title: Lemnoideae

text: The plants can provide nitrate removal, if cropped, and the duckweeds are important in the process of bioremediation because they grow rapidly, absorbing excess mineral nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphates. For these reasons, they are touted as water purifiers of untapped value.


title: Lemnoideae

text: The Swiss Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries, associated with the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, asserts that as well as the food and agricultural values, duckweed also may be used for wastewater treatment to capture toxins and for odor control, and that if a mat of duckweed is maintained during harvesting for removal of the toxins captured thereby, it prevents the development of algae and controls the breeding of mosquitoes. The same publication provides an extensive list of references for many duckweed-related topics.


title: Lemnoideae

text: These plants also may play a role in conservation of water because a cover of duckweed will reduce evaporation of water when compared to the rate of a similarly sized water body with a clear surface.


title: Lemnoideae

text: Duckweed also functions as a bioremediator by effectively filtering contaminants such as bacteria, nitrogen, phosphates, and other nutrients from naturally occurring bodies of water, constructed wetlands, and wastewater.


title: Lemnoideae

text: A start-up, microTERRA, based in Mexico has attempted to use duckweed as clean water in privately owned aquaculture farms. The plants use nitrogen and phosphorus produced from fish waste as fertilizer, while simultaneously cleaning the water as it grows. The water can then be reused by the aquaculture farmers, and the duckweed, which has a 35-42% protein content, can be harvested as a source of sustainable protein.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR; "Northern German Broadcasting") is a public radio and television broadcaster, based in Hamburg. In addition to the city-state of Hamburg, NDR broadcasts for the German states of Lower Saxony, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Schleswig-Holstein. NDR is a member of the ARD organisation.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: NDR's studios in Hamburg are in two locations, both within the borough of Eimsbüttel: the television studios are in the quarter of Lokstedt while the radio studios are in the quarter of Harvestehude (though they are called "Funkhaus am Rothenbaum"), a little closer to the city centre. There are also regional studios, having both radio and television production facilities, in the state capitals Hanover, Kiel and Schwerin. The facility in Hanover is now called the Landesfunkhaus Niedersachsen. In addition, NDR maintains facilities at ARD's national studios in Berlin.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: NDR is in part funded by the limited sale of on-air commercial advertising time; however, its principal source of income is the revenue derived from viewer and listener licence fees. As of August 2021, the monthly fee due from each household for radio and television reception was €18.36. These fees are collected not directly by NDR but by a joint agency of ARD (and its member institutions), ZDF, and Deutschlandradio.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, in the former East Germany, NDR programmes are broadcast from facilities owned by Media Broadcast GmbH, a former subsidiary of the Deutsche Telekom AG.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In 1924 broadcasting began in Hamburg, when "Norddeutsche Rundfunk AG" (NORAG) was created. In 1934 it was incorporated into the "Großdeutscher Rundfunk", the national broadcaster controlled by Joseph Goebbels's Propagandaministerium, as "Reichssender Hamburg".


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In 1930, NORAG commissioned the Welte-Funkorgel – a large theatre organ custom-built by the firm of M. Welte & Sons to meet the specific acoustic requirements of radio broadcasting – and installed it in their radio studio (today the world's oldest such facility still in use) on Rothenbaumchaussee 132, Hamburg, where it continues to be played, now maintained by volunteers.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In the British Zone of occupied Germany, the military authorities quickly established "Radio Hamburg" to provide information to the population of the area.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: The British Control Commission appointed Hugh Greene to manage the creation of public service broadcasting in their Zone. On 22 September 1945, "Radio Hamburg" became "Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk" (North-Western German Broadcasting), the single broadcasting organisation of the British Zone.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: The state of Bremen, while laying wholly within British Zone, was part of the American Zone and thus a separate broadcaster was established for this state, Radio Bremen. However, Radio Bremen and NDR cooperate in certain programmes and stations.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In 1948, the Control Commission transferred the Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR) to the control of the constituent Länder (Hamburg, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein). At first, NWDR had just one radio station, later known as NWDR1. In 1950, it introduced a regional station for the north, "NWDR Nord" (later to become NDR2), and a regional station for the west, "NWDR West" (later WDR2).


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: That same year, NWDR became a founding member of ARD, a joint organisation of all German regional broadcasters. The NWDR also played a founding role in launching 625-line television in Germany, starting broadcasts on 25 December 1952.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In February 1955, North Rhine-Westphalia decided to establish its own broadcaster, whilst Hamburg, Lower Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein continued with the existing joint system. To this end, the NWDR was split into two broadcasters, Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR) in the north and Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR) in North Rhine-Westphalia.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: NDR continued to operate out of Hamburg. The split was effective from 1 January 1956, although the radio station NWDR1 remained a joint operation with regional opt-outs.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: The NWDR television service also remained a joint operation, from 1 April 1956 under the name "Nord- und Westdeutsche Rundfunkverband" (North and West German Broadcasting Federation – NWRV). NDR and WDR launched separate television services for their respective areas in 1961.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: On 1 December 1956 NDR started its third radio channel, NDR3 (from 1962 to 1973, it was operated jointly with Sender Freies Berlin).


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In 1958 Han Koller became the musical director of Hamburg's NDR Jazz Workshop, which became a popular radio broadcast. Numerous names in Jazz performed on these broadcasts including; Dave Brubeck, Kenny Clarke, Lucky Thompson, Wes Montgomery, Johnny Griffin, Oscar Peterson, Ben Webster, Sahib Shihab, Carmell Jones, Lee Konitz, Cecil Payne, Slide Hampton, Phil Woods, Jazz Composers Orchestra, Howard Riley, Barry Guy, John Surman, the Kuhn Brothers and Barney Wilen. Some of these have been released since 1987, while the older ones only exist as rare bootlegs, sought after by many Jazz aficionados.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: On 4 January 1965 NDR, Radio Bremen and Sender Freies Berlin (SFB) began a joint "third channel" television service, "Norddeutsches Fernsehen", later "Nord 3" and "N3". Since December 2001, this service is called "NDR Fernsehen". SFB started a separate TV channel for Berlin in 1992, called B1, later SFB1, now RBB Fernsehen.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In 1977, Gerhard Stoltenberg, the minister-president of Schleswig-Holstein unilaterally cancelled the "NDR-Staatsvertrag", the governing contract of NDR. This caused a discussion how to organise broadcasting in the North German region.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: In 1980, NDR signed a new contract with the three Länder, changing the pattern of broadcasting and creating new regional services. NDR1 was divided into three independent radio stations from 2 January 1981:


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: These regional services were further subdivided with opt-outs for specific areas. "NDR 1 Niedersachsen" established regions based around Oldenburg-Ostfriesland-Bremen-Cuxhaven, Osnabrück-Emsland, greater Hanover, Braunschweig-southern Lower Saxony and northern Lower Saxony. "NDR 1 Welle Nord" was subdivided with studio centres in Flensburg, Heide, Norderstedt, Lübeck and Kiel.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: On 30 September 1988 NDR introduced a teletext service on its "N3" television channel. Originally called "Nordtext", it became "NDR Text" on 2 December 2001. The teletext service also offers information for viewers in the Radio Bremen area under the title "Radio Bremen Text".


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: On 1 April 1989, NDR introduced its fourth radio service, NDR4. This service was later renamed "NDR4 Info" and since 2 June 2002 has been known as "NDR Info". The station is a news and information service for the whole NDR region.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: On 1 January 1992, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in former East Germany joined NDR as the fourth state in the organisation, where it replaced Fernsehen der DDR and Rundfunk der DDR. The area receives the main NDR radio and television stations, plus the regional "NDR 1 Radio mV", which has subregions based in Schwerin, Rostock, Neubrandenburg and Greifswald. In October of the same year, SFB in Berlin stopped relaying the "Nord 3" television service in favour of its own "Berlin 1" TV channel.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: On 4 April 1994, NDR introduced "N-Joy Radio" (known simply as "N-Joy" since 2001), a radio station aimed at 14 to 29-year-old listeners.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: On 3 October 1997, NDR3 was relaunched as "Radio 3", produced in co-operation with Ostdeutscher Rundfunk Brandenburg. At the end of 2000, SFB joined Radio 3. This arrangement lasted until ORB and SFB merged on 1 January 2003 and started íts own classical and culture network. NDR3 became "NDR Kultur" on 1 January 2003.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: On 1 November 2001, NDR and Radio Bremen launched a joint radio station, "Nordwestradio", to serve Bremen and northwestern Lower Saxony. This service replaced "Radio Bremen 2" and control of the service remains with Radio Bremen.


title: Norddeutscher Rundfunk

text: As the organization responsible within the ARD consortium of German public-service broadcasters for overseeing the country's participation in the Eurovision Song Contest, NDR staged the 56th annual contest which was held in Düsseldorf on 10–14 May 2011, outside their own broadcasting area.


title: Bohemian style

text: The Bohemian style focuses on color, life, and culture as its main aspects, seeking to replicate the romani nomadic lifestyle. The word Bohemian comes from the French word "bohémien",meaning romani. A person living a "bohemian lifestyle" is typically a writer or an artist, living an unconventional lifestyle, often living in a colony with others. The Bohemian clothing style seeks to reflect the unconventional or "bohemian" lifestyle, evolving over the years.


title: Bohemian style

text: Reflecting on the fashion style of "Boho-chic" in the early years of the 21st century, "The Sunday Times" found it ironic that fashionable girls "wore ruffled floral skirts in the hopes of looking Bohemian, nomadic, spirited and non-bourgeois", whereas "gypsy girls themselves are sexy and delightful precisely because they do not give a hoot for fashion". On the other hand, elements of bohemian dress in the late 19th and early 20th centuries represented the way of life. Today's bohemian fashion includes flowing textiles and attractive female silhouettes. The way it varies, though, is that it draws style cues from the 1960s and 1970s, usually referring to the clothing that concertgoers at the first Woodstock music festival. Examples of Bohemian style are ikat or paisley blouses paired with cutoff jeans for women, or vintage button-down shirts for men.


title: Bohemian style

text: The Bohemian sub-culture has been closely connected with predominantly male artists and intellectuals. The female counterparts have been closely connected with the Grisettes, young women who combined part-time prostitution with various other occupations. In the first quarter of the 19th century, the term ""grisette"" also referred to independent young women. They often worked as seamstresses or milliner's assistants and frequented Bohemian artistic and cultural venues in Paris. Many grisettes worked as artist's models, often providing sexual favors to the artists in addition to posing for them. During the time of King Louis-Philippe they came to dominate the Bohemian modelling scene.


title: Bohemian style

text: The grisette became a frequent character in French fiction but have been mentioned as early as in 1730 by Jonathan Swift. The term, compare The grisette in poetry, signifies qualities of both flirtatiousness and intellectual aspiration, George du Maurier based large parts of "Trilby" on his experiences as a student in Parisian Bohemia during the 1850s. Poe's 1842 story was based on the unsolved murder of Mary Cecilia Rogers near New York City, subtitled "A Sequel to 'The Murders in the Rue Morgue'", it was the first detective story to attempt the solution of a real crime. The most enduring grisette is Mimi in Henri Murger's novel (and subsequent play) "Scènes de la vie de Bohème", the source for Puccini's famous opera "La bohème."


title: Bohemian style

text: In 1848 William Makepeace Thackeray used the word Bohemianism in his novel "Vanity Fair". In 1862, the "Westminster Review" described a Bohemian as "simply an artist or "littérateur" who, consciously or unconsciously, secedes from conventionality in life and in art". During the 1860s the term was associated in particular with the pre-Raphaelite movement, the group of artists and aesthetes of which Dante Gabriel Rossetti was the most prominent:


title: Bohemian style

text: As the 1860s progressed, Rossetti would become the grand prince of Bohemianism as his deviations from normal standards became more audacious. He then became this epitome of the unconventional, his egocentric demands necessarily required his close friends to remodel their own lives around him. His Bohemianism was like a web in which others became trapped – none more so than William and Jane Morris.


title: Bohemian style

text: Jane Morris, who was to become Rossetti's muse, epitomized, probably more than any of the women associated with the pre-Raphaelites, an unrestricted, flowing style of dress that, while unconventional at the time, would be highly influential at certain periods during the 20th century. She and others, including the much less outlandish Georgiana Burne-Jones (wife of Edward Burne-Jones, one of the later pre-Raphaelites), eschewed the corsets and crinolines of the mid-to-late Victorian era, a feature that impressed the American writer Henry James when he wrote to his sister in 1869 of the bohemian atmosphere of the Morrises' house in the Bloomsbury district of London and, in particular, the "dark silent medieval" presence of its chatelaine:


title: Bohemian style

text: It’s hard to say whether she’s a grand synthesis of all the pre-Raphaelite pictures ever made … whether she’s an original or a copy. In either case she’s a wonder. Imagine a tall, lean woman in a long dress of some dead purple stuff, guiltless of hoops (or of anything else I should say) with a mass of crisp black hair heaped into great wavy projections on each of her temples … a long neck, without any collar, and "in lieu" thereof some dozen strings of outlandish beads.


title: Bohemian style

text: In his play "Pygmalion" (1912) Bernard Shaw unmistakably based the part of Mrs. Higgins on the then elderly Jane Morris. He described Mrs. Higgins' drawing room, he referred to a portrait of her "when she defied the fashion of her youth in one of the beautiful Rossettian costumes which, when caricatured by people who did not understand, led to the absurdities of popular estheticism "[sic]" in the eighteen-seventies".


title: Bohemian style

text: A biographer of Edward Burne-Jones, writing a century after Shaw (Fiona MacCarthy, 2011), has noted that, in 1964, when the influential Biba store was opened in London by Barbara Hulanicki, the "long drooping structureless clothes", though sexier than the dresses portrayed in such Burne-Jones paintings as "The Golden Stairs" or "The Sirens", nevertheless resembled them. The interior of Biba has been described by the biographer of British 20th century designer Laura Ashley as having an atmosphere that "reeked of sex … [It] was designed to look like a bordello with its scarlet, black and gold plush fitments, but, interestingly, it implied an old-fashioned, Edwardian style of forbidden sex with feathered boas, potted palms, bentwood coat racks and dark lighting" MacCarthy observed also that "the androgynous appearance of Burne-Jones's male figures reflected the sexually ambivalent feeling" of the late 1960s.


title: Bohemian style

text: Effie Gray, whose marriage to John Ruskin was annulled in 1854 before her marrying the pre-Raphaelite painter John Millais, is known to have used flowers as an adornment and probably also as an assertive "statement". While in Scotland with Ruskin (still her husband) and Millais, she gathered foxgloves to place in her hair. She wore them at breakfast, despite being asked by her husband not to do so, a gesture of defiance, at a time of growing crisis in their relationship, that came to the critical notice of Florence Nightingale (who tended to regard others of her sex with "scarcely concealed scorn" and was generally unsympathetic towards "women's rights"). A few weeks earlier, on Midsummer Day, Effie (possibly inspired by Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream") was said by her hostess, Pauline Trevelyan, to have "looked lovely" with stephanotis in her hair at an evening party in Northumberland, while, the previous year, a male friend had brought a vase of flowers for her hair from Venice. Ruskin's father was evidently shocked to learn that, when Effie herself was in Venice, she had removed her bonnet in public, ostensibly because of the heat.


title: Bohemian style

text: In 1853 Millais painted "Effie with Foxgloves in her Hair" which depicts her wearing the flowers while doing needlework. Other paintings of the mid-to-late 19th century, such as Frederick Sandys' "Love's Shadow" (1867) is of a girl with a rose in her hair, sucking a sprig of blossom, which was described in 1970 as "a first rate PR job for the Flower People", and Burne-Jones' "The Heart of the Rose" (1889), have been cited as foreshadowing the "flower power" of the mid-to-late 1960s.


title: Bohemian style

text: By the turn of the 20th century, an increasing number of professional women, notably in the United States, were attempting to live outside the traditional parameters of society. Between 1870 and 1910, the marriage rate among educated women in the United States fell to 60% (30% lower than the national average), while, by 1893, in the state of Massachusetts alone, some 300,000 women were earning their own living in nearly 300 occupations. The invention of the typewriter in 1867 was a particular spur: for example, by the turn of the 20th century, 80% of stenographers were women.


title: Bohemian style

text: By this time, such movements as the Rational Dress Society (1881), with which the Morrises and Georgiana Burne-Jones were involved, were beginning to exercise some influence on women's dress, although the pre-Raphaelite look was still considered "advanced" in the late years of the 19th century. Queen Victoria's precocious daughter Princess Louise, an accomplished painter and artist who mixed in bohemian circles, was sympathetic to rational dress and to the developing women's movement generally (although her rumoured pregnancy at the age of 18 was said to have been disguised by tight corsetry).


title: Bohemian style

text: However, it was not really until the First World War that "many working women ... embarked on a revolution in fashion that greatly reduced the weight and restrictions imposed on them by their clothing". Some women working in factories wore trousers and the brassiere (invented in 1889 by the feminist Herminie Cadolle and patented in America by Mary Phelps Jacob in 1914) began gradually to supersede the corset. In shipyards "trouser suits" (the term, "pantsuit" was adopted in America in the 1920s) were virtually essential to enable women to shin up and down ladders. Music hall artists also helped to push the boundaries of fashion; these included Vesta Tilley, whose daring adoption on stage of well-tailored male dress not only had an influence on men's attire, but also foreshadowed to an extent styles adopted by some women in the inter-war period. It was widely understood that Tilley sought additional authenticity by wearing male underclothing, although off stage, she was much more conventional in both her dress and general outlook.


title: Bohemian style

text: By the early 1920s, what had been a wartime expedient – the need to economize on material – had become a statement of freedom by young women, manifested by shorter hemlines (just above the knee by 1925–6) and boyish hairstyles, accompanied by what Robert Graves and Alan Hodge described as "the new fantastic development of Jazz music". At the Antwerp Olympic Games in 1920, the French tennis player Suzanne Lenglen attracted attention with a knee length skirt that revealed her suspender belt whenever she leapt to smash a ball. From then on, sportswear for women, as with day-to-day clothes, became freer, although, after the Second World War, when the American player Gussie Moran appeared at the Wimbledon championships of 1949 in a short skirt that revealed lace-trimmed panties, the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club accused her of bringing "vulgarity and sin into tennis" and shunned the outfit's designer Teddy Tinling for many years.


title: Bohemian style

text: The "Penguin Social History of Britain" noted that "by the 1920s newspapers were filled with advertisements for 'lingerie' and 'undies' which would have been classed as indecent a generation earlier". Thus, in Ben Travers' comic novel "Rookery Nook" (1923), a young woman evicted from home in her nightwear and requiring day clothes remarked, "Combies. That's all right. But in the summer you know, we don't ...", while in Agatha Christie's thriller, "The Seven Dials Mystery" (1929), the aristocratic heroine, Lady "Bundle" Brent, wore only "a negligible trifle" under her dress; like many real life "it girls" of her class, she had been freed from the "genteel expectations" of earlier generations. In Hollywood the actress Carole Lombard, who, in the 1930s, combined feistiness with sexual allure, never wore a brassière and "avoided panties". However, she famously declared that though "I live by a man's code designed to fit a man's world ... at the same time I never forget that a woman's first job is to choose the right shade of lipstick" Coincidentally, sales of men's undershirts fell dramatically in the United States when Lombard's future husband, Clark Gable, was revealed not to be wearing one in a famous motel bedroom scene with Claudette Colbert in the film "It Happened One Night" (1934). According to Gable, "the idea was looking half-naked and scaring the brat into her own bed on the other side of the blanket [hanging from a clothesline to separate twin beds]". However, he "gave the impression that going without was a vital sign of a man's virility" More generally, the adoption by the American movie industry of the Hays Production Code in the early 1930s had a significant effect on how moral, and especially sexual, issues were depicted on film. This included a more conservative approach to matters of dress. Whereas the sort of scanty lingerie on show in some earlier productions (for example, Joan Blondell and Barbara Stanwyck in "Night Nurse", 1931) had tended to reflect trends that, in the 1920s, defied convention and were regarded many young women as liberating, by the early years of the Depression such displays came to be regarded quite widely as undesirable. Developments in the late 1960s and 1970s, when the strictures of the code were abandoned, followed a similar pattern, although, by then, it was often women themselves who were in the vanguard of resistance to sexualized imagery.


title: Bohemian style

text: Looking back at this period, Graves and Hodge noted the protracted course that "daring female fashions had always taken ... from brothel to stage, then on to Bohemia, to Society, to Society's maids, to the mill-girl and lastly to the suburban woman".


title: Bohemian style

text: Among female Bohemians in the early 20th century, the "gypsy look" was a recurring theme, popularized by, among others, Dorothy "Dorelia" McNeill (1881–1969), muse, lover and second wife of the painter Augustus John (1878–1961), whose full skirts and bright colors gave rise to the so-called "Dorelia look". Katherine Everett, "née" Olive, a former student of the Slade School of Art in London, has described McNeil's "tight fitting, hand-sewn, canary colored bodice above a dark gathered flowing skirt, and her hair very black and gleaming, emphasizing the long silver earrings which were her only adornment".


title: Bohemian style

text: Everett recalled also the Johns' woods "with wild cherry trees in blossom, and ... a model with flying red hair, clad in white, being chased in and out of the trees by nude children". With similar lack of inhibition, as early as 1907 the American heiress Natalie Barney (1875–1972) was leading like-minded women in sapphic dances in her Parisian garden, photographs of which look little different from scenes at Woodstock in 1969 and other "pop" festivals of the late 1960s and early 1970s.


title: Bohemian style

text: By contrast, short bobbed hair was often a Bohemian trait, having originated in Paris "c."1909 and been adopted by students at the Slade several years before American film actresses such as Colleen Moore and Louise Brooks ("the girl in the black helmet") became associated with it in the mid-1920s. This style was plainly discernible on a woodblock self-portrait of 1916 by Dora Carrington, who had entered the Slade in 1910, and, indeed, the journalist and historian Sir Max Hastings has referred to "poling punts occupied by reclining girls with bobbed hair" as an enduring, if misleading, popular image of the "idyll before the storm" of the First World War.


title: Bohemian style

text: In F. Scott Fitzgerald's short story, "Bernice Bobs Her Hair" (1920), a young woman who wishes to become a "society vamp" regards the adoption of a bob as a necessary prelude, while Louise Brooks' sexually charged performance as Lulu in G. W. Pabst's film, "Pandora's Box" (1929), left an enduring image of the style, which has been replicated on screen over the years, most vividly by Cyd Charisse in "Singin' in the Rain" (1952), Isabelle de Funès as Valentina in "Baba Yaga" (1973) and Melanie Griffith in "Something Wild" (1986). It was associated also with many popular singers and actresses in the 1960s and has frequently been evoked by writers and directors, as well as fashion designers, seeking to recapture the hedonsitic or free spirit of the 1920s. For example, Kerry Greenwood's "Cocaine Blues" (1989) and succeeding novels about Phryne Fisher, a glamorous, but unconventional aristocratic investigator in late twenties Melbourne, Australia, conveyed an image – "five feet two [157.5 centimeters] with eyes of green and black hair cut into a cap" – that was later cultivated stylishly on television by Essie Davis in ABC's "Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries" (2012).


title: Bohemian style

text: Around 1926 an even shorter style, known as the "Eton crop", became popular: on her arrival in Tilling (Rye) in E F Benson's comic novel "Mapp and Lucia" (1931), Lucia described "Quaint" Irene as "a girl with no hat and an Eton crop. She was dressed in a fisherman's jersey and knickerbockers". For many years trite assumptions were often made about the sexuality of women with cropped hairstyles; an historian of the 1980s wrote of the Greenham Common "peace camp" in England that it "brought public awareness to feminist separation and even to lesbianism, hitherto seen in the mass media – when acknowledged at all – either in terms of Eton-cropped androgyny or of pornographic fantasy". Even so, others have drawn a stark contrast between the bohemian demeanor of the Greenham women and the "bold make-up and power-dressing" that tended to define women's fashion more generally in the 1980s (the so-called "designer decade").


title: Bohemian style

text: One social historian has observed that "the innocuous woolen jersey, now known [in Britain] as the jumper or the pullover, was the first item of clothing to become interchangeable between men and women and, as such, was seen as a dangerous symptom of gender confusion". Trousers for women, sometimes worn mannishly as an expression of sexuality (as by Marlene Dietrich as a cabaret singer in the 1930 film, "Morocco", in which she dressed in a white tie suit and kissed a girl in the audience) also became popular in the 1920s and 1930s, as did aspects of what many years later would sometimes be referred to as "shabby chic". Winston Churchill's niece Clarissa was among those who wore a tailored suit in the late 1930s.


title: Bohemian style

text: After the Second World War Christian Dior's "New Look", launched in Paris in 1947, though drawing on styles that had begun to emerge in 1938-9, set the pattern for women's fashion generally until the 1960s. Harking back in some ways to the "Belle Epoque" of the late 19th and early 20th centuries – and thus not a "new" look as such – it was criticized by some as excessively feminine and, with its accompanying corsets and rustle of frilled petticoats, as setting back the "work of emancipation won through participation in two world wars". It also, for a while, bucked the trend towards boyish fashion that, as after the First World War, tended to follow major conflicts.


title: Bohemian style

text: American influences had been discouraged during the Nazi occupation of France, but, notably in the form of be-bop and other types of jazz, were strong among intellectual café society in the mid-to-late 1940s. In 1947, "Samedi-Soir" lifted the lid on what it called the "troglodytes of Saint-Germain", namely bohemians of the Parisian Left Bank ("Rive Gauche") district of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, who appeared to cluster around existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. These included Roger Vadim (who married and launched the career of actress Brigitte Bardot in the 1950s), novelist Boris Vian (since described as "the epitome of Left Bank Bohemia, standing at the center of its postwar rehabilitation") and singer Juliette Gréco.


title: Bohemian style

text: At the liberation of Paris in 1944, the American journalist Ernie Pyle observed that the women were all "brightly dressed in white or red blouses and colorful peasant skirts, with flowers in their hair and big flashy earrings." while Lady Diana Cooper, whose husband, Duff Cooper, became British Ambassador to Paris that year, wrote that, during the occupation, Parisienne women had worn "grotesquely large hats hung with flowers and fruits and feathers and ribbons" as well as high carved wooden shoes. However, in contrast to such striking bohemian adornments and subsequently the "New Look" (which itself scandalised some Parisennes), the clothes of the post-war bohemians were predominantly black: when Gréco first performed outside Saint-Germain she affronted some of her audience by wearing "black trousers, her bare feet slipped into golden sandals". In old age she claimed that this style of dress arose from poverty:


title: Bohemian style

text: When I was a teenager in Paris ... I only had one dress and one pair of shoes, so the boys in the house started dressing me in their old black coats and trousers. A fashion was shaped out of misery. When people copied me, I found it a little ridiculous, but I didn't mind. It made me smile.


title: Bohemian style

text: Capturing the spirit of the time, David Profumo has written of how his mother, the actress Valerie Hobson, was entranced by Roger Vadim's flatmate, the director Marc Allégret, while she was filming "Blanche Fury" in 1947:


title: Bohemian style

text: Allégret's apparently bohemian lifestyle appealed sharply to her romantic side ... and she revelled in the Left Bank milieu to which he introduced her during script discussions in Paris. There were meals with André Gide, Jean Cocteau and the long-legged Zizi Jeanmaire. For an attractive British woman who felt deprived of attention ... this was an ideal situation for some sort of reawakening.


title: Bohemian style

text: The previous year a perfume created for Hobson had been marketed as "Great Expectations" to coincide with her role as Estella Havisham in David Lean's film of that name, based on Charles Dickens' 1861 novel. In England, this attracted the custom of then-University of Oxford undergraduate Margaret Roberts, later British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who, a little daringly for the time, also shopped for "push-up" pink brassieres. In 1953, when Hobson starred in the musical "The King and I" in London, it was apparent that she had retained a Parisienne mix of "chic" and Bohemianism. A "Daily Mirror" journalist described her "pale, ladylike looks, her well-bred clothes ... she likes embroidery and painting", while a young Etonian who visited her dressing room recalled that "it had been freshly painted pink and white for her, and was like entering a risqué French apartment". Ten years later, when Hobson's husband, the politician John Profumo, was involved in a sex scandal that threatened to destabilize the British government, Prime Minister Harold Macmillan wrote that "his [Profumo's] wife is very nice and sensible. Of course, these people live in a raffish, theatrical, bohemian society where no one really knows anyone, and everyone is "darling"".


title: Bohemian style

text: Post-war Paris was recalled fondly in 2007 when France introduced a ban on smoking in public places. The aroma of Gauloises and Gitanes was, for many years, thought to be an inseparable feature of Parisian café society, but the owner of Les Deux Magots, once frequented by Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Albert Camus and other writers, observed that "things have changed. The writers of today are not so addicted to cigarettes". A British journalist who interviewed Juliette Gréco in 2010 described Les Deux Magots and the Café de Flore as "now overpriced tourist hotspots" and noted that "chain stores and expensive restaurants have replaced the bookshops, cafés and revolutionary ideas of Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir's Rive Gauche". As measures of changing attitudes to cuisine and fashion, by the early 21st century 80% of French croissants were being made in food plants, while, by 2014, only one factory continued to manufacture the traditional male beret associated with printers, artists, political activists and, during the inter-war years, the tennis player Jean Borotra.


title: Bohemian style

text: The bohemian traits of post-war Paris spread to other urban parts of the French-speaking world, notably to Algiers, where an underground culture of "jazz clubs, girls and drugs" grew up - in the words of punk rock producer Marc Zermati, who was in the city at the height of the Algerian war in the late 1950s, "all very French". However, that war marked a turning point which, in the view of some, was so traumatic that "ordinary French people" looked instead to America as "a new model for pleasure and happiness". This, in turn, led to the "ye-ye" music of the early to mid 1960s (named after the British band, the Beatles' use of "yeah, yeah" in some their early songs) and the rise of such singers as Johnny Hallyday and Françoise Hardy. The French also adopted a number of British singers (Petula Clark, Gillian Hills, Jane Birkin) who performed successfully in French, Birkin forming a long-term relationship with singer/songwriter Serge Gainsbourg, who was a seminal figure in French popular music in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1968 major industrial and student unrest in Paris and other parts of France came close to ousting the government of President Charles de Gaulle, who, after leading the Free French during the Second World War, had returned to power at the time of the Algerian emergency. The events of 1968 represented a further significant landmark in post-war France, although their longer term impact was probably more on cultural, social and academic life than on the political system, which, through the constitution of the Fifth Republic (1958), has remained broadly intact. Indeed, one paradox of 1968 was that the first student demonstrations broke out at Nanterre, whose catchment area included the affluent and "chic" 16th and 17th "arrondissements" of Paris. Its students were more modish and "trendy" than those of the Sorbonne in the city's Latin Quarter, being described at the time in terms that typify more generally the styles and attitudes of young people the late 1960s:


title: Bohemian style

text: It is the girls that give the show away - culottes, glossy leather, mini-skirts, boots - driving up in Mini-Coopers ... Rebellious sentiment is more obvious among the boys: long hair, square spectacles, Che Guevara [Cuban revolutionary, died 1967] beards. The picture in Nanterre in May was lots and lots of painted dollies cohabiting with unkempt revolutionaries.


title: Bohemian style

text: In the United States adherents of the "beat" counter-culture (probably best defined by Jack Kerouac's novel, "On the Road", set in the late 1940s, written in 1952 and published in 1957) were associated with black polo-neck (or turtle neck) sweaters, blue denim jeans and sandals. The influence of this movement could be seen in the persona and songs of Bob Dylan in the early to mid-1960s, "road" films like "Easy Rider" (1969) and the punk-oriented "New Wave" of the mid-1970s, which, among other things, produced a boho style icon in Deborah Harry of the New York band Blondie. (However, as with some American musicians of the mid-1960s, such as Sonny and Cher, Blondie came to international prominence only after a tour of Britain in 1978.)


title: Bohemian style

text: New York's Greenwich Village, which, since the late 19th century, had attracted many women with feminist or "free love" ideals, was a particular magnet for bohemians in the early 1960s. Bob Dylan's girl-friend Suze Rotolo, who appeared with him on the cover of his second album "The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan" (1963), recalled that the Village was "where people like me went – people who didn't belong where they came from .. where the writers I was reading and the artists I was looking at had lived or passed through". These "beatniks" (as they came to be known by the late 1950s) were, in many ways, the antecedents of the hippie movement that formed on the West Coast of the US in the mid-1960s and came to the fore as the first post-war baby-boomers reached the age of majority in the "Summer of Love" of 1967. The Monterey Pop Festival was a major landmark of that year, which was associated with "flowerpower", psychedelia, opposition to the Vietnam war and the inventive music and flowing, colorful fashions of, among others, Jimi Hendrix, the Mamas & the Papas, Jefferson Airplane and the British group, The Beatles, whose album, "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", is said to have caused the guru of psychedelia, Timothy Leary, to remark that "my work is finished".


title: Bohemian style

text: The documentary film, "Festival" (Murray Lerner, 1967), recorded how the "clean-cut college kids" who attended the Newport (Rhode Island) Folk Festival in 1963-4 had, by 1965 (when Bob Dylan caused a sensation at that year's festival by playing an electric guitar), become "considerably scruffier": "the hippies were waiting to be born". Among other things, the wearing of male neckties, which, in the mid-1960s, had often drawn on 19th century paisley patterns, declined as muttonchop whiskers and teashades (sunglasses) came in: by the time of the Chicago 7 trial (late 1969), hair over the collars had become so commonplace that it was beginning to transcend Bohemian style, taking on mass popularity in the 1970s. The London art dealer Jeremy Maas reflected in the mid-1980s that


title: Bohemian style

text: there [was] no question that the Hippy "[sic]" movement and its repercussive influence in England owed much of its imagery, its manner, dress and personal appearance to the Pre-Raphaelite ideal ... It was observed by all of us who were involved with these exhibitions [of pre-Raphaelite paintings] that visitors included increasing numbers of the younger generation, who had begun to resemble the figures in the pictures they had come to see.


title: Bohemian style

text: Jimmy Page of the British band Led Zeppelin, who collected Pre-Raphaelite paintings, observed of Edward Burne-Jones that "the romance of the Arthurian legends [captured in his paintings] and the bohemian life of the artists who were reworking these stories seemed very attuned to our time", while the author David Waller noted in 2011 that Burne-Jones' subjects "have much in common with the sixties rock chicks and their pop-star paladins".


title: Bohemian style

text: Although the annual "Saturday Book" recorded in 1956 a view that "London's now nothing but flash coffee bars, with teddies and little bits of girls in jeans", the "Edwardian" ("teddy boy") look of the times did not coincide with Bohemian tastes. For women, the legacy of the "New Look" was still apparent, although hemlines had generally risen as, as one journalist put it in 1963, "photographs of those first bold bearers of the New Look make them seem strangely lost and bewildered, as though they had mistaken their cue and come on stage fifty years late". The Bohemian foci during this period were the jazz clubs and espresso bars of Soho and Fitzrovia. Their habitués usually wore polo necks; in the words of one social historian, "thousands of pale, duffel-coat-clad students were hunched in coffee bars over their copies of Jean-Paul Sartre and Jack Kerouac". Various public houses and clubs also catered for Bohemian tastes, notably the Colony Room Club in Soho, opened in 1948 by Muriel Belcher, a lesbian from Birmingham. As with the literary phenomenon of the so-called "Angry Young Men" from 1956 onwards, the image was more a male, than a female, one. However, when the singer Alma Cogan wished to mark her success by buying mink coats for her mother and sister, the actress Sandra Caron, the latter asked for a duffel-coat instead because she wanted to be regarded as a serious actress and "a sort of a beatnik". In 1960 the future author Jacqueline Wilson, who, as a teenager, lived in Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, captured this look after spotting two acquaintances in a record shop "in turquoise duffle coats, extremely tight jeans and cha-cha shoes being cuddled by a group of horrible spotty teddy boys".


title: Bohemian style

text: In Iris Murdoch's novel "The Bell" (1958), an art student named Dora Greenfield bought "big multi-colored skirts and jazz records and sandals". However, as Britain emerged from post-war austerity, some Bohemian women found influences from continental Europe, adopting, for example, the "gamine look", with its black jerseys and short, almost boyish hairstyles associated with film actresses Audrey Hepburn ("Sabrina", 1954, and as a "Gréco beatnik" in "Funny Face", 1957) and Jean Seberg ("Bonjour Tristesse", 1958 and "A bout de souffle", 1960), as well as the French novelist Françoise Sagan, who, as one critic put it, "was celebrated for the variety of her partners and for driving fast sports cars in bare feet as an example of the free life". In 1961 Fenella Fielding played "a mascara-clad Gréco-alike" in "The Rebel" with comedian Tony Hancock, while, more recently, Talulah Riley replicated the look for scenes in ITV's 2006 adaptation of Agatha Christie's "The Moving Finger", set in 1951.


title: Bohemian style

text: Others favored the lower-cut, tighter styles of continental stars such as Bardot or Gina Lollobrigida. Valerie Hobson was among those whose wardrobe drew on Italian "couture"; in addition to a large collection of stiletto heeled shoes, she possessed a skirt made from python skin. More generally, European tastes – including the Lambretta motor scooter and Italian and French cuisine, which the widely traveled cookery writer Elizabeth David, herself a bit of a Bohemian, did much to promote – not only began to pervade Bohemian circles, but offered a contrast, from 1955 onwards, with the brasher Americanism of rock 'n' roll, with its predominantly teenage associations.


title: Bohemian style

text: In 1960, when the Beatles (then an obscure Liverpudlian combo with five members, as opposed to their eventual "fab" four) were working in Hamburg, West Germany, they were influenced by a Bohemian "art school" set known as "Exis" (for "existentialists"). The "Exis" were roughly equivalent to what in France became known as "les beats" and included photographer Astrid Kirchherr (for whom the "fifth Beatle" Stuart Sutcliffe left the group) and artist and musician Klaus Voormann (who designed the cover for the Beatles' album "Revolver" in 1966).


title: Bohemian style

text: John Lennon's wife Cynthia recalled that Kirchherr was fascinated by the Beatles' "teddy-boy style", but that they, in turn, were "bowled over by her hip black clothes, her "avant garde" way of life, her photography and her sense of style". As a result the group acquired black leather jackets, as well as fringed hairstyles that were the prototype of the "mop-top" cuts associated with "Beatlemania" in 1963-4. The latter coincided with the revival of the bobbed style for women, promoted in London by hairdresser Vidal Sassoon, initially for actress Nancy Kwan, and adopted by, among others, singers Cilla Black, Billie Davis and, in America, Bev Bivens of We Five and Tammi Terrell, fashion designers Mary Quant and Jean Muir, American actress Barbara Feldon in the TV series "Get Smart", and, in the form of a longer bob, Cathy McGowan, who presented the influential British TV pop music show, "Ready Steady Go!" (1963-6). However, when longer blonde hair (associated with, among many others, Julie Christie, Samantha Juste, Judy Geeson and a fashion model named Lorna McDonald, who, at the end of each edition of the BBC's "Dee Time", jumped into Simon Dee's open E-type Jaguar) came to typify the "sixties" look, advertisers turned to the Bohemian world for inspiration: through its use of herbs, Sunsilk shampoo was said to have "stolen something from the gypsies".


title: Bohemian style

text: Beatlemania did not of itself create the apparent iconoclasm of the 1960s; however, as one writer put it, "just as Noël Coward and Cole Porter reflected the louche, carefree attitude of the [Nineteen] Twenties, so did the Beatles' music capture the rhythm of breaking free experienced by an entire generation of people growing up in the Sixties". By the middle of the decade, British pop music had stimulated the fashion boom of what "Time" called "swinging London". Associated initially with such "mod" designs as Quant's mini-skirt, this soon embraced a range of essentially Bohemian styles. These included the military and Victorian fashions popularized by stars who frequented boutiques such as Granny Takes a Trip, the "fusion of fashion, art and lifestyle" opened by Nigel Waymouth in the King's Road, Chelsea in January 1966, and, by 1967, the hippie look largely imported from America (although, as noted, London stores such as Biba had, for some time, displayed dresses that drew on Pre-Raphaelite imagery). The Rolling Stones' Keith Richards, whose early girlfriend, Linda Keith, had, in her late teens, been a bohemian force in West Hampstead, noted on the Stones' return from an American tour in 1967 how quickly hippiedom had transformed the London scene.


title: Bohemian style

text: This fusion of influences was discernible in two black-and-white productions for BBC television in 1966: the series "Adam Adamant Lives!", starring Gerald Harper as an Edwardian adventurer who had been cryopreserved in time and Juliet Harmer as Georgina Jones, a stylish "mod" who befriended him, and Jonathan Miller's dreamy, rather Gothic production of Lewis Carroll's mid-Victorian children's fantasy "Alice in Wonderland" (1865). (Confirming the aspiration, Sydney Newman, the BBC's Head of Television Drama in the 1960s, reflected of "Adam Adamant" that "[they] could never quite get [the] Victorian mentality to contrast with the '60s".)


title: Bohemian style

text: On the face of it, Carroll (a pseudonym for Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) had been a rather conventional and repressed Oxford University don, but he was a keen and artistic photographer in the early days of that medium (taking, among other things, rather bohemian looking pictures of Alice Liddell and other young girls) and he developed an empathy and friendship with several of the Pre-Raphaelites; the sculptor Thomas Woolner and possibly even Rossetti dissuaded him from illustrating "Alice" himself, a task that was undertaken instead by John Tenniel. The imagery of "Alice", both textually and graphically, lent itself well to the psychedelia of the late 1960s. In America, this was apparent in, among other ways, the "Alice happening" in Central Park, New York (1968) when naked participants covered themselves in polka dots and the lyrics to Grace Slick's song "White Rabbit" (1966) – "One pill makes you larger/And one pill makes you small" – that she performed with both the Great Society and Jefferson Airplane, including with the latter at Woodstock in 1969.


title: Bohemian style

text: By the late 1960s shops such as Laura Ashley (whose first London outlet opened in 1968) were routinely promoting the "peasant look" and selling a range of "uniquely eccentric clothes ... The magic was being able to step into a 'Laura Ashley' dress and imagine you had found something out of a dressing-up box". At around the same time too, and into the 1970s, the brassière (or bra), which, as noted, had been seen as a liberating innovation in the early part of the century, came to be regarded by some women, such as the Australian academic Germaine Greer ("The Female Eunuch", 1969), as an unduly restrictive symbol of traditional womanhood. However, the much-publicised incidence of "bra burning" in the 1970s tended to be overstated and came to be satirised: for example, in the 1973 film, "Carry On Girls", and a poster by Young & Rubicam, one of a mildly subversive series for Smirnoff vodka: "I never thought of burning my bra until I discovered Smirnoff". It was also seen by many, including Greer herself, as a distraction from the cause of women's "liberation". A Vermont lawyer later observed wryly that "like every good feminist-in-training in the sixties, I burned my bra", but that "now it's the nineties ... I realize Playtex [underwear manufacturer] had supported me better than any man I know." Claire Perry, who became a Conservative Member of Parliament in 2010 and later a government minister, reflected that, as a "women's officer" at Oxford University in the early 1980s, she was "a bra-burning feminist with a hideous new-romantic haircut", but that her feminism had, in her view, matured.


title: Bohemian style

text: By the mid-1980s, the American singer Madonna had turned the bra into a positive, even provocative, fashion statement. Madonna's flamboyant and gritty style (notably seen to bohemian effect alongside Rosanna Arquette in the 1985 film, "Desperately Seeking Susan") was, in turn, a precursor of so-called "girl power" that was associated in the 1990s with various prominent young women (such as singers Courtney Love, who played the 1999 Glastonbury Festival in a headline-grabbing pink bra, and the more commercially oriented Spice Girls) and offbeat or quirky American television series ("", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Caroline in the City", "Sex and the City").


title: Bohemian style

text: Journalist Bob Stanley remarked that "the late 1960s are never entirely out of fashion, they just need a fresh angle to make them "de jour"". Thus, the features of hippie fashion re-emerged at various stages during the ensuing forty years.


title: Bohemian style

text: In the mid-to-late 1980s, variants of the short and fundamentally un-Bohemian rah-rah skirt (which originated with cheerleaders) were combined with leather or denim to create a look with some Bohemian or even gothic features (for example, by the singing duo Strawberry Switchblade who took inspiration from 1970s punk fashion). In the 1990s the term, "hippie chic", was applied to Tom Ford's collections for the Italian house of Gucci. These drew on, among other influences, the style, popular in retrospect, of Talitha Getty (died 1971), actress wife of John Paul Getty and step-granddaughter of Dorelia McNeil, who was represented most famously in a photograph of her and her husband taken by Patrick Lichfield in Marrakesh, Morocco in 1969. Recalling the influx of hippies into Marrakesh in 1968, Richard Neville, then editor of "Oz", wrote that "the dapper drifters in embroidered skirts and cowboy boots were so delighted by the bright satin '50s underwear favored by the matrons of Marrakesh that they wore them outside their denims à la Madonna [the singer] twenty-five years later".


title: Bohemian style

text: In the early 21st century, "boho-chic" was associated initially with supermodel Kate Moss and then, as a highly popular style in 2004-5, with actress Sienna Miller. In America similar styles were sometimes referred to as "bobo-" or "ashcan chic", or "luxe grunge", their leading proponents including actresses Mary-Kate Olsen and Zooey Deschanel. As if to illustrate the cyclical nature of fashion, by the end of the noughties strong pre-Raphaelite traits were notable in, among others, singer Florence Welch, model Karen Elson and designer Anna Sui.


title: Bohemian style

text: In Germany, terms like "Bionade-Bourgeoisie", "Bionade-Biedermeier or" "Biohème" refer to former Bohemians that gained a sort of Cultural hegemony with their LOHA lifestyle- The phenomenon of such former (young) bohemians becoming establishment during the years is a typical aspect of gentrification processes. A bon mot of Michael Rutschky claimed that at the end of the 20th century, "not the Proletariat, but the Bohème became the ruling class". The group in question uses especially food as means of distinction and separation. Among others, the lemonade trademark Bionade has been connected with the phenomenon.


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: The British farthing (from Old English fēorðing, from fēorða, a fourth) abbreviated "qua." (L. "quadrans"), was a denomination of sterling coinage worth of one pound, of one shilling, or of one penny; initially minted in copper and then in bronze, which replaced the earlier English farthings. Before Decimal Day in 1971, Britain used the Carolingian monetary system, wherein the largest unit was a pound sterling of 20 shillings, each of 12 pence. Each penny was divided into 4 farthings, thus, a pound sterling contained 960 farthings, and a shilling contained 48 farthings. From 1860 to 1971, the purchasing power of a farthing ranged between 12p and 0.2p in 2017 values.


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: The farthing coin was legal tender during the reigns of eleven British monarchs: George I, George II, and George III, George IV, William IV, and Victoria, Edward VII and George V, Edward VIII, George VI, and Elizabeth II. In Britain and Northern Ireland the farthing coin ceased to be legal tender on 1 January 1961; however, the farthing remaind legal tender in the Falkland Islands, the Falkland Islands Dependencies, and the British Antarctic Territory until 31 October 1970.


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: In two-and-a-half centuries in circulation as British currency, the reverse face of the farthing coin was minted in two designs: (i) from the 18th century until 1936, the farthing featured the figure of Britannia; and (ii) from 1937, the farthing featured the image of a wren. Like all British coins, the obverse face of the farthing coin bore the portrait of the incumbent monarch.


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: A British copper farthing succeeded the English farthing after England and Scotland were united into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, although not immediately. Under Queen Anne, a small number of pattern farthings were struck, but none for circulation, as so many English farthings from previous reigns were still available. Some British copper farthings were struck in the reigns of George I and George II. By the accession of George III, in 1760, many counterfeits were in circulation, and the Royal Mint stopped minting copper coins in 1775. The next farthings were the first struck by steam power, in 1799 by Matthew Boulton at his Soho Mint, under licence. Boulton coined more in 1806, and the Royal Mint resumed production in 1821. The farthing was struck regularly under George IV and William IV, by then with a design very like a smaller version of the penny.


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: Values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, e.g. three shillings and six pence (3/6), pronounced "three and six" or "three and sixpence". Values of less than a shilling were simply written in pence, e.g. (8d), pronounced "eightpence". A price with a farthing in it would be written like this: (d), pronounced "twopence [or tuppence] farthing", or (1/), pronounced "one and threepence [or thruppence] farthing" or (19/), pronounced "nineteen and eleven three farthing(s)". 19/ was a value used to make goods seem "significantly" cheaper than £1, usage similar to the modern £19.99, which is also the approximate value in 2021 of 19/ in 1961, the year when the farthing was withdrawn from circulation.


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: The first bronze farthings were struck in 1860, in the reign of Queen Victoria, with a new reverse designed by Leonard Charles Wyon. This shows a seated Britannia, holding a trident, with the word above. Between 1860 and 1895 there is a lighthouse to Britannia's left and a ship to her right. Various minor adjustments were made over the years to the level of the sea around Britannia and the angle of her trident. Some issues feature toothed edges to the coin, while others feature beading.


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: After 1860, seven different obverses were used. Edward VII, George V, George VI and Elizabeth II each had a single obverse for the farthings produced during their respective reigns. Over the long reign of Queen Victoria, two different obverses were used. The farthing of 1860 carried the so-called "bun head", or "draped bust" of Queen Victoria on the obverse. The inscription around the bust read (abbreviated Latin: Victoria by the grace of God queen of Britain defender of the faith). This was replaced in 1895 by the "old head", or "veiled bust". The inscription on these coins read (Victoria by the grace of God queen of Britain defender of the faith empress of India).


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: Farthings issued during the reign of Edward VII feature his likeness and bear the inscription (Edward VII by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith emperor of India). Similarly, those issued during the reign of George V feature his likeness and bear the inscription (George V by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith emperor of India).


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: A farthing of King Edward VIII (reigned 1936) does exist, dated 1937, but technically it is a pattern coin, one produced for official approval, which it was due to receive at about the time that the King abdicated, and in the event no farthings bearing his likeness were ever issued. The pattern has a left-facing portrait of the king, who considered this to be his best side, and consequently broke the tradition of alternating the direction in which the monarch faces on coins — some viewed this as indicating bad luck for the reign; the inscription on the obverse is (Edward VIII by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith emperor of India).


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: One feature of the pattern farthing of Edward VIII was a redesigned reverse displaying the wren, one of Britain's smallest birds. From 1937 this appeared on the regular-issue farthings of George VI and was continued in the 1950s on the farthings of Elizabeth II.


title: Farthing (British coin)

text: George VI coins feature the inscription (George VI by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith emperor of India) before 1949, and (George VI by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith) thereafter. Unlike the penny, farthings were minted throughout the early reign of Elizabeth II, bearing the inscription (Elizabeth II by the grace of God queen of all Britons defender of the faith) in 1953, and (Elizabeth II by the grace of God queen defender of the faith) thereafter.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: Educational Testing Service (ETS), founded in 1947, is the world's largest private nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization. It is headquartered in Lawrence Township, New Jersey, but has a Princeton address.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: ETS develops various standardized tests primarily in the United States for K–12 and higher education, and it also administers international tests including the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication), Graduate Record Examination (GRE) General and Subject Tests, HiSET and The Praxis test Series—in more than 180 countries, and at over 9,000 locations worldwide. Many of the assessments it develops are associated with entry to US tertiary (undergraduate) and quaternary education (graduate) institutions, but it also develops K–12 statewide assessments used for accountability testing in many states, including California, Texas, Tennessee, and Virginia. In total, ETS annually administers 20 million exams in the U.S. and in 180 other countries.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: ETS is a U.S.-registered 501(c)(3) non-profit organization created in 1947 by three other nonprofit educational institutions: the American Council on Education (ACE), The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, and The College Entrance Examination Board. ETS was formed in 1947 to take over the testing activities of its founders (whose organizations were not well suited to running operational assessment programs), and to pursue research intended to advance educational measurement and education. Among other things, ACE gave to the new organization the Cooperative Test Service and the National Teachers Examination; Carnegie gave the GRE; and the College Board turned over to ETS the operation (but not ownership) of the SAT for graduating high school students.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: In keeping with the purposes for which it was established, ETS developed a program of research that covered not only measurement and education but also such related areas as statistics, educational evaluation, and psychology, particularly cognitive, developmental, personality, and social psychology. This broad-based research program attracted many individuals who distinguished themselves in their fields, often while at ETS but also in subsequent professorial positions. Among the more influential scientists have been Harold Gulliksen (whose book, "Theory of Mental Tests", helped codify classical test theory); Frederic Lord (item response theory); Samuel Messick (modern validity theory); Robert Linn (known for testing and educational policy); Norman Frederiksen (performance assessment); Ledyard Tucker (test analysis, including inventing the "Angoff Method" of standard setting); Donald Rubin (missing data and causal modeling from observational data); Karl Jöreskog (structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis); Paul Holland (differential item functioning, test equating, causal modeling); Howard Wainer (differential item functioning, Testlet Response Theory, statistical graphics); John Carroll (language testing and cognitive psychology); Michael Lewis (infant cognitive, social, and emotional development); Irving Sigel (children's cognitive development); Herman Witkin (cognitive and learning styles); K. Patricia Cross (adult education); Samuel Ball (an evaluation researcher who documented the positive educational effects of Sesame Street); David Rosenhan (known for the Rosenhan experiment, which challenged the validity of psychiatric diagnosis); Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (the effects of poverty on infant, child, and adolescent development); and Anthony Carnevale (education and the workforce).


title: Educational Testing Service

text: Members of the ETS staff have been among the presidents of the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME); the Psychometric Society; the Measurement and Evaluation Division of the American Educational Research Association (AERA); the Evaluation, Measurement and Statistics Division of the American Psychological Association (APA); the APA Developmental Psychology Division; and the Jean Piaget Society. They have been among the executive editors of the "Journal of Educational Measurement", "Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics", "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis", "Journal of Educational Psychology", "Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology", and "Discourse Processes". Major citations received while on staff have included elected membership to the National Academy of Education (K. Patricia Cross, 1975; Gregory Anrig, 1981; Paul Holland, 2005; Randy E. Bennett, 2022; Irwin Kirsch, 2022); (the APA Distinguished Contributions to Knowledge Award (Norman Frederiksen, 1984), the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award (Frederic Lord, 1988; Howard Wainer, 2009); the AERA E.F. Lindquist Award (William Turnbull, 1981; Frederic Lord, 1988; Samuel Messick, 1994; Paul Holland, 2000; Wendy Yen, 2008; Howard Wainer, 2015; Charles Lewis, 2018; Randy E. Bennett, 2020); the NCME Career Contributions to Educational Measurement Award (Frederic Lord, 1990; Paul Holland, 2004; Howard Wainer, 2007; Neil Dorans, 2010; Linda Cook, 2017; Shelby Haberman, 2019); The Psychometric Society's Lifetime Achievement Award (Howard Wainer, 2013), and the Jean Piaget Society's Lifetime Achievement Award (Irving Sigel, 2002); among many other awards.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: The high caliber of scientific staff allowed ETS to produce both new knowledge and methodology, especially in measurement and statistics, much of which has been taken up by assessment organizations around the world. Among the key scientific contributions were:


title: Educational Testing Service

text: ETS' international headquarters is located on a campus outside of Princeton, New Jersey in Lawrence Township, Mercer County; processing, shipping, customer service and test security is in nearby Ewing. ETS also has a major office in San Antonio, Texas, which houses its K–12 Assessment Programs division, and smaller offices in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Washington, DC, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico, and Concord, Sacramento, and Monterey, California. Overseas office locations, all of which are associated with for-profit subsidiaries that are wholly owned by ETS, include Amsterdam (ETS Global BV headquarters), London (ETS Global BV), Seoul (ETS Global BV), Paris (ETS Global BV), Amman (ETS Global BV), Warsaw (ETS Global BV), Beijing (ETS China), and Kingston, Ontario (ETS Canada). Not including its for-profit subsidiaries, ETS employs about 2,700 individuals, including 240 with doctorates and an additional 350 others with "higher degrees."


title: Educational Testing Service

text: To help support its nonprofit educational mission, ETS, like many other nonprofits, conducts business activities that are unrelated to that mission (e.g., employment testing). Under US tax law, these activities may be conducted (within limits) by the nonprofit itself, or by for-profit subsidiaries. Most of the "off-mission" work conducted by ETS is carried out by wholly owned, for-profit subsidiaries, including ETS Global BV, which contains much of the international operations of the company, ETS China, and ETS Canada.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: About 25% of the work carried out by ETS is contracted by the College Board, a private, nonprofit membership association of universities, colleges, school districts, and secondary schools. The most popular and well-known of the College Board's tests is the SAT, taken by more than 3 million students annually. ETS also develops and administers The College Board's Preliminary SAT/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT) and the Advanced Placement program, which is widely used in US high schools for advanced course credit.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: Since 1983, ETS has conducted the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), known as the "Nation's Report Card", under contract to the US National Center for Education Statistics. NAEP is the only nationally representative and continuing assessment of what US students know and can do. ETS is responsible for coordination among the nine NAEP Alliance contractors, for item development, and for design, data analysis, and reporting.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: In addition to the contract work that ETS undertakes for nonprofit and government entities like the College Board, the National Center for Education Statistics, and state education departments, the organization offers its own tests. These tests include the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) (for graduate and professional school admissions), the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) (for post-secondary admissions), the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) (for use by business and industry), and the Praxis Series (for teacher licensure and certification).


title: Educational Testing Service

text: In England and Wales, ETS Europe, a unit of the ETS Global for-profit subsidiary, was contracted to mark and process the National Curriculum assessments on behalf of the government. ETS Global took over this role in 2008 from Edexcel, a subsidiary of Pearson, which had encountered significant and repeated problems in carrying out the marking and processing contract. As was the case for Edexcel, The first year of ETS Global's operation was struck by a number of problems, including the late arrival of scripts to examiners, a database of student entries being unavailable, and countrywide reports of problems with the marking of the papers. The opposition Conservative Party (Tory) criticized the awarding of the contracts to ETS, and produced a dossier listing previous problems with ETS's service. The ETS contract with the QCA was terminated in August 2008, with an agreement to pay back £19.5m and cancel invoices worth £4.6m. Subsequently, the contract for National Curriculum assessment marking and processing was again awarded to Edexcel. Like the two prior contracts, the Edexcel contract has encountered significant quality problems and the tests themselves, the focus of longstanding controversy in the English education community and among the public, have been subjected to a massive boycott by schools.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: In 2009, ETS released the My Credentials Vault Service with Interfolio, Inc to "simplify the entire letter of recommendation process".


title: Educational Testing Service

text: ETS has been criticized for being a "highly competitive business operation that is as much multinational monopoly as nonprofit institution".


title: Educational Testing Service

text: Due to its legal status as a non-profit organization, ETS is exempt from paying federal corporate income tax on many, but not all, of its operations. Furthermore, it does not need to report financial information to the Securities and Exchange Commission, though it does annually report detailed financial information to the IRS on Form 990, which is publicly available.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: In response to growing criticism of its monopolistic power, New York state passed the Educational Testing Act, a disclosure law which required ETS to make available certain test questions and graded answer sheets to students.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: Problems administering England's national tests in 2008 by ETS Europe were the subject of thousands of complaints recorded by the Times Educational Supplement. Their operations were also described as a ""shambles"" in the UK Parliament, where a financial penalty was called for. Complaints included papers not being marked properly, or not being marked at all and papers being sent to the wrong schools or lost completely. It has even been suggested that the quality of service is so poor that the Department for Children, Schools and Families (formerly the Department for Education and Skills) might not be able to publish the 2008 league tables of school performance. However, the contract was ended by "mutual consent". The UK government asked Lord Sutherland to conduct an inquiry into the failure of the 2008 tests. The report included in its main findings:


title: Educational Testing Service

text: "• primary responsibility for this summer’s delivery failure rests with ETS Global BV, which won the public contract to deliver the tests;"<br>


title: Educational Testing Service

text: "• ETS’s capacity to deliver the contract proved to be insufficient. A lack of comprehensive planning and testing by ETS of its systems and processes was a key factor in the delivery failure;"


title: Educational Testing Service

text: In 1983, students of James A. Garfield High School in East Los Angeles, California, achieved unexpectedly high exam results on the ETS Advanced Placement Exam. ETS implied that the students may have cheated to obtain such results based on common mistakes across different exams. The students were required to prove their abilities and innocence by taking a second exam, which they did successfully.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: Americans for Educational Testing Reform (AETR) claims that ETS is violating its non-profit status through excessive profits, executive compensation, and governing board member pay (which the IRS specifically advises against). AETR further claims that ETS is acting unethically by selling test preparation materials, directly lobbying legislators and government officials, and refusing to acknowledge test-taker rights. It also criticises ETS for forcing GRE test-takers to participate in research experiments during the actual exam.


title: Educational Testing Service

text: In 2014 the BBC reported that the Home Office has suspended English language tests run by ETS after a BBC investigation uncovered systematic fraud in the student visa system. Secret filming of government-approved English exams needed for a visa showed entire rooms of candidates having the tests faked for them.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Memphis May Fire is an American metalcore band formed in Denton, Texas and currently signed to Rise Records. The band currently consists of lead guitarist Kellen McGregor, lead vocalist Matty Mullins, bassist Cory Elder, and drummer Jake Garland. Formed in 2006, they have released six studio albums and two EPs to date. Their fourth album, "Unconditional", debuted at No. 4 on the US "Billboard" 200 and atop the Alternative Albums chart.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: The band, founded by original vocalist Chase Ryan, guitarist Ryan Bentley and bassist Tanner Oakes, formed in 2006 in Denton, Texas., but it was not until February 2007 that the group solidified the name Memphis May Fire having previously gone by Oh Captain, My Captain. In early 2007, the band recorded and self-released an EP, and began creating a local following. Shortly thereafter, Memphis May Fire caught the attention of Josh Grabelle, the president of Trustkill Records. Grabelle commented on his feelings toward the band in a press release stating, "There is a lot of really exciting, young, dangerous music coming out right now, and Memphis May Fire are the cream of the crop. Not since Bullet for My Valentine's "Hand of Blood" have we heard a more compelling set of songs for an EP, where absolutely every song is bone-chillingly perfect, and timeless. These guys are on their way to something huge." In September 2007 the band had officially signed to Trustkill, and their self-titled EP was reissued through the label in December 2007. In 2007, through 2008, the band embarked on Twelve Gauge Valentine's final-tour along with The Handshake Murders.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Memphis May Fire had hoped to release their debut album by summer 2006 produced by their guitarist, Kellen McGregor. However, after the recording sessions for the album during tour, lead singer Chase and short time drummer Dooley decided to part ways with the band. Chase explained that he felt that his priorities should be with his child, and not a touring band. Dooley would end his touring back home in St. Louis. Upon announcing their resignations, bass player Tanner Oakes left the tour and the band. Bassist Austin Radford joined the band to finish the tour but would decide to part ways with the band shortly after creating his own band called, American Mantra as the lead singer. He would be replaced by Daniel De Los Santos as a substitute, and then later by Cory Elder, who is a current member. Open auditions were held shortly after Chase's departure with an instrumental song called "Decade" on their MySpace (later known as "Destiny for the Willing"), and he was eventually replaced by a new vocalist, Matty Mullins (Nights in Fire). By this time, Memphis May Fire had already recorded their instruments for the new album with producer Casey Bates and only needed Mullins to contribute his vocals.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Their debut full-length studio album, "Sleepwalking", was released on July 21, 2009, through Trustkill Records. Memphis May Fire has described the album as "a new breed of rock n' roll" and musically it has "more aggressive guitar work and noticeably more melodic, but still retains that southern swagger." Their song "Ghost in the Mirror" was used on the soundtrack for the movie "Saw VI". Rhythm guitarist, Ryan Bentley, was not featured in the music video due to his short break away from the band. Joel Seier joined the band as a substitute for Bentley's place until he would join back in late 2009. Seier was featured in "Ghost in the Mirror" and "North Atlantic vs. North Carolina" music videos as the rhythm guitarist.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: The official music video for "Ghost in the Mirror" was released February 2, 2010, through the Trustkill YouTube page.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Memphis May Fire released a second EP entitled "Between the Lies" on November 2, 2010, through Bullet Tooth Records (formerly Trustkill Records) with more energy and a different style than their previous releases. On December 9, 2010, the band post in their Facebook that the song "Action/Adventure" will be featured in the video game "Rock Band 3". In 2010, Matty Mullins was featured in the song "That's What She Said", from Kid Liberty's debut album "Fight with Your Fists".


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On January 17, 2011, Rise Records announced Memphis May Fire signed to the label and that a new album will be released in spring. The band recently wrapped up the recording of their upcoming full-length record at Chango Studios (Of Machines, I See Stars, Sleeping with Sirens, etc.) in Orlando, Florida. It is expected to be heavier and darker than "Sleepwalking" and "Between the Lies", while further incorporating elements of modern metal and electronics.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On March 3, 2011, a full album teaser for their sophomore album "The Hollow" was released via Rise Records YouTube page, including its release date of April 26, 2011. On March 22, a full song from "The Hollow", titled "The Sinner", was released to Rise Records YouTube page and on iTunes. On April 23, the entire album was released on the Rise Records YouTube page.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On September 15, the video for the lead single from "The Hollow", "The Sinner", directed by Thunder Down Country was released on YouTube.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On February 15, 2012, a live music video recorded in Orlando, Florida for the song titled "The Unfaithful" was released on their YouTube Page.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: It was announced through the Vans Warped Tour's website on December 7 that Memphis May Fire would be participating in the 2012 Vans Warped Tour. The band was called to perform on the Monster Energy stage for the majority of the tour, and both Kia Rio and Kia Soul main stages on selected dates.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On February 11, it was announced by Kellen McGregor that the band would be working with Cameron Mizell shortly again at Chango Studios, to record their third studio album.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On April 11, rhythm guitarist and original member, Ryan Bentley, announced on Twitter he has parted ways with the band in a tweet saying "I'm no longer in Memphis May Fire. Details later.", around midnight. On the band's direct-to-fan fanbridge, Kellen McGregor responded saying that they had to let go of Ryan because he did not have the right attitude and was not willing to push the band to a positive direction. On April 17, the band announced that Anthony Sepe (ex-Decoder) would be replacing Ryan Bentley as their new guitarist: "For those who may not know already, we recently decided to part ways with our guitarist, Ryan Bentley, and wish him nothing but the best. He's a talented individual and we have no doubt that he will be successful no matter where life leads him. With that said, we'd like all of you to give a warm welcome to our new guitarist Anthony Sepe."


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Bentley's departure from the band makes guitarist Kellen McGregor the only remaining original member of Memphis May Fire.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Their third studio album, "Challenger" was released on June 26 through Rise Records. The album debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Charts while the band was on tour as part of the Warped Tour.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On February 1, 2013, Memphis May Fire was announced as part of the Vans Warped Tour 2013 alongside Black Veil Brides, Sleeping With Sirens, We Came As Romans, Blessthefall, The Used, Billy Talent and Bring Me the Horizon. The band was called to play main stage (Kia Soul Stage), they played the entire tour with an eight-song set, featuring Kellin Quinn singing the bridge of "Legacy".


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On August 4, the band announced that they will be supporting Sleeping With Sirens, on the Feel This Tour. Breathe Carolina, Issues (band), and Our Last Night will be supporting the tour with them on selected dates.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Memphis May Fire has announced that they are hoping to release their new album in early 2014. Kellen McGregor finished writing the album demos after the band got off of the Vans Warped Tour. Currently, the band is recording at Chango Studios with Kellen and Cameron Mizell as the producers. In an interview with PropertyOfZach, vocalist Matty Mullins stated the expected the album release date to be in February–March 2014. He also divulged that Memphis May Fire will set out on a US headlining tour in support of the album.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: In an Alternative Press interview released on September 7, 2013, the band stated that their new album will "have more of a theatrical feel, as well as orchestral presence" also describing their new album as a "soundtrack to an action film".


title: Memphis May Fire

text: In an interview with Propertyofzack on September 9, 2013, the band described the sound of their new album, "[It] Just shows maturity. The newest record is very theatrical. It almost feels like a movie soundtrack from start to finish. It's really awesome. A lot of orchestra stuff playing a big role in the record. It's just – it's more mature. I think that our younger audience is going to love it – certain aspects of it – and our older audience is going to really appreciate how far we've come as artists. They're really going to love the record too. It's great."


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On December 14, 2013, the band tweeted that they had finished recording their forthcoming album with vocalist Matty Mullins expressing on how proud he is of the album. The album is expected to be an early 2014 release. On December 18, the band announced "The Unconditional Tour" beginning late February through March with fellow acts The Word Alive, A Skylit Drive, Hands Like Houses and Beartooth in the US.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On January 4, 2014, the band released their first studio update for their forthcoming album via Alternative Press.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: In the third and final studio update for the album, it was announced that it would be titled "Unconditional" and was released on March 25, 2014, through Rise Records.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On February 6, 2014, the first single, "No Ordinary Love" was streamed through the Rise Records YouTube channel. Pre-order bundles for the album were also made available on this date. The second single, "Sleepless Nights" was released on February 24, via Facebook and Rise Records YouTube Channel.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Mullins announced on August 12, 2014, that he would be releasing his debut solo record, "Matty Mullins", on September 23, through Rise Records. Pre-orders were made available that same day.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On May 25, 2015, the band announced that they would be releasing the deluxe edition of "Unconditional" on July 17. The first new track, 'My Generation' was released that same day. The album will contain two new tracks, as well as acoustic versions of 'Beneath the Skin' ,'Need to Be' and a remixed/remastered version of the album.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On February 9, 2016, the band announced through their Facebook page that they were entering the studio with material that was written and prepared over the last year. They recorded in Good Sounds Studio with Matt Good producing and mixing the instrumentals and Cameron Mizell producing the vocals.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: The band premiered the single "Carry On" on BBC Radio 1 on August 28, 2016 and announced their fifth studio album, "This Light I Hold", on the same day. The album is set to be released on October 28, 2016 through Rise Records. The band will tour as headliners on the Rise Up Tour with The Devil Wears Prada and Silverstein as special guests and supporting act Like Moths to Flames in North America and the United Kingdom from October 11 to December 10, 2016.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On September 23, 2016, Memphis May Fire released the title track as the second single to their new album, "This Light I Hold," which features Jacoby Shaddix (of Papa Roach). On January 30, 2017, the band announced the departure of guitarist Anthony Sepe. Samuel Penner, former guitarist for In the Midst of Lions and For Today, announced that he would be filling in for the band.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On June 20, 2017, Memphis May Fire released a single titled "Virus". According to Matty Mullins the song is a "one-off song" and won't appear on the next album.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On October 20, 2017, Matty Mullins shared a photo of them working on their new album in The Hideout Studio with Kane Churko as producer. On March 24, 2018, Matty Mullins shared a photo of Drew Fulk working on the mixes of the new album.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: On September 19, 2018, the band released a new track titled "The Old Me", and information was later leaked that the new album would be titled "Broken". It was released on November 16, 2018.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: In early 2020, frontman Matty Mullins stated he had started work on new Memphis May Fire music as well as his solo material, and that it would mark a return to their heavier roots. On June 4, 2021, the band released a new single titled "Blood & Water" which confirmed a return to their earlier, heavier sound.


title: Memphis May Fire

text: Over the course of late 2021 and early 2022, the band released more singles; "Death Inside", "Bleed Me Dry", "Somebody", "Left for Dead", and "The American Dream". On February 18, 2022, the band released another single entitled "Make Believe" whilst also announcing their upcoming seventh studio album "Remade in Misery" set for release on June 3, 2022. On April 1, 2022, the band released another single entitled "Only Human" featuring AJ Channer from Fire from the Gods. On May 6, one month before the album release, they unveiled the last single "Your Turn". After the album's release, the band proceeded with a tour for the album with From Ashes to New, Rain City Drive, and Wolves at the Gate, during which Matty Mullins broke two ribs after a fall, but chose to finish the tour.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Charles Wayne Sexton (born August 11, 1968) is an American guitarist, singer and songwriter. Sexton is best known for his years as a guitarist in Bob Dylan's band, though also has become well known as a music producer. Sexton co-founded the Arc Angels and created the Charlie Sexton Sextet. He was still a teenager when he gained fame for his 1985 hit, "Beat's So Lonely", from his debut album, "Pictures for Pleasure".


title: Charlie Sexton

text: When he was four Charlie and his mother relocated from San Antonio, Texas to Austin—where clubs such as the Armadillo World Headquarters, Soap Creek Saloon, the Split Rail and Antone's exposed him to popular music. He moved back to Austin at age 12 after a brief period living outside Austin with his mother. When Charlie and his brother, Will Sexton, were still young boys, they were taught how to play guitar by Austin legend W. C. Clark—known as the "Godfather of Austin Blues."


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Charlie's first band was the Groovemasters, fronted by Lubbock native R.C. Banks. Under the moniker Little Charlie, he played about 16 dates with the Joe Ely Band in June 1982, after guitarist Jesse Taylor broke some bones in his hand. An observer at the time commented, "Several older guitar players are somewhat miffed but the chemistry is A+".


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton performed under the name Guitar Charles Sexton on "Juvenile Junk," a five-song EP by the group Maxwell (a.k.a. the Eager Beaver Boys) in 1983.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton released his debut full-length album "Pictures for Pleasure" in 1985. Recorded in Los Angeles when he was 16, it yielded the Top-20 hit single "Beat's So Lonely". Jon Pareles of the "New York Times" described him as "a teen idol singing David Bowie-style rock during the years he was promoted by MTV". The album spent 34 weeks on Billboard magazine's Billboard 200 albums chart, reaching No. 15. It also spawned three Australian Top-100 singles—with "Beat's So Lonely" peaking at No. 17. The song was featured in the movie "Some Kind of Wonderful", but was not included on the commercial soundtrack.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton was an occasional opening act for David Bowie on his Glass Spider Tour in 1987, and appears on the "Glass Spider" video playing guitar on The Stooges' "I Wanna Be Your Dog" and the Velvet Underground's "White Light/White Heat".


title: Charlie Sexton

text: While he was still in his late teens, Sexton became a popular session player—recording with artists such as Ronnie Wood, Keith Richards, Don Henley, Jimmy Barnes and Bob Dylan.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton worked for a time with his brother Will Sexton in 1988. Will and the Kill released a 38-minute, self-titled album featuring both Sexton and Jimmie Vaughan. The album was recorded at Fire Station Studios in San Marcos, Texas, with Joe Ely producing, and released via MCA Records.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton later contributed songs to various motion picture soundtracks, including "True Romance" and "Air America—"and made a cameo fronting a bar band in "Thelma & Louise".


title: Charlie Sexton

text: In 1992, Sexton formed the Arc Angels with Doyle Bramhall II (son of Doyle Bramhall, one of Stevie Ray Vaughan's writing partners), and Vaughan's Double Trouble rhythm section, composed of bassist Tommy Shannon and drummer Chris "Whipper" Layton. The name originally was spelled as ARC Angels, named for the Austin Rehearsal Complex, where they practiced. The blues-rock band released a self-titled album on Geffen Records that same year. The Steven Van Zandt-produced disc was well received by fans and critics, but the band broke up in less than three years.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton formed the Charlie Sexton Sextet in 1995 and recorded "Under The Wishing Tree," released on MCA Records. Although sales were disappointing, it was met with critical acclaim. In the meantime, Sexton continued to perform with other artists—appearing on such notable albums as Lucinda Williams' "Car Wheels on a Gravel Road" and Shawn Colvin's Grammy-winning album "A Few Small Repairs" (uncredited).


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton was hired by Bob Dylan to replace Bucky Baxter in 1999. Sexton had previously played with Dylan during a pair of Austin, Texas, concerts in 1991 and 1996, and on some demos recorded in 1983. Sexton's residency with Dylan from 1999 to 2002 brought him great exposure—with many critics singling out his interplay with Larry Campbell. The group, hailed as one of Dylan's best, recorded "Things Have Changed" (from the 2000 film "Wonder Boys") and 2001's critically acclaimed album "Love and Theft".


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Duke Robillard took over on lead guitar in Dylan's touring band In 2013 but was let go after just 27 shows. Sexton and Colin Linden subsequently shared lead guitar duties for the band from July and into early August. By the European leg of the 2013 Never Ending Tour, Sexton again became the sole lead guitar player and remained so through the end of the touring year.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton continued working with other artists; in 2001, he produced Double Trouble's "Been a Long Time," Lucinda Williams' "Essence," and Jimmie Vaughan's album "Do You Get the Blues?" (2001).


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton has produced numerous other works, including Edie Brickell's "Volcano" (2003), Jon Dee Graham's "Great Battle" (2004), Shannon McNally's "Geronimo" (2005), and Los Super Seven's "Heard It on the X" (2005).


title: Charlie Sexton

text: He has continued his producing albums for other artists—including Canadian singer-songwriter Peter Elkas' 2007 release, "Wall of Fire".


title: Charlie Sexton

text: The Arc Angels began playing occasional reunion shows around Austin and Dallas in 2002. In 2009, the band announced it would tour with original members Layton and Bramhall, but not Shannon, who had health issues. The tour included England dates with Bramhall's sometime boss, Eric Clapton. The band also recorded the CD/DVD "Living in a Dream", their second album in 17 years.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton performed the Leonard Cohen song "Hallelujah" with Justin Timberlake and Matt Morris at the Hope for Haiti Now benefit concert and telethon for earthquake relief In 2010. Released as a single, the song marked Sexton's second appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it reached No. 13.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Charlie and Will Sexton made a rare appearance as a duo opening for Roky Erickson and Okkervil River at Austin's Paramount Theatre on April 24, 2010. Sexton was also the guest performer for Conan O'Brien's Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour stop in Austin on May 14, 2010. Sexton appeared with the band Spoon during their performance on the television show "Austin City Limits". The episode premiered on PBS on October 9, 2010. Sexton performed on the song, "Who Makes Your Money".


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Charlie and Will Sexton, Jakob Dylan, Brady Blade and Dave Matthews recorded an album at Blade's studio in Shreveport, Louisiana in early 2013. The group named themselves the Nauts. The album has not yet been released.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton had a bit part in the Richard Linklater film "Boyhood," released in 2014 to near-universal acclaim. (The Guardian ranked it at No. 3 on its 2019 list of the top 100 films of the 20th century.) In 2018, Sexton appeared in the documentary film "Carmine Street Guitars" and played Townes Van Zandt in the movie "Blaze". Also in 2018 he produced the album "Writing Wrongs" for the Last Knife Fighter at Arlyn Studios in Austin, Texas. He has also played on guitar on the last two Jack Ingram records.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton appeared with Chuck Prophet during the latter's 2019 European tour, covering selections from the Rolling Stones' "Some Girls" album.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton joined Elvis Costello & the Imposters on their Hello Again 2021 US tour, and continued the association on the band's Boy Named If, and Other Favorites 2022 tour as well.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: Sexton appeared on the 75th birthday celebration for David Bowie, produced by former Bowie keyboard player Mike Garson, on January 8, 2022.


title: Charlie Sexton

text: In January of 2022, the Arc Angels reunited to play four shows in Texas, with Eric Holden replacing Tommy Shannon on bass.


title: Kathleen Stock

text: Kathleen Mary Linn Stock is a British philosopher and writer. She was a professor of philosophy at the University of Sussex until 2021. She has published academic work on aesthetics, fiction, imagination, sexual objectification, and sexual orientation.