title: Howard Stark

text: Howard and Tony began to work on Sentinels with Forge and Henry McCoy after being awarded them an exclusive contract. They planned to incorporate a "Vision Project", although there were problems with the control scheme. The two also competed on the wildly popular 'Sapien Deathmatch' television show.


title: Howard Stark

text: When Tony investigated a resistance group as Iron Man, Sentinels attacked. One, remotely controlled by Howard, scolded Tony for getting involved. Howard was secretly plotting against Magneto with Hank Pym.


title: Howard Stark

text: "Genome bomb" locations were discovered by Tony as Iron Man and the House was notified. Howard had programmed the Visions and Sentinels to serve him. He said this had all been part of a plan to make the mutants respect Tony for saving them. Tony would then use that as a chance to directly strike against Magneto. Tony refused to go along. Magneto suddenly appeared and personally dealt with Howard, killing him.


title: Howard Stark

text: The Ultimate Marvel version of Howard Stark is shown dealing with his second wife Maria Cerrera suffering a genetic accident while the brilliant scientist was pregnant. After Maria died during childbirth, Howard uses a newly invented biological armor to save the life of their son Antonio "Tony" Stark. A few years later, his business rival Zebediah Stane kidnaps and tortures Tony to attempt to learn how to manufacture the bio-armor for his own personal gain. Not long afterwards, Howard arrives with a SWAT team and arrests Zebediah. After the incident, a transparent version of the armor is developed, and Tony begins attending a prep school. This leads to Tony developing a prototype power-armor and befriending fellow student James Rhodes. After finding out that bullies were ordered from an unknown individual to kill Tony, Howard decides to enroll his son Tony, Rhodes, and Nifara into the Baxter Building, where Obadiah Stane (Zebediah Stane's son) was also enrolled. Shortly after their arrival, Tony and Howard witness Obadiah murdering a pair of students and make it look like an accident. Howard sees Tony make his first Iron Man armor with the intent to punish Obadiah. Sometime later, Howard was arrested based on planted evidence (by Obadiah) for Zebediah's murder. While the elder Stark was wrongly imprisoned for Zebediah's murder, his teenage son is forced to run Stark Enterprises. When Obadiah drugs a prison guard with a "hypnotizing bio-drug", the guard tries to kill Howard but fails. Howard is shot in the process and ends up in ICU. While his son Tony is trying to fix all of his current problems, Howard recovered enough to go to prison, but the guards sent to escort him were not sent by the Police Department. Howard fights them off and escapes. Tony meets with him and thinks Loni (Howard's first wife and Obadiah's mother) is the mastermind behind the scenes trying to kill them all. Tony, Rhodes, Nifara, Howard, and Obadiah set off to Utah to find Loni. They arrive and their chopper explodes injuring Rhodes. Obadiah falls off a cliff, but Tony catches him as terrorists arrive on the scene. Tony flees, but follows them as they take Obadiah to Loni Stark and their hideout. Tony breaks into the compound and Loni floods it with poison gas trying to kill him, abandoning Obadiah. Tony saves Obadiah, but Howard and Nifara are taken captive by Loni. After Loni kills Nifara, she confesses to Howard that all she ever wanted was power, hence why she married Howard, divorced him, remarried with Zebediah, had Obadiah, and later had Zebediah killed. Tony shows up, and Loni shoots Howard in the chest, threatening to shoot him again if he doesn't take the suit off. Tony takes off his Iron Man armor, and Loni shoots him in the head, not knowing that his entire body is a brain and will heal itself. Tony fights Loni, beats her, and tends to his father. Obadiah, mad that his mom abandoned him for dead with the poison gas, enters the room and kills her. Tony, Obadiah and Howard are all picked up by the feds and go home. This version depicted in the "Ultimate Iron Man" series have been retconned as an in-universe fictional TV show about Iron Man's life.


title: Howard Stark

text: The real history for the Ultimate version of Howard Stark is told in "". In addition to being Gregory Stark's father, he is the founder of Stark Enterprises, but sought help from Chinese conglomerate Mandarin International. While his son Tony Stark is trying to start a company of his own along with girlfriend Josie Gardner, Howard continually tries to persuade Tony to take his place as the CEO which his son eventually does after Josie's death.


title: Howard Stark

text: The Ultimate version of Howard Stark Sr., created by Warren Ellis and Steve Kurth, and first appeared in "" #4 (April 2010), is an equivalent of Titanium Man which also resembles Iron Monger as well. Having faked his own death, he went to work for "Project Tomorrow" to create human/machine hybrids, such as himself and the Arsenal Units. Desiring an "upgrade" for himself, Howard hired Ghost and Justine Hammer to steal upgrades from Iron Man's lab. After Remnant 242's theft, Howard (confused about what the item can do) forces his subordinates to have answers, eventually coercing his grandson to unlock Remnant 242 but is surprised to instead discover a mechanism that could shut down and destroy machinery, which caused Howard to die instantly without his damaged machine body.


title: Howard Stark

text: In the Marvel Noir miniseries "Iron Man Noir", set in the 1930s, Howard Stark is believed to have been killed by Nazi agents. It is eventually revealed that he was subjected to chemical brainwashing by the Nazis and became that reality's version of Baron Zemo. Under this guise, he builds war machines for the Nazis based on original designs he shared with Tony at a very young age. He dies when Iron Man destroys Baron von Strucker's airship.


title: Howard Stark

text: As part of Mephisto's campaign against the Avengers with the aid of his multiversal counterparts, one of the many alternate reality allies he recruited is a version of Howard Stark from Earth-4111 who made a deal with Mephisto for eternal power and immortality. Howard became enthralled to the Council of Red, to the point where he killed his son as part of the terms of the deal, and became the Iron Inquisitor, working as Hell's prime weaponer. As the Iron Inquisitor, he enacts Mephisto's will across the multiverse as his special agent.


title: Howard Stark

text: Far from Avengers Mountain, Multiversal Masters of Evil members Doom Supreme and Kid Thanos meet up with Iron Inquisitor and Mephisto in the form of a dog as he nears the corpse of Orb. At one point, Kid Thanos insults Iron Inquisitor by claiming that his armor resembled a crustacean's shell. As Doom Supreme and Kid Thanos enter a portal to meet with their teammates and get back to work, Mephisto and Iron Inquisitor talk about what to do with the Multiversal Masters of Evil as Mephisto's dog form eats at the fragments of Uatu's eye. Iron Inquisitor was with the Council of Red when Mephisto made them known to Nighthawk and the Avengers.


title: Rob Ryan

text: Robert Allen Ryan (born December 13, 1962) is an American football coach who is currently the senior defensive assistant for the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League (NFL). Ryan has served as a defensive coordinator or assistant coach for seven different NFL teams. He was the linebackers coach for the New England Patriots when they won both Super Bowl XXXVI and Super Bowl XXXVIII. Ryan is the son of Buddy Ryan and the twin brother of Rex Ryan.


title: Rob Ryan

text: When his parents, Doris and Buddy Ryan, divorced in 1966, Rob and his fraternal twin, Rex, moved with Doris to Toronto. In 1974, they moved back to the United States to live with their father. He attended Stevenson High School in Lincolnshire, Illinois.


title: Rob Ryan

text: Ryan was a graduate assistant at Western Kentucky in 1987. Then in 1988, he was an assistant coach at Ohio State. He then spent five seasons at Tennessee State, where he coached running backs (1989–91), wide receivers (1992) and the defensive line (1993).


title: Rob Ryan

text: Ryan first entered the NFL coaching ranks in 1994 as defensive backs coach on his father's staff for the Arizona Cardinals. He also coached Cardinals cornerbacks and safeties in 1995. With Ryan as his position coach, cornerback Aeneas Williams earned two trips to the Pro Bowl in 1994 and 1995. In 1995, the Cardinals led the NFL with 32 interceptions and 42 total takeaways. The 1994 Cardinals ranked second in the NFL total defense, second in run defense and third in pass defense.


title: Rob Ryan

text: After being fired by the Arizona Cardinals, Ryan served as defensive coordinator at Hutchinson Community College in 1996. Ryan's defense led the nation in total defense (228 yards-per-game) and in sacks (56). They also set a national record by forcing 49 turnovers.


title: Rob Ryan

text: In 1997, Ryan became the defensive coordinator at Oklahoma State. While at Oklahoma State, the Cowboys defense continually ranked among the best in the nation, also he was named Coordinator of the Year by The Sporting News in 1997.


title: Rob Ryan

text: In 1999, they were ranked 10th in the nation in total defense. In 1998, they were second in the nation with 41 sacks. In his first season at Oklahoma State, the Cowboys defense finished among the nation top-20 in turnover margin, rushing defense, scoring defense, and total defense, allowing just 302.7 yards-per-game. It was an over 100-yard improvement per game from the year before and helped the Cowboys produce an 8–4 mark and capping the 1997 season with a berth in the Alamo Bowl.


title: Rob Ryan

text: Prior to the 2000 season, new Patriots coach Bill Belichick hired Ryan to serve as the linebackers coach for the New England Patriots, where he spent the next four seasons. In 2003, the Patriots ranked first in the NFL in points allowed with 238, while ranking seventh overall in the NFL in total defense. Ryan's unit also contributed to one of the best scoring defenses in franchise history in 2001, as the Patriots allowed just 17 points-per-game and produced Pro Bowlers Willie McGinest and Tedy Bruschi. During his tenure the Patriots won Super Bowl XXXVI over the St. Louis Rams and Super Bowl XXXVIII over the Carolina Panthers.


title: Rob Ryan

text: Ryan was hired as the defensive coordinator for the Oakland Raiders prior to the 2004 season. In his first season, the Raiders defense ranked 31st in the league, averaging 27.6 points allowed per game. The defense improved in his second season, averaging 23.9 points a game, and moving to 25th in the league. In 2006, the Raiders ranked third in yards-per-game but 18th in points-per-game. In 2007, the Raiders defense ranked 22nd in yards- and 26th in points-per game. In 2008, Ryan's defense ranked 24th with 388 points allowed.


title: Rob Ryan

text: Eric Mangini named Ryan as defensive coordinator of the Cleveland Browns on January 14, 2009. In his first season in Cleveland, Ryan's defense ranked 21st in the league, with 375 points against, as teams averaged 23.4 points per game against them. In 2010, the Browns were 13th in the league with 332 points allowed.


title: Rob Ryan

text: Ryan was officially named the Dallas Cowboys defensive coordinator on January 19, 2011. In his first season, the Cowboys were ranked 14th in yards-per-game and 16th in points-per-game. In 2012 Dallas was ranked 19th in yards-per-game and 24th in points-per-game while only ranking 16th in sacks. On January 8, 2013, the Cowboys ended Ryan's employment with the franchise.


title: Rob Ryan

text: In January 2013, Ryan agreed to become the defensive coordinator for the St. Louis Rams, but resigned less than five days later. In February 2013, Ryan was hired as the New Orleans Saints defensive coordinator, implementing a 3–4 defense to the team and scrapping their previous 4–3 defense. Ryan's defense finished well statistically in 2013, including fourth in fewest points-per-game and second for fewest passing yards allowed. The following year, 2014, New Orleans was near the bottom of the league in most defensive categories.


title: Rob Ryan

text: On November 16, 2015, the day after a 47–14 loss to the Washington Redskins, and with New Orleans' defense ranked last in the NFL, Ryan was fired. New Orleans defensive assistant coach Dennis Allen was appointed defensive coordinator following Ryan's dismissal.


title: Rob Ryan

text: On January 10, 2016, the Bills announced that Ryan would be joining his brother's staff with the Buffalo Bills as assistant head coach. Under Ryan, the Bills started out 0-2, then won four straight games, including a 16-0 shutout of the New England Patriots, the first time that the Bills kept the Patriots scoreless at Gillette Stadium. The Bills entered the bye week at 4-5, then beat the Bengals and Jaguars to climb to 6-5 through week 12. They ranked 12th in the league as of week 13.


title: Rob Ryan

text: On January 30, 2019, Ryan was hired by the Washington Redskins as their inside linebackers coach. On January 5, 2020, the team announced that incoming head coach Ron Rivera had replaced Ryan with Steve Russ.


title: Rob Ryan

text: On January 22, 2021, Ryan was hired by the Baltimore Ravens as their inside linebackers coach under defensive coordinator Don Martindale and head coach John Harbaugh. On February 3, 2022, after only one season, Ryan and the Ravens parted ways.


title: Rob Ryan

text: On February 12, 2022, Ryan was hired by the Raiders for a second time, this time as a senior defensive assistant under new defensive coordinator Patrick Graham and under new head coach Josh McDaniels. Ryan and McDaniels previously served as assistant coaches for the New England Patriots under head coach Bill Belichick from 2001 to 2003.


title: Rob Ryan

text: In September 2017, Ryan was hired by Fox Sports to host a radio show with Mark Willard. In 2018, Ryan became a weekly analyst of Sky Sports' NFL coverage in the UK and Ireland.


title: Rob Ryan

text: Ryan is married to Kristen Ryan and the couple have three children. In 2012, following in the footsteps of his brother, Ryan had lap band surgery in an attempt to lose weight. The procedure failed.


title: Vacuum energy

text: Vacuum energy is an underlying background energy that exists in space throughout the entire Universe. The vacuum energy is a special case of zero-point energy that relates to the quantum vacuum.


title: Vacuum energy

text: The effects of vacuum energy can be experimentally observed in various phenomena such as spontaneous emission, the Casimir effect and the Lamb shift, and are thought to influence the behavior of the Universe on cosmological scales. Using the upper limit of the cosmological constant, the vacuum energy of free space has been estimated to be 10 joules (10 ergs), or ~5 GeV per cubic meter. However, in quantum electrodynamics, consistency with the principle of Lorentz covariance and with the magnitude of the Planck constant suggests a much larger value of 10 joules per cubic meter. This huge discrepancy is known as the cosmological constant problem or, colloquially, the "vacuum catastrophe."


title: Vacuum energy

text: Quantum field theory states that all fundamental fields, such as the electromagnetic field, must be quantized at each and every point in space. A field in physics may be envisioned as if space were filled with interconnected vibrating balls and springs, and the strength of the field is like the displacement of a ball from its rest position. The theory requires "vibrations" in, or more accurately changes in the strength of, such a field to propagate as per the appropriate wave equation for the particular field in question. The second quantization of quantum field theory requires that each such ball–spring combination be quantized, that is, that the strength of the field be quantized at each point in space. Canonically, if the field at each point in space is a simple harmonic oscillator, its quantization places a quantum harmonic oscillator at each point. Excitations of the field correspond to the elementary particles of particle physics. Thus, according to the theory, even the vacuum has a vastly complex structure and all calculations of quantum field theory must be made in relation to this model of the vacuum.


title: Vacuum energy

text: The theory considers vacuum to implicitly have the same properties as a particle, such as spin or polarization in the case of light, energy, and so on. According to the theory, most of these properties cancel out on average leaving the vacuum empty in the literal sense of the word. One important exception, however, is the vacuum energy or the vacuum expectation value of the energy. The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator requires the lowest possible energy, or zero-point energy of such an oscillator to be


title: Vacuum energy

text: Summing over all possible oscillators at all points in space gives an infinite quantity. To remove this infinity, one may argue that only differences in energy are physically measurable, much as the concept of potential energy has been treated in classical mechanics for centuries. This argument is the underpinning of the theory of renormalization. In all practical calculations, this is how the infinity is handled.


title: Vacuum energy

text: Vacuum energy can also be thought of in terms of virtual particles (also known as vacuum fluctuations) which are created and destroyed out of the vacuum. These particles are always created out of the vacuum in particle–antiparticle pairs, which in most cases shortly annihilate each other and disappear. However, these particles and antiparticles may interact with others before disappearing, a process which can be mapped using Feynman diagrams. Note that this method of computing vacuum energy is mathematically equivalent to having a quantum harmonic oscillator at each point and, therefore, suffers the same renormalization problems.


title: Vacuum energy

text: Additional contributions to the vacuum energy come from spontaneous symmetry breaking in quantum field theory.


title: Vacuum energy

text: Vacuum energy has a number of consequences. In 1948, Dutch physicists Hendrik B. G. Casimir and Dirk Polder predicted the existence of a tiny attractive force between closely placed metal plates due to resonances in the vacuum energy in the space between them. This is now known as the Casimir effect and has since been extensively experimentally verified. It is therefore believed that the vacuum energy is "real" in the same sense that more familiar conceptual objects such as electrons, magnetic fields, etc., are real. However, alternative explanations for the Casimir effect have since been proposed.


title: Vacuum energy

text: Other predictions are harder to verify. Vacuum fluctuations are always created as particle–antiparticle pairs. The creation of these virtual particles near the event horizon of a black hole has been hypothesized by physicist Stephen Hawking to be a mechanism for the eventual "evaporation" of black holes. If one of the pair is pulled into the black hole before this, then the other particle becomes "real" and energy/mass is essentially radiated into space from the black hole. This loss is cumulative and could result in the black hole's disappearance over time. The time required is dependent on the mass of the black hole (the equations indicate that the smaller the black hole, the more rapidly it evaporates) but could be on the order of 10 years for large solar-mass black holes.


title: Vacuum energy

text: The vacuum energy also has important consequences for physical cosmology. General relativity predicts that energy is equivalent to mass, and therefore, if the vacuum energy is "really there", it should exert a gravitational force. Essentially, a non-zero vacuum energy is expected to contribute to the cosmological constant, which affects the expansion of the universe.


title: Vacuum energy

text: The existence of vacuum energy is also sometimes used as theoretical justification for the possibility of free-energy machines. It has been argued that due to the broken symmetry (in QED), free energy does not violate conservation of energy, since the laws of thermodynamics only apply to equilibrium systems. However, consensus amongst physicists is that this is unknown as the nature of vacuum energy remains an unsolved problem.


title: Vacuum energy

text: In 1934, Georges Lemaître used an unusual perfect-fluid equation of state to interpret the cosmological constant as due to vacuum energy. In 1948, the Casimir effect provided an experimental method for a verification of the existence of vacuum energy; in 1955, however, Evgeny Lifshitz offered a different origin for the Casimir effect. In 1957, Lee and Yang proved the concepts of broken symmetry and parity violation, for which they won the Nobel prize. In 1973, Edward Tryon proposed the zero-energy universe hypothesis: that the Universe may be a large-scale quantum-mechanical vacuum fluctuation where positive mass–energy is balanced by negative gravitational potential energy. During the 1980s, there were many attempts to relate the fields that generate the vacuum energy to specific fields that were predicted by attempts at a Grand unification theory and to use observations of the Universe to confirm one or another version. However, the exact nature of the particles (or fields) that generate vacuum energy, with a density such as that required by inflation theory, remains a mystery.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: Jessica Cricks (born June 20, 1986) is an American professional wrestler, better known by her ring name Jessicka Havok. She is currently signed with Impact Wrestling, under the ring name Jessicka where she is a current two-time Impact Knockouts World Tag Team Champion and a former one-time Impact Knockouts Champion. She regularly performed for several independent promotions, including Shine Wrestling and Women Superstars Uncensored, where she is a former two-time WSU Champion.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: Cricks debuted in 2004, using the ring name Jessicka Havok. During the first years of her career, she made appearances for Mega Championship Wrestling, Cleveland All-Pro Wrestling, and Ohio Championship Wrestling.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: Havok debuted in Women Superstars Uncensored (WSU) in 2009, where she formed a tag team with Hailey Hatred. Havok and Hatred won the WSU Tag Team Championship on August 22 at "As the World Turns", by defeating Alicia and Brooke Carter. The pairing successfully defended the championship in a rematch against Alicia and Carter, before losing the championship to the team of Angel Orsini and Mercedes Martinez. As part of WSU, Havok was part of Rain's Army, helping Rain attack her rivals. Throughout 2010, Havok was undefeated in singles competition, including victories over ODB and Amy Lee.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: After leaving Rain's Army in late 2010, Havok defeated Rain in a singles match at "The 4th Anniversary Show" in March 2011. Havok then moved into a feud with Alicia, with the duo facing off in a series of matches throughout mid-2011. Havok defeated Alicia in an Uncensored Rules match, and a Last Woman Standing match at "Havok vs. Alicia III: Last Woman Standing" ended in a draw.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On September 24, Havok defeated Rain to win the WSU Spirit Championship. Havok joined forces with Sassy Stephie and Allysin Kay to form The Midwest Militia and at the Breaking Barriers II internet pay-per-view, The Midwest Militia defeated Team WSU (Mercedes Martinez, Alicia, and Brittney Savage) in a War Games match. After retaining the WSU Spirit Championship against Becky Bayless in January 2012, Havok defeated Martinez to win the WSU Championship in March, holding both championships simultaneously. On April 28, Havok lost the championship back to Martinez, despite having her foot under the bottom rope. Havok regained the championship that same day, defeating Martinez and Savage in a three-way match.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On June 16, Havok lost the WSU Spirit Championship to Marti Belle. That same day, at the Uncensored Rumble V pay-per-view, Havok defeated Martinez to retain the WSU Championship in the first women's casket match. As part of a talent exchange, The Midwest Militia began competing for the Canadian promotion NCW Femmes Fatales (NCWFF) in 2012. At NCWFF's ninth show in July 2012, The Midwest Militia defeated Courtney Rush, Xandra Bale, and Cat Power in a six-woman tag team match. Havok retained the WSU Championship against Athena on February 9, 2013, at "An Ultraviolent Affair". On May 11, Havok defeated Sami Callihan in an intergender match. On February 7 and 8, 2014, Havok retained the WSU Championship against The Alpha Female and Shanna.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On May 1, 2014, Havok was stripped of the WSU Championship and "banned for life" from competing in the company. Two months later, on July 12, Havok defeated Mia Yim in an Uncensored Rules match to revoke her ban from the promotion.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: After WSU signed a talent-sharing agreement with Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW), Havok debuted for the promotion at the "14th Anniversary Show", where she and Adam Cole lost to LuFisto and Sami Callihan in a mixed tag team match. She quickly moved into a feud with Ohio is for Killers member Nevaeh, with their first match at "Wanted" in March ending in a double countout. Their second match took place at the "Proving Grounds 2013" show in May, which Havok lost.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: In 2012, Havok began competing for the newly opened Shine Wrestling, debuting for the promotion during their second event against Reby Sky. After Havok attacked Sky with a chair, the duo began feuding, and at "Shine 8", Havok lost to Sky to end the feud. She qualified for the tournament to determine the inaugural Shine Champion by defeating Madison Eagles at "Shine 9". At "Shine 11", Havok advanced to the semi-finals of the tournament after winning her match against Saraya Knight by disqualification. Later that night, she faced Rain in the semi-final, but lost by countout after being attacked by Knight. At the following show, Havok defeated Ivelisse to earn the number one contendership, and unsuccessfully faced Rain for the Shine Championship. At "Shine 13", Havok and long-time ally Allysin Kay began teasing a feud when Kay accidentally clotheslined Havok during a match. On the following show, Kay attacked Havok, leading to a singles match at "Shine 15", which ended in a no contest. After their next match ended in a double countout, Kay and Havok faced off in an Ybor City street fight in April 2014, which ended in a no contest when Havok was struck by a car as part of the storyline.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: Havok made a surprise appearance during Shimmer "Volume 53" on April 6, 2013 where she attacked Serena Deeb. This would set up a match later on in the evening where she, Sassy Stephanie and Nevaeh were defeated in a six-woman tag team match by Regeneration X (Leva Bates and Alison Danger) and Deeb. The following week, Havok defeated Deeb in a singles match following interference from Hatred and Mademoiselle Rachelle. In a rematch at "Volume 56", Havok lost to Deeb.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: At Full Impact Pro's Declaration of Independence internet pay-per-view in July 2013, Havok was part of a four-way match won by Maxwell Chicago and also including Amasis and Latin Dragon.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: Cricks first appeared for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, as part of the One Night Only: Knockouts Knockdown 2 pay per-view in May 2014. Under her Jessicka Havok name and gimmick, she was defeated by Madison Rayne. In August, Impact began airing vignettes on "Impact Wrestling", teasing Cricks' debut. Cricks, now known simply as Havok, made her first appearance on the September 3 episode of "Impact Wrestling", attacking both Gail Kim and Taryn Terrell after their title match. On the September 10 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Havok made an appearance where she attacked Kim and Brittany and took Kim's Impact Knockouts Championship, which led to a brawl between the two later in the same night. At No Surrender, Havok won a battle royal to become the number one contender to Kim's championship. On September 16, Havok defeated Kim at the "Impact Wrestling" tapings to win the championship; the match aired on tape delay on October 1. During the time she held the championship, Havok defended and retained the championship against Velvet Sky at Bound for Glory on October 12, against Madison Rayne on an episode of "Impact Wrestling" that aired on October 15, and against Gail Kim on an episode of "Impact Wrestling" that aired on November 5. On the November 19 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Havok lost the championship to Taryn Terrell in a triple threat match that also involved Gail Kim. On the January 7, 2015 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Havok was lastly eliminated from a battle royal by Taryn Terrell. After the match, Havok attacked Terrell but was then stopped by the returning Awesome Kong. After weeks of tension between Havok and Kong, the two faced off in a steel cage match on the Lockdown edition of "Impact Wrestling" on February 6, in which Kong defeated Havok. After months of inactivity, on July 30, Cricks confirmed on her Twitter account that she was no longer working for Impact Wrestling.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: Havok made her first appearance on ROH televised episode that aired on December 14, 2016, in a losing effort against Mandy Leon with a distraction from Deonna Purrazzo. Havok chokeslamed Leon and Purrazzo after the match.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On April 9, 2017, Havok started her first tour with Japanese promotion World Wonder Ring Stardom. On April 30, she took part in the 2017 Cinderella Tournament, where she and World of Stardom Champion Io Shirai eliminated each other in the second round, after wrestling to a draw. On May 14, Havok teamed with Tessa Blanchard to unsuccessfully challenge Hiroyo Matsumoto and Jungle Kyona for the Goddess of Stardom Championship.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: It was confirmed that Havok would join Women of Wrestling (WOW)'s taping in October 2018 on AXS TV. Havok had her first match on WOW which aired on February 15, 2019, where she successfully defeated Fire. Havok received a match for the WOW World Championship against the champion Tessa Blanchard, however, this match ended in no contest with the involvement of The Beast and Jungle Grrrl. Through the second seasons of WOW on AXS TV, Havok teamed with Hazard in the WOW World Tag Team Championship tournament and made it through the finales where they lost to Adrenaline and Fire.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On the June 7 episode of "Impact!", Havok made her return accompanied by James Mitchell, as she interrupted a match between Rosemary and Taya Valkyrie by attacking them both. Afterwards, it was revealed that Havok had joined forces with Mitchell and Su Yung. Havok received a Knockout Championship match on Slammiversary XVII in a four-way Monster's Ball match along with the champion Valkyrie, Rosemary and Yung. As Valkyrie retained her title, Havok's alliance with Yung began to see fractures. After Slammiversary, Havok and Yung's alliance turned into a rivalry, with both facing each other for the first time on Impact Wrestling on the September 6 episode of "Impact!" in a match that ended in a no-contest, which continued with a brawl between the two. The feud of Havok and Yung reached to it climax on the September 20 episode of "Impact!", when the two faced each other in a no disqualification match, with Havok being victorious. After the match, Havok and Yung continued to brawl backstage, ending with Havok wrapping a noose around Yung's neck and hanging her over the staircase rail. Havok actions caused a character change in Yung, as Yung made an appearance on the October 29 episode of "Impact!" without her makeup, introducing herself as Susie.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On the March 24, 2020, episode of "Impact!" a fight between Havok and Yung ended in a betrayal from Mitchell, as he sent both to the Undead Wasteland. The two were able to escape thanks to Rosemary and kill him, ending their feud in the process.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On April 28, 2020, during the second night of Rebellion, Havok faced Rosemary in a Full Metal Mayhem match, which was won by Rosemary. During the match, Nevaeh made her appearance as she watched the match from distance. On the May 26 episode of "Impact!", Nevaeh interfered a match between Havok and Kimber Lee, as Nevaeh stopped Lee from hitting Havok with a brass knuckles. Havok and Nevaeh continued to attack Lee afterwards, establishing themselves as a team. Havok and Nevaeh found themselves feuding with Fire N Flava (Kiera Hogan and Tasha Steelz), which led into a no disqualification match on the August 11 episode of "Impact!", where Hogan and Steelz were victorious. At Hard to Kill on January 16, 2021, Havok and Nevaeh lost to Fire N Flava in a match to crown the new Impact Knockouts Tag Team Champions.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On the March 30 episode of "Impact", Havok was attacked by Nevaeh after they lost a match to Fire N Flava, ending their alliance.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On the Countdown to Rebellion pre-show, Rosemary teamed up with Havok to defeat Kimber Lee and Susan. On May 15, at Under Siege, Havok lost to Deonna Purrazzo for the Knockouts title. On the July 15 episode of "Impact!", Havok was inducted into Decay by James Mitchell. Two days later, on the Countdown to Slammiversary pre-show, Havok and Rosemary defeated Hogan and Steelz to win the Impact Knockouts Tag Team Championship.


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On August 20, at Emergence, Decay defeated Fallah Bahh, No Way, Evans and Steelz in an eight-person tag match. On September 18, at Victory Road, Havok and Rosemary successfully retained their Knockouts Tag Team Championship against Evans and Steelz. At Knockouts Knockdown, Havok and Rosemary successfully retained their tag titles against The Influence (Madison Rayne and Tenille Dashwood). At Bound for Glory, they lost the titles to The IInspiration (Cassie Lee and Jessica McKay).


title: Jessicka Havok

text: On the July 14, 2022, episode of "Impact!", after being rescued by Rosemary and Taya Valkyrie from the Undead Relam, she was re-introduced as Jessicka with a different look then usual, wearing bright makeup and her hair being pink. Jessicka made her first appearance in her new character on the August 25 episode of "Impact!", where she defeated Alisha. On October 7, at Bound for Glory, Jessicka alongside Rosemary and Valkyrie, now known as The Death Dollz, defeated the Knockouts World Tag Team Champions VXT (Chelsea Green and Purrazzo) to win the title.


title: Flower Duet

text: The "Flower Duet" is a duet for soprano and mezzo-soprano in the first act of Léo Delibes' opera "Lakmé", premiered in Paris in 1883. It is sung by the characters Lakmé, daughter of a Brahmin priest, and her servant Mallika, as they go to gather flowers by a river.


title: Flower Duet

text: The duet is frequently used in advertisements and films and is popular as a concert piece. It was adapted for the track "Aria" in the British Airways "face" advertisements of the 1980s by Yanni and Malcolm McLaren. More recently, it has been heard in films such as "Carlito's Way"', "Meet the Parents", "Anomalisa", and "True Romance" and television shows including "Regular Show" and "The Simpsons".


title: Flower Duet

text: The duet's time signature is ; its key is B major, except for the part "" until "," which is in G major. That part has a slightly faster tempo (=160) than the surrounding lines (=144). The final reprise is in the original key and tempo. A performance takes about six minutes.


title: DevilDriver

text: DevilDriver is an American heavy metal band from Santa Barbara, California, formed in 2002, consisting of vocalist Dez Fafara, lead guitarist Mike Spreitzer, drummer Davier Pérez, bassist Jon Miller and rhythm guitarist Alex Lee. The band was originally named Deathride, however, due to copyright issues and the name being taken by several bands, the band changed its name to DevilDriver.


title: DevilDriver

text: Fafara hosted several barbecues after moving from Orange County to Santa Barbara and would jam with musicians he met, which led to the formation of the band.


title: DevilDriver

text: "I met Evan we struck up a friendship and started jamming," said Fafara. Guitarist Evan Pitts met Fafara in a restaurant and gave him his phone number for a jam session, while John Boecklin who originally played 2nd guitar then went to playing drums, met Fafara at a bar.


title: DevilDriver

text: The band was originally known as Deathride, but later changed their name to DevilDriver because Fafara felt there were too many bands with that name; a band in Norfolk, Virginia, and a bicycle racing team. Another problem was that the band's label, Roadrunner Records were unable to secure copyright. The members compiled a list of roughly two hundred names to go for a more original approach. Fafara's wife had a book by Italian witchcraft author Raven Grimassi on Stregheria, and came across the term "devil driver". The term "devil driver" refers to bells Italian witches used to drive evil forces away. Fafara thought it was appropriate because it sounded "evil", and thought the term "suits his life". The band's logo is the Cross of Confusion, which has existed for thousands of years and refers to "question religion, question authority, question everything around you". Fafara was brought up to "question everything" and was exposed to Italian witchcraft through his grandparents.


title: DevilDriver

text: DevilDriver's debut record was originally going to be called "Thirteen", and then "Straight to Hell". However, Fafara claims it was changed "for so many reasons that I can't even go into." The band's self-titled debut "DevilDriver", was released on October 28, 2003 under Roadrunner Records, and entered the Top Heatseekers chart at number 17. Guitarist Pitts wrote roughly 90% of the music, according to Mike Spreitzer, who replaced Pitts after his departure from the band.


title: DevilDriver

text: The band returned to the studio in 2005 to record their follow-up to "DevilDriver". The album was produced at Sonic Ranch Studios, a pecan ranch, away from El Paso, Texas. The band members wanted to be isolated when recording the album so they could solely focus on the music as friends, family, managers and girlfriends would constantly interrupt. Roughly 30 songs were written which were narrowed down to 15 by the band. The 15 songs were then played for producer Colin Richardson who wanted to begin tracking immediately.


title: DevilDriver

text: The name of the album was thought of by Fafara who believed that "The Fury of Our Maker's Hand" refers to the "storm" his life has been the past 10 years, "You have your maker's hand and I have my maker's hand and we both living in our fury, the fury of our maker's hand. It explains my life". The album was released on June 28, 2005 and debuted on the "Billboard" 200 chart at number 117, with sales of 10,402 in its first week. The album also debuted at number 1 on the Top Heatseekers chart. Johnny Loftus of Allmusic described the album as "a severe turn away from the falter of their first album" and said that the band made their "true debut the second time around". Dom Lawson of "Kerrang!" gave the album a positive review describing the album as a "fresh and exhilarating approach to modern metal".


title: DevilDriver

text: The band toured extensively in support of the album, which included shows in the United States, Europe, and Australia in support of bands such as In Flames, Fear Factory, and Machine Head. The band played for the first time as a headliner in the Burning Daylight Tour. On October 31, 2006, "The Fury of Our Maker's Hand" was re-released to include three new studio tracks, including "Digging up the Corpses" which was featured on the soundtrack to "". The release also contained three live recordings of previously released, a DVD of all of the band's music videos, new cover art, and inside liner notes.


title: DevilDriver

text: The band reunited at Sonic Ranch Studios while they recorded their third studio effort, "The Last Kind Words", which was released in June 2007. The album's first single "Not All Who Wander Are Lost" was directed by Nathan Cox for free. Cox's career began when he created Coal Chamber's music video "Loco", so he re-paid a favor to Fafara and the band. Cox now directs music videos for bands such as Linkin Park and Korn. The first song to be previewed was "Horn of Betrayal" which debuted on Sirius Satellite's Hard Attack channel on May 16, 2007. "The Last Kind Words" entered the German charts at number 92, and peaked at number 48 on the "Billboard" 200, with over 14,000 copies sold.


title: DevilDriver

text: DevilDriver promoted the album at the 2007 Download Festival at Donington Park alongside headliners Linkin Park, Iron Maiden, and My Chemical Romance. A Guinness world record was attempted by the band for the "largest circle pit" at the festival. Guinness responded to the query and denied the request stating they receive over 60,000 requests a year and there is no way to physically define where a circle pit starts and ends. They considered the proposal fully in the context of the subject area and stated that "our decision is final in this matter".


title: DevilDriver

text: The band also appeared at 2007's Ozzfest. Fafara had been planning to take his first six weeks off in 11 years, but Sharon Osbourne, who had managed Fafara's previous band Coal Chamber, persuaded him to appear. At a concert in Detroit, Michigan, a recording was made with the intention of releasing a live DVD in 2008 although this has yet to be released.


title: DevilDriver

text: DevilDriver's songs "Devil's Son" and "Driving Down the Darkness" were featured in the TV show "Scrubs", and in 2008 they covered the Iron Maiden song "Wasted Years" for the "Kerrang!" compilation "". The song "Clouds Over California" became available as a download for the music video game "Rock Band".


title: DevilDriver

text: Their fourth album "Pray for Villains" was released on July 14, 2009, debuting at No. 35 on the "Billboard" 200, with estimated sales of around 14,600, improving on their previous effort, which debuted at No. 48.


title: DevilDriver

text: On February 21, 2009, the band performed in Australia at the Soundwave Festival with bands such as Lamb of God and In Flames. After finishing their Melbourne show, they announced that their new album would be released August 11, 2009. The band also toured in the Midwest states in mid-May 2009 with bands such as Slipknot, 3 Inches of Blood and All That Remains before headlining the 'Thrash and Burn' Tour with Emmure, Despised Icon, MyChildren MyBride, Oceano, Kittie, and Thy Will Be Done amongst others. They also completed a European Tour with several other bands such as Behemoth and Suicide Silence.


title: DevilDriver

text: In January and February 2010, DevilDriver embarked on their headlining 'Bound By The Road' Tour with Suffocation, Goatwhore, and Thy Will Be Done.


title: DevilDriver

text: In March 2010, DevilDriver participated in 2010's Getaway Rock festival, which was held in Gävle, Sweden and began on July 8 and ended on the 10th. The band will also be included in an extensive UK tour in November 2010 with 36 Crazyfists.


title: DevilDriver

text: DevilDriver's fifth album "Beast" was recorded at Sonic Ranch studios in Tornillo, Texas with producer Mark Lewis, and released February 22, 2011. John Boecklin confirmed that the new album was mixed by Andy Sneap at his Backstage studio in Derbyshire, England in July. DevilDriver went on a tour in Australia with bands such as Iron Maiden, Slayer, All That Remains and Nonpoint for the Soundwave Festival in February and March 2011.


title: DevilDriver

text: On March 30, it was announced that Miller and DevilDriver would part ways permanently, in the interest of Miller's continuing recovery. Miller departed on his own and released a resignation letter to the press.


title: DevilDriver

text: DevilDriver opened for Danzig along with 2Cents in 2011 supporting Danzig's 2010 release "Deth Red Sabaoth", and toured North America with Chthonic and Skeletonwitch supporting Arch Enemy.


title: DevilDriver

text: On February 9, 2012, guitarist Jeff Kendrick announced via his Twitter account that himself, John Boecklin (drums) and Mike Spreitzer (guitars) had "begun to compose and demo songs for DevilDriver's 6th album. We are extremely excited!!!". In March 2012, during an interview with Nick Azinas from Peek from the Pit, vocalist Dez Fafara announced that the band was looking for a new record label. This announcement officially ended the ten-year relationship between Devildriver and Roadrunner Records. On July 8 it was announced that DevilDriver has signed with Napalm Records for the upcoming sixth album. On February 18, 2013 Dez announced on his Twitter account that Chris Towning who has been filling in on bass for the past year has been made the band's official bassist. In a March 2013 interview with Get Your Rock Out guitarist Jeff Kendrick announced that an album title was "very close", adding that the record was currently being mixed with only a couple of pieces of vocal recording to be done before the album is mastered. On 28 May 2013, DevilDriver released the cover artwork and release date for the new album, "Winter Kills". The album was released on 27 August 2013 by Napalm Records, their first album release since leaving Roadrunner.


title: DevilDriver

text: On October 28, 2014, Dez Fafara announced that drummer John Boecklin and guitarist Jeff Kendrick left the band, the former going on to form the band, Bad Wolves. He also announced that the band will be on hiatus until 2016, when the new album will be released, to focus on his reunion with Coal Chamber.


title: DevilDriver

text: On January 7, 2015, it was announced that past member Chimaira drummer Austin D'Amond had joined the band as the new drummer. On March 19, 2015, Neal Tiemann was announced as the replacement for Jeff Kendrick on guitars. Tiemann started his career with Midwest Kings and has spent time playing with Caroline’s Spine, Burn Halo and Uncle Kracker among others.


title: DevilDriver

text: On May 2, 2015, Dez Fafara said that there were 12 new songs written for the next DevilDriver album. They were anticipating recording them in October–November 2015 and Spring-Summer 2016 for a release date later in 2016. Dez Fafara continued that DevilDriver had to get back into their normal recording cycle; he did not want DevilDriver sitting around too long although they did need to take a break after releasing "Winter Kills".


title: DevilDriver

text: On November 19, 2015, DevilDriver revealed the title for the upcoming album, "Trust No One", alongside the album art. The album is set to be released on May 13, 2016. In March, DevilDriver announced that former Static-X guitarist, Diego "Ashes" Ibarra, would replace the recently departed Chris Towning on bass on a permanent basis for upcoming shows in the US, European and UK dates in support of the new album.


title: DevilDriver

text: On March 18, 2016, DevilDriver released their first single from upcoming album, "Trust No One", titled 'Daybreak', through their official YouTube channel.


title: DevilDriver

text: On February 28, 2017, DevilDriver announced via their Instagram account that they are to release an outlaw country covers record, with 13 tracks currently in production, with over 15 "high caliber" guests contributing. On July 15, Fafara announced that the number of guests had risen to 20-25, and that these included artists such as Lamb of God's Randy Blythe and Mark Morton, Lee Ving from FEAR, Glenn Danzig, Testament's Chuck Billy, and John 5. In the same interview, Fafara revealed that some of the artists that would be covered on the album are Willie Nelson, Johnny Cash, Waylon Jennings, and Johnny Paycheck, with Steve Evetts as album producer.


title: DevilDriver

text: On 9 April 2018, it was reported that DevilDriver had 48 songs written for a new concept double album, with Fafara stating "this will be the record of our career". The band are planning on narrowing down the songs to "20 or 22" and enter the studio in June 2018. In January 2019, Fafara posted on Instagram that he had begun tracking vocals for the new albums and that a summer 2019 release should be expected. In July 2019, Fafara announced that the first part of the double album should be expected in early 2020 with the second part in 2021. He also stated that a second volume of Outlaw Country covers in 2023 before a final studio album in 2024/2025. He went on to say that he would then take a prolonged break from music for 4/5 years. In later 2019, DevilDriver canceled a run of shows in support of Static-X and an appearance on the inaugural MegaCruise (a festival on a cruise ship organised by Megadeth), this was due to Fafara's wife being diagnosed, treated and subsequently cured for skin cancer. On 21 May 2020, the first part of a double album was announced, "Dealing with Demons - Part 1", scheduled for release 9 October 2020. The first single, "Keep Away from Me", was released on the same day as the announcement. On October 2021, DevilDriver parted ways with guitarist Neal Tiemann.


title: DevilDriver

text: On July 16, 2022, it was announced bassist Diego Ibarra had departed the band. Three days later, the band announced the return of bassist Jon Miller, and the arrival of guitarist Alex Lee (formerly of Holy Grail).


title: DevilDriver

text: DevilDriver's music has been widely described an amalgamation of groove metal and melodic death metal. All of the members have stated they are influenced by several types of music. Miller's influences include Metallica, Opeth, Slayer and In Flames, and states that many of the bands he tours with influences his songwriting. Fafara's influences include Johnny Cash, and Motörhead, stating he likes people with "low voices". Members of DevilDriver can be seen on Machine Head's "Elegies" DVD citing Machine Head as an influence.


title: DevilDriver

text: Boecklin's main inspiration into becoming a percussionist came from his enjoyment of Metallica, Primus and Ministry.


title: Spica

text: Spica is the brightest object in the constellation of Virgo and one of the 20 brightest stars in the night sky. It has the Bayer designation α Virginis, which is Latinised to Alpha Virginis and abbreviated Alpha Vir or α Vir. Analysis of its parallax shows that it is located 250 light-years from the Sun. It is a spectroscopic binary star and rotating ellipsoidal variable; a system whose two stars are so close together they are egg-shaped rather than spherical, and can only be separated by their spectra. The primary is a blue giant and a variable star of the Beta Cephei type.


title: Spica

text: Spica, along with Arcturus and Denebola—or Regulus, depending on the source—forms the Spring Triangle asterism, and, by extension, is also part of the Great Diamond together with the star Cor Caroli.


title: Spica

text: In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included "Spica" for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. The name is derived from the Latin "spīca virginis" "the virgin's ear of [wheat] grain". It was also anglicized as "Virgin's Spike".


title: Spica

text: "α Virginis" (Latinised to "Alpha Virginis") is the system's Bayer designation. Johann Bayer cited the name "Arista".


title: Spica

text: Other traditional names are "Azimech" , from Arabic السماك الأعزل "al-simāk al-ʼaʽzal" 'the unarmed "simāk" (of unknown meaning, cf. Eta Boötis); "Alarph", Arabic for 'the grape-gatherer' or 'gleaner', and "Sumbalet" ("Sombalet", "Sembalet" and variants), from Arabic سنبلة "sunbulah" "ear of grain".


title: Spica

text: In Chinese, (), meaning "Horn (asterism)", refers to an asterism consisting of Spica and ζ Virginis. Consequently, the Chinese name for Spica is (, ).


title: Spica

text: As one of the nearest massive binary star systems to the Sun, Spica has been the subject of many observational studies.


title: Spica

text: Spica is believed to be the star that gave Hipparchus the data that led him to discover the precession of the equinoxes. A temple to Menat (an early Hathor) at Thebes was oriented with reference to Spica when it was built in 3200 BC, and, over time, precession slowly but noticeably changed Spica's location relative to the temple. Nicolaus Copernicus made many observations of Spica with his home-made triquetrum for his researches on precession.


title: Spica

text: Spica is 2.06 degrees from the ecliptic and can be occulted by the Moon and sometimes by planets. The last planetary occultation of Spica occurred when Venus passed in front of the star (as seen from Earth) on November 10, 1783. The next occultation will occur on September 2, 2197, when Venus again passes in front of Spica. The Sun passes a little more than 2° north of Spica around October 16 every year, and the star's heliacal rising occurs about two weeks later. Every 8 years, Venus passes Spica around the time of the star's heliacal rising, as in 2009 when it passed 3.5° north of the star on November 3.


title: Spica

text: A method of finding Spica is to follow the arc of the handle of the Big Dipper (or Plough) to Arcturus, and then continue on the same angular distance to Spica. This can be recalled by the mnemonic phrase, "arc to Arcturus and spike to Spica."


title: Spica

text: Stars that can set (not in a circumpolar constellation for the viewer) culminate at midnight—noticeable where viewed away from any polar region experiencing midnight sun—when at opposition, meaning they can be viewed from dusk until dawn. This applies to α Virginis on 12 April, in the current astronomical epoch.


title: Spica

text: Spica is a close binary star whose components orbit each other every four days. They stay close enough together that they cannot be resolved as two stars through a telescope. The changes in the orbital motion of this pair results in a Doppler shift in the absorption lines of their respective spectra, making them a double-lined spectroscopic binary. Initially, the orbital parameters for this system were inferred using spectroscopic measurements. Between 1966 and 1970, the Narrabri Stellar Intensity Interferometer was used to observe the pair and to directly measure the orbital characteristics and the angular diameter of the primary, which was found to be , and the angular size of the semi-major axis of the orbit was found to be only slightly larger at .


title: Spica

text: Spica is a rotating ellipsoidal variable, which is a non-eclipsing close binary star system where the stars are mutually distorted through their gravitational interaction. This effect causes the apparent magnitude of the star system to vary by 0.03 over an interval that matches the orbital period. This slight dip in magnitude is barely noticeable visually. Both stars rotate faster than their mutual orbital period. This lack of synchronization and the high ellipticity of their orbit may indicate that this is a young star system. Over time, the mutual tidal interaction of the pair may lead to rotational synchronization and orbit circularization.


title: Spica

text: Spica is a polarimetric variable, first discovered to be such in 2016. The majority of the polarimetric signal is the result of the reflection of the light from one star off the other (and vice versa). The two stars in Spica were the first ever to have their reflectivity (or geometric albedo) measured. The geometric albedos of Spica A and B are, respectively, 3.61 percent and 1.36 percent, values that are low compared to planets.


title: Spica

text: The MK spectral classification of Spica is typically considered to be an early B-type main-sequence star. Individual spectral types for the two components are difficult to assign accurately, especially for the secondary due to the Struve–Sahade effect. The Bright Star Catalogue derived a spectral class of B1 III-IV for the primary and B2V for the secondary, but later studies have given various different values.


title: Spica

text: The primary star has a stellar classification of B1 III–IV. The luminosity class matches the spectrum of a star that is midway between a subgiant and a giant star, and it is no longer a main-sequence star. The evolutionary stage has been calculated to be near or slightly past the end of the main-sequence phase. This is a massive star with more than 10 times the mass of the Sun and seven times its radius. The bolometric luminosity of the primary is about 20,500 times that of the Sun, and nine times the luminosity of its companion. The primary is one of the nearest stars to the Sun that has enough mass to end its life in a Type II supernova explosion. However, since Spica has recently left the main sequence, this event is not likely to occur for several more million years.


title: Spica

text: The primary is classified as a Beta Cephei variable star that varies in brightness over a 0.1738-day period. The spectrum shows a radial velocity variation with the same period, indicating that the surface of the star is regularly pulsating outward and then contracting. This star is rotating rapidly, with a rotational velocity of 199 km/s along the equator.


title: Spica

text: The secondary member of this system is one of the few stars whose spectrum is affected by the Struve–Sahade effect. This is an anomalous change in the strength of the spectral lines over the course of an orbit, where the lines become weaker as the star is moving away from the observer. It may be caused by a strong stellar wind from the primary scattering the light from secondary when it is receding. This star is smaller than the primary, with about 7 times the mass of the Sun and 3.6 times the Sun's radius. Its stellar classification is B2 V, making this a main-sequence star.


title: Spica

text: Both American ships USS "Spica" (AK-16) and USNS "Spica" (T-AFS-9) were named after this star while USS "Azimech" (AK-124), a "Crater"-class cargo ship, was given one of the star's medieval names.


title: Spica

text: Both a rocket and crew capsule designed and under development by Copenhagen Suborbitals, a crowd-funded space program, is named Spica. Spica aims to make Denmark the first country to launch its own astronaut to space after Russia, the US and China.


title: Spica

text: A blue star represents Spica on the of the Brazilian state of Pará. Spica is also the star representing Pará on the Brazilian flag.


title: Spica

text: In his "Three Books of Occult Philosophy", Cornelius Agrippa attributes Spica's Kabbalistic symbol to Hermes Trismegistus.


title: Rodrigues

text: Rodrigues ( ; Creole: ) is a autonomous outer island of the Republic of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, about east of Mauritius. It is part of the Mascarene Islands, which include Mauritius and Réunion. Rodrigues is of volcanic origin and is surrounded by coral reef, and some tiny uninhabited islands lie just off its coast. The island used to be the tenth District of Mauritius; it gained autonomous status on 10 December 2002, and it is governed by the Rodrigues Regional Assembly. The capital of the island is Port Mathurin. The islands of Rodrigues, Agaléga and Saint Brandon form part of the larger territory of the Republic of Mauritius.


title: Rodrigues

text: Its inhabitants are Mauritian citizens. , the island's population was about 41,669, according to Statistics Mauritius. Most of the inhabitants are of African descent. Its economy is based mainly on fishing, farming, handicraft and a developing tourism sector.


title: Rodrigues

text: The uninhabited island was named after the Portuguese explorer Diogo Rodrigues in February 1528. Many maps also describe it as Diego Roiz. From the 10th century, Arabs are known to have visited the Mascarene Islands. A 12th-century map by the Arab geographer Ash-Sharif al-Idrisi supposedly contains them, and the Cantino planisphere of and some other contemporary maps clearly show the three islands of the Mascarenes as "Dina Arobi" (or "Harobi"), "Dina Margabin" and "Dina Moraze". These are apparently corrupted transliterations or transcriptions of the Arabic "Diva Harab" ("Desert Island"), "Diva Maghrebin" ("Western Island") and "Diva Mashriq" ("Eastern Island"). While the second clearly refers to Réunion, sources disagree about which of the other is Mauritius and which one Rodrigues, which are both to the east of Réunion and arranged in a somewhat stylised way on these maps. However, even in its original state, Rodrigues had some karst, while Mauritius even after suffering 500 years of deforestation can by no means be called "desert" even in a colloquial sense.


title: Rodrigues

text: The island was located again in February 1507. Part of the fleet of Afonso de Albuquerque and Tristão da Cunha, Diogo Fernandes Pereira's "Cirne" spotted Réunion on 9 February after a cyclone diverted their course. The other two islands were subsequently rediscovered. The initial name was "Diogo Fernandes"; "Domingo Froiz" was given as a name some years later, and by 1528 it had been again renamed after the Portuguese navigator Dom Diogo Rodrigues and has remained so since. The orthography has been less stable at first, with the name being transcribed "Diogo Rodríguez" (Spanish maps), "Diego Roiz", "Diego Ruys" (Dutch maps) (or even "Diego Ruy's Island"), "Dygarroys" or "Bygarroys". Some early French sources called it "Île Marianne".


title: Rodrigues

text: Due to the island lying far off the beaten track of seafarers at that time, it received few visits. From 1601, the Dutch began visiting the island somewhat more regularly for fresh supplies of food. In 1691, the Huguenot François Leguat and seven companions landed on the island, intending to set up a farming colony of Protestant refugees. Farming was not successful, but there was an abundance of tortoises, turtles, birds, fish and other seafood.


title: Rodrigues

text: During the 18th century, several attempts were made by the French to develop the island. African slaves (ancestors of the present population) were brought to Rodrigues to develop stock-breeding and farming. In 1735 a permanent French settlement was established, subordinated to Île Bourbon.


title: Rodrigues

text: In 1809, after a brief battle with the French, British troops took possession of Rodrigues. After British occupation, slavery was eventually abolished in 1834. By 1843, the population had declined to a low of 250.


title: Rodrigues

text: In 1883, the eruption of the Indonesian volcano Krakatoa was heard at Rodrigues Island and it remains the furthest point, at almost , at which the explosion was heard. The sound was described as "the roar of heavy guns". Naval ships were ordered to investigate as it was feared the sound was due to a ship in distress firing its guns. Having been heard from about away on the other side of the Indian Ocean, the noise remains the loudest sound in recorded history.


title: Rodrigues

text: Early in 1968, HMS "Cambrian", which had been on duties near Beira in east Africa concerning Ian Smith and his unilateral declaration of the independence of Rhodesia, was diverted to Rodrigues to quell a reported uprising by some of the populace. The uprising consisted of a number of individuals who had been arrested by the local authorities for breaking into a warehouse and appropriating a supply of sweet potatoes. Other locals went to the authorities and by violence released the arrested persons. At this point, it is believed that the authorities requested assistance which was provided by HMS "Cambrian". On her early morning arrival, the ship's 4.5" guns were fired (with blanks, it is believed) and an armed landing party was provided. This resulted in the offenders being rounded up and imprisoned again.


title: Rodrigues

text: In 1968, Rodrigues was joined with Mauritius when it attained independence. In 2002, Rodrigues became an autonomous region of Mauritius and the island was made the seat of the Roman Catholic Vicariate Apostolic of Rodrigues.


title: Rodrigues

text: In 1997, the Russian yacht "Admiral Nevelskoi" , Gennady Nevelskoy was found in the lagoon of Rodrigues Island. Formerly captained solo by professor Leonid Lysenko for the Russian Maritime State University as a research ship, the vessel's mast and rudder broke on a voyage in 1995, drifting for 21 days until Lysenko was rescued by the crew of the Ukrainian vessel "Arkaja", at which time the "Admiral Nevelskoi" was abandoned. Lysenko was certain that the ship would eventually sink; however, the vessel continued to drift at sea without crew for over 2 years before finally washing up on Rodrigues, at which time it was removed from the water and brought ashore.


title: Rodrigues

text: In 2010, Russian Hon. Eric Typhis Degtyarenko located the yacht and contacted the Maritime State University, at which time the ship was converted to a maritime museum in recognition as Russia's only link to the Indian Ocean.


title: Rodrigues

text: Rodrigues is a volcanic island rising from a ridge along the edge of the Mascarene Plateau. The tectonically active Rodrigues Triple Point lies on the sea-floor nearby. Rodrigues is only 1.5 million years old, even if the plateau under the lagoon surrounding Rodrigues may be much more ancient than the island. Over time Rodrigues has developed a unique environment, including many endemic species.


title: Rodrigues

text: Rodrigues is situated about to the east of Mauritius. It is about long and wide with an area of . The shape is that of a whale back with a central ridge and deep cut valleys. The island is hilly with a central spine culminating in the highest peak, Mountain Limon at . Rodrigues is the only Mascarene island with extensive limestone deposits and caves. A large fringing reef surrounds the island forming a lagoon within which lie eighteen small islets.


title: Rodrigues

text: The coral reef of Rodrigues is of particular interest as it is self-seeding – it receives no coral zooplankton from elsewhere. This has led to an overall species-poor but highly adapted ecosystem. A species of coral, two species of "Pomacentrus" damselfish and many species of crustaceans are found only on Rodrigues' reefs.


title: Rodrigues

text: The isolation and location of the island give a microclimate specific to Rodrigues, with two seasons. Rodrigues enjoys a mild tropical maritime climate with persistent trade winds blowing throughout the year. Mean summer temperature is and mean winter temperature is around . The temperature difference between summer and winter is 3.6 °C. January to March are the hottest months and August is the coolest month. The wettest month is February; September and October are the driest months. The climate is hotter and drier than in Mauritius. Cyclones may arise from November to April, and Rodrigues is more often hit than Mauritius.


title: Rodrigues

text: Rodrigues was characterised by endemic plant and animal species in abundance, but since the seventeenth century much of its biodiversity has been eradicated. The island was home to a now extinct endemic species of flightless bird, the Rodrigues solitaire ("Pezophaps solitaria"). An endemic species of bat, the Rodrigues flying fox, is currently listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List. There are two remaining endemic bird species: the Rodrigues fody and the Rodrigues warbler, both are listed as near threatened.


title: Rodrigues

text: To restore some forest areas, Grande Montagne, Anse Quitor (with neighbouring François Leguat Giant Tortoise Reserve) and two islets, Île aux Sables and Île aux Cocos have been declared nature reserves (under the Forest and Reserves Act 1983). Endangered plants on the reserves include "Zanthoxylum paniculatum", "Polyscias rodriguesiana", "Badula balfouriana", and "Gouania leguatii".


title: Rodrigues

text: The island of Rodrigues is a constituency of the Republic of Mauritius and is dependent on the latter. However, on 20 November 2001, the Mauritius National Assembly unanimously adopted two laws giving Rodrigues its autonomy, creating a decentralised government system. This new legislation has allowed the implementation of a regional assembly in Rodrigues constituting 18 members and an executive council headed by a Chief Commissioner. The council meets every week to make decisions, draw up laws and manage the budget. The Chief Commissioner has the main task of informing the Mauritian Prime Minister of the management of the island's concerns. The last election of the Rodriguan Regional Assembly was held on 27 February 2022. The Alliance (UPR/MIR/PSMD/FRP) party was the winner and obtained nine seats, while the Organisation du Peuple de Rodrigues (OPR) obtained eight. The President acts as head of state and the Chief Commissioner as head of government on Rodrigues. The current chief commissioner is Roussety Johnson and the Chief Executive of Rodrigues is Pierre Louis Jean Claude.


title: Rodrigues

text: The island includes six electoral regions: La Ferme (Region 1), Marechal (Region 2), Saint Gabriel (Region 3), Baie aux Huitres (Region 4), Port Mathurin (Region 5) and Grande Montagne (Region 6). Rodrigues Regional Assembly election are held every five years.


title: Rodrigues

text: Rodrigues is divided into 14 municipalities or zones. For statistical purposes, the zones are further subdivided into a total of 182 localities. The zones have between a minimum of six localities (La Ferme) and maximum of 22 (the capital Port Mathurin).


title: Rodrigues

text: The population estimate (as of 18 November 2022) for the island of Rodrigues was 43,650. The main religion is Christianity, dominated by Roman Catholicism with small minorities of other Christian branches, as well as Jehovah's Witnesses, and there are also Hindus, Muslims and Buddhists. Most of the inhabitants are of African descent and there is a minority of mixed-race peoples, descendants of the first European settlers.


title: Rodrigues

text: The main language is Rodriguan Creole, but English and French are most used as the languages of government administration, the courts and business. Rodriguan Creole is very similar to Mauritian Creole, though some words are pronounced differently. People born in Rodrigues island are called Rodriguans.


title: Rodrigues

text: The education system in Rodrigues is similar to that throughout the rest of Mauritius. The government provides free education to students up to the tertiary level.


title: Rodrigues

text: Rodrigues is served by Sir Gaëtan Duval Airport in Plane Corail, with regular flights to Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport in Plaisance.


title: Rodrigues

text: The economy of Rodrigues is mostly dependent on Mauritius. The main sources of income and economic activity are tourism, fishing, agriculture (especially of onions, garlic and chilli), and animal rearing. The handicraft industry has proven to be beneficial to the economy of the island. However, the income derived from the export of sea products, cattle, and food crops is smaller than the costs of imported products, creating a deficit.


title: Rodrigues

text: It has a special relationship with English-speaking countries, such as England in the United Kingdom, Australia and Ireland.


title: Rodrigues

text: Cultural awakening which occurred at the end of the 1970s allowed the construction and consolidation of the cultural identity of Rodrigues through the development of these various elements, which form the base of the culture of every nation: food, music, and crafts


title: Rodrigues

text: The traditional music of the island is known as Sega Tambour. The music has an accentuated beat, usually accompanied by an accordion, clapping and the use of improvised percussion instruments like bamboo. The folk dance music is similar to polkas, quadrilles, waltzes and Scottish reels.


title: Rodrigues

text: Rodrigues cuisine consists of dishes from local products: fruit, vegetables, seafood (fish, octopus, crab, shrimp, lobster) and meat. National dishes include sausages with kreolinės, rougaille sauce, octopus with curry, kono-kono (a shellfish) salad and Rodrigues cake.


title: Rodrigues

text: The most common sport in Rodrigues is association football. There are local competitions almost throughout the year and in specific competitions, the winning team travels to Mauritius for sport exchange. Volleyball is also popular. There is also a public swimming pool at Marechal, a village located in the center of the island, and a stadium at Camp Du Rois in the region of Port Mathurin.


title: Kala (2021 film)

text: Kala (കള, ) is a 2021 Indian Malayalam-language pschyological action film, directed by Rohith V. S. and written by Yadhu Pushpakaran and Rohith V. S. It stars Tovino Thomas and Sumesh Moor in the lead roles and features Lal Paul and Divya Pillai in supporting roles. Chaman Chakko is the editor of the film while Akhil George handles the cinematography. Dawn Vincent composes the background score and did the audiography. The film is produced by Siju Mathew and Navis Xaviour under Juvis Productions and co-produced by Tovino Thomas, Rohith V. S. and Akhil George under Adventure Company and Tovino Thomas Productions.


title: Kala (2021 film)

text: Shaji is living in an isolated farmhouse with his wife Vidya Shaji, his young son and his Cane Corso black dog. He is in debt now due to the failure of his farming. His father Raveendran who had entrusted him to take care of the farming has lost hope in him and is now considering him as completely useless and scolds him often. To manage the work in the farmland and to steal some of his father's peppercorns to clear his debt, Shaji hires a few Tamil workers through an acquaintance. Along with her brother, Vidya visits her parents' place to take off from her routine life for a while. As the workers begin working, an eerie atmosphere creeps in.


title: Kala (2021 film)

text: Shaji spots one of the worker boys spying on him and catches him. He learns that on a previous encounter, he had killed the boy's beloved dog without his knowledge. Now, the boy has returned to avenge his loss. In fact, it is revealed that all of the Tamil workers were once owners of the farmland. The land was then forcefully taken over by Raveendran.


title: Kala (2021 film)

text: Shaji requests the boy to forget the incident and offers to buy him a new dog. But the boy is determined to seek revenge and swears to kill Shaji's dog. Shaji loses his cool and a fearsome fight ensues between them both fighting for survival and revenge. When it starts raining, Shaji realizes that he has to shift peppercorn, so he locks the boy in a room and rushes dripping in blood. He unloads the peppercorn sacks outside the storage shed. When he returns to the room, he finds the boy missing. He gets furious when he sees the boy setting the peppercorn in a fire. They continue fighting and this time the boy easily gets the upper hand and makes Shaji run for his life. Finally the boy makes Shaji feel the pain of his loss and is satisfied to have taken his revenge successfully. The boy walks away with Shaji's dog happily.


title: Kala (2021 film)

text: On 11 July 2020, Tovino Thomas announced that his next project titled "Kala". The pooja function of the film was done on 5 September 2020 and the principal photography began on September 7. On 7 October 2020, Tovino was hospitalized after getting injured while filming an action sequence at Kolenchery. The filming resumes on 18 December 2020 after he recovered from the injuries. The filming completed on 30 December 2020.


title: Kala (2021 film)

text: The title track of the film "Vanyam", penned by Vinayak Sasikumar and composed by Dawn Vincent, was released on 27 March 2021 on Juvis Production's YouTube channel.


title: Kala (2021 film)

text: The film received positive responses from critics and audience. Vaisakh Vamadevan from "The Update" rated film 3 out of 5 and stated that "Kala offers a new visual experience, where technical sides was at top notch"


title: Kala (2021 film)

text: Baradwaj Rangan of "Film Companion" wrote "Kala is beautifully made. This is a very stylized film and the sound design by Dawn Vincent complements that beautifully. Action choreography is another major highlight as well as Akhil George's cinematography which alternates between stillness and action."


title: Pressure vessel

text: A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Construction methods and materials may be chosen to suit the pressure application, and will depend on the size of the vessel, the contents, working pressure, mass constraints, and the number of items required.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in the history of their development and operation. Consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering authorities backed by legislation. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies from country to country.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Design involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and temperature, safety factor, corrosion allowance and minimum design temperature (for brittle fracture). Construction is tested using nondestructive testing, such as ultrasonic testing, radiography, and pressure tests. Hydrostatic pressure tests usually use water, but pneumatic tests use air or another gas. Hydrostatic testing is preferred, because it is a safer method, as much less energy is released if a fracture occurs during the test (water does not greatly increase its volume when rapid depressurization occurs, unlike gases, which expand explosively). Mass or batch production products will often have a representative sample tested to destruction in controlled conditions for quality assurance. Pressure relief devices may be fitted if the overall safety of the system is sufficiently enhanced.


title: Pressure vessel

text: In most countries, vessels over a certain size and pressure must be built to a formal code. In the United States that code is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). In Europe the code is the Pressure Equipment Directive. Information on this page is mostly valid in ASME only. These vessels also require an authorized inspector to sign off on every new vessel constructed and each vessel has a nameplate with pertinent information about the vessel, such as maximum allowable working pressure, maximum temperature, minimum design metal temperature, what company manufactured it, the date, its registration number (through the National Board), and American Society of Mechanical Engineers's official stamp for pressure vessels (U-stamp). The nameplate makes the vessel traceable and officially an ASME Code vessel.


title: Pressure vessel

text: A special application is pressure vessels for human occupancy, for which more stringent safety rules apply.


title: Pressure vessel

text: The earliest documented design of pressure vessels was described in 1495 in the book by Leonardo da Vinci, the Codex Madrid I, in which containers of pressurized air were theorized to lift heavy weights underwater. However, vessels resembling those used today did not come about until the 1800s, when steam was generated in boilers helping to spur the industrial revolution. However, with poor material quality and manufacturing techniques along with improper knowledge of design, operation and maintenance there was a large number of damaging and often Deathly explosions associated with these boilers and pressure vessels, with a death occurring on a nearly daily basis in the United States. Local provinces and states in the US began enacting rules for constructing these vessels after some particularly devastating vessel failures occurred killing dozens of people at a time, which made it difficult for manufacturers to keep up with the varied rules from one location to another. The first pressure vessel code was developed starting in 1911 and released in 1914, starting the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). In an early effort to design a tank capable of withstanding pressures up to , a diameter tank was developed in 1919 that was spirally-wound with two layers of high tensile strength steel wire to prevent sidewall rupture, and the end caps longitudinally reinforced with lengthwise high-tensile rods. The need for high pressure and temperature vessels for petroleum refineries and chemical plants gave rise to vessels joined with welding instead of rivets (which were unsuitable for the pressures and temperatures required) and in the 1920s and 1930s the BPVC included welding as an acceptable means of construction; welding is the main means of joining metal vessels today.


title: Pressure vessel

text: There have been many advancements in the field of pressure vessel engineering such as advanced non-destructive examination, phased array ultrasonic testing and radiography, new material grades with increased corrosion resistance and stronger materials, and new ways to join materials such as explosion welding, friction stir welding, advanced theories and means of more accurately assessing the stresses encountered in vessels such as with the use of Finite Element Analysis, allowing the vessels to be built safer and more efficiently. Today, vessels in the USA require BPVC stamping but the BPVC is not just a domestic code, many other countries have adopted the BPVC as their official code. There are, however, other official codes in some countries, such as Japan, Australia, Canada, Britain, and Europe. Regardless of the country, nearly all recognize the inherent potential hazards of pressure vessels and the need for standards and codes regulating their design and construction.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres, cylinders, and cones are usually employed. A common design is a cylinder with end caps called heads. Head shapes are frequently either hemispherical or dished (torispherical). More complicated shapes have historically been much harder to analyze for safe operation and are usually far more difficult to construct.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Theoretically, a spherical pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a cylindrical pressure vessel with the same wall thickness, and is the ideal shape to hold internal pressure. However, a spherical shape is difficult to manufacture, and therefore more expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical with 2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps on each end. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and two covers. For cylindrical vessels with a diameter up to 600 mm (NPS of 24 in), it is possible to use seamless pipe for the shell, thus avoiding many inspection and testing issues, mainly the nondestructive examination of radiography for the long seam if required. A disadvantage of these vessels is that greater diameters are more expensive, so that for example the most economic shape of a , pressure vessel might be a diameter of and a length of including the 2:1 semi-elliptical domed end caps.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Many pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture a cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel, rolled and possibly forged parts would have to be welded together. Some mechanical properties of steel, achieved by rolling or forging, could be adversely affected by welding, unless special precautions are taken. In addition to adequate mechanical strength, current standards dictate the use of steel with a high impact resistance, especially for vessels used in low temperatures. In applications where carbon steel would suffer corrosion, special corrosion resistant material should also be used.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Some pressure vessels are made of composite materials, such as filament wound composite using carbon fibre held in place with a polymer. Due to the very high tensile strength of carbon fibre these vessels can be very light, but are much more difficult to manufacture. The composite material may be wound around a metal liner, forming a composite overwrapped pressure vessel.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Other very common materials include polymers such as PET in carbonated beverage containers and copper in plumbing.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Pressure vessels may be lined with various metals, ceramics, or polymers to prevent leaking and protect the structure of the vessel from the contained medium. This liner may also carry a significant portion of the pressure load.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Pressure Vessels may also be constructed from concrete (PCV) or other materials which are weak in tension. Cabling, wrapped around the vessel or within the wall or the vessel itself, provides the necessary tension to resist the internal pressure. A "leakproof steel thin membrane" lines the internal wall of the vessel. Such vessels can be assembled from modular pieces and so have "no inherent size limitations". There is also a high order of redundancy thanks to the large number of individual cables resisting the internal pressure.


title: Pressure vessel

text: The very small vessels used to make liquid butane fueled cigarette lighters are subjected to about 2 bar pressure, depending on ambient temperature. These vessels are often oval (1 x 2 cm ... 1.3 x 2.5 cm) in cross section but sometimes circular. The oval versions generally include one or two internal tension struts which appear to be baffles but which also provide additional cylinder strength.


title: Pressure vessel

text: The typical circular-cylindrical high pressure gas cylinders for permanent gases (that do not liquify at storing pressure, like air, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, argon, helium) have been manufactured by hot forging by pressing and rolling to get a seamless steel vessel.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Working pressure of cylinders for use in industry, skilled craft, diving and medicine had a standardized working pressure (WP) of only in Europe until about 1950. From about 1975 until now, the standard pressure is . Firemen need slim, lightweight cylinders to move in confined spaces; since about 1995 cylinders for WP were used (first in pure steel).


title: Pressure vessel

text: A demand for reduced weight led to different generations of composite (fiber and matrix, over a liner) cylinders that are more easily damageable by a hit from outside. Therefore, composite cylinders are usually built for .


title: Pressure vessel

text: Until 1990, high pressure cylinders were produced with conical (tapered) threads. Two types of threads have dominated the full metal cylinders in industrial use from in volume.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Taper thread (17E), with a 12% taper right hand thread, standard Whitworth 55° form with a pitch of 14 threads per inch (5.5 threads per cm) and pitch diameter at the top thread of the cylinder of . These connections are sealed using thread tape and torqued to between on steel cylinders, and between on aluminium cylinders.


title: Pressure vessel

text: To screw in the valve, a high torque of typically is necessary for the larger 25E taper thread, and for the smaller 17E thread. Until around 1950, hemp was used as a sealant. Later, a thin sheet of lead pressed to a hat with a hole on top was used. Since 2005, PTFE-tape has been used to avoid using lead.


title: Pressure vessel

text: A tapered thread provides simple assembly, but requires high torque for connecting and leads to high radial forces in the vessel neck. All cylinders built for working pressure, all diving cylinders, and all composite cylinders use parallel threads.


title: Pressure vessel

text: The 3/4"NGS and 3/4"BSP are very similar, having the same pitch and a pitch diameter that only differs by about , but they are not compatible, as the thread forms are different.


title: Pressure vessel

text: All parallel thread valves are sealed using an elastomer O-ring at top of the neck thread which seals in a chamfer or step in the cylinder neck and against the flange of the valve.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Type 2 and 3 cylinders have been in production since around 1995. Type 4 cylinders are commercially available at least since 2016.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Leak before burst describes a pressure vessel designed such that a crack in the vessel will grow through the wall, allowing the contained fluid to escape and reducing the pressure, prior to growing so large as to cause fracture at the operating pressure.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Many pressure vessel standards, including the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the AIAA metallic pressure vessel standard, either require pressure vessel designs to be leak before burst, or require pressure vessels to meet more stringent requirements for fatigue and fracture if they are not shown to be leak before burst.


title: Pressure vessel

text: As the pressure vessel is designed to a pressure, there is typically a safety valve or relief valve to ensure that this pressure is not exceeded in operation.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Pressure vessel closures are pressure retaining structures designed to provide quick access to pipelines, pressure vessels, pig traps, filters and filtration systems. Typically pressure vessel closures allow access by maintenance personnel.


title: Pressure vessel

text: A commonly used access hole shape is elliptical, which allows the closure to be passed through the opening, and rotated into the working position, and is held in place by a bar on the outside, secured by a central bolt. The internal pressure prevents it from being inadvertently opened under load.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Pressure vessels are used in a variety of applications in both industry and the private sector. They appear in these sectors as industrial compressed air receivers, boilers and domestic hot water storage tanks. Other examples of pressure vessels are diving cylinders, recompression chambers, distillation towers, pressure reactors, autoclaves, and many other vessels in mining operations, oil refineries and petrochemical plants, nuclear reactor vessels, submarine and space ship habitats, atmospheric diving suits, pneumatic reservoirs, hydraulic reservoirs under pressure, rail vehicle airbrake reservoirs, road vehicle airbrake reservoirs, and storage vessels for high pressure permanent gases and liquified gases such as ammonia, chlorine, and LPG (propane, butane).


title: Pressure vessel

text: A unique application of a pressure vessel is the passenger cabin of an airliner: the outer skin carries both the aircraft maneuvering loads and the cabin pressurization loads.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Depending on the application and local circumstances, alternatives to pressure vessels exist. Examples can be seen in domestic water collection systems, where the following may be used:


title: Pressure vessel

text: No matter what shape it takes, the minimum mass of a pressure vessel scales with the pressure and volume it contains and is inversely proportional to the strength to weight ratio of the construction material (minimum mass decreases as strength increases).


title: Pressure vessel

text: Pressure vessels are held together against the gas pressure due to tensile forces within the walls of the container. The normal (tensile) stress in the walls of the container is proportional to the pressure and radius of the vessel and inversely proportional to the thickness of the walls. Therefore, pressure vessels are designed to have a thickness proportional to the radius of tank and the pressure of the tank and inversely proportional to the maximum allowed normal stress of the particular material used in the walls of the container.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Because (for a given pressure) the thickness of the walls scales with the radius of the tank, the mass of a tank (which scales as the length times radius times thickness of the wall for a cylindrical tank) scales with the volume of the gas held (which scales as length times radius squared). The exact formula varies with the tank shape but depends on the density, ρ, and maximum allowable stress σ of the material in addition to the pressure P and volume V of the vessel. (See below for the exact equations for the stress in the walls.)


title: Pressure vessel

text: Other shapes besides a sphere have constants larger than 3/2 (infinite cylinders take 2), although some tanks, such as non-spherical wound composite tanks can approach this.


title: Pressure vessel

text: In looking at the first equation, the factor PV, in SI units, is in units of (pressurization) energy. For a stored gas, PV is proportional to the mass of gas at a given temperature, thus


title: Pressure vessel

text: The other factors are constant for a given vessel shape and material. So we can see that there is no theoretical "efficiency of scale", in terms of the ratio of pressure vessel mass to pressurization energy, or of pressure vessel mass to stored gas mass. For storing gases, "tankage efficiency" is independent of pressure, at least for the same temperature.


title: Pressure vessel

text: So, for example, a typical design for a minimum mass tank to hold helium (as a pressurant gas) on a rocket would use a spherical chamber for a minimum shape constant, carbon fiber for best possible formula_10, and very cold helium for best possible formula_11.


title: Pressure vessel

text: where formula_13 is hoop stress, or stress in the circumferential direction, formula_14 is stress in the longitudinal direction, "p" is internal gauge pressure, "r" is the inner radius of the sphere, and "t" is thickness of the sphere wall. A vessel can be considered "thin-walled" if the diameter is at least 10 times (sometimes cited as 20 times) greater than the wall thickness.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Almost all pressure vessel design standards contain variations of these two formulas with additional empirical terms to account for variation of stresses across thickness, quality control of welds and in-service corrosion allowances.


title: Pressure vessel

text: All formulae mentioned above assume uniform distribution of membrane stresses across thickness of shell but in reality, that is not the case. Deeper analysis is given by Lamé's theorem, which gives the distribution of stress in the walls of a thick-walled cylinder of a homogeneous and isotropic material. The formulae of pressure vessel design standards are extension of Lamé's theorem by putting some limit on ratio of inner radius and thickness.


title: Pressure vessel

text: The factor of safety is often included in these formulas as well, in the case of the ASME BPVC this term is included in the material stress value when solving for pressure or thickness.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Wound infinite cylindrical shapes optimally take a winding angle of 54.7 degrees to the cylindrical axis, as this gives the necessary twice the strength in the circumferential direction to the longitudinal.


title: Pressure vessel

text: The standard method of construction for boilers, compressed air receivers and other pressure vessels of iron or steel before gas and electrical welding of reliable quality became widespread was riveted sheets which had been rolled and forged into shape, then riveted together, often using butt straps along the joints, and caulked along the riveted seams by deforming the edges of the overlap with a blunt chisel. Hot riveting caused the rivets to contract on cooling, forming a tighter joint.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Manufacturing methods for seamless metal pressure vessels are commonly used for relatively small diameter cylinders where large numbers will be produced, as the machinery and tooling require large capital outlay. The methods are well suited to high pressure gas transport and storage applications, and provide consistently high quality products.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Backward extrusion: A process by which the material is forced to flow back along the mandrel between the mandrel and die.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Seamless aluminium cylinders may be manufactured by cold backward extrusion of aluminium billets in a process which first presses the walls and base, then trims the top edge of the cylinder walls, followed by press forming the shoulder and neck.


title: Pressure vessel

text: In the hot extrusion process a billet of steel is cut to size, induction heated to the correct temperature for the alloy, descaled and placed in the die. The metal is backward extruded by forcing the mandrel into it, causing it to flow through the annular gap until a deep cup is formed. This cup is further drawn to diameter and wall thickness reduced and the bottom formed. After inspection and trimming of the open end The cylinder is hot spun to close the end and form the neck.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Seamless cylinders may also be cold drawn from steel plate discs to a cylindrical cup form, in two or three stages. After forming the base and side walls, the top of the cylinder is trimmed to length, heated and hot spun to form the shoulder and close the neck. This process thickens the material of the shoulder. The cylinder is heat-treated by quenching and tempering to provide the best strength and toughness.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Regardless of the method used to form the cylinder, it will be machined to finish the neck and cut the neck threads, heat treated, cleaned, and surface finished, stamp marked, tested, and inspected for quality assurance.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Large and low pressure vessels are commonly manufactured from formed plates welded together. Weld quality is critical to safety in pressure vessels for human occupancy.


title: Pressure vessel

text: Composite pressure vessels are generally filament wound rovings in a thermosetting polymer matrix. The mandrel may be removable after cure, or may remain a part of the finished product, often providing a more reliable gas or liquid-tight liner, or better chemical resistance to the intended contents than the resin matrix. Metallic inserts may be provided for attaching threaded accessories, such as valves and pipes.