling relationships. A child's personality can also have an effect on how much sibling rivalry will occur in a home. Some kids seem to naturally accept changes, while others may be naturally competitive, and exhibit this nature long before a sibling enters the home. However, parents are seen as capable of having an important influence on whether they are competitive or not.


title: Sibling relationship

text: David Levy introduced the term "sibling rivalry" in 1941, claiming that for an older sibling "the aggressive response to the new baby is so typical that it is safe to say it is a common feature of family life." Researchers today generally endorse this view, noting that parents can ameliorate this response by being vigilant to favoritism and by taking appropriate preventative steps. In fact, say researchers, the ideal time to lay the groundwork for a lifetime of supportive relationships between siblings is during the months prior to the new baby's arrival.


title: Sibling relationship

text: According to observational studies by Judy Dunn, children as early as one may be able to exhibit self-awareness and perceive difference in parental treatment between themselves and a sibling and early impressions can shape a lifetime relationship with the younger sibling. From 18 months on siblings can understand family rules and know how to comfort and be kind to each other. By 3 years old, children have a sophisticated grasp of social rules, can evaluate themselves in relation to their siblings, and know how to adapt to circumstances within the family. Whether they have the drive to adapt, to get along with a sibling whose goals and interests may be different from their own, can make the difference between a cooperative relationship and a rivalrous one.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Studies have further shown that the greatest sibling rivalry tends to be shown between brothers, and the least between sisters. Naturally, there are exceptions to this rule. What makes brother/brother ties so rivalrous? Deborah Gold has launched a new study that is not yet completed. But she has found a consistent theme running through the interviews she's conducted thus far. "The thing that rides through with brothers that doesn't come across in other sibling pairs is this notion of parental and societal comparison. Somehow with boys, it seems far more natural to compare them, especially more than with sister/brother pairs. Almost from day one, the fundamental developmental markers—who gets a tooth first, who crawls, walks, speaks first—are held up on a larger-than-life scale. And this comparison appears to continue from school to college to the workplace. Who has the biggest house, who makes the most money, drives the best car are constant topics of discussion. In our society, men are supposed to be achievement-oriented, aggressive. They're supposed to succeed."


title: Sibling relationship

text: Sibling rivalry often continues throughout childhood and can be very frustrating and stressful to parents. Adolescents fight for the same reasons younger children fight, but they are better equipped physically and intellectually to hurt and be hurt by each other. Physical and emotional changes cause pressures in the teenage years, as do changing relationships with parents and friends. Fighting with siblings as a way to get parental attention may increase in adolescence. One study found that the age group 10 to 15 reported the highest level of competition between siblings.


title: Sibling relationship

text: However, the degree of sibling rivalry and conflict is not constant. Longitudinal studies looking at the degree of sibling rivalry throughout childhood from Western societies suggest that, over time, sibling relationships become more egalitarian and this suggest less conflict. Yet, this effect is moderated by birth order: Older siblings report more or less the same level of conflict and rivalry throughout their childhood. In contrast, young siblings report a peak in conflict and rivalry around young adolescence and a drop in late adolescence. The decline in late adolescence makes sense from an evolutionary perspective: Once resources cease and/ or individuals have started their own reproductive career, it makes little sense for sibling to continue fierce competition over resources that do not affect their reproductive success anymore.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Sibling rivalry can continue into adulthood and sibling relationships can change dramatically over the years. Events such as a parent's illness may bring siblings closer together, whereas marriage may drive them apart, particularly if the in-law relationship is strained. Approximately one-third of adults describe their relationship with siblings as rivalrous or distant. However, rivalry often lessens over time. At least 80 percent of siblings over age 60 enjoy close ties.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Parents can reduce the opportunity for rivalry by refusing to compare or typecast their children, teaching the children positive ways to get attention from each other and from the parent, planning fun family activities together, and making sure each child has enough time and space of their own. They can also give each child individual attention, encourage teamwork, refuse to hold up one child as a role model for the others, and avoid favoritism. It is also important for parents to invest in time spent together as a whole family. Children who have a strong sense of being part of a family are likely to see siblings as an extension of themselves. However, according to Sylvia Rimm, although sibling rivalry can be reduced it is unlikely to be eliminated. In moderate doses, rivalry may be a healthy indication that each child is assertive enough to express his or her differences with other siblings.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Weihe suggests that four criteria should be used to determine if questionable behavior is rivalry or sibling abuse. First, one must determine if the questionable behavior is age appropriate: e.g., children use different conflict-resolution tactics during various developmental stages. Second, one must determine if the behavior is an isolated incident or part of an enduring pattern: abuse is, by definition, a long-term pattern rather than occasional disagreements. Third, one must determine if there is an "aspect of victimization" to the behavior: rivalry tends to be incident-specific, reciprocal and obvious to others, while abuse is characterized by secrecy and an imbalance of power. Fourth, one must determine the goal of the questionable behavior: the goal of abuse tends to be embarrassment or domination of the victim.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Parents should remember that sibling rivalry today may someday result in siblings being cut off from each other when the parents are gone. Continuing to encourage family togetherness, treating siblings equitably, and using family counseling to help arrest sibling rivalry that is excessive may ultimately serve children in their adult years.


title: Sibling relationship

text: While cousin marriage is legal in most countries, and avunculate marriage is legal in many, sexual relations between siblings are considered incestuous almost universally. Innate sexual aversion between siblings forms due to close association in childhood, in what is known as the Westermarck effect. Children who grow up together do not normally develop sexual attraction, even if they are unrelated, and conversely, siblings who were separated at a young age may develop sexual attraction.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Thus, many cases of sibling incest, including accidental incest, concern siblings who were separated at birth or at a very young age. One study from New England has shown that roughly 10% of males and 15% of females had experienced some form of sexual contact with a brother or sister, with the most common form being fondling or touching of one another's genitalia.


title: Sibling relationship

text: John M. Goggin and William C. Sturtevant (1964) listed eight societies which generally allowed sibling marriage, and thirty-five societies where sibling marriage was permissible among the upper classes (nobility) only.


title: Sibling relationship

text: A historical marriage that took place between full siblings was that between John V, Count of Armagnac and Isabelle d'Armagnac, dame des Quatre-Vallées, c. 1450. The provided papal dispensation for this union was declared forged in 1457. The marriage was declared invalid and the children were declared bastards and removed from the line of succession.


title: Sibling relationship

text: In antiquity, Laodice IV, a Seleucid princess, priestess, and queen, married all three of her brothers in turn.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Sibling marriage was especially frequent in Roman Egypt, and probably even the preferred norm among the nobility. In most cases, marriage of siblings in Roman Egypt was a result of the religious belief in divinity and maintaining purity. Based on the model from the myth of Osiris and Isis, it was considered necessary for a god to marry a goddess and vice versa. This led to Osiris marrying his sister Isis due to limited options of gods and goddesses to marry. In order to preserve the divinity of ruling families, siblings of the royal families would marry each other.


title: Sibling relationship

text: In a number of European countries such as Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Spain, marriage between siblings remains prohibited, but incest between siblings is no longer prosecuted.


title: Sibling relationship

text: According to , between forty and seventy-five percent of children will engage in some sort of sexual behavior before reaching 13 years of age. In these situations, children are exploring each other's bodies while also exploring gender roles and behaviors, and their sexual experimentation does not indicate that these children are child sex offenders. As siblings are generally close in age and locational proximity, the opportunity for sexual exploration between siblings is fairly high and that, if simply based on mutual curiosity, then these activities are not harmful or distressing, either in childhood or later in adulthood. According to , studying early sexual behavior generally, over half of all six- and seven-year-old boys have engaged in sex play with other boys, and more than a third of them with girls, while more than a third of six- and seven-year-old girls have engaged in such play with both other girls and with boys. This play includes playing doctor, mutual touching, and attempts at simulated, non-penetrative intercourse. Reinisch views such play as part of a normal progression from the sensual elements of bonding with parents, to masturbation, and then to sex play with others. By the age of eight or nine, according to Reinisch, children become aware that sexual arousal is a specific type of erotic sensation, and will seek these pleasurable experiences through various sights, self-touches, and fantasy, so that earlier generalized sex play shifts into more deliberate and intentional arousal.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Abusive incestuous relationships between siblings can have adverse effects on the parties involved. Such abuse can leave victims detrimentally hindered in developmental processes, such as those necessary for interpersonal relations, and can be the cause for depression, anxiety, and substance abuse in the victim's adult life. Definitions used have varied widely. Child sexual abuse between siblings is defined by the (US) National Task Force on Juvenile Sexual Offending as: sexual acts initiated by one sibling toward another without the other's consent, by use of force or coercion, or where there is a power differential between the siblings. In , sibling child sexual abuse is defined as "sexual behavior between siblings that is not age appropriate, not transitory, and not motivated by developmentally, mutually appropriate curiosity". When child sexual experimentation is carried out with siblings, some researchers, e.g. , do consider it incest, but those researchers who do use that term distinguish between abusive incest and non-abusive incest. Bank and Kahn say that abusive incest is power-oriented, sadistic, exploitative, and coercive, often including deliberate physical or mental abuse.


title: Sibling relationship

text: Views of young sibling sexual contact may be affected by more general views regarding sexuality and minors:


title: Sibling relationship

text: According to De Jong, if one or more of these is present, the behavior is abusive, whereas if none is present, the behavior must be considered normal sexual experimentation.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: Nicholas F. Oppenheimer (born 8 June 1945) is a South African billionaire businessman. He was formerly the chairman of De Beers diamond mining company and of its subsidiary, the Diamond Trading Company, and former deputy chairman of Anglo American. He is the third richest man in Africa.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: Oppenheimer is the son of Bridget (née McCall) and Harry Oppenheimer, and grandson of Anglo American founder Ernest Oppenheimer (the first generation to chair De Beers, from 1929). His father was of German Jewish descent. He was educated at Ludgrove School, Harrow School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics, earning an Oxford MA.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: Oppenheimer joined Anglo American in 1968, was appointed a director in 1974, then became deputy chairman in 1983. He resigned in 2001, remaining a non-executive director until 2011.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: He was appointed deputy chairman of the then Central Selling Organisation (now Diamond Trading Company) in 1984, and deputy chairman of De Beers Consolidated Mines in 1985. He was also appointed chairman of the Diamond Trading Company in 1985. Chairman of the De Beers Group from 1998 to 2012, he retired when the family stake was sold to Anglo American.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: Oppenheimer appeared on the "Sunday Times" Rich List 2018 as the 23rd richest person in the United Kingdom, with a reported fortune of £5.5 billion. He was ranked as the richest person in South Africa on "Forbes" list of The World's Billionaires for 2019, with a fortune reported as US$7.3 billion and, again, on its 2020 list, with a reported fortune of US$7.6 billion in August 2020.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: The Oppenheimer family has directed much of its philanthropic efforts towards preserving the heritage and cultural importance of the Southern African region, as well as to broader community upliftment in the areas of education, health, nature conservation and the arts. Nicky Oppenheimer and his son Jonathan Oppenheimer established the Brenthurst Foundation in 2005 as a way to contribute to the debate around strategies and policies for strengthening Africa's economic performance and enabling inclusive and sustainable development.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: The family has also long been involved in environmental and conservation issues. The Oppenheimer family partnered with De Beers to establish the Diamond Route in 2006 to maximise the potential of their properties for conservation, research and environmental awareness purposes. The Diamond Route links 8 sites across northern South Africa, stretching from Namaqualand on the west coast, to Kimberley, north to Tswalu in the Kalahari, and to the Brenthurst Gardens in Johannesburg, eastwards to Ezemvelo Nature Reserve and northwards to the Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve in Limpopo Province. Since 2015 Oppenheimer is also a Rhodes Trustee.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: In 2003, the Technikon Witwatersrand awarded Oppenheimer an honorary doctorate. He received the Presidential Order of Honor (2004) from the former President of Botswana, Festus Mogae, and an honorary fellowship (2009) from the London Business School.


title: Nicky Oppenheimer

text: In 1968, he married Orcillia "Strilli" Lasch, daughter of industrial tycoon Helli Lasch; both are Anglican. His father was born Jewish and converted to Anglicanism.


title: Pixel 4a

text: The Pixel 4a and Pixel 4a (5G) are a pair of Android smartphones designed, developed, and marketed by Google as part of the Google Pixel product line. They collectively serve as mid-range variants of the Pixel 4 and Pixel 4 XL. The Pixel 4a was announced on August 3, 2020 via a press release, while the Pixel 4a (5G) was announced on September 30, 2020 at the "Launch Night In" event.


title: Pixel 4a

text: The Pixel 4a and 4a (5G) resemble the Pixel 4, but have a polycarbonate unibody construction and Gorilla Glass 3 for the screen. Both devices are available in 'Just Black'. 'Clearly White' is exclusive to the Pixel 4a (5G), only on Verizon with millimeter-wave (mmWave) support at launch. A limited edition 'Barely Blue' color for the Pixel 4a was later added to the Google Store. The back houses a capacitive fingerprint sensor centered below the camera lens. Both have stereo loudspeakers, one located on the bottom edge and the other doubling as the earpiece, and a 3.5mm headphone jack. A USB-C port is used for charging and connecting other accessories.


title: Pixel 4a

text: The Pixel 4a is powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon 730G system-on-chip / Adreno 618 GPU, while the Pixel 4a (5G) is powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon 765G system-on-chip / Adreno 620 GPU. Both have 6GB of RAM, with 128GB of non-expandable internal storage. They lack wireless charging, water resistance, Active Edge and the Pixel Neural Core (PNC), all of which are standard on the Pixel 4. The battery capacity is 3140 mAh for the Pixel 4a and 3885 mAh for the Pixel 4a (5G); fast charging is supported at up to 18 W (USB Power Delivery, using in-box adapter).


title: Pixel 4a

text: The Pixel 4a and Pixel 4a (5G) feature a 1080p OLED display with HDR support measuring 5.8-inches and 6.2-inches respectively. The display has slim uniform bezels, and a circular cutout in the upper left hand corner for the front-facing camera, with a 19.5:9 aspect ratio.


title: Pixel 4a

text: The Pixel 4a and Pixel 4a (5G) have a raised square module housing the camera. The Pixel 4a has a single rear-facing camera, with the same 12.2-megapixel sensor found on the Pixel 4; the Pixel 4a (5G) adds a secondary 16-megapixel ultrawide sensor. The front-facing camera has an 8-megapixel sensor. Both phones can record video at 4K resolution; the Pixel 4a is limited to 30 fps, and the Pixel 4a (5G) supports 60 fps. They have Google Camera 7.4 with software enhancements, including Live HDR+ with dual exposure controls, improved Night Sight with Astrophotography mode, and improved Portrait Mode with more realistic bokeh. Google also offers unlimited cloud photo storage at "high quality"; original resolution storage requires users to pay for Google One.


title: Pixel 4a

text: The Pixel 4a shipped with Android 10 and version 7.4 of the Google Camera app at launch, while the Pixel 4a (5G) shipped with Android 11 and version 8.0 of the Google Camera app at launch. Both are expected to receive 3 years of major OS upgrades with support extending until 2023, and have features such as Call Screen and a Personal Safety app.


title: Pixel 4a

text: The Pixel 4a was released to generally positive reviews with many reviewers praising the camera quality and overall value for money. CNET's Lynn La gave the Pixel 4a a score of 8.4/10, considering it to have the best photo quality among phones in the same price range. Dieter Bohn of "The Verge" praised the phone for its excellent camera and acceptable battery life, but criticized the mediocre video recording performance and lack of wireless charging and water resistance. Brian Chen of "The New York Times" compared the Pixel 4a with the second-generation iPhone SE, remarking that the Pixel had superior low light photos, and a better display and battery life, but the iPhone had better performance. Samuel Gibbs of "The Guardian" stated that the phone operated smoothly and had better battery life than the Pixel 3a XL and the iPhone SE.


title: Kagu-tsuchi

text: Kagutsuchi (カグツチ; Old Japanese: "Kagututi"), also known as Hi-no-Kagutsuchi or Homusubi among other names, is the kami of fire in classical Japanese mythology.


title: Kagu-tsuchi

text: Kagutsuchi's birth burned his mother Izanami, causing her death. His father Izanagi, in his grief, beheaded Kagutsuchi with his sword, Ame no Ohabari (天之尾羽張), and cut his body into eight pieces, which became eight volcanoes. Kagutsuchi’s corpse created numerous deities, which typically includes Watatsumi, Kuraokami, Takemikazuchi, Futsunushi, Amatsumikaboshi, and Ōyamatsumi.


title: Kagu-tsuchi

text: Kagutsuchi's birth, in Japanese mythology, comes at the end of the creation of the world and marks the beginning of death. In the "Engishiki", a source which contains the myth, Izanami, in her death throes, bears the water god Mizuhanome, instructing her to pacify Kagu-tsuchi if he should become violent. This story also contains references to traditional fire-fighting tools: gourds for carrying water and wet clay and water reeds for smothering fires.


title: Kagu-tsuchi

text: The name "Kagutsuchi" was originally a compound phrase, consisting of "kagu", an Old Japanese root verb meaning "to shine"; "tsu", the Old Japanese possessive particle; and "chi", an Old Japanese root meaning "force, power".


title: Kagu-tsuchi

text: Kagutsuchi is the patron deity of blacksmiths and ceramic workers. He is worshipped in several shrines, one of which is Atago Shrine, near Kyoto.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The Ford 335 engine family was a group of engines built by the Ford Motor Company between 1969 and 1982. The "335" designation reflected Ford management's decision to produce an engine of that size (335 cubic inches) with room for expansion during its development. This engine family began production in late 1969 with a 351 cu in (5.8 L) engine, commonly called the 351C. It later expanded to include a 400 cu in (6.6 L) engine which used a taller version of the engine block, commonly referred to as a tall deck engine block, a 351 cu in (5.8 L) tall deck variant, called the 351M, and a 302 cu in (4.9 L) engine which was exclusive to Australia.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 351C, introduced in 1969 for the 1970 model year, is commonly referred to as the 351 Cleveland after the Brook Park, Ohio, Cleveland Engine plant in which most of these engines were manufactured. This plant complex included a gray iron foundry (Cleveland Casting Plant), and two engine assembly plants (Engine plant 1 & 2 ). As newer automobile engines began incorporating aluminum blocks, Ford closed the casting plant in May 2012.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 335 series engines were used in mid- and full-sized cars and light trucks, (351M/400 only) at times concurrently with the Windsor small-block family, the 351 Windsor, in cars. These engines were also used as a replacement for the FE V8 family in both the car and truck lines. The 335 series only outlived the FE series by a half-decade, being replaced by the more compact Windsor V8s.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 335-series V8s were overhead valve pushrod V8 engines that used a short-skirt engine block. This family of engines incorporated design features used on the 385 big-block series, including the canted valve layout, the valve train design, and thin-wall casting technology. All 335 series V8s had free breathing, large-port canted valve heads with a rugged engine block. These engines use a shallow poly angle combustion chamber rather than the wedge style used on the Windsor V8 engines. The 335 engines use large main-bearing caps, with four-bolt attachment on some versions. All 335 series are cast with provisions for four-bolt main bearing caps to be added through modification.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The first engine in the 335 series was introduced in late 1969 as the 351C. In the third quarter of 1970, the 400 was introduced to the passenger car lines. For the 1975 model year the 351M replaced the 351C in North American markets. Initially Ford of Australia imported US made 351C engines. However by November 1971, Ford of Australia began to manufacture the 351C locally at the Geelong Foundry. This engine was very similar to the American counterpart and remained in production until December 1981. Ford of Australia also produced a smaller 302C alongside the 351C, which was exclusive to the Australian market.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: To accommodate the longer stroke used by the 400, Ford used a taller deck height and also used larger main bearings than the 351C for additional strength. This was similar to the changes required to convert a 302 Windsor to the 351 Windsor. As a result, the 335 series has both low and tall deck heights.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: All 335 series engines shared the same bore spacing and cylinder head bolt pattern as the Windsor V8 family. There are a number of significant differences between the two engine families. The 335 series have a roughly two-inch extension cast into the front of the block which forms an integrated timing cover enclosure covered by a piece of flat steel, similar to an Oldsmobile V8 engine. This results in the 335 series engine block being heavier than the Windsor engines. The 335 series use a dry intake manifold with the radiator hose connecting vertically to the cylinder block above the cam timing chain cover. Windsors use a wet intake manifold which routes coolant through the intake manifold via a horizontally protruding hose. The 335 uses smaller, 14mm, spark plugs and has a square-shaped eight bolt rocker cover while the Windsor's six-bolt rocker cover is more rounded.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: To reduce production costs, Ford eliminated one of the 335 series's main oil galleries from the block casting, leaving two compared to the Windsor family's three. The result was an oil system very similar to the 385 series V8s, adequate for street engines but falling short in high-revolution race use without modification. The two main oil galleys in the 335 series engine run along the lifter bores. Oil is fed from the filter to the number one main bearing followed by the number one cam bearing above. At the same time, it also feeds the right hand oil galley, supplying the right side lifter bank. It has four galleries that lead to each of the remaining main bearings. After the oil feeds them, it feeds each corresponding camshaft bearing above. At the rear-most main bearing, the oil goes into the second gallery, which feeds the left lifter bank. In addition the oil system not prioritizing the main bearings, the 335 engines have excessive clearances in the lifter bores. This results in oil leaking out of the lifter bores which can cause oil cavitation from the lifter motion, and can reduce oil flow to the main bearings.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The cylinder-head design for the 335 series engines is its most definitive design feature. All cylinder head variants were two-valve that use large free flowing ports with poly-angle or 'canted' valves, resulting in the intake and exhaust valves being at separate angles. This allowed for very large valves to be installed, while reducing the port length and minimizing sharp turns within the port. The 335-Series cylinder heads had freer flowing ports than the Ford Windsor V8s.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 335-series engines used different cylinder heads for two and four barrel carburetors. The 2V (two venturi) small port cylinder heads were used on 2-barrel engines while the 4V (four venturi) large port cylinder heads were used on the 4-barrel engines. While the 2Vs used the smaller port of the two, these ports and valves were significantly larger than Windsor engines. The 4V heads had enormous ports which flowed very well, in particular at higher valve lift. The 4V heads could out-flow Chevrolet Double Hump heads and Chrysler's high-performance 340 heads. 2V heads still have excellent flow, and actually have slightly better flow than the 4V heads at lower valve lift values.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: In addition to the two port sizes, the 335 cylinder heads used two style of combustion chambers, an open or a closed "quench" chamber. Both combustion chambers are very shallow, due to the shallow valve angles. The combustion chambers are almost a very shallow hemispherical chamber, rather than a wedge shaped. The closed chamber heads enclose the valves more closely, reducing combustion chamber volume, to increase the compression ratio. However, both designs have the same thermal efficiency and resistance to detonation. The closed combustion chamber promotes better swirling of incoming air fuel mixture, giving it a low-rpm torque advantage, and requires less machining to obtain high compression ratios. However, the open chamber heads valves are less shrouded, which improves low lift airflow, and they exhibit better emissions characteristics.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: Most 335 series engines used stamped rocker arms with cast fulcrums that made for a non-adjustable valve train. The rocker arm design was originally used by the Ford 385 series engines. However, the Boss 351 and 351 HO had an adjustable valve train, using rocker arms mounted on screw-in studs and guide plates.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: Prior to the release of the 351C, the 335 Series cylinder head was used on the Ford Boss 302 engine. The Boss 302 used a large port closed chamber 4V cylinder head which required minor modifications to make the cylinder heads work with the Windsor engine block. The Boss 302 version of the cylinder heads used small 58cc cambers and large 2.23" intake valves. The valves were later reduced to 2.19" as used on the 351C 4V cylinder heads.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: Production of the 351 Windsor V8 engine began for the 1969 model year in the Windsor Engine Plant #1. Ford sales and marketing forecast that the demand for this engine would exceed the plant's production capability, and it was decided the additional production would begin at the Cleveland engine plant. At this time, it was also decided to upgrade the design of the new Cleveland manufactured 351s to a higher-specification power plant. It was decided that a new cylinder head design was needed for improved performance. Two cylinder-head designs were developed. One cylinder head used the same basic design as the 351W, but with larger ports and valves. The second had very large ports with canted intake and exhaust valves, similar to the Ford 385 Series V8. Sales, marketing, and product planning favored the canted valve design, as it was viewed as more innovative.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: Other changes to the engine were related to ease of manufacture and improved reliability. This led to elimination of coolant flowing through a 'dry' intake manifold, a potential source of leaks and minimized unnecessary heat transfer. To perform this change, the front of the engine block was extended to include provisions for the coolant to flow through a crossover in the block. This extension also acted as an integrated timing chain housing. The timing chain housing was covered with flat steel that was easier to seal than the typical large timing chain cover used on other Ford V8s. These changes resulted in a bigger and heavier engine block than the Windsor V8s. To help reduce costs the oil system was revised, as explained above. Although the 351W began as the basis for the 351C, by the time it reached production the design changes resulted in almost no parts interchanging between the two designs. The two engines, however, shared the same bore spacing, engine mounts and bell housing pattern.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 351 Cleveland began production in July 1969 for the 1970 model year. Its actual displacement was . A 4V (four venturi) performance version and a conventional 2V (two venturi) version were built. The 351C-4V was marketed as a high-performance engine, featuring the 4V large ports heads with closed "quench" combustion chambers. Later versions of the 351C with 4V heads continued to use the large ports and valves, but switched to open chamber heads in an effort to reduce engine emissions. The 351C-2V was never marketed as a high-performance engine. It used the small port 2V cylinder heads with open combustion chambers to produce a more economical engine that was tuned more for low-rpm torque. Only the Q-code 351 "Cobra Jet" (1971–1974), R-code "Boss" 351 (1971), and R-code 351 "HO" (1972) versions have four-bolt main bearing caps, however, all 335 series engines could be modified to have 4-bolt main bearing caps.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The H-code 351 Cleveland engines were low performance engines with low compression and two-barrel carburetors. All H-code engines ran on regular grade fuel. Compression ratio was 9.5:1 in 1970 and progressively dropped annually until it reached it low point of 8.0:1 compression in 1973 and 1974. H-code 351s were equipped with a cast-iron crankshaft, two-bolt main bearing caps, forged-steel connecting rods, cast-aluminum pistons, non-adjustable valve train, and cast-iron intake and exhaust manifolds. All H-code 351 Cleveland engines used the small port 2V heads with open combustion chambers. These engines were produced from 1970 through 1974 and were used on a variety of Ford models, from pony-car to full-sized. The 351W with a 2V carburetor was also produced during this time which also used the "H-code" designation. Both the 351W and 351C H-code had the same or very similar power ratings, and were used interchangeably when a car was built with the H-code engine option.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The M-code was a high-compression, high-performance variation of the 351C, produced in 1970 and 1971. The M-code engines used the large-port 4V heads with a closed "quench" combustion chamber and large valves. These engines also included cast-aluminum flat-top pistons, stiffer valve springs, a high-performance hydraulic camshaft, and a squarebore Autolite 4300-A carburetor. The 1970 engines had an advertised 11.0:1 compression ratio and were rated at at 5400 rpm. The 1971 version had a slightly lower advertised compression ratio of 10.7:1, and the power rating dropped to at 5400 rpm. The M-code 351C required premium fuel and was available in the 1970-71 Ford Torino, Mercury Montego, Ford Mustang, and Mercury Cougar.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The Boss 351 was the most potent high-performance variant of the 351C available only in the 1971 Boss 351 Mustang. Rated at 330 bhp (246 kW), it was fitted with a four-barrel Autolite model 4300-D spreadbore carburetor, an aluminum intake manifold, solid lifters, dual-point distributor, a six-quart oil pan, and cast-aluminum valve covers. Forged domed pistons gave an 11.1:1 advertised compression ratio which made premium fuel necessary. It had four-bolt main bearing caps selected for hardness and a premium cast-iron crankshaft selected for hardness (90% nodularity). The cylinder head was modified for better airflow, used screw-in studs with adjustable rocker arms, and except for the water passages and larger combustion chambers, were very similar to the heads used on the Boss 302. The valve train used hardened and ground push rods with guide plates and single grove-hardened valve split locks. The forged connecting rods were shot-peened and magnafluxed for strength, and used improved durability 180,000 PSI 3/8-inch nuts and bolts. The R-code Boss 351 was only installed in the 1971 Boss 351 Mustang, and it came equipped with Ram Air induction. Ford manufactured 1,806 Boss 351 Mustangs in 1971, 591 of which are registered and accounted for on the Boss 351 Registry site.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The January 2010 issue of "Hot Rod" reported a project in which a Boss 351 was assembled to the exact internal specifications of an original motor, but fitted with open, long tube, 1-3/4-inch Hooker headers (vs. the stock cast-iron manifolds), a facility water pump, a 750 Holley Street HP-series carburetor (vs. the stock 715 CFM Autolite unit), and minus the factory air filter assembly, engine accessories, or factory exhaust system. In that externally modified state it produced gross at 6,100 rpm, and torque (gross) at 4,000 rpm. A measurement of SAE net horsepower would be significantly lower, and represents a more realistic as-installed configuration with all engine accessories, air cleaner assembly, and automobile exhaust system.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 351C HO "R-code" had a number of changes to help meet emission standards for 1972 compared to the 1971 Boss 351 "R-Code". The camshaft had less duration, but more valve lift, while the mechanical lifters remained unchanged. The forged pistons were changed to flat-top style and the heads to open chamber heads, but retained the same large ports, valves, and adjustable valve train used in 1971. This resulted in a compression ratio decreased to 9.2:1 while the cleaner-burning open-chamber heads helped meet the new emissions regulations. The Ram Air option was no longer available. The engine otherwise remained unchanged from 1971. This engine produced 275 hp (205 kW) using the more realistic SAE net system and was only available in the 1972 Ford Mustang. It was, however, now available in any body style or model of the Mustang, unlike the Boss 351. The 3.91 Traction Lok rear and four speed were still the only available drivetrain.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The Q-code 351 "Cobra-Jet" (also called 351-CJ, 351-4V) was produced from May 1971 through the 1974 model year. It was a lower-compression design that included open-chamber 4V heads. The open-chamber heads exhibited superior emissions characteristics and were required to meet the more stringent emissions standards for 1972 and beyond. The "351 CJ" high-performance engine included a different intake manifold, high-lift, long-duration camshaft with hydraulic valve lifters, different valve springs and dampers, a 750-CFM spread-bore 4300-D Motorcraft carburetor, dual-point distributor (with four-speed manual transmissions only), and four-bolt main bearing caps. These engines also featured induction-hardened exhaust seats for use with low-lead and unleaded gasoline. This engine was different from the 1970-71 M-code 351C having a more aggressive camshaft, a spread-bore carburetor, a four-bolt block and the lower compression allowed regular fuel to be used. It was rated at for all 1971 applications. For the 1972 model year, the only change to the engine was a retarding the camshaft events by 4°. The engine was rated at (SAE net) for 1972 when installed in the Mustang, and in the Torino and Montego. An increase in the combustion chamber size and the use of smaller valves occurred in 1973, which reduced horsepower to for the four-barrel for the intermediate Fords, though it still retained the higher rating in the Mustang. The 351 CJ (now referred to as the "351 4V") was rated at in 1974 and was only installed in the Ford Ranchero, Ford Torino, Mercury Montego, and Mercury Cougar.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: Production of the 351C ended at the end of the 1974 model year. The engine was replaced by the 351M for the 1975 model year. This new variation used the same bore and stroke dimensions of the 351C, but used the tall deck block from the 400 V8 engine.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: By 1970 the 390 V8 FE engine was becoming outdated. With pending emission requirements, a more modern replacement was needed. Although the big-block 385 family was used to replace the larger displacement 428 V8 FE engine, this engine family had nothing comparable in size to the 390 V8. For the 1971 model year, Ford introduced the 400 V8 engine as a replacement for the 390 V8. Ford billed the 400 as the 351C's big brother. It was designed to provide brisk acceleration in medium to heavy weight vehicles in an engine package that was smaller and lighter than the FE V8 Engines and the 385 Series Ford V8's.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The Ford 400 engine was based on the 351 Cleveland. It had a half-inch (12.7 mm) longer stroke than the 351 Cleveland, making it the longest-stroke Ford pushrod V8 engine. The 400 had "square" proportions, with a 4.0 in (102 mm) bore and stroke. Ford called the engine 400 cu in but it actually displaced 402 cu in (6.6 L). To accommodate the longer stroke, Ford engineers increase the block deck height to 10.297 inches compared to the 351C's 9.206 inches. As a result, the 400 used longer (6.580 inch) connecting rods than the 351C (5.778 inch), but it retained the same connecting rod-to-stroke (1.65:1) ratio as the 351C. The 400 featured larger 3.00 inch main-bearing journals, the same size as those used in the 351 Windsor, but rod journals were the same size as the 351C. The cylinder heads for the 400 were the same as those used on the 351C-2V, having the open combustion chamber with smaller 2V sized ports and valves. All 400s were low performance engines that ran on regular fuel and all used a 2-barrel carburetor, a cast-iron intake manifold, and small port 2V cylinder heads.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 400 was designed as a high torque, low RPM engine that was a smaller, more efficient and lighter alternative for the big Ford 385 engines, the 429 and 460, for use in Ford's medium and large size cars. Weighing just 80% of a similar big-block, it was originally available in Ford's Custom, Galaxie and LTD lines, and in Mercury Monterey, Marquis, and Brougham for the 1971 model year. For 1972, it was also available in the Ford Torino, Mercury Montego and its variations through 1979. By the late 1970s it was also available in the Ford Thunderbird, Ford F-series pickup trucks, the Lincoln Continental, and Mark V.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: Unlike the 351C, almost all 400 blocks used the large bellhousing bolt pattern used by the 385 family big-block and were typically equipped with the higher torque-capacity C6 transmission. There were a small number of 400 block castings produced in 1973 with the dual bellhousing patterns. It had the large bellhousing and the small bellhousing bolt pattern used by the Windsor V8 family and the 351C, though it was not necessarily drilled for both. These particular blocks have been dubbed the "400 FMX" by enthusiasts, though were never officially referenced as such by Ford. Most 400's also had unique engine mount bolt pattern but these 400 FMX blocks had provisions for both 351C-style and 400/351M engine mounts. For 1972, the compression was reduced through the use of dished pistons. The compression reduced again for 1973 and a new timing set retarded the camshaft timing 6° to aid with reducing emissions. Changes to the cylinder heads for 1975 to add the Thermactor emission system caused the exhaust port to be more restrictive than the earlier 1971-74 heads. The 400 was re-tuned by Ford in 1975 to use unleaded gasoline with the addition of catalytic converters to the exhaust system.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The development of the 400 V8 led to a significant design flaw that remained with the engine throughout its production life. With a longer stroke, the compression ratio became excessively high with the 351-2V heads and flat top pistons. Ford engineers reduced the compression ratio by using a piston with a compression height that was too short and this led to an excessive deck clearance of 0.067" compared to a 351-2V at 0.035" . In 1971, this method of reducing compression was sufficient due to the higher octane leaded fuels. However, once lower octane unleaded fuels became used the excessive deck clearance lead to problems with detonation. For 1975, Ford dealt with this problem by decreasing the compression ratio further with a larger 15cc piston dish and reducing ignition timing. However, the 400 V8 obtained a reputation for being prone to detonation. Although Ford did not make a piston to correct this, TMeyer Inc worked with Keith Black pistons to make a 400 piston that increases the compression ratio and gives the piston a "zero deck" deck clearance.