title: Animal locomotion

text: Remoras are a family ("Echeneidae") of ray-finned fish. They grow to long, and their distinctive first dorsal fins take the form of a modified oval, sucker-like organ with slat-like structures that open and close to create suction and take a firm hold against the skin of larger marine animals. By sliding backward, the remora can increase the suction, or it can release itself by swimming forward. Remoras sometimes attach to small boats. They swim well on their own, with a sinuous, or curved, motion. When the remora reaches about , the disc is fully formed and the remora can then attach to other animals. The remora's lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and the animal lacks a swim bladder. Some remoras associate primarily with specific host species. They are commonly found attached to sharks, manta rays, whales, turtles, and dugongs. Smaller remoras also fasten onto fish such as tuna and swordfish, and some small remoras travel in the mouths or gills of large manta rays, ocean sunfish, swordfish, and sailfish. The remora benefits by using the host as transport and protection, and also feeds on materials dropped by the host.


title: Animal locomotion

text: In some species of anglerfish, when a male finds a female, he bites into her skin, and releases an enzyme that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. The male becomes dependent on the female host for survival by receiving nutrients via their shared circulatory system, and provides sperm to the female in return. After fusing, males increase in volume and become much larger relative to free-living males of the species. They live and remain reproductively functional as long as the female lives, and can take part in multiple spawnings. This extreme sexual dimorphism ensures, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available. Multiple males can be incorporated into a single individual female with up to eight males in some species, though some taxa appear to have a one male per female rule.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Many parasites are transported by their hosts. For example, endoparasites such as tapeworms live in the alimentary tracts of other animals, and depend on the host's ability to move to distribute their eggs. Ectoparasites such as fleas can move around on the body of their host, but are transported much longer distances by the host's locomotion. Some ectoparasites such as lice can opportunistically hitch a ride on a fly (phoresis) and attempt to find a new host.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some animals locomote between different media, e.g., from aquatic to aerial. This often requires different modes of locomotion in the different media and may require a distinct transitional locomotor behaviour.


title: Animal locomotion

text: There are a large number of semi-aquatic animals (animals that spend part of their life cycle in water, or generally have part of their anatomy underwater). These represent the major taxa of mammals (e.g., beaver, otter, polar bear), birds (e.g., penguins, ducks), reptiles (e.g., anaconda, bog turtle, marine iguana) and amphibians (e.g., salamanders, frogs, newts).


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some fish use multiple modes of locomotion. Walking fish may swim freely or at other times "walk" along the ocean or river floor, but not on land (e.g., the flying gurnard—which does not actually fly—and batfishes of the family Ogcocephalidae). Amphibious fish, are fish that are able to leave water for extended periods of time. These fish use a range of terrestrial locomotory modes, such as lateral undulation, tripod-like walking (using paired fins and tail), and jumping. Many of these locomotory modes incorporate multiple combinations of pectoral, pelvic and tail fin movement. Examples include eels, mudskippers and the walking catfish. Flying fish can make powerful, self-propelled leaps out of water into air, where their long, wing-like fins enable gliding flight for considerable distances above the water's surface. This uncommon ability is a natural defence mechanism to evade predators. The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 m, though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to . They can travel at speeds of more than . Maximum altitude is above the surface of the sea. Some accounts have them landing on ships' decks.


title: Animal locomotion

text: When swimming, several marine mammals such as dolphins, porpoises and pinnipeds, frequently leap above the water surface whilst maintaining horizontal locomotion. This is done for various reasons. When travelling, jumping can save dolphins and porpoises energy as there is less friction while in the air. This type of travel is known as "porpoising". Other reasons for dolphins and porpoises performing porpoising include orientation, social displays, fighting, non-verbal communication, entertainment and attempting to dislodge parasites. In pinnipeds, two types of porpoising have been identified. "High porpoising" is most often near (within 100 m) the shore and is often followed by minor course changes; this may help seals get their bearings on beaching or rafting sites. "Low porpoising" is typically observed relatively far (more than 100 m) from shore and often aborted in favour of anti-predator movements; this may be a way for seals to maximize sub-surface vigilance and thereby reduce their vulnerability to sharks


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some whales raise their (entire) body vertically out of the water in a behaviour known as "breaching".


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some semi-aquatic birds use terrestrial locomotion, surface swimming, underwater swimming and flying (e.g., ducks, swans). Diving birds also use diving locomotion (e.g., dippers, auks). Some birds (e.g., ratites) have lost the primary locomotion of flight. The largest of these, ostriches, when being pursued by a predator, have been known to reach speeds over , and can maintain a steady speed of , which makes the ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal: Ostriches can also locomote by swimming. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called "tobogganing", which conserves energy while moving quickly. They also jump with both feet together if they want to move more quickly or cross steep or rocky terrain. To get onto land, penguins sometimes propel themselves upwards at a great speed to leap out the water.


title: Animal locomotion

text: An animal's mode of locomotion may change considerably during its life-cycle. Barnacles are exclusively marine and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters. They have two nektonic (active swimming) larval stages, but as adults, they are sessile (non-motile) suspension feeders. Frequently, adults are found attached to moving objects such as whales and ships, and are thereby transported (passive locomotion) around the oceans.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Animals locomote for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a suitable microhabitat, or to escape predators.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Animals use locomotion in a wide variety of ways to procure food. Terrestrial methods include ambush predation, social predation and grazing. Aquatic methods include filterfeeding, grazing, ram feeding, suction feeding, protrusion and pivot feeding. Other methods include parasitism and parasitoidism.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The study of animal locomotion is a branch of biology that investigates and quantifies how animals move. It is an application of kinematics, used to understand how the movements of animal limbs relate to the motion of the whole animal, for instance when walking or flying.


title: Vienna Game

text: The original idea behind the Vienna Game was to play a delayed King's Gambit with f4 (the Vienna Gambit), but in modern play White often plays more (for example, by fianchettoing his king's bishop with g3 and Bg2). Black most often continues with . The opening can also lead to the Frankenstein–Dracula Variation.


title: Vienna Game

text: Weaver W. Adams famously claimed that the Vienna Game led to a forced win for White. Nick de Firmian concludes in the 15th edition of "Modern Chess Openings", however, that the opening leads to with by both sides.


title: Vienna Game

text: White has three main options: 3.f4, 3.Bc4, and 3.g3. Note that 3.Nf3 transposes to the Petrov's Three Knights Game, which after 3...Nc6 leads to the Four Knights Game.


title: Vienna Game

text: At grandmaster level, the gambit move 3.f4 is considered too risky an opening. It is best met by 3...d5, striking back in the center. After 4.fxe5 Nxe4, 5.Qf3 is well met by 5...Nc6, with the point 6.Nxe4 Nd4. 5.d3 is also possible, but the normal continuation is 5.Nf3. White obtains open lines and attacking chances, but Black can usually hold the balance with correct play.


title: Vienna Game

text: However, lines other than 3...d5 give White at least an edge, making this a good choice for aggressive play at lower levels, where opponents are unlikely to know that 3...d5 is best.


title: Vienna Game

text: The gambit should not be accepted, since 3...exf4 4.e5 Qe7 5.Qe2 forces Black's knight to retreat with 5...Ng8, and after 6.Nf3, Black must be careful not to lose on the spot, for example after 6...d6? 7.Nd5!, when the dual ideas of Nxc7 and exd6 will win the game quickly. Retreating immediately with 4...Ng8 is better, but after 5.Nf3 with the idea of d4 followed by Bxf4, White has a nice game.


title: Vienna Game

text: Other lines for Black include 3...d6 4.Nf3 Nc6 5.Bb5 Bd7 6.d3, when the threat of Bxc6 followed by taking on e5 induces 6...exf4 7.Bxf4, leaving White with a pleasant position; and also 3...Nc6? 4.fxe5! Nxe5 5.d4, when both 5...Nc6 and 5...Ng6 are met by 6.e5 with a winning advantage to White. Material is not as important as the attack in this position, so White should not be afraid to sacrifice.


title: Vienna Game

text: The move 3.Bc4 leads to a position which can also be reached from the Bishop's Opening (1.e4 e5 2.Bc4). Black has several choices here; 3...Bc5 can transpose to the King's Gambit Declined after 4.d3 d6 5.f4 Nc6 6.Nf3; after 3...Nc6 4.d3, 4...Na5, 4...Bc5 or 4...d6 are all playable; 3...Bb4 4.f4 Nxe4 5.Qh5 0-0 leads to wild but probably equal play, according to de Firmian in "MCO-15". Also possible is 3...Nxe4, when 4.Nxe4 d5, forking bishop and knight, is fine for Black. The attractive-looking 4.Bxf7+ is weak; after 4...Kxf7 5.Nxe4 d5 (inferior is 5...Nc6 6.Qf3+, when Black cannot play 6...Kg8 because of 7.Ng5! Davids–Diggle, London Banks League 1949, while 6...Ke8 leaves the king awkwardly placed in the center) 6.Qf3+ (6.Qh5+ g6 7.Qxe5 Bh6! wins for Black) Kg8 7.Ng5 (hoping for 7...Qxg5?? 8.Qxd5+ and mate next move, Schottlaender–Ed. Lasker, simultaneous exhibition, Breslau c. 1902) Qd7!, with a large advantage for Black in view of his and pawn center. After 3...Nxe4, White usually continues instead 4.Qh5 (threatening Qxf7#) 4...Nd6 5.Bb3 when Black can either go for the relatively quiet waters of 5...Be7 6.Nf3 Nc6 7.Nxe5 g6 8.Qe2 (or 8.Nxc6 dxc6 9.Qe5 0-0) Nd4 9.Qd3 Nxb3 10.axb3 Nf5 11.0-0 d6, which led to equality in Anand–Ivanchuk, Roquebrune 1992. or the complexities of 5...Nc6 6.Nb5 g6 7.Qf3 f5 8.Qd5 Qe7 9.Nxc7+ Kd8 10.Nxa8 b6, which the Irish correspondence chess player and theorist Tim Harding extravagantly dubbed "the Frankenstein–Dracula Variation".


title: Vienna Game

text: The move 3.g3, the Mieses Variation, is a quiet continuation in which White fianchettoes his king's bishop, a line played by Vasily Smyslov on a few occasions, most notably in a win over Lev Polugaevsky in the 1961 USSR Championship. That game continued 3...d5 4.exd5 Nxd5 5.Bg2 Be6 6.Nf3 Nc6 7.0-0 Be7 8.Re1 Bf6 9.Ne4 0-0 10.d3 Be7 11.a3 Nb6 12.b4, resulting in a position which the "Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings" assesses as slightly better for White. The main line today, however, is considered to be 5...Nxc3 6.bxc3 Bd6 7.Nf3 0-0 8.0-0. A major alternative for Black is 3...Bc5 (3...Nc6 normally transposes into one of the other lines).


title: Vienna Game

text: In addition to these lines, the late American master Ariel Mengarini advocated the whimsical 3.a3, sometimes called Mengarini's Opening. It is not a serious try for advantage, but is essentially a useful waiting move that gives White an improved version of Black's position after 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6. First, the "Reversed Ruy Lopez" with 3...Bb4 is ruled out. Second, after 3...d5, 4.exd5 Nxd5 5.Qh5!? gives White an improved version of the Steinitz Variation of the Scotch Game, since Black can never play ...Nb4, an important idea for White in the mirror-image position. Third, after 3...Bc5, 4.Nf3 gives a reversed Two Knights Defense. Then the typical 4...Ng4 may be met by 5.d4 exd4 6.Na4, when 6...Bb4+, White's usual move in the mirror-image position, is impossible. After 4...Ng4, White may also play improved versions of the Ulvestad Variation (6.b4 in the above line) and Fritz Variation (6.Nd5 c6 7.b4), since when White plays b4 his pawn is protected, unlike in the mirror-image position. If Black plays more quietly with 3...Bc5 4.Nf3 Nc6, then 5.Nxe5! Nxe5 6.d4 gives White some advantage. The best line for Black may be 3...Bc5 4.Nf3 d5 5.exd5 0-0 (better than 5...e4 6.d4, when the normal 6...Bb4 is impossible), and if 6.Nxe5, 6...Re8 7.d4 Bxd4! 8.Qxd4 Nc6, as in the mirror-image line. Also possible is 3...Bc5 4.Nf3 d6, when Black stands well after 5.Bc4 Be6, while 5.d4 cxd4 6.Nxd4 gives White little or no advantage.


title: Vienna Game

text: White again has three main options, 3.Bc4, 3.f4, and 3.g3. Note that 3.Nf3 transposes to the Three Knights Game, which after 3...Nf6 leads to the Four Knights Game.


title: Vienna Game

text: This is a gambit in which white sacrifices a pawn to gain bold control over the center of the board. The Vienna Gambit gains a slow advantage over time.


title: Vienna Game

text: The Hamppe–Muzio Gambit (or Vienna Hamppe–Muzio Gambit) is characterised by the moves: 1.e4 e5 2.Nc3 Nc6 3.f4 exf4 4.Nf3 g5 5.Bc4 g4 6.0-0 gxf3 7.Qxf3 (see diagram).


title: Vienna Game

text: As with its close relative, the sharp Muzio Gambit, White sacrifices the knight on f3 in return for a powerful attack against the black king. It is named after Austrian theoretician Carl Hamppe and classified under "ECO" code C25. The Dubois Variation continues 7...Ne5 8.Qxf4 Qf6.


title: Vienna Game

text: The Steinitz Gambit, 1.e4 e5 2.Nc3 Nc6 3.f4 exf4 4.d4, was a favorite of Wilhelm Steinitz, the first World Champion. White allows Black to misplace White's king with 4...Qh4+ 5.Ke2 (see diagram), hoping to prove that White's pawn center and the exposed position of Black's queen are more significant factors. Unlike Steinitz, who famously opined that, "The King is a fighting piece!", few modern players are willing to expose their king this way. The Steinitz Gambit is thus rarely seen today.


title: Vienna Game

text: Louis Paulsen played 1.e4 e5 2.Nc3 four times with the white pieces – games against Meitner, Rosenthal, Gelbfuhs, and Bird in the Vienna 1873 chess tournament. Three wins with the variation 1.e4 e5 2.Nc3 Nc6 3.g3 named the "Paulsen Variation" of the Vienna Game, and the fourth win after 1.e4 e5 2.Nc3 Bc5 3.Nf3 vs. Henry Bird.


title: Vienna Game

text: Most often, White plays 3.Bc4, when the solid 3...Nf6 transposes to the 2...Nf6 3.Bc4 Nc6 line. Weaker is 3.Bc4 Bc5, when 4.Qg4! is awkward to meet. 4...Kf8 and 4...g6 are thought the best moves, but neither is too appealing for Black. The natural 4...Qf6?? loses to 5.Nd5! Qxf2+ 6.Kd1, when White's king is in no real danger, and White has multiple threats: 7.Qxg7; 7.Nxc7+; and 7.Nh3 Qd4 8.d3 threatening to trap Black's queen with 9.c3.


title: Vienna Game

text: This is an offbeat but alternative, as played (for example) by former world champion José Raúl Capablanca against Ilya Kan at Moscow 1936. Some possible moves are 3.Bc4, 3.Nf3, and 3.f4. With move 3.Bc4, ...Nf6 and ...Nc6 can be found above, or Black can play ...d6.


title: Vienna Game

text: White can continue with 3.Nf3, and if the move 3...Nc6 (transposing to the Three Knights Game) 4.Nxe5! Nxe5 5.d4 Bd6 6.dxe5 Bxe5 7.Bd3 leads to a large advantage for White. Stronger is 3...d6! Then 4.Na4 Nd7 5.d3 Ngf6 6.Be2 0-0 7.0-0 c6 8.Nxc5 Nxc5 9.Ne1 Ne6 10.c3 d5 is about even. The main line runs 4.d4 exd4 5.Nxd4 Nf6 6.Bg5 (6.Be2 d5 7.e5 Ne4 8.0-0 Nxc3 leads to equality) h6 7.Bh4 0-0 8.Nb3 and now de Firmian in "MCO-15" gives 8...Bb4 9.Bd3 Re8 10.0-0 Bxc3 11.bxc3 g5! 12.Bg3 Nxe4, when Black's "chances are at least equal".


title: Vienna Game

text: After 3.f4, ...d6 leads to the King's Gambit Declined. Weak is 3.Qg4 Nf6! 4.Qxg7 Rg8 5.Qh6 Bxf2+ when Black had a large advantage in Tsikhelashvili–Karpov, USSR 1968, since 6.Kxf2?? Ng4+ would win White's queen. Another offbeat possibility is 3.Na4, the Hamppe Variation, when 3...Bxf2+! 4.Kxf2 Qh4+ 5.Ke3 Qf4+ 6.Kd3 d5 leads to wild complications favouring Black, as in the famous Immortal Draw game Hamppe–Meitner, Vienna 1872. The quiet 3...Be7, however, leaves Black with a good game.


title: Deaths in April 2022

text: Entries for each day are listed alphabetically by surname. A typical entry lists information in the following sequence:


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: The Bedlington Terrier is a breed of small dog named after the mining town of Bedlington, Northumberland in North East England. Originally bred to hunt, the Bedlington Terrier has since been used in dog racing, numerous dog sports, as well as in conformation shows and as a companion dog. It is closely related to the Dandie Dinmont Terrier, Whippet and Otterhound.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: It is described as a very versatile yet contradictory dog. They have powerful swimming skills, comparable to those of water dogs such as the Newfoundland, and are noted for being very quick and having high endurance. They love snow, and can achieve a Husky-like turn of speed on ice or in deep powder, using their powerful noses as a plough. Bedlingtons are noted for their similarity in appearance to lambs. The dogs have blue, liver or sandy colouration, all three of which may have tan points. Their fur forms a distinctive top knot on the dog's head. It is nonshedding and with minimal odor but needs weekly grooming to remove dead hair.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: Originally known as the Rothbury or Rodbury Terrier, the name "Bedlington Terrier" was not applied to the breed until 1825, but some dogs have pedigrees that can be traced back as far as 1782. The first dog show with a class for Bedlington Terriers was held in 1870 at Bedlington. Bedlington Terriers shown at early shows were frequently dyed to improve the look of their fur. In 1948, a Bedlington Terrier known as Rock Ridge Night Rocket won best in show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show. The breed has a high incidence of copper toxicosis, but with the exception of eye problems, it is mostly free from health complaints.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: The Bedlington Terrier has been described as resembling a lamb. It has also been compared to a miniature version of the Scottish Deerhound. George Shields stated that exceedingly well-bred dogs possess the spirit of a thoroughbred racehorse.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: The dogs have blue, liver or sandy colouration, all three of which may have tan points. Bedlingtons carry what is known as the greying gene, a dominant trait carried on the G locus. This gene causes puppies born with black or dark brown fur to lighten to grey or liver with age. The fur of the Bedlington creates a shape on the top of the dog's head known as a topknot. Although most modern breed standards call for the dog's topknot to be lighter than its body, when the breed was first being formed there was at least one prominent breeder, Mr. Pickett, who believed that the topknot should be darker, not lighter.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: The dog's coat has been described as shaggy, hard, and rugged in style and it has also been described as linty in texture, giving the breed the nickname of "linty-haired terrier". Its coat is made up of a combination of hard and soft hairs. It is extremely difficult to maintain a "show clip", even for professionals, and grooming can be quite expensive. Dogs in what is referred to as "show clip", or groomed for the show ring, cannot have fur that stands out more than from their body, and the coat must have a "crisp" texture. If grooming is not performed regularly, the coat's condition rapidly deteriorates. For that reason, most Bedlingtons that are kept strictly as pets keep a lower maintenance "pet groom" style. Bedlington Terriers —like Poodles— have been referred to as a nonshedding, hypoallergenic breed. They have minimal dog odor as long as their coat and ears are healthy and their coat is groomed regularly to remove dead hair. Bedlingtons like the groomer and are cooperative under clip.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: The head of the dog must be rounded in shape with no stop. Their eyes are almond-shaped and small, and the lips are close-fitting and lack flews. The back must be arched, and the body should be slightly longer in length than in height. Although is the preferred height for male dogs, a range from is allowed; for females, the preferred height is and the acceptable range is from . Both genders must weigh between . They possess a light, springy gait.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: Bedlingtons are sharp and plucky. Their bark has been called hound-like and has been compared to the firing of a machine gun. A fast dog with high endurance, the Bedlington Terrier is just as quick in water as it is on land, and their swimming speed rivals that of the Newfoundland. Bedlington Terriers "have pace enough to keep up with the ordinary speed of a horse." Because of the Whippet in their lineage, they have a tendency to bolt. Their versatility has been praised, with some dogs willing to "[be] a house-dog, a gun-dog, a rat-dog, a badger-dog, or, if needed, [to] bolt a fox..."


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: They are also known for their intelligence and tenacity when it comes to taking on vermin. Bedlingtons are quite fond of fighting, and are prone to jealousy when around other dogs. One man stated that "this dog was about fit to kill any other dog of his weight" and compared him to the fighting dogs used in dog fighting. They have also been used in dog fighting.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: However, both the AKC and the ASPCA call the breed "mild" and "gentle" and recommends it as being good with children. PetFinder says the breed is soft in temperament, companionable, demonstrative, loyal, and a quiet housedog. Although the breed may chase small animals outside, it is accepting of them inside. Playful and cheerful, the breed can be high-strung and excitable, and is prone to being headstrong. The New Zealand Kennel Club warns against keeping them with dogs that have dominant personalities, "as once challenged they are terrifying fighters, despite their gentle appearance", but otherwise the breed is good with other dogs.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: Some breeders, notably George Newcombe, have argued that the working ability and courage of the Bedlington terrier has declined since it began being bred for show. Poodle may have been introduced into the breed to make the coat easier to groom and maintain. George Newcombe of the Working Bedlington Terrier Club said that "the pure [Bedlington Terrier] could no longer be considered a serious working breed" and proceeded to cross his dogs with Lakeland Terriers in an attempt to bring back the Bedlington's working qualities; the names Lakebed and Bedland have been proposed for the cross.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: Bred in the village of Bedlington in Northumberland, the Bedlington Terrier has been described as "the favourite companion of the northern miners". They were originally known as Rodbury Terriers, Rothbury Terriers, or "Rothbury's Lambs", because the Lord of Rothbury had taken a particular liking to the dogs. Before this, they were known as "gypsy dogs", as the Romani people—called 'Gypsies' in those days—and poachers used them to hunt. The first mention of the Bedlington terrier, or as it was then known, the Rothbury or Rodbury Terrier, was in 1825, most likely in "The Life of James Allen", but some dogs' pedigrees have been traced as far back as 1782. James' father, William, was much in demand as an otter hunter, and he kept Bedlington Terriers in order to help him hunt. They were also valued by their owners as rabbit coursing dogs and racing dogs, until the Whippet became more popular as a racing dog and a courser.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: The Bedlington Terrier name was first given to a dog named Young Piper, which was owned by a man named Joseph Ainsley. Ainsley's Piper has been called "the best of his race" and "had a reputation for great pluck and courage". Piper began working with badgers at eight months old, and carried on hunting other animals generally regarded as vermin until he was blind. Piper is also known for saving a child from a pig, keeping the animal at bay until help arrived. Piper died at fifteen.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: A Bedlington’s plucky nature was also often its downfall. Many a dog was killed or had to be destroyed after hunting badgers. A good hunting dog knew to keep its distance from the badger until the huntsmen arrived. Younger or inexperienced terriers would attack the badger, usually with horrific consequences. Limb amputations or lower jaws ripped off by the more powerful badger were common.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: The first shows that had a class for the Bedlington Terrier were held in 1870 at Bedlington. The following year there was a Bedlington Terrier class at a show held at Crystal Palace, where a red dog named Miner took first prize. Miner also won a show held in Birmingham. The Bedlington Terrier Club was established in 1875. Many dogs in early shows were clipped and dyed to bring them closer to the breed standard and improve their chances of winning.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: It is unknown if the judges of the time were aware of this practice, or if they cared. The practice of trimming was eventually accepted by The Kennel Club under the pretence that the trimming was being done to "smarten a dog to show his shape and general contour."


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: Bedlington Terriers are closely related to the Dandie Dinmont Terrier. In fact the Earl of Antrim once exhibited two terriers from the same litter, and one won shows as a Dandie Dinmont, while the other won shows as a Bedlington. Bedlington Terriers are also related to the Kerry Blue Terrier and the Soft Coated Wheaten Terrier. The shape of its back suggests that it may be related to the Whippet and it may also be related to the otterhound. Bedlington Terriers have been crossed with Whippets to produce a Lurcher with "extra guts, pep, [and] fire."


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: In 1948 Ch. Rock Ridge Night Rocket took best in show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show and was subsequently featured in LIFE magazine. One of his descendants, Ch. Femars' Cable Car, was featured on the cover of "Sports Illustrated" in the February 8, 1960 edition.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: Median longevity of Bedlington Terriers, based on two recent UK surveys, is about 13.5 years, which is longer than for purebred dogs in general and longer than most breeds similar in size. The longest-lived of 48 deceased dogs in a 2004 UK Kennel Club survey was 18.4 years. Leading causes of death among Bedlington Terriers in the UK were old age (23%), urologic (15%) and hepatic (12.5%). The leading hepatic cause of death was copper toxicosis. Dogs that died of liver diseases usually died at a younger age than dogs dying of most other causes.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: Bedlington Terrier owners in the UK reported that the most common health issues among living dogs were reproductive, heart murmur and eye problems such as epiphora, retinal dysplasia and cataracts. Bedlingtons seem to be more prone to these eye diseases than other breeds. They also have a high incidence of kidney problems. Copper toxicosis occurred among about 5% of living dogs. Inbreeding is a concern, since some dogs "[having] been bred in and into a damaging extent." Reputable breeders will conduct DNA testing of all litters and will not allow pups that carry the copper toxicosis gene to be bred, a practice that has significantly reduced the incidence of this disease in the breed. Excepting these problems, Bedlingtons are generally a very healthy breed.


title: Bedlington Terrier

text: Copper toxicosis, also known as copper storage disease and copper overload syndrome, is an autosomal recessive disease that is characterized by an accumulation of copper in the liver. It is closely related to Wilson's disease in humans. Bedlington Terriers are more prone to copper toxicosis than most other dog breeds. West Highland White Terriers, Skye Terriers, and Doberman Pinschers are also prone to copper storage disease. Bedlington Terriers are the only breed of dog in which haemolysis has been reported, but there have been no reports of neurological involvement in any dog breed. Studies have shown that in Bedlingtons, the disease is caused by a defective metallothionein that causes cell lysosomes to become saturated with copper. This causes the cell to store copper in the nucleus. There are three varieties of the disease: the "asymptomatic form" occurs when copper accumulates but there are no clinical symptoms of the disorder; the "fulminating form" which is seen mostly in young dogs, causes death in two to three days, and is thought to be caused by stress; and the "chronic form", which is characterized by an extended period of time in which liver disease slowly causes the death of the dog. Bedlingtons also have a tendency to accumulate iron in the liver, but not nearly to the extent that they accumulate copper.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Athletic heart syndrome (AHS) is a non-pathological condition commonly seen in sports medicine in which the human heart is enlarged, and the resting heart rate is lower than normal.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: The athlete's heart is associated with physiological cardiac remodeling as a consequence of repetitive cardiac loading. Athlete's heart is common in athletes who routinely exercise more than an hour a day, and occurs primarily in endurance athletes, though it can occasionally arise in heavy weight trainers. The condition is generally considered benign, but may occasionally hide a serious medical condition, or may even be mistaken for one.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Athlete's heart most often does not have any physical symptoms, although an indicator would be a consistently low resting heart rate. Athletes with AHS often do not realize they have the condition unless they undergo specific medical tests, because athlete's heart is a normal, physiological adaptation of the body to the stresses of physical conditioning and aerobic exercise. People diagnosed with athlete's heart commonly display three signs that would usually indicate a heart condition when seen in a regular person: bradycardia, cardiomegaly, and cardiac hypertrophy. Bradycardia is a slower than normal heartbeat, at around 40–60 beats per minute. Cardiomegaly is the state of an enlarged heart, and cardiac hypertrophy the thickening of the muscular wall of the heart, specifically the left ventricle, which pumps oxygenated blood to the aorta. Especially during an intensive workout, more blood and oxygen are required to the peripheral tissues of the arms and legs in highly trained athletes' bodies. A larger heart results in higher cardiac output, which also allows it to beat more slowly, as more blood is pumped out with each beat.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Another sign of athlete's heart syndrome is an S3 gallop, which can be heard through a stethoscope. This sound can be heard as the diastolic pressure of the irregularly shaped heart creates a disordered blood flow. However, if an S4 gallop is heard, the patient should be given immediate attention. An S4 gallop is a stronger and louder sound created by the heart, if diseased in any way, and is typically a sign of a serious medical condition.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Athlete's heart is a result of dynamic physical activity, such as aerobic training more than 5 hours a week rather than static training such as weightlifting. During intensive prolonged endurance or strength training, the body signals the heart to pump more blood through the body to counteract the oxygen deficit building in the skeletal muscles. Enlargement of the heart is a natural physical adaptation of the body to deal with the high pressures and large amounts of blood that can affect the heart during these periods of time. Over time, the body will increase both the chamber size of the left ventricle, and the muscle mass and wall thickness of the heart.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Cardiac output, the amount of blood that leaves the heart in a given time period (i.e. liters per minute), is proportional to both the chamber sizes of the heart and the rate at which the heart beats. With a larger left ventricle, the heart rate can decrease and still maintain a level of cardiac output necessary for the body. Therefore, athletes with AHS commonly have lower resting heart rates than nonathletes.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: The heart becomes enlarged, or hypertrophic, due to intense cardiovascular workouts, creating an increase in stroke volume, an enlarged left ventricle (and right ventricle), and a decrease in resting heart rate along with irregular rhythms. The wall of the left ventricle increases in size by about 15–20% of its normal capacity. No decrease of the diastolic function of the left ventricle occurs. The athlete may also experience an irregular heartbeat and a resting pulse rate between 40 and 60 beats per minute (bradycardia).


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: The level of physical activity in a person determines what physiological changes the heart makes. The two types of exercise are static (strength-training) and dynamic (endurance-training). Static exercise consists of weight lifting and is mostly anaerobic, meaning the body does not rely on oxygen for performance. It also moderately increases heart rate and stroke volume (oxygen debt). Dynamic exercises include running, swimming, skiing, rowing, and cycling, which rely on oxygen from the body. This type of exercise also increases both heart rate and stroke volume of the heart. Both static and dynamic exercises involve the thickening of the left ventricular wall due to increased cardiac output, which leads to physiologic hypertrophy of the heart. Once athletes stop training, the heart returns to its normal size.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Athlete's heart is usually an incidental finding during a routine screening or during tests for other medical issues. An enlarged heart can be seen at echocardiography or sometimes on a chest X-ray. Similarities at presentation between athlete's heart and clinically relevant cardiac problems may prompt electrocardiography (ECG) and exercise cardiac stress tests. The ECG can detect sinus bradycardia, a resting heart rate of fewer than 60 beats per minute. This is often accompanied by sinus arrhythmia. The pulse of a person with athlete's heart can sometimes be irregular while at rest, but usually returns to normal after exercise begins.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Regarding differential diagnosis, left ventricular hypertrophy is usually indistinguishable from athlete's heart and at ECG, but can usually be discounted in the young and fit.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: It is important to distinguish between athlete's heart and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), a serious cardiovascular disease characterised by thickening of the heart's walls, which produces a similar ECG pattern at rest. This genetic disorder is found in one of 500 Americans and is a leading cause of sudden cardiac death in young athletes (although only about 8% of all cases of sudden death are actually exercise-related). The following table shows some key distinguishing characteristics of the two conditions.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Athlete's heart should not be confused with bradycardia that occurs secondary to Relative energy deficiency in sport or Anorexia nervosa, which involve slowing of metabolic rate and sometimes shrinkage of the heart muscle and reduced heart volume.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: The medical history of the patient (endurance sports) and physical examination (bradycardia, and maybe a third or fourth heart sound), can give important hints.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Because several well-known and high-profile cases of athletes experiencing sudden unexpected death due to cardiac arrest, such as Reggie White and Marc-Vivien Foé, a growing movement is making an effort to have both professional and school-based athletes screened for cardiac and other related conditions, usually through a careful medical and health history, a good family history, a comprehensive physical examination including auscultation of heart and lung sounds and recording of vital signs such as heart rate and blood pressure, and increasingly, for better efforts at detection, such as an electrocardiogram.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a relatively straightforward procedure to administer and interpret, compared to more invasive or sophisticated tests; it can reveal or hint at many circulatory disorders and arrhythmias. Part of the cost of an ECG may be covered by some insurance companies, though routine use of ECGs or other similar procedures such as echocardiography (ECHO) are still not considered routine in these contexts. Widespread routine ECGs for all potential athletes during initial screening and then during the yearly physical assessment could well be too expensive to implement on a wide scale, especially in the face of the potentially very large demand. In some places, a shortage of funds, portable ECG machines, or qualified personnel to administer and interpret them (medical technicians, paramedics, nurses trained in cardiac monitoring, advanced practice nurses or nurse practitioners, physician assistants, and physicians in internal or family medicine or in some area of cardiopulmonary medicine) exist.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: If sudden cardiac death occurs, it is usually because of pathological hypertrophic enlargement of the heart that went undetected or was incorrectly attributed to the benign "athletic" cases. Among the many alternative causes are episodes of isolated arrhythmias which degenerated into lethal VF and asystole, and various unnoticed, possibly asymptomatic cardiac congenital defects of the vessels, chambers, or valves of the heart. Other causes include carditis, endocarditis, myocarditis, and pericarditis whose symptoms were slight or ignored, or were asymptomatic.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: The normal treatments for episodes due to the pathological look-alikes are the same mainstays for any other episode of cardiac arrest: cardiopulmonary resuscitation, defibrillation to restore normal sinus rhythm, and if initial defibrillation fails, administration of intravenous epinephrine or amiodarone. The goal is avoidance of infarction, heart failure, and/or lethal arrhythmias (ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, asystole, or pulseless electrical activity), so ultimately to restore normal sinus rhythm.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: Athlete's heart is not dangerous for athletes (though if a nonathlete has symptoms of bradycardia, cardiomegaly, and cardiac hypertrophy, another illness may be present). Athlete's heart is not the cause of sudden cardiac death during or shortly after a workout, which mainly occurs due to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ARVC), two genetic disorders. Although a link between intensive exercise and exercise-induced arythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy exists.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: No treatment is required for people with athletic heart syndrome; it does not pose any physical threats to the athlete, and despite some theoretical concerns that the ventricular remodeling might conceivably predispose for serious arrhythmias, no evidence has been found of any increased risk of long-term events. Athletes should see a physician and receive a clearance to be sure their symptoms are due to athlete's heart and not another heart disease, such as cardiomyopathy. If the athlete is uncomfortable with having athlete's heart or if a differential diagnosis is difficult, deconditioning from exercise for a period of three months allows the heart to return to its regular size. However, one long-term study of elite-trained athletes found that dilation of the left ventricle was only partially reversible after a long period of deconditioning. This deconditioning is often met with resistance to the accompanying lifestyle changes. The real risk attached to athlete's heart is if athletes or nonathletes simply assume they have the condition, instead of making sure they do not have a life-threatening heart illness.


title: Athletic heart syndrome

text: The athlete's heart syndrome was first described in 1899 by Salomon Henschen. He compared the heart size of cross-country skiers to those who lived sedentary lives. He noticed that those who participated in competitive sports displayed symptoms of athlete's heart syndrome. Henschen believed the symptoms were a normal adjustment to exercise, and felt concern was not needed. Henschen believed that the entire heart became enlarged, when in fact, only the left side becomes hypertrophic. He also believed athletes with AHS lived shorter lives than those who did not acquire the syndrome. Because his research occurred throughout the 19th century, technology was limited, and it became difficult to devise appropriate ways to measure the hearts of athletes. Few believed in Henschen's theory about athletes having larger hearts than those who did not participate in sports: this theory is supported.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 – August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation and served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912. A "Review of General Psychology" survey, published in 2002, ranked Thorndike as the ninth-most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Edward Thorndike had a powerful impact on reinforcement theory and behavior analysis, providing the basic framework for empirical laws in behavior psychology with his law of effect. Through his contributions to the behavioral psychology field came his major impacts on education, where the law of effect has great influence in the classroom.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike, born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, was the son of Edward R and Abbie B Thorndike, a Methodist minister in Lowell, Massachusetts. Thorndike graduated from The Roxbury Latin School (1891), in West Roxbury, Massachusetts and from Wesleyan University (B.S. 1895). He earned an M.A. at Harvard University in 1897. His two brothers (Lynn and Ashley) also became important scholars. The younger, Lynn, was a medievalist specializing in the history of science and magic, while the older, Ashley, was an English professor and noted authority on Shakespeare.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: While at Harvard, he was interested in how animals learn (ethology), and worked with William James. Afterwards, he became interested in the animal 'man', to the study of which he then devoted his life. Edward's thesis is sometimes thought of as the essential document of modern comparative psychology. Upon graduation, Thorndike returned to his initial interest, educational psychology. In 1898 he completed his PhD at Columbia University under the supervision of James McKeen Cattell, one of the founding fathers of psychometrics.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: In 1899, after a year of unhappy initial employment at the College for Women of Case Western Reserve in Cleveland, Ohio, he became an instructor in psychology at Teachers College at Columbia University, where he remained for the rest of his career, studying human learning, education, and mental testing. In 1937 Thorndike became the second President of the Psychometric Society, following in the footsteps of Louis Leon Thurstone who had established the society and its journal Psychometrika the previous year.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: On August 29, 1900, he wed Elizabeth Moulton. They had four children, among them Frances, who became a mathematician.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: During the early stages of his career, he purchased a wide tract of land on the Hudson and encouraged other researchers to settle around him. Soon a colony had formed there with him as its 'tribal' chief.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike was a pioneer not only in behaviorism and in studying learning, but also in using animals in clinical experiments. Thorndike was able to create a theory of learning based on his research with animals. His doctoral dissertation, "Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals", was the first in psychology where the subjects were nonhumans. Thorndike was interested in whether animals could learn tasks through imitation or observation. To test this, Thorndike created puzzle boxes.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: The puzzle boxes were approximately 20 inches long, 15 inches wide, and 12 inches tall. Each box had a door that was pulled open by a weight attached to a string that ran over a pulley and was attached to the door. The string attached to the door led to a lever or button inside the box. When the animal pressed the bar or pulled the lever, the string attached to the door would cause the weight to lift and the door to open. Thorndike's puzzle boxes were arranged so that the animal would be required to perform a certain response (pulling a lever or pushing a button), while he measured the amount of time it took them to escape. Once the animal had performed the desired response they were allowed to escape and were also given a reward, usually food. Thorndike primarily used cats in his puzzle boxes. When the cats were put into the cages they would wander restlessly and meow, but they did not know how to escape. Eventually, the cats would step on the switch on the floor by chance, and the door would open. To see if the cats could learn through observation, he had them observe other animals escaping from the box. He would then compare the times of those who got to observe others escaping with those who did not, and he found that there was no difference in their rate of learning. Thorndike saw the same results with other animals, and he observed that there was no improvement even when he placed the animals’ paws on the correct levers, buttons, or bar. These failures led him to fall back on a trial and error explanation of learning. He found that after accidentally stepping on the switch once, they would press the switch faster in each succeeding trial inside the puzzle box. By observing and recording the animals’ escapes and escape times, Thorndike was able to graph the times it took for the animals in each trial to escape, resulting in a learning curve. The animals had difficulty escaping at first, but eventually "caught on" and escaped faster and faster with each successive puzzle box trial, until they eventually leveled off. The quickened rate of escape results in the s-shape of the learning curve. The learning curve also suggested that different species learned in the same way but at different speeds. From his research with puzzle boxes, Thorndike was able to create his own theory of learning.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: The puzzle box experiments were motivated in part by Thorndike's dislike for statements that animals made use of extraordinary faculties such as insight in their problem solving: "In the first place, most of the books do not give us a psychology, but rather a eulogy of animals. They have all been about animal intelligence, never about animal stupidity."


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike meant to distinguish clearly whether or not cats escaping from puzzle boxes were using insight. Thorndike's instruments in answering this question were learning curves revealed by plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box. He reasoned that if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curve as an abrupt drop; while animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradual curves. His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike put his testing expertise to work for the United States Army during World War I, participating in the development of the Army Beta test used to evaluate illiterate, unschooled, and non-English speaking recruits.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike believed that "Instruction should pursue specified, socially useful goals." Thorndike believed that the ability to learn did not decline until age 35, and only then at a rate of 1 percent per year. Thorndike also stated the law of effect, which says behaviors that are followed by good consequences are likely to be repeated in the future.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike identified the three main areas of intellectual development. The first being abstract intelligence. This is the ability to process and understand different concepts. The second is mechanical intelligence, which is the ability to handle physical objects. Lastly there is social intelligence. This is the ability to handle human interaction


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike's research focused on instrumental learning, which means that learning is developed from the organism doing something. For example, he placed a cat inside a wooden box. The cat would use various methods while trying to get out, but nothing would work until it hit the lever. Afterwards, Thorndike tried placing the cat inside the wooden box again. This time, the cat was able to hit the lever quickly and succeeded in getting out from the box.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: At first, Thorndike emphasized the importance of dissatisfaction stemming from failure as equal to the reward of satisfaction with success, though in his experiments and trials on humans he came to conclude that reward is a much more effective motivator than punishment. He also emphasized that the satisfaction must come immediately after the success, or the lesson would not sink in.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike was a proponent of eugenics. He argued that "selective breeding can alter man's capacity to learn, to keep sane, to cherish justice or to be happy. There is no more certain and economical a way to improve man's environment as to improve his nature."


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike's law of effect and puzzle box methodology were subjected to detailed criticism by behaviorists and many other psychologists. The criticisms over the law of effect mostly cover four aspects of the theory: the implied or retroactive working of the effect, the philosophical implication of the law, the identification of the effective conditions that cause learning, and the comprehensive usefulness of the law.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike's Educational psychology began a trend toward behavioral psychology that sought to use empirical evidence and a scientific approach to problem solving. Thorndike was among some of the first psychologists to combine learning theory, psychometrics, and applied research for school-related subjects to form psychology of education. One of his influences on education is seen by his ideas on mass marketing of tests and textbooks at that time. Thorndike opposed the idea that learning should reflect nature, which was the main thought of developmental scientists at that time. He instead thought that schooling should improve upon nature. Unlike many other psychologist of his time, Thorndike took a statistical approach to education in his later years by collecting qualitative information intended to help teachers and educators deal with practical educational problems. Thorndike's theory was an association theory, as many were in that time. He believed that the association between stimulus and response was solidified by a reward or confirmation. He also thought that motivation was an important factor in learning. The Law of Effect introduced the relation between reinforcers and punishers. Although Thorndike's description of the relation between reinforcers and punishers was incomplete, his work in this area would later become a catalyst in further research, such as that of B.F. Skinner.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike's Law of Effect states that "responses that produce a desired effect are more likely to occur again whereas responses that produce an unpleasant effect are less likely to occur again". The terms 'desired effect' and 'unpleasant effect' eventually became known as 'reinforcers' and 'punishers'. Thorndike's contributions to the Behavioral Psychology Society are seen through his influences in the classroom, with a particular focus on praising and ignoring behaviors. Praise is used in the classroom to encourage and support the occurrence of a desired behavior. When used in the classroom, praise has been shown to increase correct responses and appropriate behavior. Planned ignoring is used to decrease, weaken, or eliminate the occurrence of a target behavior. Planned ignoring is accomplished by removing the reinforcer that is maintaining the behavior. For example, when the teacher does not pay attention to a "whining" behavior of a student, it allows the student to realize that whining will not succeed in gaining the attention of the teacher.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Unlike later behaviorists such as John Watson, who placed a very strong emphasis on the impact of environmental influences on behavior, Thorndike believed that differences in the parental behavior of men and women were due to biological, rather than cultural, reasons. While conceding that society could "complicate or deform" what he believed were inborn differences, he believed that "if we [researchers] should keep the environment of boys and girls absolutely similar these instincts would produce sure and important differences between the mental and moral activities of boys and girls". Indeed, Watson himself overtly critiqued the idea of maternal instincts in humans in a report of his observations of first-time mothers struggling to breastfeed. Watson argued that the very behaviors Thorndike referred to as resulting from a "nursing instinct" stemming from "unreasoning tendencies to pet, coddle, and 'do for' others," were performed with difficulty by new mothers and thus must have been learned, while "instinctive factors are practically nil".


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike's beliefs about inborn differences between the thoughts and behavior of men and women included misogynist, pseudo-scientific arguments about the role of women in society. For example, along with the "nursing instinct," Thorndike talked about the instinct of "submission to mastery," writing: "Women in general are thus by original nature submissive to men in general." Although these opinions lack substantiating evidence, such beliefs were commonplace during this era and in many cases served to justify prejudice against women in academia (including entrance into doctoral programs, psychological laboratories, and scientific societies).


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike composed three different word books to assist teachers with word and reading instruction. After publication of the first book in the series, "The Teacher's Word Book" (1921), two other books were written and published, each approximately a decade apart from its predecessor. The second book in the series, its full title being "A Teacher's Word Book of the Twenty Thousand Words Found Most Frequently and Widely in General Reading for Children and Young People", was published in 1932, and the third and final book, "The Teacher's Word Book of 30,000 Words", was published in 1944.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: In the preface to the third book, Thorndike writes that the list contained therein "tells anyone who wishes to know whether to use a word in writing, speaking, or teaching how common the word is in standard English reading matter" (p. x), and he further advises that the list can best be employed by teachers if they allow it to guide the decisions they make choosing which words to emphasize during reading instruction. Some words require more emphasis than others, and, according to Thorndike, his list informs teachers of the most frequently occurring words that should be reinforced by instruction and thus become "a permanent part of [students’] stock of word knowledge" (p. xi). If a word is not on the list but appears in an educational text, its meaning only needs to be understood temporarily in the context in which it was found, and then summarily discarded from memory.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: In Appendix A to the second book, Thorndike gives credit to his word counts and how frequencies were assigned to particular words. Selected sources extrapolated from Appendix A include:


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Thorndike contributed a great deal to psychology. His influence on animal psychologists, especially those who focused on behavior plasticity, greatly contributed to the future of that field. In addition to helping pave the way towards behaviorism, his contribution to measurement influenced philosophy, the administration and practice of education, military administration, industrial personnel administration, civil service and many public and private social services. Thorndike influenced many schools of psychology as Gestalt psychologists, psychologists studying the conditioned reflex, and behavioral psychologists all studied Thorndike's research as a starting point. Thorndike was a contemporary of John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov. However, unlike Watson, Thorndike introduced the concept of reinforcement. Thorndike was the first to apply psychological principles to the area of learning. His research led to many theories and laws of learning. His theory of learning, especially the law of effect, is most often considered to be his greatest achievement. In 1929, Thorndike addressed his early theory of learning, and claimed that he had been wrong. After further research, he was forced to denounce his law of exercise completely, because he found that practice alone did not strengthen an association, and that time alone did not weaken an association. He also got rid of half of the law of effect, after finding that a satisfying state of affairs strengthens an association, but punishment is not effective in modifying behavior. He placed a great emphasis on consequences of behavior as setting the foundation for what is and is not learned. His work represents the transition from the school of functionalism to behaviorism, and enabled psychology to focus on learning theory. Thorndike's work would eventually be a major influence to B.F. Skinner and Clark Hull. Skinner, like Thorndike, put animals in boxes and observed them to see what they were able to learn.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: The learning theories of Thorndike and Pavlov were later synthesized by Clark Hull. His work on motivation and attitude formation directly affected studies on human nature as well as social order. Thorndike's research drove comparative psychology for fifty years, and influenced countless psychologists over that period of time, and even still today.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: In 1912, Thorndike was elected president for the American Psychological Association. In 1917 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. He was admitted to the National Academy of Sciences in 1917. He was one of the first psychologists to be admitted to the association. Thorndike is well known for his experiments on animals supporting the law of effect. In 1934, Thorndike was elected president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.


title: Edward Thorndike

text: Because of his "racist, sexist, and antisemitic ideals", amid the George Floyd protests of 2020, the Board of Trustees of Teachers' College in New York voted unanimously to remove his name from Thorndike Hall.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: Mahmoud Dahoud (born 1 January 1996) is a professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Borussia Dortmund and the Germany national team.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: He made his professional debut for Bundesliga side Borussia Mönchengladbach in 2014, and, in his spell with the club, he made 86 appearances for the club before signing for Dortmund three years later.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: Born in Syria, Dahoud has represented Germany internationally at U18, U19, and U21 level. He was part of the U21 side which won the UEFA European Under-21 Championship in 2017.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: Mahmoud Dahoud began his career playing at junior level for the Langenfeld soccer club Germania Reusrath and Fortuna Düsseldorf before signing for Gladbach at the age of 14 in 2010. He then spent the next five seasons developing in Gladbach's academy before breaking into the first team in 2014.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: On 27 August 2014, Dahoud was handed his first team debut by manager Lucien Favre in a 7–0 Europa League play-off win over FK Sarajevo, coming off the bench in the 55th minute to replace Christoph Kramer. Just a week prior to making his first appearance for Gladbach, Dahoud had signed his first professional contract, agreeing a deal to keep him at the club until June 2018. He only made two more senior appearances over the course of the season, one in the Europa League against Apollon and the other at the end of the season against Borussia Dortmund to make his Bundesliga debut. Upon making his debut, Dahoud became the first Syrian-born player to ever play in the Bundesliga.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: Following the sacking of Favre early in the 2015–16 Bundesliga season, Dahoud saw his game time increase with "Die Fohlen", establishing himself as a key figure in new manager André Schubert's midfield. He scored his first goal for the club on 23 September 2015 in Schubert's debut game in charge, netting Gladbach's fourth goal in a 4–2 win over Augsburg. The week prior to Favre's departure, Dahoud made his Champions League debut against Sevilla from the bench before making his full debut against Man City under Schubert later in the month. The immediate impact made by Dahoud in his new starting berth was recognized by the supporters who voted him as the Fans' Player of the Month for September. In October, he received a standing ovation from the Eintracht Frankfurt supporters after delivering an all-conquering performance against their side, scoring once and setting up another two in a 5-1 win. The following year, on Valentine's Day, Dahoud netted the match winning goal in the Rhine Derby against Köln. At the conclusion of the season, Dahoud had made 32 league appearances, scoring 5 goals and assisting 9 as Gladbach ended fourth in the Bundesliga, thereby qualifying for the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League qualifiers.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: In August 2016, Dahoud's agent revealed that he had rejected a new contract with Gladbach based on the understanding that he would be allowed to leave the club at the end of the season. This followed strong reports that Premier League side Liverpool and reigning Ligue 1 champions Paris Saint-Germain had approached Gladbach for his signature. He made his first appearance of the season on 20 August in a 1–0 DFB Pokal win over SV Drochtersen/Assel. He scored his first goal of the season on 26 November, netting the opener in Gladbach's 1–1 Bundesliga draw with Hoffenheim. On 16 March 2017, he scored his first ever goal in European competitions, scoring Gladbach's second in a 2–2 Europa League draw with fellow Bundesliga side Schalke. Dahoud's goal, which had put Gladbach 2–0 up at half-time, was not enough to secure his club's progression, however, as a late rally from Schalke saw Gladbach knocked of the competition on the away goals rule.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: With only a year left to run on his contract, Gladbach announced on 30 March that Dahoud would be joining fellow Bundesliga side Borussia Dortmund at the end of the season for a reported fee of €12m. He ultimately played in 41 matches for the campaign, though he was jeered by Gladbach supporters in his latter appearances due to his impending departure, as the club ended the season in ninth position.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: Dahoud officially joined Borussia Dortmund on 1 July 2017. Dortmund's sporting director Michael Zorc commented, "Mo Dahoud is a highly-talented and exciting central midfield player who we have been keeping very close tabs on for several years now. He has already proven that he can cut it at the highest level." He made his debut for the club on 6 August, starting in a penalty shootout loss to Bayern Munich in the DFL-Supercup. On 12 August 2017, Dahoud assisted Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang in netting BVB's third goal in Dortmund's 4–0 cup win against sixth-tier club 1. FC Rielasingen-Arlen.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: On 26 August 2018, Dahoud scored his first Bundesliga goal for his club in a 4–1 victory over RB Leipzig. He was used sparingly by manager Lucien Favre during the first half of the season, however, with new signings Thomas Delaney and Axel Witsel preferred in midfield.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: Dahoud had a difficult season due to injury, lack of constancy and the competitive situation in the Dortmund midfield, in which he featured in 14 matches in all competitions.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: On 17 February 2021, he scored his first Champions League goal in a 3–2 away win over Sevilla in the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League round of 16.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: On 13 May 2021, Dahoud started in the 2021 DFB-Pokal final against RB Leipzig. He won his second trophy with Borussia Dortmund after winning the final, contributing with an assist to a Jadon Sancho goal in the 5th minute.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: Having previously represented Germany at U18 and U19 level, Dahoud made his debut for the Germany U21 team as a substitute in a 4–1 win over the Faroe Islands on 24 March 2016, before making his full debut a week later against Russia. The following year, he was included in Germany's 23-man squad for the 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship in Poland. Germany were ultimately crowned champions, beating Spain 1–0 in the final to claim the title. Dahoud is also eligible to represent Syria, though he stated that he was not interested in doing so, and that he dreamed of playing for Germany.


title: Mahmoud Dahoud

text: Dahoud was born in Amuda for Kurdish parents , a town in north east Syria (West Kurdistan) He was taken to Germany by his family in 1996. In an interview with the official Bundesliga website, he revealed that his footballing idol is French legend Zinedine Zidane. He can speak Kurdish,German and Arabic since childhood.


title: Billy Idol (album)

text: Billy Idol is the debut studio album by English rock singer Billy Idol, released on 16 July 1982 by Chrysalis Records. After the breakup of the band Generation X and the release of his first solo extended play, "Don't Stop" (1981), Idol began working on his debut album. Produced by Keith Forsey, "Billy Idol" is a rock album with strong influences of new wave music.


title: Billy Idol (album)

text: Upon its release, the album received generally positive reviews from music critics and was a commercial success, peaking at number forty-five on the "Billboard" 200. "Billy Idol" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: Billy Idol (album)

text: Three singles were released from the album: "Dancing with Myself" was already released in 1981 as Idol's debut single. The lead single, "Hot in the City", peaked at number twenty-three on the "Billboard" 100. "White Wedding" was released as the album's second single. After it peaked at number three on Mainstream Rock chart in 1983, the album was reissued with an addition of the earlier single "Dancing with Myself". The song "White Wedding (Part 1)" is so-named due to the less-heard "White Wedding (Part 2)", which is a more synthesiser-based continuation of the first part. It can be heard on the 12-inch version of the single and the compilation "Vital Idol" (1985).


title: Billy Idol (album)

text: "Hot in the City" was originally recorded for Idol's debut EP "Don't Stop", but his label Chrysalis considered it too good just to release as part of the EP. They felt it could be a single and decided to keep it for the album.


title: Sergio Corbucci

text: Sergio Corbucci (; 6 December 1926 – 1 December 1990) was an Italian film director, screenwriter and producer. He directed both very violent Spaghetti Westerns and bloodless Bud Spencer and Terence Hill action comedies.


title: Sergio Corbucci

text: He started his career by directing mostly low-budget sword and sandal movies. Among his first Spaghetti Westerns were the films "Grand Canyon Massacre" (1964), which he co-directed (under the pseudonym, Stanley Corbett) with Albert Band, as well as "Minnesota Clay" (1964), his first solo directed Spaghetti Western. Corbucci's first commercial success was with the cult Spaghetti Western "Django", starring Franco Nero, the leading man in many of his movies. He would later collaborate with Franco Nero on two other Spaghetti Westerns, "Il Mercenario" or "The Mercenary" (a.k.a. "A Professional Gun") (1968) - where Nero played Sergei Kowalski, a Polish mercenary and the film also starring Tony Musante, Jack Palance and Giovanna Ralli - as well as "Compañeros" (1970) a.k.a. "Vamos a matar, Companeros", which also starred Tomas Milian and Jack Palance. The last film of the "Mexican Revolution" trilogy - "The Mercenary" and "Compañeros" being the first two in the installment - was "What Am I Doing in the Middle of the Revolution?" (1972).


title: Sergio Corbucci

text: After "Django", Corbucci made many other Spaghetti Westerns, which made him the most successful Italian western director after Sergio Leone and one of Italy's most productive and prolific directors. His most famous of these pictures was "The Great Silence" (Il Grande Silenzio), a dark and gruesome western starring a mute action hero and a psychopathic bad guy. The film was banned in some countries for its excessive display of violence.


title: Sergio Corbucci

text: Corbucci also directed "Navajo Joe" (1966), starring Burt Reynolds as the title character, a Navajo Indian opposing a group of bandits that killed his tribe, as well as "The Hellbenders" (1967), and "Johnny Oro" (1966) a.k.a. "Ringo and his Golden Pistol" starring Mark Damon. Other Spaghetti Westerns he directed include "Gli specialisti" ("Drop Them or I'll Shoot", 1969), "" ("Sonny and Jed", 1972), with Tomas Milian and "The White the Yellow and the Black" (1975), with Tomas Milian and Eli Wallach.


title: Sergio Corbucci

text: Corbucci's westerns were dark and brutal, with the characters portrayed as sadistic anti heroes. His films featured very high body counts and scenes of mutilation. "Django" especially is considered to have set a new level for violence in westerns.


title: Sergio Corbucci

text: In the 1970s and 1980s Corbucci mostly directed comedies, often starring Adriano Celentano. Many of these comedies were huge successes at the Italian box-office and found wide distribution in European countries like Germany, France, Austria and Switzerland, but were barely released overseas.


title: Sergio Corbucci

text: His movies were rarely taken seriously by contemporary critics and he was considered an exploitation director, but Corbucci has managed to attain a cult reputation.


title: Dental hygienist

text: A dental hygienist or oral hygienist is a licensed dental professional, registered with a dental association or regulatory body within their country of practice. Prior to completing clinical and written board examinations, registered dental hygienists must have either an associate's or bachelor's degree in dental hygiene from an accredited college or university. Once registered, hygienists are primary healthcare professionals who work independently of or alongside dentists and other dental professionals to provide full oral health care. They have the training and education that focus on and specialize in the prevention and treatment of many oral diseases.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienists have a specific scope of clinical procedures they provide to their patients. They assess a patient's condition in order to offer patient-specific preventive and educational services to promote and maintain good oral health. A major role of a dental hygienist is to perform periodontal therapy which includes things such periodontal charting, periodontal debridement (scaling and root planing), prophylaxis (preventing disease) or periodontal maintenance procedures for patients with periodontal disease. The use of therapeutic methods assists their patients in controlling oral disease, while providing tailored treatment plans that emphasize the importance of behavioral changes. Some dental hygienists are licensed to administer local anesthesia and perform dental radiography. Dental hygienists are also the primary resource for oral cancer screening and prevention. In addition to these procedures, hygienists may take intraoral radiographs, apply dental sealants, administer topical fluoride, and provide patient-specific oral hygiene instruction.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienists work in a range of dental settings, from independent, private, or specialist practices to the public sector. Dental hygienists work together with dentists, dental therapists, oral health therapists, as well as other dental professionals. Dental hygienists aim to work inter-professionally to provide holistic oral health care in the best interest of their patient. Dental hygienists also offer expertise in their field and can provide a dental hygiene diagnosis, which is an integral component of the comprehensive dental diagnosis.


title: Dental hygienist

text: In the dental office, the dentist and the dental hygienist work together to meet the oral health needs of patients. Since each country has its own specific regulations regarding their responsibilities, the range of services performed by hygienists varies. Some of the services provided by dental hygienists may include:


title: Dental hygienist

text: Jobs for dental are well paid almost on all states of the United States. The median annual wage for dental hygienists was $77,810 in May 2021.


title: Dental hygienist

text: The median annual wages for dental hygienists in the top industries in which they worked were as follows:


title: Dental hygienist

text: Gum disease is caused by a sticky film of bacteria called plaque. Plaque is always forming on teeth, but if it is not cleaned well, the bacteria in plaque can cause gums to become inflamed. When this happens, the gums pull away from the teeth and form spaces called pockets. Plaque then gets trapped in these pockets and cannot be removed with regular brushing. Untreated gum disease can lead to bone and tooth loss. If the periodontal pockets are too deep a deep cleaning (scaling and root planing) is necessary to remove the plaque in these pockets.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Scaling and root planing is a careful cleaning of the root surfaces to remove plaque and calculus from deep periodontal pockets and to smooth the tooth root to remove bacterial toxins. Scaling and root planing is sometimes followed by adjunctive therapy such as local delivery antimicrobials, systemic antibiotics, and host modulation, as needed on a case-by-case basis.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Most periodontists agree that after scaling and root planing, many patients do not require any further active treatment. However, the majority of patients will require ongoing maintenance therapy to sustain health. The maintenance phase involves continuous care, at patient specific levels.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienists in Australia must be graduates from a dental hygiene program, with either an advanced diploma (TAFE), associate degree, or more commonly a bachelor's degree from a dental hygiene school that is accredited by the Australian Dental Council (ADC) under the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency.


title: Dental hygienist

text: In Australia it is a legal requirement for dental hygienist and oral health therapist graduates to be registered with the Dental Board of Australia before practising their scope in periodontology in any state or territory in Australia.


title: Dental hygienist

text: The Dental Hygienists' Association of Australia (DHAA) Inc., established in 1975, is the peak body representing registered dental hygiene service providers in Australia.


title: Dental hygienist

text: A dental hygienist does not need to be employed by a dentist but can independently assess patients and make treatment plans within their scope of practice whilst working in the community. Practising as an autonomous decision maker, and working within the scope of only what they are "formally" trained in.


title: Dental hygienist

text: The National Law requires the same level of professional responsibility from dental hygienists, oral health therapists and dental therapists as it does from dentists, dental specialists and dental prosthetists in that all practitioners must have their own professional indemnity insurance and radiation licences. They are also required to complete 60 hours of mandatory continuing professional development in a three-year cycle.


title: Dental hygienist

text: A Bachelor of Oral Health is the most common degree program. Students entering a bachelor's degree program are required to have a high school diploma or equivalent. Most Bachelor of Oral Health programs now qualify students as both dental hygienists and dental therapists, collectively known as oral health therapists.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienists in Canada must have completed a diploma program, which can take from 19 months to 3 years to complete. All dental hygiene students must pass a NDHCB examination after graduation. This examination is offered three times per year, January, May and September. Three universities in Canada offer Bachelor of Science degrees in Dental Hygiene: Dalhousie University, University of Alberta, University of British Columbia.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygiene across Canada is a well-respected career with many opportunities. These possibilities include working in clinical, administration, education, research and public health positions. The wages vary throughout the country; from approximately $32 per hour in some areas to as high as $55 per hour in others. A surplus of new dental hygiene graduates in recent years has resulted in a decrease in wages in some regions.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Some of the downfalls to practicing in different provinces are the different regulations. For instance, in BC, the hygienist cannot provide treatment without the patient receiving a dental exam in the previous 365 days unless the practicing hygienist has an extended duty module (resident-care module). In AB, BC, MB and SK, hygienists also administer local anesthesia if qualified to do so.HomeCollege of Dental Hygienists of British Columbia /Saskatchewan Dental Hygienists AssociationHOME In Ontario, dental hygienists may take further training to become a restorative dental hygienist. Registered dental hygienists must register every year by December 31. Ontario dental hygienists must also prove continuing competence by maintaining a professional portfolio yearly.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienists in BC, ON, NS and AB are able to open their own private clinics and practice without a dentist on staff.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienists are no longer trained in New Zealand. Instead, training has been combined with that of dental therapists to train oral health therapists. Dental hygienists were first domestically trained in 1974 for use in the New Zealand Defence Force. The 1-year course was taught by the Royal New Zealand Dental Corp at the Burnham army base outside Christchurch. Hygiene training was briefly offered at the Wellington School for Dental Nurses in 1990 as 2-week a supplement to Dental Therapy students training. However, this was quickly discontinued.


title: Dental hygienist

text: The first independent non-military training began in 1994. Otago Polytechnic began offering a 15-month Certificate in Dental Hygiene in Dunedin. In 1998, the programme was modified to be a 2-year Diploma. Otago Polytech stopped offering the course in 2000. The following year, University of Otago began offering a 2-year Diploma in Dental Hygiene qualification. In 2002, the university added a 3-year Bachelor of Health Sciences (endorsed in Dental Hygiene) degree alongside the Diploma.


title: Dental hygienist

text: From 2006, New Zealand dental hygienists and now oral health therapists have been trained at either University of Otago in Dunedin (at the country's only Dental School) or at Auckland University of Technology. Until official establishment of the oral health therapy scope in late 2017, the qualifications (Bachelor of Oral Health at Otago, Bachelor of Health Science (Oral Health) at AUT) enabled graduates to register and practise as both a dental hygienist and a dental therapist.


title: Dental hygienist

text: In order to practise, dental hygienists and oral health therapists must register and annually recertify with the Dental Council of New Zealand. One dental hygienist is represented on Council for a 3-year term.


title: Dental hygienist

text: The representing body for dental hygienists was the New Zealand Dental Hygienists' Association. The association was founded in 1993, and is affiliated with the International Federation of Dental Hygienists. In 2021 the association merged with the New Zealand Dental and Oral Health Therapists Association to become the New Zealand Oral Health Association.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienists in the United States must be graduates from a dental hygiene program, with either an associate degree (most common), a certificate, a bachelor's degree or a master's degree from a dental hygienist school that is accredited by the American Dental Association (ADA).


title: Dental hygienist

text: All dental hygienists in the United States must be licensed by the state in which they practice, after completing a minimum of two years of school and passing a written board known as the National Board Dental Hygiene Examination as well as a clinical board exam. After completing these exams and licenses, dental hygienists may use "R.D.H" after their names to signify that they are a registered dental hygienist. Dental hygienists also have to become licensed in the state in which they intend to practice. State licensure requirements vary, however most states require an associate degree in Dental Hygiene, successful completion of a state licensure examination, as well as a clinical examination also typically administered by the state.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienists school programs usually require both general education courses and courses specific to the field of dental hygiene. General education courses important to dental hygiene degrees include college level algebra, biology, and chemistry. Courses specific to dental hygiene may include anatomy, oral anatomy, materials science, pharmacology, radiography, periodontology, nutrition, and clinical skills.


title: Dental hygienist

text: A Bachelor of Science in Dental Hygiene is typically a four-year program. Students entering a bachelor's degree program are required to have a high school diploma or equivalent, but many dental hygienists with an associate degree or certification enter the bachelor's degree programs to expand their clinical expertise and help advance their careers.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Graduate degrees in the field of dental hygiene are typically two-year programs and are completed after the bachelor's degree. Common graduate courses in dental hygiene include Healthcare Management, Lab Instruction, and Clinical Instruction.


title: Dental hygienist

text: In addition, the American Dental Hygienists' Association has defined a more advanced level of dental hygiene, the Advanced Dental Hygiene Practitioner otherwise known as a dental therapist.


title: Dental hygienist

text: Dental hygienist students perform practical oral examinations free of charge at some institutions which have expressed a shortage in recent years.


title: Dental hygienist

text: The dental hygienists in some parts of North America can provide oral hygiene treatment based on the assessment of a patient's needs without the authorization of a dentist, treat the patient in absence of a dentist, and also maintain a provider-patient relationship.


title: Dental hygienist

text: The Dental Hygienist Course in India is a full-time 2-year diploma course. The Dental Hygienist course is regulated and controlled by the Dental Council of India. After completion of the course a dental hygienist should register with a state dental council. Any person who is a registered dental hygienist in a one state may practice as such in any other. The Federation of Indian Dental Hygienists Association is the primary national body representing the dental hygienist profession in India, however some state dental hygienist associations also work at state level. In India, dental hygienists do not need to be employed by a dentist but can have their own clinic.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 1995 - A client must have seen a dentist within the previous 365 days in order for the hygienist to provide dental hygiene treatment.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 2012 - New bylaws offers an exemption from the 365-day rule if hygienists are registered in the Full Registration (365 Day Rule Exempt) class.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 2006 - Dental hygienists are able to offer their services in many practice settings including independent practice.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 2008 - If the dental hygienist has practiced for more than 3000 hours, and the client does not have a complex medical condition then the hygienists do not require the supervision of a dentist.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 2007 - Registered dental hygienists in Ontario who have been approved by the College of Dental Hygienists of Ontario can practice independently.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 1998 - Registered dental hygienist in alternative practice (RDHAP): RDHAPs may provide services for homebound persons or at residential facilities, schools, institutions and in dental health professional shortage areas without the supervision of a dentist. RDHAPs can provide patient care for up to 18 months and longer if the patient obtains a prescription for additional oral treatment from a dentist or physician .


title: Dental hygienist

text: 1987 - Unsupervised practice: Hygienists may have their own dental hygiene practice; there are no requirement for the authorization or supervision of a dentist for most services. Colorado is currently the only state where this is approved. Case was won by JoAnn Grant, a dental hygienist from Fort Collins, CO.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 1999 - Public health dental hygienist: dental hygienists may practice without supervision in institutions, public health facilities, group homes, and schools as long as they have two years of work experience.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 2008 - Independent practice dental hygienist: A dental hygienist licensed with an independent practice may work without the supervision of a dentist, providing that the dental hygienist has to complete 2,000 work hours of clinical practice during the two years prior to applying for an independent license, as well as a bachelor's degree from a CODA accredited dental hygiene program or complete 6,000 work hours of clinical practice during the six years prior to applying for an independent license, as well as an associate degree from a CODA accredited dental hygiene program.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 2005 - PA 161 Dental hygienist: hygienists with grantee status can work in a public or nonprofit environment, a school or nursing home that administers dental care to a low-income population. Dentists collaborating with dental hygienists do not need to be present to authorize or administer treatment. However, dental hygienists must have the availability to communicate with a dentist in order to review patient records and establish emergency protocols. Hygienists need to apply to the state department of community health for grantee status.


title: Dental hygienist

text: 1984 - Unsupervised practice: dental hygienist practice without the supervision of a dentist is allowed in hospitals, group homes, nursing homes, home health agencies, Health and Human Service state institutions, jails, and public health facilities as long as the hygienist refers their patients to a dentist for treatment. Hygienists must have at least two years of work experience within the last 5 years.


title: Unequal treaty

text: Unequal treaty is the name given by the Chinese to a series of treaties signed during the 19th and early 20th centuries, between China (mostly referring to the Qing dynasty) and various Western powers (specifically the British Empire, France, the German Empire, the United States, and the Russian Empire), and the Empire of Japan. The agreements, often reached after a military defeat or a threat of military invasion, contained one-sided terms, requiring China to cede land, pay reparations, open treaty ports, give up tariff autonomy, legalise opium import, and grant extraterritorial privileges to foreign citizens.


title: Unequal treaty

text: With the rise of Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism in the 1920s, both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party used the concept to characterize the Chinese experience of losing sovereignty between roughly 1840 to 1950. The term "unequal treaty" became associated with the concept of China's "century of humiliation", especially the concessions to foreign powers and the loss of tariff autonomy through treaty ports.


title: Unequal treaty

text: Japanese and Koreans also use the term to refer to several treaties that resulted in the loss of their sovereignty, to varying degrees.


title: Unequal treaty

text: In China, the term "unequal treaty" first came into use in the early 1920s. Dong Wang, a professor of contemporary and modern Chinese history at the Gordon College in Massachusetts, United States, noted that "while the phrase has long been widely used, it nevertheless lacks a clear and unambiguous meaning" and that there is "no agreement about the actual number of treaties signed between China and foreign countries that should be counted as 'unequal'."


title: Unequal treaty

text: Historian Immanuel Hsu states that the Chinese viewed the treaties they signed with Western powers and Russia as unequal "because they were not negotiated by nations treating each other as equals but were imposed on China after a war, and because they encroached upon China's sovereign rights ... which reduced her to semicolonial status".


title: Unequal treaty

text: In response, historian Elizabeth Cobbs writes in "American Umpire", her argument that "democratic capitalism" has never engaged in imperialism: "Ironically, however, the treaties also resulted partly from China's initial reluctance to consider any treaties whatsoever, since it viewed all other nations as inferior. It did not wish to be equal."


title: Unequal treaty

text: In many cases, China was effectively forced to pay large amounts of financial reparations, open up ports for trade, cede or lease territories (such as Outer Manchuria and Outer Northwest China (including Zhetysu) to the Russian Empire, Hong Kong and Weihaiwei to the United Kingdom, Guangzhouwan to France, Kwantung Leased Territory and Taiwan to the Empire of Japan, the Jiaozhou Bay concession to the German Empire and concession territory in Tientsin, Shamian, Hankou, Shanghai etc.), and make various other concessions of sovereignty to foreign spheres of influence, following military threats.


title: Unequal treaty

text: The earliest treaty later referred to as "unequal" was the 1841 Convention of Chuenpi negotiations during the First Opium War. The first treaty between China and the United Kingdom termed "unequal" was the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842.


title: Unequal treaty

text: Following Qing China's defeat, treaties with Britain opened up five ports to foreign trade, while also allowing foreign missionaries, at least in theory, to reside within China. Foreign residents in the port cities were afforded trials by their own consular authorities rather than the Chinese legal system, a concept termed extraterritoriality. Under the treaties, the UK and the US established the British Supreme Court for China and Japan and United States Court for China in Shanghai.


title: Unequal treaty

text: After World War I, patriotic consciousness in China focused on the treaties, which now became widely known as "unequal treaties". The Nationalist Party and the Communist Party competed to convince the public that their approach would be more effective. Germany was forced to terminate its rights, the Soviet Union surrendered them, and the United States organized the Washington Conference to negotiate them.


title: Unequal treaty

text: After Chiang Kai-shek declared a new national government in 1927, the Western powers quickly offered diplomatic recognition, arousing anxiety in Japan. The new government declared to the Great Powers that China had been exploited for decades under unequal treaties, and that the time for such treaties was over, demanding they renegotiate all of them on equal terms.


title: Unequal treaty

text: After the Boxer Rebellion and the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, Germany started to reassess the policy approach towards China. In 1907 Germany suggested a German-Chinese-American agreement that never materialised. Thus China entered the new era of ending unequal treaties on March 14, 1917 when it broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. China declared war on Germany on August 17 1917.


title: Unequal treaty

text: These acts voided the unequal treaty of 1861, resulting in the reinstatement of Chinese control on the concessions of Tianjin and Hankou to China. In 1919, China refused to sign the Peace Treaty of Versailles. On May 20, 1921, China secured with the German-Chinese peace treaty (Deutsch-chinesischer Vertrag zur Wiederherstellung des Friedenszustandes), considered the first equal treaty between China and a European nation.


title: Unequal treaty

text: Many of the other treaties China considers unequal were repealed during the Second Sino-Japanese War, which started in 1937 and merged into the larger context of World War II. The United States Congress ended American extraterritoriality in December 1943. Significant examples outlasted World War II: treaties regarding Hong Kong remained in place until Hong Kong's 1997 handover, though in 1969, to improve Sino-Soviet relations in the wake of military skirmishes along their border, the People's Republic of China was forced to reconfirm the 1858 Treaty of Aigun and 1860 Treaty of Peking.


title: Unequal treaty

text: When the American Commodore Matthew Perry reached Japan in 1854, it signed the Convention of Kanagawa. Its importance was limited. Much more important was the Harris Treaty of 1858 negotiated by U.S. envoy Townsend Harris.


title: Unequal treaty

text: Korea's first unequal treaty was not with the West but instead with Japan. The Ganghwa Island incident, 1875, saw Japan send Captain Inoue Yoshika and the warship "Un'yō" with the implied threat of military action to coerce the Korean Kingdom of Joseon. This forced Korea to open its doors to Japan by signing the "Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876".


title: Unequal treaty

text: The unequal treaties ended at various times for the countries involved. Japan's victories in the 1894–95 First Sino-Japanese War convinced many in the West that unequal treaties could no longer be enforced on Japan. Korea's unequal treaties with European states became largely null and void in 1910, when it was annexed by Japan.


title: Unequal treaty

text: In 2018, Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad compared Chinese Belt and Road Initiative infrastructure projects in Malaysia to unequal treaties. He said "They know that when they lend big sums of money to a poor country, in the end they may have to take the project for themselves," and "China knows very well that it had to deal with unequal treaties in the past imposed upon China by Western powers. So China should be sympathetic toward us. They know we cannot afford this".


title: Count Duckula

text: Count Duckula is a British children's animated comedy horror television series created by British studio Cosgrove Hall Films and produced by Thames Television as a spin-off from "Danger Mouse", a series in which an early version of the Count Duckula character was a recurring villain. "Count Duckula" aired from 6 September 1988 to 16 February 1993 across four series; in all, 65 episodes were made, each about 22 minutes long. All have been released on DVD in the UK, while only the first series has been released in North America.