title: Sweetbitter (TV series)

text: On March 10, 2018, Starz opened the "Starz Sensory House" at the annual South by Southwest Film Festival in Austin, Texas. It featured a multitude of screens playing the trailers for two new Starz series, "Vida" and "Sweetbitter", on a loop. Various types of food and drinks were available and designed thematically to match. For "Sweetbitter", Sugarfina handed out a selection of alcohol-inspired sweets, including martini almond olives and champagne gummy bears. Additionally, a series of six artisanal cocktails were also available, designed by Austin-based bartender Tacy Rowland. One such cocktail based on "Sweetbitter" included the "Autumn in New York", featuring cognac, sherry, coffee, bitter lemon and a rosemary garnish. Other services contained in the sensory house included mini manicures that were offered by the Austin-based Nails Y’all, and a perfume bar Roux Saint James, which created four custom scents inspired by "Sweetbitter’s" four main characters. The Starz Sensory House was located at 88 Rainey Street in Austin and operated until March 12.


title: Sweetbitter (TV series)

text: On April 26, 2018, the series held its world premiere at the SVA Theatre in New York City, New York during the annual Tribeca Film Festival. Following the screening a discussion was held with creator, executive producer, and writer Stephanie Danler, showrunner Stuart Zicherman, and cast members Ella Purnell, Caitlin FitzGerald, Tom Sturridge, and Paul Sparks.


title: Sweetbitter (TV series)

text: The first season has been met with a mixed to negative response from critics. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds a 30% approval rating with an average rating of 5.25 out of 10 based on 23 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Sweetbitter" fails to live up to its well-received literary source material -- or stand out from the many big-city coming-of-age television series that came before it." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 52 out of 100 based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: In transaction processing, databases, and computer networking, the two-phase commit protocol (2PC) is a type of atomic commitment protocol (ACP). It is a distributed algorithm that coordinates all the processes that participate in a distributed atomic transaction on whether to commit or abort (roll back) the transaction. This protocol (a specialised type of consensus protocol) achieves its goal even in many cases of temporary system failure (involving either process, network node, communication, etc. failures), and is thus widely used.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: However, it is not resilient to all possible failure configurations, and in rare cases, manual intervention is needed to remedy an outcome. To accommodate recovery from failure (automatic in most cases) the protocol's participants use logging of the protocol's states. Log records, which are typically slow to generate but survive failures, are used by the protocol's recovery procedures. Many protocol variants exist that primarily differ in logging strategies and recovery mechanisms. Though usually intended to be used infrequently, recovery procedures compose a substantial portion of the protocol, due to many possible failure scenarios to be considered and supported by the protocol.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: In a "normal execution" of any single distributed transaction (i.e., when no failure occurs, which is typically the most frequent situation), the protocol consists of two phases:


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: The two-phase commit (2PC) protocol should not be confused with the two-phase locking (2PL) protocol, a concurrency control protocol.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: The protocol works in the following manner: one node is a designated coordinator, which is the master site, and the rest of the nodes in the network are designated the participants. The protocol assumes that there is stable storage at each node with a write-ahead log, that no node crashes forever, that the data in the write-ahead log is never lost or corrupted in a crash, and that any two nodes can communicate with each other. The last assumption is not too restrictive, as network communication can typically be rerouted. The first two assumptions are much stronger; if a node is totally destroyed then data can be lost.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: The protocol is initiated by the coordinator after the last step of the transaction has been reached. The participants then respond with an agreement message or an abort message depending on whether the transaction has been processed successfully at the participant.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: If the coordinator received an agreement message from all participants during the commit-request phase:


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: The greatest disadvantage of the two-phase commit protocol is that it is a blocking protocol. If the coordinator fails permanently, some participants will never resolve their transactions: After a participant has sent an agreement message to the coordinator, it will block until a commit or rollback is received.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: In many cases the 2PC protocol is distributed in a computer network. It is easily distributed by implementing multiple dedicated 2PC components similar to each other, typically named Transaction managers (TMs; also referred to as 2PC agents or Transaction Processing Monitors), that carry out the protocol's execution for each transaction (e.g., The Open Group's X/Open XA). The databases involved with a distributed transaction, the participants, both the coordinator and participants, register to close TMs (typically residing on respective same network nodes as the participants) for terminating that transaction using 2PC. Each distributed transaction has an ad hoc set of TMs, the TMs to which the transaction participants register. A leader, the coordinator TM, exists for each transaction to coordinate 2PC for it, typically the TM of the coordinator database. However, the coordinator role can be transferred to another TM for performance or reliability reasons. Rather than exchanging 2PC messages among themselves, the participants exchange the messages with their respective TMs. The relevant TMs communicate among themselves to execute the 2PC protocol schema above, "representing" the respective participants, for terminating that transaction. With this architecture the protocol is fully distributed (does not need any central processing component or data structure), and scales up with number of network nodes (network size) effectively.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: This common architecture is also effective for the distribution of other atomic commitment protocols besides 2PC, since all such protocols use the same voting mechanism and outcome propagation to protocol participants.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: Database research has been done on ways to get most of the benefits of the two-phase commit protocol while reducing costs by protocol optimizations and protocol operations saving under certain system's behavior assumptions.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: Presumed abort or Presumed commit are common such optimizations. An assumption about the outcome of transactions, either commit, or abort, can save both messages and logging operations by the participants during the 2PC protocol's execution. For example, when presumed abort, if during system recovery from failure no logged evidence for commit of some transaction is found by the recovery procedure, then it assumes that the transaction has been aborted, and acts accordingly. This means that it does not matter if aborts are logged at all, and such logging can be saved under this assumption. Typically a penalty of additional operations is paid during recovery from failure, depending on optimization type. Thus the best variant of optimization, if any, is chosen according to failure and transaction outcome statistics.


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: The Tree 2PC protocol (also called Nested 2PC, or Recursive 2PC) is a common variant of 2PC in a computer network, which better utilizes the underlying communication infrastructure. The participants in a distributed transaction are typically invoked in an order which defines a tree structure, the invocation tree, where the participants are the nodes and the edges are the invocations (communication links). The same tree is commonly utilized to complete the transaction by a 2PC protocol, but also another communication tree can be utilized for this, in principle. In a tree 2PC the coordinator is considered the root ("top") of a communication tree (inverted tree), while the participants are the other nodes. The coordinator can be the node that originated the transaction (invoked recursively (transitively) the other participants), but also another node in the same tree can take the coordinator role instead. 2PC messages from the coordinator are propagated "down" the tree, while messages to the coordinator are "collected" by a participant from all the participants below it, before it sends the appropriate message "up" the tree (except an abort message, which is propagated "up" immediately upon receiving it or if the current participant initiates the abort).


title: Two-phase commit protocol

text: The Dynamic two-phase commit (Dynamic two-phase commitment, D2PC) protocol is a variant of Tree 2PC with no predetermined coordinator. It subsumes several optimizations that have been proposed earlier. Agreement messages (Yes votes) start to propagate from all the leaves, each leaf when completing its tasks on behalf of the transaction (becoming ready). An intermediate (non leaf) node sends ready when an agreement message to the last (single) neighboring node from which agreement message has not yet been received. The coordinator is determined dynamically by racing agreement messages over the transaction tree, at the place where they collide. They collide either at a transaction tree node, to be the coordinator, or on a tree edge. In the latter case one of the two edge's nodes is elected as a coordinator (any node). D2PC is time optimal (among all the instances of a specific transaction tree, and any specific Tree 2PC protocol implementation; all instances have the same tree; each instance has a different node as coordinator): By choosing an optimal coordinator D2PC commits both the coordinator and each participant in minimum possible time, allowing the earliest possible release of locked resources in each transaction participant (tree node).


title: Fort Santiago

text: Fort Santiago (; ), built in 1571, is a citadel built by Spanish navigator and governor Miguel López de Legazpi for the newly established city of Manila in the Philippines. The defense fortress is located in Intramuros, the walled city of Manila.


title: Fort Santiago

text: The fort is one of the most important historical sites in Manila. Several people died in its prisons during the Spanish Empire and World War II. José Rizal, one of the Philippine national heroes, was imprisoned here before his execution in 1896. The Rizal Shrine museum displays memorabilia of the hero in their collection and the fort features, embedded onto the ground in bronze, his footsteps representing his final walk from his cell to the location of the actual execution.


title: Fort Santiago

text: It is only a few meters away from the Manila Cathedral and the "Palacio del Gobernador" (lit. "Governor's Palace," currently the office of the Commission on Elections).


title: Fort Santiago

text: The fort was named after Saint James ("Santiago" in Spanish), the patron saint of Spain, who is also known as Saint James the Muslim-slayer because of the legend that he miraculously appeared hundreds of years after his death to fight in the battle of Clavijo, whose relief adorns the façade of the front gate. It is located at the mouth of the Pasig River and served as the premier defense fortress of the Spanish Government during their rule of the country. It became a main fort for the spice trade to the Americas and Europe for 333 years. The Manila Galleon trade to Acapulco, Mexico began from the Fuerte de Santiago.


title: Fort Santiago

text: The fort has a perimeter of , and it is of a nearly triangular form. The south front, which looks toward the city, is a curtain with a terreplein, flanked by two demi-bastions - the "Bastion of San Fernando", on the riverside, and the "Bastion of San Miguel", by the bayside. A moat connected with the river separates the fort from the city. Near the beginning of the north face, instead of a bastion, a cavalier called "Santa Barbara" was built with three faces of batteries, one looking seaward over the anchorage place, one facing the entrance, and the third looking upon the river. The latter is united with a tower of the same height as the walls, through which there is a descent to the water battery placed upon a semicircular platform, thus completing the triangular form of the fort.


title: Fort Santiago

text: The high walls, with a thickness of are pierced for the necessary communications. The front gateway façade measures high being in the south wall and facing the city. The communication with the river and the sea was by an obscure postern gate - the "Postigo de la Nuestra Señora del Soledad" (Postern of Our Lady of Solitude). Inside the fort were guard stations, together with the barracks of the troops of the garrison and quarters of the warden and his subalterns. Also inside the fort were various storehouses, a chapel, the powder magazine, the sentry towers, the cisterns, etc.


title: Fort Santiago

text: The location of Fort Santiago was once the site of a palisaded fort, armed with bronze guns, of Rajah Matanda, a Muslim Tagalog rajah of pre-Hispanic Manila who himself was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei. The fort was destroyed by "maestre de campo" (master-of-camp) Martin de Goiti who, upon arriving in 1570 from Cebu, fought several battles with the Muslim natives. The Spaniards started building Fort Santiago ("Fuerte de Santiago") after the establishment of the city of Manila under Spanish rule on June 24, 1571, and made Manila the capital of the newly colonized islands.


title: Fort Santiago

text: The first fort was a structure of palm logs and earth. Most of it was destroyed when the city was invaded by Chinese pirates led by Limahong. Martin de Goiti was killed during the siege. After a fierce conflict, the Spaniards under the leadership of Juan de Salcedo, eventually drove the pirates out to Pangasinan province to the north, and eventually out of the country.


title: Fort Santiago

text: The construction of Fort Santiago with hard stone, together with the original fortified walls of Intramuros, commenced in 1590 and finished in 1593 during the reign of Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas. The stones used were volcanic tuff quarried from Guadalupe (now Guadalupe Viejo in Makati). The fort as Dasmariñas left it consisted of a castellated structure without towers, trapezoidal in trace, its straight gray front projecting into the river mouth. Arches supported an open gun platform above, named the battery of Santa Barbara, the patron saint of all good artillerymen. These arches formed casemates which afforded a lower tier of fire through embrasures. Curtain walls of simplest character, without counter forts or interior buttresses, extended the flanks to a fourth front facing the city. In 1714, the ornate gate of Fort Santiago was erected together with some military barracks. The Luzon earthquakes of 1880, which destroyed much of the city of Manila, destroyed the front edifice of the fort changing its character.


title: Fort Santiago

text: During the leadership of Fernándo Valdés y Tamon in the 1730s, a large semicircular gun platform to the front called "media naranja" (half orange) and another of lesser dimensions to the river flank were added to the Bastion of Santa Barbara. The casemates were then filled in and embrasures closed. He also changed the curtain wall facing cityward to a bastioned front. A lower parapet, bordering the interior moat, connects the two bastions.


title: Fort Santiago

text: On September 24, 1762, British forces led by Brigadier-General William Draper and Rear-Admiral Samuel Cornish invaded and captured Manila, and along with it Fort Santiago. It was during this time that the fort served as a base of operations for the Royal Navy until April 1764 when they agreed to a ceasefire with the Spanish.


title: Fort Santiago

text: On August 13, 1898, the American flag was raised in Fort Santiago signifying the start of the American rule in the Philippines. The fort served as the headquarters for the U.S. Army and several changes were made to the fort by the Americans. One of these changes included the draining of the moats surrounding the fort. The grounds were then transformed into a golf course.


title: Fort Santiago

text: During World War II, Fort Santiago was captured by the Japanese Imperial Army, and used its prisons and dungeons including the storage cells and gunpowder magazines for hundreds of prisoners who were killed near the end of the war (see Manila massacre). The fort sustained heavy damage from American and Filipino military mortar shells during the Battle of Manila in February 1945. Also, approximately 600 American prisoners of war died of suffocation or hunger after being held in extremely tight quarters in the dungeons at Fort Santiago.


title: Fort Santiago

text: Today, the fort, its bastions, and the prison dungeons for criminals used by the Spanish officials, is now part of a historical park which also includes Plaza Moriones and several ruins. The park houses well-preserved legacies from the Spanish Colonial Period including memorabilia of José Rizal at the Rizal Shrine, a replica of his ancestral house in Laguna province.


title: Fort Santiago

text: Adaptive use of this famous historical landmark makes certain areas ideal for open air theater, picnics, and as a promenade. The Intramuros Visitors center gives an overview of the various attractions in the walled city.


title: Fort Santiago

text: After its destruction during WWII, Fort Santiago was declared as a "Shrine of Freedom" in 1950. Its restoration by the Philippine government did not begin till 1953 under the hands of the National Parks Development Committee. The Intramuros Administration now manages the reconstruction, maintenance, and management of the fort since 1992.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: My Babysitter's a Vampire () is a 2011 Canadian television series, based on the television film of the same name. In Canada, the series premiered in French on Télétoon on February 28, 2011, in English on Teletoon on March 14, 2011, and on Disney Channel in the United States on June 27, 2011, and finished airing October 5, 2012, on Disney and April 11, 2013, on Télétoon. The show was created by Fresh TV, creators of "6teen", "Total Drama", and "Stoked". The show follows Ethan Morgan (Matthew Knight), who, in the television film, learns that his babysitter Sarah (Vanessa Morgan) is a vampire. In the film, he learns he is able to have visions and his best friend Benny Weir (Atticus Mitchell) is a spellmaster. The series follows the three as they take on supernatural forces and have adventures, with occasional help from fellow vampires Rory (Cameron Kennedy) and Erica (Kate Todd), while dealing with the troubles of regular high school life.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: A second season was confirmed to start production in September 2011 and it first premiered on Disney Channel on June 29, 2012, it premiered on Teletoon September 6, 2012. Télétoon started featuring season 2 sneak-peek episodes on October 28, 2012, and premiered it on January 10, 2013. On September 18, 2013, Fresh TV Inc. announced the show was not picked up for a third season, but were exploring a possible second movie, which did not come to fruition.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: The series follows the supernatural adventures of Ethan Morgan (Matthew Knight), a geeky freshman and Seer who has visions from contact with the paranormal, his best friend Benny (Atticus Mitchell), who is a spellmaster, and his younger sister's babysitter Sarah (Vanessa Morgan), who is a vampire. They are often aided by Rory (Cameron Kennedy), their dorky friend, and Erica (Kate Todd), Sarah's best friend, both of whom are vampires turned in the pilot film.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: "My Babysitter's a Vampire" aired on October 9, 2010, on the Canadian television channel Teletoon. The French version of the film aired on Teletoon's French-Canadian counterpart, Télétoon, on October 16, 2010. It premiered in the United States on the Disney Channel on June 10, 2011. The film was released on DVD in the United States and Canada on May 22, 2012, with the whole first season. The film was released on DVD in the United Kingdom on June 25, 2012, with the premiere episode of the series, "Lawn of the Dead".


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: Early in 2011, four episodes of the series aired on Teletoon as previews for the series. Disney Channel announced in June that year that they acquired the rights to air the movie and series. Disney Channel aired the movie on June 10, 2011, and aired first-season episodes from June 27, 2011, to July 19, 2011, with all episodes premiering before the series made its official premiere on Teletoon. First season episodes aired on Thursdays at 8:00p.m./E.T. on Teletoon and at 8:30p.m./E.T. on Télétoon starting January 5, 2012, through April 5, 2012, on Teletoon. The first-season finale on Teletoon had an extra scene added to coincide with the online companion game results, which Disney Channel did not air.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: A 13-episode second season of the show was greenlit by Fresh TV, and was originally revealed by Vanessa Morgan on her official, personal Twitter. Filming for the second season lasted from September 21, 2011, to November 17, 2011. The same day filming ended, Disney Channel announced that it would pick the show up again for a second season. A promo for the second season first aired on Disney Channel on May 7, 2012. It was later revealed by Vanessa Morgan on Twitter that it would premiere June 29, 2012, at 8pm Eastern Time on Disney Channel. Teletoon released its first season two promo on August 13, 2012, with the season premiering on Thursday, September 6, 2012, at 7:30pm Eastern Time.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: The show originally premiered on Teletoon on March 14, 2011, and on Télétoon on February 28, 2011. In the United States it premiered on June 27, 2011, on Disney Channel. In the UK and Ireland it premiered on October 4, 2011, on Disney Channel and in April 2012 on Disney XD. The series premiered in late 2011 in Australia and New Zealand.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: The second season originally premiered on Teletoon on September 6, 2012, and on Télétoon on October 28, 2012. In the United States it premiered on June 29, 2012, on Disney Channel. In the UK and Ireland it premiered on October 22, 2012, on Disney Channel. The season premiered October 6, 2012, on Disney Channel in Australia and New Zealand.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: The episodes of "My Babysitter's a Vampire" that aired on Disney Channel in the United States in June 2011, averaged 3.7 million viewers and was the number 1 cable show among kids 2–11 in its time period (weekdays 7pm/6c).


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: In an interview about Disney Channel programming; Senior VP of programming, scheduling, multiplatform, acquisitions and co-productions, Paul DeBenedittis; stated ""My Babysitter’s a Vampire" was a great performer for us this past summer (June and July 2011). It is a well-crafted series, with rich characters and great stories. It was creator-driven, with a strong point of view that was relevant and connected with our core audience in a big way," when he was asked about top-performing acquired programming.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: The second-season premiere episode ("Welcome Back Dusker"), which originally aired June 29, 2012, on Disney Channel in the United States, was watched by approximately 3.20 million total viewers and was ranked as Friday's #2 cable TV telecast and the #2 TV telecast in Tweens 9–14 (1.3 million/5.5 rating).


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: In May 2011, prior to first-season episodes of "My Babysitter's a Vampire" airing on Disney Channel in the United States, and after certain episodes aired as sneak peeks on Teletoon/Télétoon (in Canada); Secret Location, with support from the Bell Broadcast and New Media Fund, began developing a video game for Teletoon and "MBAV" called ""Humans vs. Vampires in 3D"". "Humans vs. Vampires" is a modern spin on classic arcade-style games like "Street Fighter" and "Mortal Kombat". In this badge system game, the user can play as either a human or a vampire, using over 30 battle moves to defy their opponent, including three special moves unique to each character. Each character has over 30 moves plus three special moves, players battle their way through five levels and five different opponents, with rivals getting increasingly more difficult to beat as the game progresses. The points that are scored get counted toward the overall site tally, which affect the outcome of the season finale.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: A testing session for the game took place in Toronto, Ontario, CA on Sunday, June 5, 2011, before the game officially launched on the official website on October 14, 2011. In February 2012, popular game site Kongregate added "Humans vs. Vampires" to their website. Based on the final scores for each team, an extra scene was aired after the season one finale on Teletoon that was not aired on Disney Channel (the original episode remained unaltered).


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: Between July 27 and July 31, 2012, another testing session for "Humans vs. Vampires" took place in Toronto for an iOS App release for mobile devices to play the game. In the mobile version, Ethan's sister Jane and a character from season 2 named Boltz are added to the game. It's optimized for the fourth generation iPod touch, iPhone 4 and iPhone 4S.


title: My Babysitter's a Vampire (TV series)

text: The game is free to download in the App Store under the title "Humans VS Vampires". A one-time 99 cent in-app upgrade allows players to unlock all five good guys and five undead characters. The game has been nominated for a Digi and Kidscreen Award, and won a Canadian Screen Award for Best Cross-Platform Project in Children's and Youth.


title: Longest trains

text: The length of a train may be measured in number of wagons (for bulk loads such as coal and iron ore) or in metres for general freight. Train lengths and loads on electrified railways, especially lower voltage 3000 V DC and 1500 V DC, are limited by traction and power considerations. Drawgear and couplings can also be a limiting factor, along with curves, gradients and crossing loop lengths.


title: Longest trains

text: Very long freight trains with a total length of 3km or more are possible with the advent of distributed power, or additional locomotive units between or behind long chains of freight cars (referred to as a "consist"). Additional locomotive units enable much longer, heavier loads without the increased risks of derailing that stem from the stress of pulling very long chains of train-cars around curves.


title: Casemate

text: A casemate is a fortified gun emplacement or armored structure from which guns are fired, in a fortification, warship, or armoured fighting vehicle.


title: Casemate

text: When referring to antiquity, the term "casemate wall" means a double city wall with the space between the walls separated into chambers, which could be filled up to better withstand battering rams in case of siege (see ).


title: Casemate

text: In its original early modern meaning, the term referred to a vaulted chamber in a fort, which may have been used for storage, accommodation, or artillery which could fire through an opening or embrasure. Although the outward faces of brick or masonry casemates proved vulnerable to advances in artillery performance, the invention of reinforced concrete allowed newer designs to be produced well into the 20th century. With the introduction of ironclad warships, the definition was widened to include a protected space for guns in a ship, either within the hull or in the lower part of the superstructure. Although the main armament of ships quickly began to be mounted in revolving gun turrets, secondary batteries continued to be mounted in casemates; however several disadvantages eventually also led to their replacement by turrets. In tanks that do not have a turret for the main gun, the structure that accommodates the gun is also called a casemate.


title: Casemate

text: First recorded in French in the mid-16th century, from the Italian "casamatta" or Spanish "casamata", perhaps meaning a slaughterhouse, although it could derive from "casa" (in the sense of "hut"), and "matta" (Latin ), "done with reeds and wickers", thus a low-roof hut without windows or other openings set in marshy place. It could also come from "casa matta" with in the sense of "false". However, it may have been ultimately derived from the Greek "chásmata" ("χάσματα"), a gap or aperture.


title: Casemate

text: The term "casemate wall" is used in the archaeology of Israel/Palestine and the wider Near East, having the meaning of a double wall protecting a city or fortress, with transverse walls separating the space between the walls into chambers. These could be used as such, for storage or residential purposes, or could be filled with soil and rocks during siege in order to raise the resistance of the outer wall against battering rams. Originally thought to have been introduced to the region by the Hittites, this has been disproved by the discovery of examples predating their arrival, the earliest being at Ti'inik (Taanach) where such a wall has been dated to the 16th century BC. Casemate walls became a common type of fortification in the Southern Levant between the Middle Bronze Age (MB) and Iron Age II, being more numerous during the Iron Age and peaking in Iron Age II (10th-6th century BC). However, the construction of casemate walls had begun to be replaced by sturdier solid walls by the 9th century BC, probably due the development of more effective battering rams by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Casemate walls could surround an entire settlement, but most only protected part of it. The three different types included freestanding casemate walls, then integrated ones where the inner wall was part of the outer buildings of the settlement, and finally filled casemate walls, where the rooms between the walls were filled with soil right away, allowing for a quick, but nevertheless stable construction of particularly high walls.


title: Casemate

text: In fortifications designed to resist artillery, a casemate was originally a vaulted chamber usually constructed underneath the rampart. It was intended to be impenetrable and could be used for sheltering troops or stores. With the addition of an embrasure through the scarp face of the rampart, it could be used as a protected gun position. In bastion forts, artillery casemates were sometimes built into the flanks of bastions, but in action they quickly filled with smoke making them inoperable and for that reason, had fallen out of favor during the 17th century.


title: Casemate

text: In the late 18th century, Marc René, marquis de Montalembert (1714–1800) experimented with improved casemates for artillery, with ventilation systems that overcame the problem of smoke dispersal found in earlier works. For coastal fortifications, he advocated multi-tiered batteries of guns in masonry casemates, that could bring concentrated fire to bear on passing warships. In 1778, he was commissioned to build a fort on the Île-d'Aix, defending the port of Rochefort, Charente-Maritime. The outbreak of the Anglo-French War forced him to hastily to build his casemated fort from wood but he was able to prove that his well-designed casemates were capable of operating without choking the gunners with smoke. The defenses of the new naval base at Cherbourg were later constructed according to his system. After seeing Montalembert's coastal forts, American engineer Jonathan Williams acquired a translation of his book and took it to the United States, where it inspired the Second and Third Systems of coastal fortification; the first fully developed example being Castle Williams in New York Harbor which was started in 1807.


title: Casemate

text: In the early 19th century, French military engineer Baron Haxo designed a free-standing casemate that could be built on the top of the rampart, to protect guns and gunners from the high-angle fire of mortars and howitzers.


title: Casemate

text: The advantages of casemated artillery were proved in the Crimean War of 1853-1856, when attempts by the Royal Navy to subdue the casemated Russian forts at Kronstadt were unsuccessful, while a casemated gun tower at Sevastopol, the Malakoff Tower, could only be captured by a surprise French infantry attack while the garrison was being changed. In the early 1860s, the British, apprehensive about a possible French invasion, fortified the naval dockyards of southern England with curved batteries of large guns in casemates, fitted with laminated iron shields tested to withstand the latest projectiles.


title: Casemate

text: However, in the American Civil War (1861-1865), the exposed masonry of casemate batteries was found to be vulnerable to modern rifled artillery; Fort Pulaski was quickly breached in a few hours by only ten of these guns. In contrast, hastily constructed earthworks proved much more resilient. This led to casemates for artillery again falling out of favor. In continental Europe, they were often replaced by rotating gun turrets, but elsewhere large coastal guns were mounted in less expensive concrete gun pits or barbettes, sometimes using disappearing carriages to conceal the gun except at the moment of firing. Casemates for secure barrack accommodation and storage continued to be built; the 1880s French forts of the Séré de Rivières system for example, had a central structure consisting of two stories of casemates, buried under layers of earth, concrete and sand to a depth of , intended to defeat the new high explosive shells.


title: Casemate

text: Towards the end of the century, Imperial Germany had developed a new form of fortification called a "feste" (), in which the various elements of each fort were more widely dispersed in the landscape. These works, the first of which was Fort de Mutzig near Strasbourg, had separate artillery blocks, infantry positions and underground barracks, all built of reinforced concrete and connected by tunnels or entrenchments. Although the main armament of these forts was still mounted in armored turrets, local defense was provided by separate protected positions for field guns; these concrete structures were copied by the French who called them "casemates de Bourges" () after the proving ground where they had been tested.


title: Casemate

text: Following experience gained in the World War I, French engineers began to design a new scheme of fortifications to protect their eastern border, which became known as the Maginot Line. The main element of this line were large underground forts based on the "feste" principle, whose main armament was in turrets, however the countryside between them was defended by smaller self-sufficient works based on the earlier "casemates de bourges", housing either light field guns or anti-tank guns. As the World War II approached, similar casemate designs were adopted by other European nations as they offered protection from attacking aircraft. The German Organisation Todt undertook the development of casemates for thé large coastal guns of the Atlantic Wall. Built of concrete up to thick, they were thought to be able to withstand any form of attack. Work by the Western Allies to develop countermeasures that could defeat casemates and other types of bunker resulted in weapons such as tank-mounted spigot mortars, rocket-assisted projectiles, recoilless rifles, various types of demolition charge and earthquake bombs.


title: Casemate

text: In warship design the term "casemate" has been used in a number of ways, but it generally refers to a protected space for guns within a ship's hull or superstructure.


title: Casemate

text: The first ironclad warship, the (1858), was a wooden steamship whose hull was covered with armored plating, tested to withstand the largest smoothbore guns available at the time. The response by the British Royal Navy to this perceived threat was to build an iron-hulled frigate, . However, it was realised that to armor all of the hull to fully withstand the latest rifled artillery would make it unfeasibly heavy, so it was decided to create an armored box or casemate around the main gun deck, leaving the bow and stern unarmored.


title: Casemate

text: The American Civil War saw the use of casemate ironclads: armored steamboats with a very low freeboard and their guns on the main deck ('Casemate deck') protected by a sloped armoured casemate, which sat atop the hull. Although both sides of the Civil War used casemate ironclads, the ship is mostly associated with the southern Confederacy, as the north also employed turreted monitors, which the south was unable to produce. The most famous naval battle of the war was the duel at Hampton Roads between the Union turreted ironclad and the Confederate casemate ironclad (built from the scuttled remains of ).


title: Casemate

text: "Casemate ship" was an alternative term for "central battery ship" (UK) or "center battery ship" (US). The casemate (or central battery) was an armored box that extended the full width of the ship protecting many guns. The armored sides of the box were the sides of hull of the ship. There was an armored bulkhead at the front and rear of the casemate, and a thick deck protecting the top. The lower edge of the casemate sat on top of ship's belt armour. Some ships, such as (laid down 1873), had a two-story casemate.


title: Casemate

text: A "casemate" was an armored room in the side of a warship, from which a gun would fire. A typical casemate held a 6-inch gun, and had a front plate (forming part of the side of the ship), with thinner armor plates on the sides and rear, with a protected top and floor, and weighed about 20 tons (not including the gun and mounting). Casemates were similar in size to turrets; ships carrying them had them in pairs, one on each side of the ship.


title: Casemate

text: The first battleships to carry them were the British laid down in 1889. They were adopted as a result of live-firing trials against in 1888. Casemates were adopted because it was thought that the fixed armor plate at the front would provide better protection than a turret, and because a turret mounting would require external power and could therefore be put out of action if power were lost – unlike a casemate gun, which could be worked by hand. The use of casemates enabled the 6-inch guns to be dispersed, so that a single hit would not knock out all of them. Casemates were also used in protected and armored cruisers, starting with the 1889 . and retrofitted to the 1888 during construction.


title: Casemate

text: In the pre-dreadnought generation of warships, casemates were placed initially on the main deck, and later on the upper deck as well. Casemates on the main deck were very close to the waterline. In the "Edgar"-class cruisers, the guns in the casemates were only above the waterline. Casemates that were too close to the waterline or too close to the bow (such as in the 1912 "Iron Duke"-class dreadnoughts) were prone to flooding, making the guns ineffective.


title: Casemate

text: Shipboard casemate guns were partially rendered obsolete by the arrival of "all-big gun" battleship, pioneered by in 1906, but were reintroduced as the increasing torpedo threat from destroyers forced an increase in secondary armament calibre. Many battleships had their casemates plated over during modernization in the 1930s (or after the Attack on Pearl Harbor, in the case of US vessels) but some, like carried them to the end of World War II. The last ships built with casemates as new construction were the American s of the early 1920s and the 1933 Swedish aircraft cruiser . In both cases the casemates were built into the forward angles of the forward superstructure (and the aft superstructure as well, in the Omahas).


title: Casemate

text: In regards to armored fighting vehicles, casemate design refers to vehicles that have their main gun mounted directly within the hull and lack the rotating turret commonly associated with tanks. Such a design generally makes the vehicle mechanically simpler in design, less costly in construction, lighter in weight and lower in profile. The saved weight can be used to mount a heavier, more powerful gun or alternatively increase the vehicle's armor protection in comparison to regular, turreted tanks. However, in combat the crew has to rotate the entire vehicle if an enemy target presents itself outside of the vehicle's limited gun traverse arc. This can prove very disadvantageous in combat situations.


title: Casemate

text: During World War II, casemate-type armored fighting vehicles were heavily used by both the combined German Wehrmacht forces, and the Soviet Red Army. They were mainly employed as tank destroyers and assault guns. Tank destroyers, intended to operate mostly from defensive ambush operations, did not need a rotating turret as much as offensively used tanks, while assault guns were mainly used against fortified infantry positions and could afford a longer reaction time if a target presented itself outside the vehicle's gun traverse arc. Thus, the weight and complexity of a turret was thought to be unnecessary, and could be saved in favor of more capable guns and armor. In many cases, casemate vehicles would be used as both tank destroyers or assault guns, depending on the tactical situation. The Wehrmacht employed several casemate tank destroyers, initially with the still-"Panzerjäger" designation "Elefant" with an added, fully enclosed five-sided (including its armored roof) casemate atop the hull, with later casemate-style tank destroyers bearing the "Jagdpanzer" (literally 'hunting tank') designation, with much more integration of the casemate's armour with the tank hull itself. Examples are the Jagdpanzer IV, the Jagdtiger and the Jagdpanther. Assault guns were designated as 'Sturmgeschütz', like the Sturmgeschütz III and Sturmgeschütz IV. In the Red Army, casemate tank destroyers and self-propelled guns bore an "SU-" or "ISU-" prefix, with the "SU-" prefix an abbreviation for Samokhodnaya Ustanovka, or "self-propelled gun". Examples are the SU-100 or the ISU-152. Both Germany and the Soviet Union mainly built casemate AFVs by using the chassis of already existing turreted tanks, instead of designing them from scratch.


title: Casemate

text: While casemate AFVs played a very important role in World War II (the "Sturmgeschütz" III for example was the most numerous armored fighting vehicle of the German Army during the entire war), they became much less common in the post-war period. Heavy casemate tank destroyer designs such as the US T28 and the British Tortoise never went beyond prototype status, while casemate vehicles of a more regular weight, such as the Soviet SU-122-54, saw only very limited service. The general decline of casemate vehicles can be seen in the technological progress which resulted in the rise of universal main battle tanks, which unified in them the capability to take up the roles and tasks which in the past had to be diverted between several different classes of vehicles. However, vehicles such as the German Kanonenjagdpanzer of the 1960s still let the casemate concept live on, while the Swedish Army went as far as employing a casemate tank design, the Stridsvagn 103, or "S-Tank", as their main armored fighting vehicle from the 1960s until the 1990s, favoring it over contemporary turreted designs. Other casemate design ideas, such as the projected German Versuchsträger 1–2 with two main guns, were developed even later.


title: Korowai people

text: The Korowai, also called the Kolufo, are the people who live in southeastern West Papua in the Indonesian province of South Papua, close to the border with Papua New Guinea. They number about 3,000.


title: Korowai people

text: According to "The Daily Telegraph", "Until the late 1970s, when anthropologists embarked on a study of the tribe, the Korowai were unaware of the existence of any peoples other than themselves".


title: Korowai people

text: The Korowai language belongs to the Awyu–Dumut family (southeastern Papua) and is part of the Trans–New Guinea phylum. A dictionary and grammar book have been produced by a Dutch missionary linguist.


title: Korowai people

text: Since 1980 some have moved into the recently opened villages of Yaniruma at the Becking River banks (Kombai–Korowai area), Mu, and Mbasman (Korowai–Citak area). In 1987, a village was opened in Manggél, in Yafufla (1988), Mabül at the banks of the Eilanden River (1989), and Khaiflambolüp (1998).


title: Korowai people

text: The village absenteeism rate is still high, because of the relatively long distance between the settlements and the food (sago) resources.


title: Korowai people

text: The Korowai are hunter-gatherers and horticulturalists who practice shifting cultivation. They have excellent hunting and fishing skills.


title: Korowai people

text: Information about Korowai trade patterns is scant. The Korowai have a few gender-specific activities, such as the preparation of sago and the performance of religious ceremonies in which only the male adults are involved.


title: Korowai people

text: Some Korowai have since the early 1990s generated moderate cash income by working with tour companies selling tours into the Korowai region. Within the tourist industry, opportunities are limited to hosting tour groups in villages for tourist-sponsored sago feasts, carrying luggage, and performing traditional displays.


title: Korowai people

text: The patriclan is the central unit with respect to social, economic, and political organization. Kinship terminology follows the Omaha I pattern (Lounsbury), knowing a central opposition between cross and parallel relationships.


title: Korowai people

text: In Korowai society, the forms of institutional levirate and predominance of avuncular relationships are found, as well as a kind of affinal avoidance relationships. Marriage is exogamous and polygynous. Preference is given to a conjugal relationship with the (classificatory) mother's mother's brother's daughter.


title: Korowai people

text: Leadership structures are based on personal qualities of big men, rather than on institution. Interclan warfare occurs mainly because of witchcraft and sorcery-related conflicts.


title: Korowai people

text: The Korowai universe is filled with a variety of spirits, some more personal of character than others. Reverence is paid especially to the red headed creator god Gimigi. The Korowai ascribe an important role in their daily lives of honoring their "One God" with one being used as the concept of a prime deity from whom all others either descend or to whom all others pay homage.


title: Korowai people

text: Once in a lifetime, a Korowai clan must organize a sago grub festival in order to stimulate prosperity and fertility in a ritual fashion. In times of trouble they sacrifice domesticated pigs to the spirits of the ancestors.


title: Korowai people

text: The Korowai have an extraordinary and rich oral tradition: myths, folktales, (magical) sayings and charms, and totem traditions. With respect to death and afterlife the Korowai believe in the existence of a reciprocal type of reincarnation: those who died can be sent back at any time to the land of the living, by their kinsmen in the land of the dead, in order to reincarnate in a newly born infant of their own clan.


title: Korowai people

text: The first documented contact by Western scientists with members of a band of western Korowai (or eastern Citak) took place on 17–18 March 1974. The expedition was co-led by anthropologist Peter Van Arsdale (now at the University of Denver), geographer Robert Mitton, and community developer Mark (Dennis) Grundhoefer. Thirty men were encountered on the south bank of the Upper Eilanden River, approximately 12 miles east of its junction with the Kolff River and 10 miles north of the Becking River. A basic word list was generated and observations were recorded regarding such things as fire making techniques.


title: Korowai people

text: In the late 1970s, a few Christian (Dutch Protestant) missionaries began to live among the Korowai. Dea Sudarman, an Indonesian anthropologist, made several documentary films on the Korowai for Japanese television in the 1980s. In 1993, a film crew documented an anthropological study in the Dayo village area by the Smithsonian Institution of Korowai treehouse construction and the practice of cannibalism as a form of criminal justice. This resulted in the film "Lords of the Garden". In 1996 a local Christian community was established, the members of it mainly originating from the neighbouring Kombai people. For a long time the Korowai have been considered exceptionally resistant to religious conversion; however, by the end of the 1990s the first converts to Christianity were baptized. In the autumn of 2003, a small team of Bible translators from Wycliffe/SIL moved to Yaniruma.


title: Korowai people

text: In May 2006, tour-guide Paul Raffaele led an Australian "60 Minutes" crew to report on the people. After a few days' filming, the crew were allegedly approached by a man who claimed his 6-year-old nephew Wa-Wa had been accused of being a khakua (witch doctor), and was in danger of being cannibalised. The "60 Minutes" crew declined to offer assistance. Paul Raffaele approached the rival Seven Network, who agreed to send a "Today Tonight" crew to remove Wa-Wa from the area. Before being able to gain access to them, the crew were deported by Indonesian authorities at the Papuan capital of Jayapura over visa issues.


title: Korowai people

text: The 2007 BBC documentary "First Contact", presented by Mark Anstice, features footage from his 1999 encounter with members of the Korowai people, and describes how they were disturbed upon seeing a "white ghost", whose presence indicated the end of the world was nigh.


title: Korowai people

text: In January–February 2011, the BBC documentary "Human Planet" commissioned the Korowai building of a treehouse 35m high.


title: Korowai people

text: In August 2019, the "Best Ever Food Review Show" channel on YouTube made contact with the Korowai people in which they ate various foods of the culture.


title: Korowai people

text: In the documentary My Year with the Tribe, a film team visits the Korowai area several times over a period of one year. The documentary reveals that an industry has developed around the supposedly traditional lives of many Korowai. Many locals take advantage of the Korowai's reputation for living a particularly original life in order to earn money. It is also reported that houses located at a particular high altitude have been financed by Western film crews.


title: Korowai people

text: The Korowai have been reported to practice ritual cannibalism up to the present day. Anthropologists suspect that cannibalism is no longer practiced by the Korowai clans that have had frequent contact with outsiders. Recent reports suggest that certain clans have been coaxed into encouraging tourism by perpetuating the myth that cannibalism is still an active practice.


title: Korowai people

text: The distinctive high stilt architecture of the Korowai houses, well above flood-water levels, is a form of defensive fortification – to disrupt rival clans from capturing people (especially women and children) for slavery or cannibalism. The height and girth of the common ironwood stilts also serves to protect the house from arson attacks in which huts are set alight and the inhabitants smoked out.


title: Mercedes-Benz M271 engine

text: The Mercedes-Benz M271 engine is a straight-4 automobile piston engine family used in the 2000s (decade).


title: Mercedes-Benz M271 engine

text: All M271 engines are built in Untertürkheim, Germany. The family has a cast aluminium engine block and aluminium DOHC cylinder heads with 4 valves per cylinder and variable valve timing and a coil-on-plug ignition system.


title: Mercedes-Benz M271 engine

text: It uses sequential fuel injection, is supercharged and intercooled, and features fracture-split forged steel connecting rods.


title: Mercedes-Benz M271 engine

text: This engine had the same dimensions as E18ML and almost the same features, but used CGI (Stratified Charged Gasoline Injection) gasoline direct injection. It has been produced since 2003 in only one version, with an output of at 5300 rpm. The production ceased in 2005.


title: Mercedes-Benz M271 engine

text: The KE16 is a version introduced in 2008. Bore and stroke is . It shares the same features with the KE18ML version, like supercharger and multi-point fuel injection. Output ranges from at 5000 rpm to at 5200 rpm.


title: Mercedes-Benz M271 engine

text: This is the last version of M271 engine family. Dimensions are the same as E18ML and DE18ML, but the supercharger has been replaced with a turbocharger; like the DE18ML it uses the CGI (Stratified Charged Gasoline Injection) gasoline direct injection. Output ranges from at 5200 rpm to at 5500 rpm.


title: Mercedes-Benz M271 engine

text: The engine in 2.0-litre naturally aspirated form is used by German automotive company HWA Team as the basis for a Mercedes-Benz motor racing engine and has been the engine used widely in Formula 3 motor racing powering championship winning drivers across Europe and further afield.


title: Mercedes-Benz M271 engine

text: 5. Old link above not working##https://www.hwaag.com/en/98-motorsports-c/326-formula-3-engines-of-success.html#:~:text=History%3A%20The%20first%20Mercedes%2DAMG,Formula%203%20Championship%20at%20Hockenheim.


title: Sect

text: A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. Although the term was originally a classification for religious separated groups, it can now refer to any organization that breaks away from a larger one to follow a different set of rules and principles. Sects are usually created due to perception of heresy by the subgroup and/or the larger group.


title: Sect

text: The word "sect" comes from the Latin noun "secta" (a feminine form of a variant past participle of the verb "", to follow) meaning "a way, road". Figuratively, sect refers to a (prescribed) way, mode, or manner. Metonymously, sect refers to a discipline or school of thought as defined by a set of methods and doctrines. The many disparate usages of the word "sect" in modern times is largely due to confusion with the homonymous (but etymologically unrelated) Latin word "secta" (the feminine form of the past participle of the verb "", to cut).


title: Sect

text: There are several different sociological definitions and descriptions for the term. Among the first to define them were Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch (1912). In the church-sect typology, sects are defined as voluntary associations of religiously qualified persons: membership is not ascribed at birth but results from the free acceptance of the sect's doctrine and discipline by the follower, and from the continuous acceptance of the follower by the sect. Sects tend to draw disproportionately from the underprivileged elements of society, and are usually created by schisms within churches, which are aligned with the dominant social structure. They are often decrying liberal trends in denominational development and advocating a return to true religion; their beliefs and practices tend to be more radical and ethically stern than those of churches, and constitute an act of protest against the values of the rest of society. The American sociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge assert that "sects claim to be authentic purged, refurbished version of the faith from which they split". They further assert that sects have, in contrast to churches, a high degree of tension with the surrounding society. Other sociologists of religion such as Fred Kniss have asserted that sectarianism is best described with regard to what a sect is in tension with. Some religious groups exist in tension only with co-religious groups of different ethnicities, or exist in tension with the whole of society rather than the church which the sect originated from.


title: Sect

text: Sectarianism is sometimes defined in the sociology of religion as a worldview that emphasizes the unique legitimacy of believers' creed and practices and that heightens tension with the larger society by engaging in boundary-maintaining practices.


title: Sect

text: In his book "The Road to Total Freedom", the English sociologist Roy Wallis argues that a sect is characterized by "epistemological authoritarianism": sects possess some authoritative locus for the legitimate attribution of heresy. According to Wallis, "sects lay a claim to possess unique and privileged access to the truth or salvation" and "their committed adherents typically regard all those outside the confines of the collectivity as 'in error'". He contrasts this with a cult that he described as characterized by "epistemological individualism" by which he means that "the cult has no clear locus of final authority beyond the individual member."


title: Sect

text: The corresponding words for "sect" in European languages other than English – "Sekte" (German), "secte" (French), "secta" (Spanish, Catalan), "sectă" (Romanian), "setta" (Italian), "seita" (Portuguese, Galician), "sekta" (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Slovenian, Latvian, Lithuanian), "sekt" (Danish, Estonian, Norwegian, Swedish), "sekte" (Dutch), "szekta" (Hungarian), "секта" (Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian), σέχτα (Greek) – refer to a harmful religious sect and translate into English as "cult". In France, since the 1970s, "secte" has a specific meaning which is very different from the English word.


title: Sect

text: The "Macmillan Encyclopedia of Religion" distinguishes three types of classification of Buddhism, separated into "Movements", "Nikāyas" and "Doctrinal schools":


title: Sect

text: While the historical usage of the term "sect" in Christendom has had pejorative connotations, referring to a group or movement with heretical beliefs or practices that deviate from those of groups considered orthodox, its primary meaning is to indicate a community which has separated itself from the larger body from which its members came.


title: Sect

text: There are many groups outside the Roman Catholic Church which regard themselves as Catholic, such as the Community of the Lady of All Nations, the Palmarian Catholic Church, the Philippine Independent Church, the Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church, the Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God, Most Holy Family Monastery, and others.


title: Sect

text: The Indologist Axel Michaels writes in his book about Hinduism that in an Indian context the word "sect does not denote a split or excluded community, but rather an organized tradition, usually established by founder with ascetic practices." According to Michaels, "Indian sects do not focus on heresy, since the lack of a center or a compulsory center makes this impossible – instead, the focus is on adherents and followers."


title: Sect

text: Islam was classically divided into two major sects, known as Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. Kharijite and Murijite Islam were two early Islamic sects. Each sect developed several distinct jurisprudence systems reflecting their own understanding of the Islamic law during the course of the history of Islam.


title: Sect

text: Sunnis are separated into five "maddhabs"; Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and Ẓāhirī. The Shia, on the other hand, first developed Kaysanism, which in turn divided into three major groupings known as Fivers, Seveners and Twelvers. The Zaydis separated first. The non-Zaydis were initially called "Rafida". The Rafidis later divided into two sub-groups known as Imamiyyah and Batiniyyah.


title: Sect

text: An Islamic convention held in Jordan in July 2005, which brought 200 Muslim scholars from over 50 countries together, announced the official recognition of eight schools of Islamic jurisprudence and the varying schools of Islamic theology. The eight recognized Islamic schools and branches are:


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Johann Gottfried von Herder ( , ; 25 August 174418 December 1803) was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the Enlightenment, "Sturm und Drang", and Weimar Classicism.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Born in Mohrungen (now Morąg, Poland) in the Kingdom of Prussia, Herder grew up in a poor household, educating himself from his father's Bible and songbook. In 1762, as a youth of 17, he enrolled at the University of Königsberg, about 60 miles (100 km) north of Mohrungen, where he became a student of Immanuel Kant. At the same time, Herder became an intellectual protégé of Johann Georg Hamann, a Königsberg philosopher who disputed the claims of pure secular reason.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Hamann's influence led Herder to confess to his wife later in life that "I have too little reason and too much idiosyncrasy", yet Herder can justly claim to have founded a new school of German political thought. Although himself an unsociable person, Herder influenced his contemporaries greatly. One friend wrote to him in 1785, hailing his works as "inspired by God." A varied field of theorists were later to find inspiration in Herder's tantalizingly incomplete ideas.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: In 1764, now a clergyman, Herder went to Riga to teach. It was during this period that he produced his first major works, which were literary criticism. In 1769 Herder traveled by ship to the French port of Nantes and continued on to Paris. This resulted in both an account of his travels as well as a shift of his own self-conception as an author. By 1770 Herder went to Strasbourg, where he met the young Goethe. This event proved to be a key juncture in the history of German literature, as Goethe was inspired by Herder's literary criticism to develop his own style. This can be seen as the beginning of the "Sturm und Drang" movement. In 1771 Herder took a position as head pastor and court preacher at Bückeburg under William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: By the mid-1770s, Goethe was a well-known author, and used his influence at the court of Weimar to secure Herder a position as General Superintendent. Herder moved there in 1776, where his outlook shifted again towards classicism.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: On May 2, 1773 Herder married Maria Karoline Flachsland (1750–1809) in Darmstadt. His son Gottfried (1774–1806) was born in Bückeburg. His second son August (1776–1838) was also born in Bückeburg. His third son Wilhelm Ludwig Ernst was born 1778. His fourth son Karl Emil Adelbert (1779–1857) was born in Weimar. In 1781 his daughter Luise (1781–1860) was born, also in Weimar. His fifth son Emil Ernst Gottfried (1783–1855). In 1790 his sixth son Rinaldo Gottfried was born.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Towards the end of his career, Herder endorsed the French Revolution, which earned him the enmity of many of his colleagues. At the same time, he and Goethe experienced a personal split. His unpopular attacks on Kantian philosophy were another reason for his isolation in later years.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: In 1802 Herder was ennobled by the Elector-Prince of Bavaria, which added the prefix "von" to his last name. He died in Weimar in 1803 at age 59.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: In 1772 Herder published "Treatise on the Origin of Language" and went further in this promotion of language than his earlier injunction to "spew out the ugly slime of the Seine. Speak German, O You German". Herder now had established the foundations of comparative philology within the new currents of political outlook.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Throughout this period, he continued to elaborate his own unique theory of aesthetics in works such as the above, while Goethe produced works like "The Sorrows of Young Werther"the Sturm und Drang movement was born.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder wrote an important essay on Shakespeare and "Auszug aus einem Briefwechsel über Ossian und die Lieder alter Völker" (Extract from a correspondence about Ossian and the Songs of Ancient Peoples) published in 1773 in a manifesto along with contributions by Goethe and Justus Möser. Herder wrote that "A poet is the creator of the nation around him, he gives them a world to see and has their souls in his hand to lead them to that world." To him such poetry had its greatest purity and power in nations before they became civilised, as shown in the Old Testament, the Edda, and Homer, and he tried to find such virtues in ancient German folk songs and Norse poetry and mythology. Herder - most pronouncedly after Georg Forster's 1791 translation of the Sanskrit play "Shakuntala -" was influenced by the religious imagery of Hinduism and Indian literature, which he saw in a positive light, writing several essays on the topic and the preface to the 1803 edition of "Shakuntala".


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: After becoming General Superintendent in 1776, Herder's philosophy shifted again towards classicism, and he produced works such as his unfinished "Outline of a Philosophical History of Humanity" which largely originated the school of historical thought. Herder's philosophy was of a deeply subjective turn, stressing influence by physical and historical circumstance upon human development, stressing that "one must go into the age, into the region, into the whole history, and feel one's way into everything". The historian should be the "regenerated contemporary" of the past, and history a science as "instrument of the most genuine patriotic spirit".


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder gave Germans new pride in their origins, modifying that dominance of regard allotted to Greek art ("Greek revival") extolled among others by Johann Joachim Winckelmann and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. He remarked that he would have wished to be born in the Middle Ages and mused whether "the times of the Swabian emperors" did not "deserve to be set forth in their true light in accordance with the German mode of thought?". Herder equated the German with the Gothic and favoured Dürer and everything Gothic. As with the sphere of art, equally he proclaimed a national message within the sphere of language. He topped the line of German authors emanating from Martin Opitz, who had written his "Aristarchus, sive de contemptu linguae Teutonicae" in latin in 1617, urging Germans to glory in their hitherto despised language. Herder's extensive collections of folk-poetry began a great craze in Germany for that neglected topic.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder was one of the first to argue that language contributes to shaping the frameworks and the patterns with which each linguistic community thinks and feels. For Herder, language is "the organ of thought." This has often been misinterpreted, however. Neither Herder nor the great philosopher of language, Wilhelm von Humboldt, argue that language (written or oral) determines thought. Rather, language was the appropriation of the outer world within the human mind by means of distinguishing marks ("merkmale"). In positing his arguments, Herder reformulated an example from works by Moses Mendelssohn and Thomas Abbt. In his conjectural narrative of human origins, Herder argued that, although language did not determine thought, the first humans perceived sheep and their bleating, or subjects and corresponding "merkmale", as one and the same. That is, for these conjectured ancestors, the sheep were the bleating, and vice-versa. Hence, prelinguistic thought did not figure largely in Herderian conjectural narratives. Herder even moved beyond his narrative of human origins to contend that if active reflection ("besonnenheit") and language persisted in human consciousness, then human impulses to signify were immanent in the pasts, presents, and futures of humanity. Avi Lifschitz subsequently reframed Herder's "the organ of thought" quotation: "Herder's equation of word and idea, of language and cognition, prompted a further attack on any attribution of the first words to the imitation of natural sounds, to the physiology of the vocal organs, or to social convention...[Herder argued] for the linguistic character of our cognition but also for the cognitive nature of human language. One could not think without language, as various Enlightenment thinkers argued, but at the same time one could not properly speak without perceiving the world in a uniquely human way...man would not be himself without language and active reflection, while language deserved its name only as a cognitive aspect of the entire human being." In response to criticism of these contentions, Herder resisted descriptions of his findings as "conjectural" pasts, casting his arguments for a dearth of cognition in humans and "the problem of the origin of language as a synchronic issue rather than a diachronic one."


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: And in this sense, when Humboldt argues that all thinking is thinking in language, he is perpetuating the Herderian tradition. Herder additionally advanced select notions of myriad "authentic" conceptions of "Völk" and the unity of the individual and natural law, which became fodder for his self-proclaimed twentieth-century disciples. Herderian ideas continue to influence thinkers, linguists and anthropologists, and they have often been considered central to the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis and Franz Boas' coalescence of comparative linguistics and historical particularism with a neo-Kantian/Herderian four-field approach to the study of all cultures, as well as, more recently, anthropological studies by Dell Hymes. Herder's focus upon language and cultural traditions as the ties that create a "nation" extended to include folklore, dance, music and art, and inspired Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in their collection of German folk tales. Arguably, the greatest inheritor of Herder's linguistic philosophy was Wilhelm von Humboldt. Humboldt's great contribution lay in developing Herder's idea that language is "the organ of thought" into his own belief that languages were specific worldviews ("Weltansichten"), as Jürgen Trabant argues in the Wilhelm von Humboldt lectures on the Rouen Ethnolinguistics Project website.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder attached exceptional importance to the concept of nationality and of patriotism"he that has lost his patriotic spirit has lost himself and the whole worlds about himself", whilst teaching that "in a certain sense every human perfection is national". Herder carried folk theory to an extreme by maintaining that "there is only one class in the state, the "Volk", (not the rabble), and the king belongs to this class as well as the peasant". Explanation that the "Volk" was not the rabble was a novel conception in this era, and with Herder can be seen the emergence of "the people" as the basis for the emergence of a classless but hierarchical national body.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: The nation, however, was individual and separate, distinguished, to Herder, by climate, education, foreign intercourse, tradition and heredity. Providence he praised for having "wonderfully separated nationalities not only by woods and mountains, seas and deserts, rivers and climates, but more particularly by languages, inclinations and characters". Herder praised the tribal outlook writing that "the savage who loves himself, his wife and child with quiet joy and glows with limited activity of his tribe as for his own life is in my opinion a more real being than that cultivated shadow who is enraptured with the shadow of the whole species", isolated since "each nationality contains its centre of happiness within itself, as a bullet the centre of gravity". With no need for comparison since "every nation bears in itself the standard of its perfection, totally independent of all comparison with that of others" for "do not nationalities differ in everything, in poetry, in appearance, in tastes, in usages, customs and languages? Must not religion which partakes of these also differ among the nationalities?"


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Following a trip to Ukraine, Herder wrote a prediction in his diary ("Journal meiner Reise im Jahre 1769") that Slavic nations would one day be the real power in Europe, as the western Europeans would reject Christianity and rot away, while the eastern European nations would stick to their religion and their idealism, and would this way become the power in Europe. More specifically, he praised Ukraine's "beautiful skies, blithe temperament, musical talent, bountiful soil, etc. [...] someday will awaken there a cultured nation whose influence will spread [...] throughout the world." One of his related predictions was that the Hungarian nation would disappear and become assimilated by surrounding Slavic peoples; this prophecy caused considerable uproar in Hungary and is widely cited to this day.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: This question was further developed by Herder's lament that Martin Luther did not establish a national church, and his doubt whether Germany did not buy Christianity at too high a price, that of true nationality. Herder's patriotism bordered at times upon national pantheism, demanding of territorial unity as "He is deserving of glory and gratitude who seeks to promote the unity of the territories of Germany through writings, manufacture, and institutions" and sounding an even deeper call:


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: In his "Ideas upon Philosophy and the History of Mankind" he wrote: "Compare England with Germany: the English are Germans, and even in the latest times the Germans have led the way for the English in the greatest things."


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder, who hated absolutism and Prussian nationalism, but who was imbued with the spirit of the whole German "Volk", yet as a historical theorist turned away from the ideas of the eighteenth century. Seeking to reconcile his thought with this earlier age, Herder sought to harmonize his conception of sentiment with reasoning, whereby all knowledge is implicit in the soul; the most elementary stage is the sensuous and intuitive perception which by development can become self-conscious and rational. To Herder, this development is the harmonizing of primitive and derivative truth, of experience and intelligence, feeling and reasoning.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder is the first in a long line of Germans preoccupied with this harmony. This search is itself the key to the understanding of many German theories of the time; however Herder understood and feared the extremes to which his folk-theory could tend, and so issued specific warnings. He argued that Jews in Germany should enjoy the full rights and obligations of Germans, and that the non-Jews of the world owed a debt to Jews for centuries of abuse, and that this debt could be discharged only by actively assisting those Jews who wished to do so to regain political sovereignty in their ancient homeland of Israel. Herder refused to adhere to a rigid racial theory, writing that "notwithstanding the varieties of the human form, there is but one and the same species of man throughout the whole earth".


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: He also announced that "national glory is a deceiving seducer. When it reaches a certain height, it clasps the head with an iron band. The enclosed sees nothing in the mist but his own picture; he is susceptible to no foreign impressions."


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: The passage of time was to demonstrate that while many Germans were to find influence in Herder's convictions and influence, fewer were to note his qualifying stipulations.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder had emphasised that his conception of the nation encouraged democracy and the free self-expression of a people's identity. He proclaimed support for the French Revolution, a position which did not endear him to royalty. He also differed with Kant's philosophy for not placing reasoning within the context of language. Herder did not think that reason itself could be criticized, as it did not exist except as the process of reasoning. This process was dependent on language. He also turned away from the Sturm und Drang movement to go back to the poems of Shakespeare and Homer.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: To promote his concept of the "Volk", he published letters and collected folk songs. These latter were published in 1773 as "Voices of the Peoples in Their Songs" ("Stimmen der Völker in ihren Liedern"). The poets Achim von Arnim and Clemens von Brentano later used "Stimmen der Völker" as samples for "The Boy's Magic Horn" ("Des Knaben Wunderhorn").


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder also fostered the ideal of a person's individuality. Although he had from an early period championed the individuality of cultures – for example, in his "This Too a Philosophy of History for the Formation of Humanity" (1774), he also championed the individuality of "persons" within a culture; for example, in his "On Thomas Abbt's Writings" (1768) and "On the Cognition and Sensation of the Human Soul" (1778).


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: individual in the realm of minds: it senses in accordance with an individual formation, and thinks in accordance with the strength of its mental organs. ... My long allegory has succeeded if it achieves the representation of the mind of a human being as an individual phenomenon, as a rarity which deserves to occupy our eyes."


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: Herder has been described as a proto-evolutionary thinker by some science historians, although this has been disputed by others. Concerning the history of life on earth, Herder proposed naturalistic and metaphysical (religious) ideas that are difficult to distinguish and interpret. He was known for proposing a great chain of being.


title: Johann Gottfried Herder

text: In his book "From the Greeks to Darwin", Henry Fairfield Osborn wrote that "in a general way he upholds the doctrine of the transformation of the lower and higher forms of life, of a continuous transformation from lower to higher types, and of the law of Perfectibility." However, biographer Wulf Köpke disagreed, noting that "biological evolution from animals to the human species was outside of his thinking, which was still influenced by the idea of divine creation."


title: Peranbu

text: Peranbu (; released internationally as Resurrection), is a 2018 Indian Tamil-language film written and directed by Ram and produced by P. L. Thenappan under Shree Rajalakshmi Films. It stars Mammootty, and Anjali. The film's score and soundtrack album is composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja, with cinematography and editing handled by Theni Eswar and Surya Pradhaman respectively. It follows the story of a confused father, who is dejected after his wife abandons him and their child, who has cerebral palsy, struggles to take care of his daughter while society constantly rejects him.


title: Peranbu

text: Director Ram worked on the script for almost six years, and narrated to Mammooty in February 2015, although production being further delayed, after the team decided to finalise the cast and crew. The principal photography of the film commenced in January 2016, with filming took place on Kodaikanal and Chennai, completed within a year. The film was internationally premiered at the International Film Festival Rotterdam on 27 January 2018, Shanghai International Film Festival, China on 17 June 2018, the Indian Panorama category of 49th International Film Festival of India, before being scheduled for a theatrical release on 1 February 2019.


title: Peranbu

text: The film received critical acclaim with Mammootty's performance and other cast members, the direction, screenplay and narration being praised by critics. The film won the Best Film award at the Zee Cine Awards Tamil, while it received ten nominations at the Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards, receiving two wins with one for Best Film and the another one for Best Music Director for Yuvan Shankar Raja. The movie was listed at the Top rated Indian movies of 2019, by the Internet Movie Database (IMDB).


title: Peranbu

text: Amudhavan works in Dubai while his wife Stella lives in India with their 14-year-old daughter Pappa who has a muscular health condition making her dependent to carry out daily functions. One day, Stella writes to Amudhavan asking him to take care of their daughter and leaves her family and runs away leading to Amu moving back home after 10 years to raise Pappa as a single father.


title: Peranbu

text: Amu finds it difficult to connect with Pappa having lived abroad for so long. They are shunned by their neighbours because of Pappa's health condition. They move in to his brother's house to live with his family and Amu's mother but his sister-in-law, irrationally fearing her own child will catch Pappa's "illness" asks them to move out. Amu returns home with Pappa where he continuously fights with some locals trying to force him to sell the house and leave the neighbourhood. Pappa and Amu slowly start bonding. One night when Pappa begins menstruation, Amu helps a panicked Pappa relax and seeks help from a woman named Vijaylakshmi. Vijaylakshmi (Viji) offers her help in return for basic needs and starts living with Amu and Pappa. Gradually, Viji and Amu become closer and marry. However, Viji's motives are revealed when she tries to kill Pappa by pushing her into a well only to be stopped by Amu. Amu discovers Viji is already married and was pretending to help them to gain ownership of his house. A dejected Amu leaves the house to Viji and moves away. Having received no money, he is forced to leave Pappa at home while he goes to work.


title: Peranbu

text: Pappa falls sick and the doctor diagnoses her with a fungal infection. She also refers Amu to Dr. Dhanapal who advises him to let Pappa stay at a special home for others with her health condition. Amu agrees with a heavy heart. On his way home he meets a trans-woman named Meera and they develop a bond. Meera helps him find a house. A few days later, while visiting Pappa, Amu discovers that Pappa was beaten by some workers at the home. He brings her back and seeks Dr. Dhanapal to understand more about Pappa's condition and her needs.


title: Peranbu

text: Feeling helpless, Amu decides to end his and Pappa's lives and the two walk into the sea at night but are saved by Meera. The last chapter of Amuvadhan's story is about great love as he reveals that Meera taught him about love and the two are married. Pappa stays happily with her loving father and step-mother, Meera.


title: Peranbu

text: Director Ram worked on his new script, post the release of his second directorial venture "Thanga Meenkal" (2013), and approached Mammootty in February 2015, for this flick, as Ram developed the story with the actor in mind six years before he narrated it to the actor. While his regular technicians, composer Yuvan Shankar Raja and cinematographer Theni Eswar, were confirmed to be a part of the project, no one has been finalised for the cast and crew. However, Sadhana who appeared as the child artiste in his previous flick was "Thanga Meenkal", was announced to be a part of the film's cast in July 2015.


title: Peranbu

text: In January 2016, P. L. Thenappan was signed on to produce the film under his banner Shree Raajalakshmi Films, and Anjali who earlier worked in the director's "Taramani" (2017) was cast for the female lead. Ram announced the title "Peranbu" in January 2016 beginning through a first look poster. Before filming, Ram stated that the film's theme is "compassion" and Mammootty plays a family man who "rediscovers himself," while Sadhana plays his daughter, and Anjali the wife. The producer of the film, Thenappan, revealed that Mammootty did not charge any remuneration for this film.


title: Peranbu

text: Principal photography commenced on 6 January 2016 in Kodaikanal and was planned to be shot in two schedules, with the next being in Chennai. Scenes featuring Mammootty and Sadhana were shot during the month end. In March 2016, Anjali Ameer, a transsexual model from Kerala, made her feature film debut, by casting another female lead role in the film. Anjali was selected with an audition, after Mammootty noticed a television report about her and suggested her name to Ram. The second schooting schedule was held in July 2016 in and around Chennai, and completed within September. After Mammooty's suggestion, the team planned to film a subsequent Malayalam version in December 2016, with Siddique and Suraj Venjaramoodu joining the new version. While the film's principal photography completed in January 2017, the makers kickstarted the film's dubbing and other post-production works, which were wrapped up in September 2017.


title: Peranbu

text: The soundtrack album and film score are composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja, who previously worked with Ram in "Kattradhu Thamizh" (2007) and "Thanga Meenkal" (2013). Yuvan started working on the film's songs and background score during the film's post-production activities and were completed within September 2017. The album features four tracks with lyrics written by Vairamuthu, Sumathy Ram and Karunakaran. The audio was launched on 15 July 2018 at the Kalaivanar Arangam in Chennai, which saw the presence of the film's cast and crew amongst other celebrities. The official tracklist released hours before the launch.


title: Peranbu

text: The soundtrack album received positive response from critics. Behindwoods rated the album 3.25 out of 5 and stated "Another Musical experience from Ram and Yuvan Shankar Raja's magical combo." Music Aloud gave the album a rating of 4 out of 5 and summarised "Yuvan Shankar Raja delivers another brilliant soundtrack for director Ram, easily the composer’s best in a long time." Milliblog reviewed it as "Director Ram and Yuvan Shankar Raja reach their Katradhu Tamizh high once again!" Moviecrow gave the album 4 out of 5 and stated "Peranbu, the rain of compassion adds stubbornness to the statement that it is silly to say 'Yuvan's come-back' as he has never gone anywhere else. Also it reminds us of the sin we are doing to the abundantly blessed artists like Vairamuthu or Yuvan most of the times with films that hold no content to feed their thrive to excel."


title: Peranbu

text: The film was showcased at the 47th International Film Festival Rotterdam, held at Netherlands on 27 January 2018, and was later screened at the 21st Shanghai International Film Festival, held at China on 17 June 2018. While Ram slated that the movie will be released on May or June 2018, the film's release was further delayed. The first look promo of the film was released on 9 July 2018, and the teaser was released at the film's audio launch event on 15 July, which received praise from film critics. The producers also planned to release the film in China. The film was shortlisted as one among the four Tamil films to be screened at the 49th International Film Festival of India, under the Indian Panorama category. The film's official trailer was launched on 5 January 2019. On 14 January 2019, the makers announced that the film will be released worldwide on 1 February 2019, thus clashing with other two films "Vantha Rajavathaan Varuven" and "Sarvam Thaala Mayam". The theatrical rights of the Tamil version were sold to Udhayanidhi Stalin's Red Giant Movies. Post theatrical release, the movie was also premiered at the Korean Indian Film Festival, held at South Korea on 13 October 2019, and at the 11th New Generations Independent Indian Film Festival, held on 2 November 2019, at Frankfurt, Germany.


title: Peranbu

text: The film opened to positive responses from critics. Karthik Kumar of "Hindustan Times" rated the film 4.5 out of 5 and stated "Peranbu is narrated in chapters and each one helps us understand the father-daughter relationship better. If you walk in, hoping to be bowled over by a beautiful story of bonding between a father and his daughter, Peranbu isn’t the film you’re looking for. The film takes a deep dive into the psyche of a helpless father who has just taken custody of his teenage daughter who has cerebral palsy, and how both of them come to terms with life and accept each other. This is both a coming-of-age drama and a hard-hitting tale of survival in a world where everyone’s quick to judge." Sowmya Rajendran of "The News Minute" rated the film 4 out of 5 and wrote that ""Peranbu" is a depressing film about a loner finding himself unlikely companions in his journey. It's about people, who society has rejected, coming together to find their own space, and live with dignity. And in that sense, it can also be an uplifting film. Much like nature, cruel and embracing all at once." Gautaman Bhaskaran rated the film 4 out of 5 in his review for "News 18" and described the film "Peranbu" could have been far more powerful if it had been shorter and tighter. The narrative tends to weigh down on you after the first half ends. But it will bound to stay with you for a long time." In his review for Film Companion, Baradwaj Rangan rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and reviewed "Ram appears to have expended all his angst on his globalisation trilogy (Kattradhu Thamizh, Thanga Meengal, Taramani). In Peranbu, he’s almost meditative. In terms of tone, it’s the closest he’s gotten to his guru, Balu Mahendra." Padmakumar K. of "Malayala Manorama" described the film as "a cinematic wonder that graces all aesthetics." Rating the film 4 out of 5, Haricharan Pudippedi from "Firstpost" called the film "Walking out of Peranbu leaves you with a feeling that is too hard to digest, yet gut-wrenchingly beautiful."


title: Peranbu

text: Writing for "The Times of India", M. Suganth gave 4 out of 5 stars to the film, and stated "Peranbu is filled with poignant moments and superb performances." Behindwoods gave 3.5 out of 5 and stated "Through a film as strong as Peranbu, Ram tells us that the differently abled community don't need our sympathy to survive. He wants us to realize that they are as normal as anyone. They have their own needs that can be achieved through love and affection between humans. Even if Peranbu does not satisfy you, it will change you as a human, will remind how gifted our lives are, which makes this a film that has to be received with Peranbu." "The Indian Express" gave 4 out of 5 stars and stated "The film has a lot of heart in this delicately textured moving drama." S. Srivatsan of "The Hindu" reviewed it as Peranbu holds nothing back and handles its subject matter with due nuance." India Today gave 4 out of 5 stars and stated "Director Ram, who is known for churning out bold societal films, has nailed it once again. With Peranbu, he deals with several issues that are considered taboo in the society and the film is path-breaking." Indiaglitz gave 4 out of 5 and stated "Go for this absolute gem and celebrate an ecstatic chapter in Tamil cinema that will find its place among the best in world cinema." Writing for Sify, Kaushik LM gave 3.5 out of 5 and stated "Peranbu is one of the boldest, gutsiest and most hard-hitting films in Tamil cinema history." Anupama Subramanian of Deccan Chronicle gave 4.5 out of 5 and stated "Through Peranbu, Ram drives home a point that the differently abled do not need our sympathy but are instead treated as normal persons, showering plenty of love. Your eyes will well up due to happiness when you come out of the cinema halls as Peranbu (Abundant Love) will make you a better human being, as you would feel gifted to possess a body without frailties."


title: Cameron Bright

text: Cameron Bright (born Cameron Douglas Crigger; January 26, 1993) is a Canadian actor. He has appeared in the films "The Butterfly Effect", "Godsend", "Birth", "Running Scared", "Ultraviolet", "", "Thank You for Smoking" and three installments of "The Twilight Saga".


title: Cameron Bright

text: Bright was born in Victoria, British Columbia the son of Anne Bright and Jake Crigger. He was given his middle name "Douglas" after his maternal grandfather. His first acting job was in a commercial for Telus, which was soon followed by a guest appearance on the television series, "Higher Ground". He subsequently appeared in several minor roles in made-for-television films, and was credited as "Cameron Crigger" for his roles (from the 2000 television movie, "The Christmas Secret", to an episode of "Night Visions").


title: Cameron Bright

text: After a supporting part in "The Butterfly Effect", Bright's first major role was in "Godsend", a horror film co-starring Robert De Niro; the film was released in April 2004 to mixed reviews. In his next film, "Birth", he played a ten-year-old boy who claims to be the reincarnation of a woman's (Nicole Kidman) deceased husband. Two scenes within the movie sparked controversy and drew media attention to Bright. In one scene, Bright and Kidman's characters kiss; in the other, the two share a bathtub. The actors wore pale beige-coloured swimsuits in the bath scenes and were never naked or filmed together in the same room at the same time of the bathtub scene, although this was not public knowledge at first.


title: Cameron Bright

text: Bright was cast in several Hollywood films released in 2006, including "Thank You for Smoking", "Ultraviolet", and the action-thriller named "Running Scared".


title: Cameron Bright

text: He starred in "", where he played the mutant Leech, who has the mutant antibody. He also appeared on an episode of "The 4400" (episode: "The Wrath Of Graham") as a high school student named Graham Holt who develops an ability after injecting himself with Promicin. He has also played a host carrier for a cure for humanity in more than one movie.


title: Cameron Bright

text: Bright plays the Volturi vampire Alec, twin brother to Jane who is played by Dakota Fanning, in the Twilight films "New Moon" (2009), "Eclipse" (2010), and "" (2012).


title: Pell James

text: James was born in Virginia. In the early 2000s, she appeared in an episode of "Law & Order" and an episode of "". In 2005, she portrayed Brier in "Undiscovered". She also appeared in the film "Broken Flowers" and earned her first starring role in the film "The King". In 2007, she played Zodiac Killer victim Cecelia Shepard in "Zodiac".


title: Pell James

text: In 2006, James married banker, entertainment executive, and vice-chairman of Lionsgate Michael R. Burns in a Roman Catholic ceremony officiated by Rev. William G. Murphy at the Chateau Marmont.


title: Old Tjikko

text: Old Tjikko is a 9,550 year-old Norway spruce, located on Fulufjället Mountain of Dalarna province in Sweden. Old Tjikko originally gained fame as the "world's oldest tree." Old Tjikko is, however, a clonal tree that has regenerated new trunks, branches and roots over millennia rather than an individual tree of great age. Old Tjikko is recognized as the oldest living "Picea abies" and the fourth oldest known clonal tree.


title: Old Tjikko

text: The age of the tree was determined by carbon dating of genetically matched plant material collected from under the tree, as dendrochronology does not work for clonal trees. The trunk itself is estimated to be only a few hundred years old, but the plant has survived for much longer due to a process known as layering (when a branch comes in contact with the ground, it sprouts a new root), or vegetative cloning (when the trunk dies but the root system is still alive, it may sprout a new trunk).


title: Old Tjikko

text: The root system of Old Tjikko is estimated to be years old, making it the world's oldest known Norway spruce. It stands tall and is located on Fulufjället Mountain of Dalarna province in Sweden. For thousands of years, the tree appeared in a stunted shrub formation (also known as a krummholz formation) due to the harsh extremes of the environment in which it lives. During the warming of the 20th century, the tree sprouted into a normal tree formation. The husband and wife who discovered the tree, Leif Kullman (Professor of Physical Geography at Umeå University), and Lisa Öberg (Tree scientist with a doctorate in biology and ecology from Mid Sweden University) attributed this growth spurt to global warming and gave the tree its nickname "Old Tjikko" after their late dog.