title: Immigration to Europe

text: A 2015 opinion poll conducted by the Centre for Public Opinion Research (CBOS) found that 14% thought that Poland should let asylum-seekers enter and settle in Poland, 58% thought Poland should let asylum-seekers stay in Poland until they can return to their home country, and 21% thought Poland should not accept asylum-seekers at all. Furthermore, 53% thought Poland should not accept asylum-seekers from the Middle East and North Africa, with only 33% thinking Poland should accept them.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Another opinion poll conducted by the same organisation found that 86% of Poles think that Poland does not need more immigrants, with only 7% thinking Poland needs more immigrants.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Despite above in year 2017, 683 000 immigrants from outside of EU arrived to Poland. 87.4% out of them immigrated for work.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: "Among the EU Member States, Poland issued the highest number (683 thousand) of first residence permits in 2017, followed by Germany (535 thousand) and the United Kingdom (517 thousand)."


title: Immigration to Europe

text: In response to the high immigration of 2015, the anti-immigration party Sweden Democrats rose to 19.9% in the Statistics Sweden poll.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: In late 2015, Sweden introduced temporary border checks on the Øresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden and public transport operators were instructed to only let people with residence in Sweden board trains or buses. The measures reduced the number of asylum seekers from 163 000 in 2015 to 29 000 in 2016.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: In 2018, a poll by Pew Research found that a small majority (52%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 33% wanted to keep the current level and 14% wanted to increase immigration.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: In February 2020 finance minister Magdalena Andersson encouraged migrants to head for other countries than Sweden. Andersson stated in an interview that integration of immigrants in Sweden wasn't working since neither before nor after 2015 and that Sweden cannot accept more immigration than it is able to integrate.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: During the 1990s under Christoph Blocher, the Swiss People's Party started to develop an increasingly eurosceptic and anti-immigration agenda. In 2014, they launched a popular initiative titled "Against mass immigration" that was narrowly accepted. They are currently the largest party in the National Council with 53 seats.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Anti-immigration sentiment in the United Kingdom has historically focused on non-indigenous African, Afro-Caribbean and especially South Asian migrants, all of whom began to arrive from the Commonwealth of Nations in greater numbers following World War II. Since the fall of the Soviet Union and the enlargement of the European Union, the increased movement of people out of countries such as Poland, Romania and Lithuania has shifted much of this attention towards migrants from Eastern Europe. While working-class migrants tend to be the focus of anti-immigration sentiment, there is also some discontent about Russian, Chinese, Singaporean and Gulf Arab multimillionaires resident in the UK, particularly in London and South East England. These residents often invest in property and business, and are perceived as living extravagant "jet-set" lifestyles marked by conspicuous consumption while simultaneously taking advantage of tax loopholes connected to non-dom status.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Policies of reduced immigration, particularly from the European Union, are central to the manifestos of parties such as the UK Independence Party. Such policies have also been discussed by some members of the largest parties in Parliament, most significantly the Conservatives.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: This is a list of European countries by immigrant population, based on the United Nations report "Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2013 Revision".


title: Immigration to Europe

text: In 2010, 47.3 million people lived in the EU, who were born outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4% of the total EU population. Of these, 31.4 million (6.3%) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2%) were born in another EU member state. The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom (4.7 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and The Netherlands (1.4 million).


title: Immigration to Europe

text: According to the United Nations report "World Population Policies 2005", European countries that have the highest net foreign populations are:


title: Immigration to Europe

text: The European countries with the highest proportion or percentage of non-native residents are small nations or microstates. Andorra is the country in Europe with the highest percentage of immigrants, 77% of the country's 82,000 inhabitants. Monaco is the second with the highest percentage of immigrants, they make up 70% of the total population of 32,000; and Luxembourg is the third, immigrants are 37% of the total of 480,000; in Liechtenstein they are 35% of the 34,000 people; and in San Marino they comprise 32% of the country's population of 29,000.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Countries in which immigrants form between 25% and 10% of the population are: Switzerland (23%), Latvia (19%), Estonia (15%), Austria (15%), Croatia (15%), Ukraine (14.7%), Cyprus (14.3%), Ireland (14%), Moldova (13%), Germany (12.3%), Sweden (12.3%), Belarus (12%), Slovenia (11.1%), Spain (10.8%, 12.2% in 2010), France (10.2%), and the Netherlands (10%).


title: Immigration to Europe

text: The United Kingdom (9%), Greece (8.6%), Russia (8.5%), Finland (8.1%), Iceland (7.6%), Norway (7.4%), Portugal (7.2%), Denmark (7.1%), Belgium (6.9%) and the Czech Republic (6.7%), each have a proportion of immigrants between 10% and 5% of the total population.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Eurostat data reported in 2006 that some EU member states as receiving "large-scale" immigration. The EU in 2005 had an overall net gain from international migration of 1.8 million people, which accounted for almost 85% of Europe's total population growth that year. In 2004, a total of 140,033 people immigrated to France. Of them, 90,250 were from Africa and 13,710 from elsewhere in Europe. In 2005, the total number of immigrants fell slightly, to 135,890.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: In the European union, in 2019, 706 400 persons acquired citizenship, the main nation of origin for citizenship grant were by decreasing number: Morocco, Albania, the United Kingdom, Syria and Turkey.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: This is a breakdown by major area of origin of the 72.4 million migrants residing in Europe (out of a population of 742 million) at mid-2013, based on the United Nations report "Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2013 Revision".


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Approximate populations of non-European origin in Europe (about 20 - 30+ millions, or 3 - 4% (depending on the definition of non-European origin), out of a total population of approx. 831 million):


title: Immigration to Europe

text: In the EU people living in private households can be categorised in terms of their migration status. In 2021, the EU's population in private households aged 15-74 years was composed as follows:


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Among the EU Member States, the share of foreign-born persons among people aged 15-74 years ranged from less than 1.0 % to nearly 60 % in 2021. The share was lowest in Romania (0.2 %), Bulgaria (0.3 %) and Poland (0.5 %) while by far the highest share was observed in Luxembourg, where nearly three-fifths (58.2 %) of persons aged 15-74 years were foreign-born.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: The combined share of foreign-born persons and all native-born persons with at least one foreign-born parent ranged from less than 3.0 % to nearly 75 % in 2021. Poland again recorded the lowest share (2.3 %) among the EU Member States, just below that of Slovakia (2.5 %, low reliability). Shares below one-tenth were observed in a further four EU Member States (Hungary, Czechia, Lithuania and Greece) and between 10.0 % and 15.0 % in another four (Finland, Portugal, Denmark and Italy). Croatia and Spain recorded shares of around one-fifth. Most other EU Member States (nine in total) recorded shares between one-quarter and one-third. Belgium, Sweden and Latvia recorded slightly higher shares. Luxembourg again recorded by far the highest share, close to three-quarters (73.4 %).


title: Immigration to Europe

text: The EU Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) uses the terms "illegal" and "irregular" border crossings for crossings of an EU external border but not at an official border-crossing point. These include people rescued at sea. Because many migrants cross more than one external EU border (for instance when traveling through the Balkans from Greece to Hungary), the total number of irregular EU external border crossings is often higher than the number of irregular migrants arriving in the EU in a year. News media sometimes misrepresent these figures as given by Frontex.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Frontex tracks and publishes data on numbers of crossings along the main six routes twice a year. The following table summarises the number of "irregular crossings" of the European Union's various external borders. Note that the figures do not add up to the total number of people coming into the EU illegally in a given year, since many migrants are counted twice (for instance, once when entering Greece and a second time upon entering Hungary).


title: Immigration to Europe

text: The study estimated that 700 million adults worldwide would prefer to migrate to another country. Potential migrants were asked for their country of preference if they were given free choice.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: The total number of potential migrants to the European Union is estimated at 200 million, comparable to the number for North America (USA and Canada). In addition, an estimated 40 million potential migrants within the EU desire to move to another country within the EU, giving the EU the highest intra-regional potential migration rate.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: The study estimates that from 2015 to 2017, there were about 750 million potential migrants. One in five potential migrants (21%), or about 158 million adults worldwide name the U.S. as their desired future residence. Canada, Germany, France, Australia and the United Kingdom each appeal to more than 30 million adults. Apart from the United States, the top desired target countries were: Canada (47 million), Germany (42 million), France (36 million), Australia (36 million) and the United Kingdom (34 million).


title: Immigration to Europe

text: The study also compared the number of potential migrants to their desired destination's population, resulting in a "Net Migration Index" expressing potential population growth.


title: Immigration to Europe

text: Among European countries, Switzerland would experience the highest growth, by +150%, followed by Sweden (+78%), Spain (+74%), Ireland (+66%), the United Kingdom (+62%) and France (+60%). The European countries with highest potential population loss are Kosovo and North Macedonia, with -28% each.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Italian Eritrea (, "Colony of Eritrea") was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy in the territory of present-day Eritrea. The first Italian establishment in the area was the purchase of Assab by the Rubattino Shipping Company in 1869, which came under government control in 1882. Occupation of Massawa in 1885 and the subsequent expansion of territory would gradually engulf the region and in 1889 borders with the Ethiopian Empire were defined in the Treaty of Wuchale. In 1890 the Colony of Eritrea () was officially founded.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: In 1936 the region was integrated into Italian East Africa as the Eritrea Governorate. This would last until Italy's loss of the region in 1941, during the East African campaign of World War II. Italian Eritrea then came under British military administration, which in 1951 fell under United Nations supervision. In September 1952 it became an autonomous part of Ethiopia, until its independence in 1991.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The leading figure of the early history of Italian enterprises in the Red Sea was Giuseppe Sapeto. When a young monk, preparing himself in Cairo for missionary work, he had been dispatched in 1837 into Abyssinia. Afterward, he became an active advocate of European penetration, initially encouraging the French to establish themselves in the area. After 1866, following the political unification of Italy, he sought to develop Italian influence instead. As the Suez Canal neared completion, he began to visualize the establishment of a coaling station and port of call for Italian steamships in the Red Sea. Sapeto won over the Italian minister for foreign affairs, and King Victor Emmanuel II, to whom he explained his ideas.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: In the autumn of 1869 he, together with Admiral Acton, was sent by the government to the Red Sea to choose a suitable port and arrange for its sale. This he did by paying a small deposit to the Danakil chiefs at Assab Bay in return for their promise to sell their territory to him on his return. Meanwhile, the government had been in touch with Raffaele Rubattino, whose company was planning to establish a steamship line through the newly opened Suez Canal and the Red Sea to India. It was agreed that the company would buy the territory in its own name and with its own funds, but should undertake to use it in the national interest. Sapeto returned to the Red Sea on behalf of the company, completed the purchase and bought more land to the south.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: By March 1870, an Italian shipping company had thus become claimant to territory at the northern end of Assab Bay, a deserted but spacious bay about half-way between Annesley Bay to the north and Obock to the South. However, the area, — which had been long dominated by the Ottoman Empire and Egypt— was not settled by the Italians until 1880. Two years later, Italy formally took possession of the nascent colony from its commercial owners.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Most of the western coast of the Red Sea was then formally claimed by the Khedivate of Egypt (under the notional rule of the Ottoman Turkish Empire, who held the eastern coast) but the region was thrown into chaos by major Egyptian defeats in the Ethio-Egyptian War and by the success of the Mahdi's uprising in the Sudan. In 1884, the British Hewett Treaty promised the Bogos—the highlands of modern Eritrea—and free access to the Massawan coast to Emperor Yohannes IV in exchange for his help evacuating garrisons from the Sudan;


title: Italian Eritrea

text: In the vacuum left by the Egyptian withdrawal, though, British diplomats were concerned about the rapid expansion of French Somaliland, France's colony along the Gulf of Tadjoura. Ignoring their treaty with Ethiopia, they openly encouraged Italy to expand north into Massawa, which was taken without a shot from its Egyptian garrison. Located on a coral island surrounded by lucrative pearl-fishing grounds, the superior port was fortified and made the capital of the Italian governor. Assab, meanwhile, continued to find service as a coaling station. As they were not a party to the Hewett Treaty, the Italians began restricting access to arms shipments and imposing customs duties on Ethiopian goods immediately.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: In the disorder that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of a new colony of "Eritrea" (from the Latin name for the Red Sea), with capital Asmara in substitution of Massawa.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: In the Treaty of Wuchale (It. "Uccialli") signed the same year, King Menelik of Shewa—a southern Ethiopian kingdom—recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire country.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Once established, however, Menelik took a dim view towards Italian involvement with local leaders in his northern province of Tigray; while the Italians, for their part, felt bound to involvement given the regular Tigrayan raiding of tribes within their colony's protectorate and the Tigrayan leaders themselves continued to claim the provinces now held by Italy. Negotiations with the French over a railway brought things to a head: the Italianbut "not" Amharicversion of the Treaty of Wuchale had prohibited Ethiopia with foreign negotiations except through Italy, effectively making the realm an Italian protectorate. Secure both domestically and militarily (thanks to arms shipments via French Djibouti and Harar), Menelik denounced the treaty in whole and the ensuing war, culminating in Italy's disastrous defeat at Adwa, ended their hopes of annexing Ethiopia for a time.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: During the late twentieth century Assab would become Ethiopia's main port, but it was long overshadowed by nearby Djibouti, whose railway (completed to Dire Dawa in 1902) permitted it to quickly supplant traditional caravan-based routes to Assab and Zeila. Massawa remained the primary port for most of northern Ethiopia, but its relatively high customs dues, dependence on caravans, and political antagonism limited the volume on its trade with Ethiopia.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Seeking to develop their own lands, the Italian government launched the first development projects in the new colony in the late 1880s. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888 and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The Asmara–Massawa Cableway (dismantled by the British as war reparations in World War II) was the longest line in the world during its time. Italian administration of Eritrea also brought improvements in the medical and agricultural sectors of Eritrean society. Despite an imposition of racial laws, all urban Eritreans had access to modern sanitation and hospital services.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The Italians also employed local Eritreans in public service, particularly the police and public works departments. In a region marked by cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, a succession of Italian governors maintained a notable degree of unity and public order.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Nicknamed "Colonia Primogenita" ("First-born Colony") in contrast to the newer and less-developed territories of Italian Somaliland and Libya, Eritrea boasted a larger native Italian settlement than the other lands. The first few dozen families were sponsored by the Italian government around the start of the 20th century and settled around Asmara and Massawa.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The Italian-Eritrean community then grew from around 4,000 during World War I to nearly 100,000 at the beginning of World War II. While tolerating Islamic adherence, the Italians endorsed a huge expansion of Catholicism in Eritrea and constructed many churches in the highlands around Asmara and Keren, centered on the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary in the capital.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: By the early 1940s, Catholicism was the declared religion of around 28% of the colony's population, while Christianity was the religion of more than half the Eritreans.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy in 1922 brought profound changes to the colonial government in Eritrea. After "il Duce" declared the birth of Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new Italian East Africa ("Africa Orientale Italiana") administrative territory. This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire".


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The capital of Eritrea experienced a huge increase in population: in 1935 there were only 4,000 Italians and 12,000 Eritreans; in 1938 there were 48,000 Italians and 36,000 Eritreans. Historian Gian Luca Podesta wrote that "practically Asmara has become an Italian city" ("in pratica Asmara era diventata una citta' italiana").


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The Italian government continued to implement agricultural reforms but primarily on farms owned by Italian colonists (exports of coffee boomed in the 1930s). In the area of Asmara, there were in 1940 more than 2,000 small and medium-sized industrial companies, which were concentrated in the areas of construction, mechanics, textiles, food processing and electricity. Consequently, the standard of living in Eritrea in 1939 was considered among the best on the continent for both the local Eritreans and the Italian settlers.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Mussolini's government considered the colony as a strategic base for future aggrandizement and ruled accordingly, using Eritrea as a base to launch its 1935–1936 campaign to conquer and colonize Ethiopia. Even in World War II the Italians used Eritrea to attack Sudan and occupy the Kassala area. Indeed, the best Italian colonial troops were the Eritrean Ascari, as stated by Italian Marshall Rodolfo Graziani and legendary officer Amedeo Guillet. Furthermore, after World War I, service with the Ascari become the main source of paid employment for the indigenous male population of Italian Eritrea. During the expansion required by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1936, 40% of eligible Eritreans were enrolled in these colonial troops.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: According to the Italian census of 1939 the city of Asmara had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italians. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the Italian empire in Africa. Furthermore, because of the Italian architecture of the city, Asmara was called "Piccola Roma" (Little Rome). The total number of Italians in all of Eritrea was 75,000 in that year.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Asmara was known to be an exceptionally modern city, not only because of its architecture, but Asmara also had more traffic lights than Rome did when the city was being built. The city incorporates many features of a planned city. Indeed, Asmara was an early example of an ideal modern city created by architects, an idea which was introduced into many cities across the world, such as Brasilia, but which was not altogether popular. Features include designated city zoning and planning, wide treed boulevards, political areas and districts and space and scope for development. Asmara was not built for the Eritreans however; the Italians built it primarily for themselves and made the city a typical Italian city with even its own car race (called the Asmara circuit).


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The city has been regarded as "New Rome" due to its quintessential Italian touch, not only for the architecture but also for the wide streets, piazzas and coffee bars. While the boulevards are lined with palms and indigenous "shiba'kha" trees, there are numerable pizzerias and coffee bars, serving cappuccinos and lattes, as well as ice cream parlours.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Many industrial investments were endorsed by the Italians in the area of Asmara and Massawa, but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of Eritrea.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: When the Allies captured Italian-held Eritrea in January 1941, most of the infrastructure and the industrial areas were extremely damaged and the remaining ones (like the Asmara-Massawa Cableway) were successively removed and sent toward India and Kenya as war reparations.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The following Italian guerrilla war was supported by many Eritrean colonial troops (like the "hero" of Eritrean independence, Hamid Idris Awate) until the Italian armistice in September 1943. Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II. After the defeat of Italy, there were 70,000 Italian settlers in Eritrea. The British military administration arrested and deported substantial numbers of the settler population as they were implicated with the Italian fascist regime. Some settlers were involved in confrontations with Eritreans.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The Italians in Eritrea started to move away from the country after the defeat of the Kingdom of Italy by the Allies, and by the time of the British census of 1949 Asmara had only 17,183 Italian Eritreans of a total population of 127,579. Most Italian settlers left for Italy, with others to United States, Middle East, and Australia.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The British maintained initially the Italian administration of Eritrea, but the country soon started to be involved in a violent process of independence (from the British in the late forties and after 1952 from the Ethiopians, who annexed Eritrea in that year).


title: Italian Eritrea

text: During the last years of World War II some Italian Eritreans like Dr. Vincenzo DiMeglio defended politically the presence of Italians in Eritrea and successively promoted the independence of Eritrea. He went to Rome to participate in a Conference for the independence of Eritrea, promoted by the Vatican.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: After the war Di Meglio was named Director of the "Comitato Rappresentativo Italiani dell' Eritrea" (CRIE). In 1947 he supported the creation of the ""Associazione Italo-Eritrei"" and the ""Associazione Veterani Ascari"", in order to get alliance with the Eritreans favorable to Italy in Eritrea.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: As a result of these creations, he cofounded the ""Partito Eritrea Pro Italia"" (Party of Shara Italy) in September 1947, an Eritrean political Party favorable to the Italian presence in Eritrea that obtained more than 200,000 inscriptions of membership in one single month.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: Indeed, the Italian Eritreans strongly rejected the Ethiopian annexation of Eritrea after the war: the "Party of Shara Italy" was established in Asmara in 1947 and the majority of the members were former Italian soldiers with many Eritrean Ascari (the organization was even backed up by the government of Italy).


title: Italian Eritrea

text: The main objective of this party was Eritrean freedom, but they had a pre-condition that stated that before independence the country should be governed by Italy for at least 15 years.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: With the Peace Treaty of 1947 Italy officially accepted the end of the colony. As a consequence the Italian community started to disappear, mainly after the Ethiopian government took control of Eritrea.


title: Italian Eritrea

text: However some Italo-Eritrean were welcomed by the Ethiopian government, like the brothers Italo Vassalo and Luciano Vassalo, champions of football who won the 1962 African Cup of Nations.


title: Museum Island

text: The Museum Island () is a museum complex on the northern part of the Spree Island in the historic heart of Berlin. It is one of the most visited sights of Germany's capital and one of the most important museum sites in Europe. Built from 1830 to 1930 by order of the Prussian Kings according to plans by five architects, Museum Island was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999 because of its testimony to the architectural and cultural development of museums in the 19th and 20th centuries. It consists of the Altes Museum, the Neues Museum, the Alte Nationalgalerie, the Bode-Museum and the Pergamonmuseum. As Museum Island includes all of Spree Island north of the Unter den Linden, the Berliner Dom is also located here, near the Lustgarten. To the south, the reconstructed Berlin Palace houses the Humboldt Forum museum and opened in 2020. Since German reunification, the Museum Island has been rebuilt and extended according to a master plan. In 2019, a new visitor center and art gallery, the James Simon Gallery, was opened.


title: Museum Island

text: The Museum Island is so-called for the complex of internationally significant museums, all part of the Berlin State Museums, that occupy the island's northern part:


title: Museum Island

text: In 1999, the museum complex was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites because of its unique testimony to the evolution of museums as a social and cultural phenomena and the corresponding development of museum architecture.


title: Museum Island

text: A first exhibition hall was erected in 1797 at the suggestion of the archaeologist Aloys Hirt. In 1822, Schinkel designed the plans for the Altes Museum to house the royal Antikensammlung, the arrangement of the collection was overseen by Wilhelm von Humboldt. The island, originally a residential area, was dedicated to "art and science" by King Frederick William IV of Prussia in 1841. Further extended under succeeding Prussian kings, the museum's collections of art and archeology were turned into a public foundation after 1918. They are today maintained by the Berlin State Museums branch of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation.


title: Museum Island

text: Museum Island further comprises the Lustgarten park and the Berlin Cathedral. Between the Bode and Pergamon Museums it is crossed by the Stadtbahn railway viaduct. The adjacent territory to the south is the site of the former royal and imperial Berlin Palace and the Palace of the Republic.


title: Museum Island

text: The Prussian collections became separated during the Cold War during the division of the city, but were reunited after German reunification, with the exception of some art and artifacts removed after World War II by Allied troops. These include the Priam's Treasure, also called "the gold of Troy", excavated by Heinrich Schliemann in 1873, then smuggled out of Turkey to Berlin and smuggled out of Germany to Moscow. Today it is kept at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow.


title: Museum Island

text: As for the city's major museums, it took much of the 1990s for a consensus to emerge that Museum Island's buildings should be restored and modernized, with General Director Wolf-Dieter Dube's cautious plan for their use finally approved in January 1999. Then, six months later, Peter-Klaus Schuster took over and set in motion a far more ambitious program intended to turn Museum Island into a "Louvre on the Spree". The federal government pledged $20 million a year through 2010 for projects to enhance Berlin's prestige and Unesco declaring the island a World Heritage Site.


title: Museum Island

text: The contents of the museums were decided on as follows: The Pergamon, with the Greek altar that gives it its name, retained much of its collection and was defined as a museum of ancient architecture. The Neues Museum presented archaeological objects as well as Egyptian and Etruscan sculptures, including the renowned bust of Queen Nefertiti. The Altes Museum, the oldest on the island, displayed Greek and Roman art objects on its first floor and hold exhibitions on its second floor. The Bode Museum's paintings went from Late Byzantine to 1800. And, as now, the Alte Nationalgalerie will cover the 19th century. Once this process is completed, perhaps by 2020, the Gemäldegalerie’s painting collection will be transferred to the Bode, and a new annex, and Museum Island will present all art from the ancient civilizations to 1900. The James Simon Gallery, a $94 million visitors’ center designed by the British architect David Chipperfield, is being built beside the Neues Museum. It will in turn be linked to the Neues, Altes, Pergamon and Bode Museums by an underground passageway decorated with archaeological objects.


title: Museum Island

text: Once the Museum Island Master Plan is completed, the so-called Archaeological Promenade will connect four of the five museums in the Museum Island. The Promenade will begin at the Old Museum in the south, lead through the New Museum and the Pergamon Museum and end at the Bode Museum, located at the northern tip of the Island. Before World War II, these museums were connected by bridge passages above ground; they were destroyed due to the effects of the war. There have never been plans to rebuild them; instead, the central courts of individual museums will be lowered, which has already been done in the Bode Museum and in the New Museum. They will be connected by subterranean galleries. In a way, this archaeological promenade can be regarded as the sixth museum in the Island, because it is devised not only as a connecting corridor but also as a strung-out exhibition room for interdisciplinary presentations. The Archaeological Promenade may be characterized as a cross-total of the collections that are shown separately (in accordance with cultural regions, epochs, and art genres) in the individual museums of the Island. The Archaeological Promenade will address multi-focus topics that have occupied the human mind irrespective of time and cultural region, be it a question of life after death or issues of beauty and other topics.


title: Museum Island

text: The southern section of the island, south of Gertraudenstraße, is commonly referred to as Fischerinsel (Fisher Island) and is the site of a high-rise apartment development built when Mitte was part of East Berlin.


title: Industrial robot

text: An industrial robot is a robot system used for manufacturing. Industrial robots are automated, programmable and capable of movement on three or more axes.


title: Industrial robot

text: Typical applications of robots include welding, painting, assembly, disassembly, pick and place for printed circuit boards, packaging and labeling, palletizing, product inspection, and testing; all accomplished with high endurance, speed, and precision. They can assist in material handling.


title: Industrial robot

text: In the year 2020, an estimated 1.64 million industrial robots were in operation worldwide according to International Federation of Robotics (IFR).


title: Industrial robot

text: Articulated robots are the most common industrial robots. They look like a human arm, which is why they are also called robotic arm or manipulator arm. Their articulations with several degrees of freedom allow the articulated arms a wide range of movements.


title: Industrial robot

text: Cartesian robots, also called rectilinear, gantry robots, and x-y-z robots have three prismatic joints for the movement of the tool and three rotary joints for its orientation in space.


title: Industrial robot

text: To be able to move and orient the effector organ in all directions, such a robot needs 6 axes (or degrees of freedom). In a 2-dimensional environment, three axes are sufficient, two for displacement and one for orientation.


title: Industrial robot

text: The cylindrical coordinate robots are characterized by their rotary joint at the base and at least one prismatic joint connecting its links. They can move vertically and horizontally by sliding. The compact effector design allows the robot to reach tight work-spaces without any loss of speed.


title: Industrial robot

text: Spherical coordinate robots only have rotary joints. They are one of the first robots to have been used in industrial applications. They are commonly used for machine tending in die-casting, plastic injection and extrusion, and for welding.


title: Industrial robot

text: SCARA is an acronym for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm. SCARA robots are recognized by their two parallel joints which provide movement in the X-Y plane. Rotating shafts are positioned vertically at the effector..


title: Industrial robot

text: SCARA robots are used for jobs that require precise lateral movements. They are ideal for assembly applications.


title: Industrial robot

text: Delta robots are also referred to as parallel link robots. They consist of parallel links connected to a common base. Delta robots are particularly useful for direct control tasks and high maneuvering operations (such as quick pick-and-place tasks). Delta robots take advantage of four bar or parallelogram linkage systems.


title: Industrial robot

text: Serial architectures a.k.a Serial manipulators are the most common industrial robots and they are designed as a series of links connected by motor-actuated joints that extend from a base to an end-effector. SCARA, Stanford manipulators are typical examples of this category.


title: Industrial robot

text: A parallel manipulator is designed so that each chain is usually short, simple and can thus be rigid against unwanted movement, compared to a serial manipulator. Errors in one chain's positioning are averaged in conjunction with the others, rather than being cumulative. Each actuator must still move within its own degree of freedom, as for a serial robot; however in the parallel robot the off-axis flexibility of a joint is also constrained by the effect of the other chains. It is this closed-loop stiffness that makes the overall parallel manipulator stiff relative to its components, unlike the serial chain that becomes progressively less rigid with more components.


title: Industrial robot

text: A full parallel manipulator can move an object with up to 6 degrees of freedom (DoF), determined by 3 translation "3T" and 3 rotation "3R" coordinates for full "3T3R m"obility. However, when a manipulation task requires less than 6 DoF, the use of lower mobility manipulators, with fewer than 6 DoF, may bring advantages in terms of simpler architecture, easier control, faster motion and lower cost. For example, the 3 DoF Delta robot has lower "3T" mobility and has proven to be very successful for rapid pick-and-place translational positioning applications. The workspace of lower mobility manipulators may be decomposed into `motion’ and `constraint’ subspaces. For example, 3 position coordinates constitute the motion subspace of the 3 DoF Delta robot and the 3 orientation coordinates are in the constraint subspace. The motion subspace of lower mobility manipulators may be further decomposed into independent (desired) and dependent (concomitant) subspaces: consisting of `concomitant’ or `parasitic’ motion which is undesired motion of the manipulator. The debilitating effects of concomitant motion should be mitigated or eliminated in the successful design of lower mobility manipulators. For example, the Delta robot does not have parasitic motion since its end effector does not rotate.


title: Industrial robot

text: Some robots are programmed to faithfully carry out specific actions over and over again (repetitive actions) without variation and with a high degree of accuracy. These actions are determined by programmed routines that specify the direction, acceleration, velocity, deceleration, and distance of a series of coordinated motions


title: Industrial robot

text: Other robots are much more flexible as to the orientation of the object on which they are operating or even the task that has to be performed on the object itself, which the robot may even need to identify. For example, for more precise guidance, robots often contain machine vision sub-systems acting as their visual sensors, linked to powerful computers or controllers. Artificial intelligence is becoming an increasingly important factor in the modern industrial robot.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Bill" Griffith P. Taylor in 1937 and published in Meccano Magazine, March 1938. The crane-like device was built almost entirely using Meccano parts, and powered by a single electric motor. Five axes of movement were possible, including "grab" and "grab rotation". Automation was achieved using punched paper tape to energise solenoids, which would facilitate the movement of the crane's control levers. The robot could stack wooden blocks in pre-programmed patterns. The number of motor revolutions required for each desired movement was first plotted on graph paper. This information was then transferred to the paper tape, which was also driven by the robot's single motor. Chris Shute built a complete replica of the robot in 1997.


title: Industrial robot

text: George Devol applied for the first robotics patents in 1954 (granted in 1961). The first company to produce a robot was Unimation, founded by Devol and Joseph F. Engelberger in 1956. Unimation robots were also called "programmable transfer machines" since their main use at first was to transfer objects from one point to another, less than a dozen feet or so apart. They used hydraulic actuators and were programmed in "joint coordinates", i.e. the angles of the various joints were stored during a teaching phase and replayed in operation. They were accurate to within 1/10,000 of an inch (note: although accuracy is not an appropriate measure for robots, usually evaluated in terms of repeatability - see later). Unimation later licensed their technology to Kawasaki Heavy Industries and GKN, manufacturing Unimates in Japan and England respectively. For some time Unimation's only competitor was Cincinnati Milacron Inc. of Ohio. This changed radically in the late 1970s when several big Japanese conglomerates began producing similar industrial robots.


title: Industrial robot

text: In 1969 Victor Scheinman at Stanford University invented the Stanford arm, an all-electric, 6-axis articulated robot designed to permit an arm solution. This allowed it accurately to follow arbitrary paths in space and widened the potential use of the robot to more sophisticated applications such as assembly and welding. Scheinman then designed a second arm for the MIT AI Lab, called the "MIT arm." Scheinman, after receiving a fellowship from Unimation to develop his designs, sold those designs to Unimation who further developed them with support from General Motors and later marketed it as the Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly (PUMA).


title: Industrial robot

text: Industrial robotics took off quite quickly in Europe, with both ABB Robotics and KUKA Robotics bringing robots to the market in 1973. ABB Robotics (formerly ASEA) introduced IRB 6, among the world's first "commercially available" all electric micro-processor controlled robot. The first two IRB 6 robots were sold to Magnusson in Sweden for grinding and polishing pipe bends and were installed in production in January 1974. Also in 1973 KUKA Robotics built its first robot, known as FAMULUS, also one of the first articulated robots to have six electromechanically driven axes.


title: Industrial robot

text: Interest in robotics increased in the late 1970s and many US companies entered the field, including large firms like General Electric, and General Motors (which formed joint venture FANUC Robotics with FANUC LTD of Japan). U.S. startup companies included Automatix and Adept Technology, Inc. At the height of the robot boom in 1984, Unimation was acquired by Westinghouse Electric Corporation for 107 million U.S. dollars. Westinghouse sold Unimation to Stäubli Faverges SCA of France in 1988, which is still making articulated robots for general industrial and cleanroom applications and even bought the robotic division of Bosch in late 2004.


title: Industrial robot

text: Only a few non-Japanese companies ultimately managed to survive in this market, the major ones being: Adept Technology, Stäubli, the Swedish-Swiss company ABB Asea Brown Boveri, the German company KUKA Robotics and the Italian company Comau.


title: Industrial robot

text: Accuracy and repeatability are different measures. Repeatability is usually the most important criterion for a robot and is similar to the concept of 'precision' in measurement—see accuracy and precision. ISO 9283 sets out a method whereby both accuracy and repeatability can be measured. Typically a robot is sent to a taught position a number of times and the error is measured at each return to the position after visiting 4 other positions. Repeatability is then quantified using the standard deviation of those samples in all three dimensions. A typical robot can, of course make a positional error exceeding that and that could be a problem for the process. Moreover, the repeatability is different in different parts of the working envelope and also changes with speed and payload. ISO 9283 specifies that accuracy and repeatability should be measured at maximum speed and at maximum payload. But this results in pessimistic values whereas the robot could be much more accurate and repeatable at light loads and speeds.


title: Industrial robot

text: The setup or programming of motions and sequences for an industrial robot is typically taught by linking the robot controller to a laptop, desktop computer or (internal or Internet) network.


title: Industrial robot

text: A robot and a collection of machines or peripherals is referred to as a workcell, or cell. A typical cell might contain a parts feeder, a molding machine and a robot. The various machines are 'integrated' and controlled by a single computer or PLC. How the robot interacts with other machines in the cell must be programmed, both with regard to their positions in the cell and synchronizing with them.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Software:" The computer is installed with corresponding interface software. The use of a computer greatly simplifies the programming process. Specialized robot software is run either in the robot controller or in the computer or both depending on the system design.


title: Industrial robot

text: There are two basic entities that need to be taught (or programmed): positional data and procedure. For example, in a task to move a screw from a feeder to a hole the positions of the feeder and the hole must first be taught or programmed. Secondly the procedure to get the screw from the feeder to the hole must be programmed along with any I/O involved, for example a signal to indicate when the screw is in the feeder ready to be picked up. The purpose of the robot software is to facilitate both these programming tasks.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Positional commands" The robot can be directed to the required position using a GUI or text based commands in which the required X-Y-Z position may be specified and edited.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Teach pendant:" Robot positions can be taught via a teach pendant. This is a handheld control and programming unit. The common features of such units are the ability to manually send the robot to a desired position, or "inch" or "jog" to adjust a position. They also have a means to change the speed since a low speed is usually required for careful positioning, or while test-running through a new or modified routine. A large emergency stop button is usually included as well. Typically once the robot has been programmed there is no more use for the teach pendant. All teach pendants are equipped with a 3-position deadman switch. In the manual mode, it allows the robot to move only when it is in the middle position (partially pressed). If it is fully pressed in or completely released, the robot stops. This principle of operation allows natural reflexes to be used to increase safety.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Lead-by-the-nose:" this is a technique offered by many robot manufacturers. In this method, one user holds the robot's manipulator, while another person enters a command which de-energizes the robot causing it to go into limp. The user then moves the robot by hand to the required positions and/or along a required path while the software logs these positions into memory. The program can later run the robot to these positions or along the taught path. This technique is popular for tasks such as paint spraying.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Offline programming" is where the entire cell, the robot and all the machines or instruments in the workspace are mapped graphically. The robot can then be moved on screen and the process simulated. A robotics simulator is used to create embedded applications for a robot, without depending on the physical operation of the robot arm and end effector. The advantages of robotics simulation is that it saves time in the design of robotics applications. It can also increase the level of safety associated with robotic equipment since various "what if" scenarios can be tried and tested before the system is activated.[8] Robot simulation software provides a platform to teach, test, run, and debug programs that have been written in a variety of programming languages.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Robot simulation" tools allow for robotics programs to be conveniently written and debugged off-line with the final version of the program tested on an actual robot. The ability to preview the behavior of a robotic system in a virtual world allows for a variety of mechanisms, devices, configurations and controllers to be tried and tested before being applied to a "real world" system. Robotics simulators have the ability to provide real-time computing of the simulated motion of an industrial robot using both geometric modeling and kinematics modeling.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Manufacturing independent robot programming tools" are a relatively new but flexible way to program robot applications. Using a graphical user interface the programming is done via drag and drop of predefined template/building blocks. They often feature the execution of simulations to evaluate the feasibility and offline programming in combination. If the system is able to compile and upload native robot code to the robot controller, the user no longer has to learn each manufacturer's proprietary language. Therefore, this approach can be an important step to standardize programming methods.


title: Industrial robot

text: "Others" in addition, machine operators often use user interface devices, typically touchscreen units, which serve as the operator control panel. The operator can switch from program to program, make adjustments within a program and also operate a host of peripheral devices that may be integrated within the same robotic system. These include end effectors, feeders that supply components to the robot, conveyor belts, emergency stop controls, machine vision systems, safety interlock systems, barcode printers and an almost infinite array of other industrial devices which are accessed and controlled via the operator control panel.


title: Industrial robot

text: The teach pendant or PC is usually disconnected after programming and the robot then runs on the program that has been installed in its controller. However a computer is often used to 'supervise' the robot and any peripherals, or to provide additional storage for access to numerous complex paths and routines.


title: Industrial robot

text: The most essential robot peripheral is the end effector, or end-of-arm-tooling (EOAT). Common examples of end effectors include welding devices (such as MIG-welding guns, spot-welders, etc.), spray guns and also grinding and deburring devices (such as pneumatic disk or belt grinders, burrs, etc.), and grippers (devices that can grasp an object, usually electromechanical or pneumatic). Other common means of picking up objects is by vacuum or magnets. End effectors are frequently highly complex, made to match the handled product and often capable of picking up an array of products at one time. They may utilize various sensors to aid the robot system in locating, handling, and positioning products.


title: Industrial robot

text: For a given robot the only parameters necessary to completely locate the end effector (gripper, welding torch, etc.) of the robot are the angles of each of the joints or displacements of the linear axes (or combinations of the two for robot formats such as SCARA). However, there are many different ways to define the points. The most common and most convenient way of defining a point is to specify a Cartesian coordinate for it, i.e. the position of the 'end effector' in mm in the X, Y and Z directions relative to the robot's origin. In addition, depending on the types of joints a particular robot may have, the orientation of the end effector in yaw, pitch, and roll and the location of the tool point relative to the robot's faceplate must also be specified. For a jointed arm these coordinates must be converted to joint angles by the robot controller and such conversions are known as Cartesian Transformations which may need to be performed iteratively or recursively for a multiple axis robot. The mathematics of the relationship between joint angles and actual spatial coordinates is called kinematics. See robot control


title: Industrial robot

text: Positioning by Cartesian coordinates may be done by entering the coordinates into the system or by using a teach pendant which moves the robot in X-Y-Z directions. It is much easier for a human operator to visualize motions up/down, left/right, etc. than to move each joint one at a time. When the desired position is reached it is then defined in some way particular to the robot software in use, e.g. P1 - P5 below.


title: Industrial robot

text: Most articulated robots perform by storing a series of positions in memory, and moving to them at various times in their programming sequence. For example, a robot which is moving items from one place (bin A) to another (bin B) might have a simple 'pick and place' program similar to the following:


title: Industrial robot

text: The American National Standard for Industrial Robots and Robot Systems — Safety Requirements (ANSI/RIA R15.06-1999) defines a singularity as “a condition caused by the collinear alignment of two or more robot axes resulting in unpredictable robot motion and velocities.” It is most common in robot arms that utilize a “triple-roll wrist”. This is a wrist about which the three axes of the wrist, controlling yaw, pitch, and roll, all pass through a common point. An example of a wrist singularity is when the path through which the robot is traveling causes the first and third axes of the robot's wrist (i.e. robot's axes 4 and 6) to line up. The second wrist axis then attempts to spin 180° in zero time to maintain the orientation of the end effector. Another common term for this singularity is a “wrist flip”. The result of a singularity can be quite dramatic and can have adverse effects on the robot arm, the end effector, and the process. Some industrial robot manufacturers have attempted to side-step the situation by slightly altering the robot's path to prevent this condition. Another method is to slow the robot's travel speed, thus reducing the speed required for the wrist to make the transition. The ANSI/RIA has mandated that robot manufacturers shall make the user aware of singularities if they occur while the system is being manually manipulated.


title: Industrial robot

text: A second type of singularity in wrist-partitioned vertically articulated six-axis robots occurs when the wrist center lies on a cylinder that is centered about axis 1 and with radius equal to the distance between axes 1 and 4. This is called a shoulder singularity. Some robot manufacturers also mention alignment singularities, where axes 1 and 6 become coincident. This is simply a sub-case of shoulder singularities. When the robot passes close to a shoulder singularity, joint 1 spins very fast.


title: Industrial robot

text: The third and last type of singularity in wrist-partitioned vertically articulated six-axis robots occurs when the wrist's center lies in the same plane as axes 2 and 3.


title: Industrial robot

text: Singularities are closely related to the phenomena of gimbal lock, which has a similar root cause of axes becoming lined up.


title: Industrial robot

text: According to the International Federation of Robotics (IFR) study "World Robotics 2020", there were about 2,722,077 operational industrial robots by the end of 2019. This number is estimated to reach 3,788,000 by the end of 2021. For the year 2018 the IFR estimates the worldwide sales of industrial robots with US$16.5 billion. Including the cost of software, peripherals and systems engineering, the annual turnover for robot systems is estimated to be US$48.0 billion in 2018.


title: Industrial robot

text: China is the largest industrial robot market, with 154,032 units sold in 2018. China had the largest operational stock of industrial robots, with 649,447 at the end of 2018. The United States industrial robot-makers shipped 35,880 robot to factories in the US in 2018 and this was 7% more than in 2017.


title: Industrial robot

text: The biggest customer of industrial robots is automotive industry with 30% market share, then electrical/electronics industry with 25%, metal and machinery industry with 10%, rubber and plastics industry with 5%, food industry with 5%. In textiles, apparel and leather industry, 1,580 units are operational.


title: Industrial robot

text: The International Federation of Robotics has predicted a worldwide increase in adoption of industrial robots and they estimated 1.7 million new robot installations in factories worldwide by 2020 [IFR 2017]. Rapid advances in automation technologies (e.g. fixed robots, collaborative and mobile robots, and exoskeletons) have the potential to improve work conditions but also to introduce workplace hazards in manufacturing workplaces. Despite the lack of occupational surveillance data on injuries associated specifically with robots, researchers from the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) identified 61 robot-related deaths between 1992 and 2015 using keyword searches of the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries research database (see info from Center for Occupational Robotics Research). Using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, NIOSH and its state partners have investigated 4 robot-related fatalities under the Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation Program. In addition the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has investigated dozens of robot-related deaths and injuries, which can be reviewed at OSHA Accident Search page. Injuries and fatalities could increase over time because of the increasing number of collaborative and co-existing robots, powered exoskeletons, and autonomous vehicles into the work environment.


title: Industrial robot

text: Safety standards are being developed by the Robotic Industries Association (RIA) in conjunction with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). On October 5, 2017, OSHA, NIOSH and RIA signed an alliance to work together to enhance technical expertise, identify and help address potential workplace hazards associated with traditional industrial robots and the emerging technology of human-robot collaboration installations and systems, and help identify needed research to reduce workplace hazards. On October 16 NIOSH launched the Center for Occupational Robotics Research to "provide scientific leadership to guide the development and use of occupational robots that enhance worker safety, health, and wellbeing." So far, the research needs identified by NIOSH and its partners include: tracking and preventing injuries and fatalities, intervention and dissemination strategies to promote safe machine control and maintenance procedures, and on translating effective evidence-based interventions into workplace practice.


title: Foam

text: A bath sponge and the head on a glass of beer are examples of foams. In most foams, the volume of gas is large, with thin films of liquid or solid separating the regions of gas. Soap foams are also known as suds.


title: Foam

text: Solid foams can be closed-cell or open-cell. In closed-cell foam, the gas forms discrete pockets, each completely surrounded by the solid material. In open-cell foam, gas pockets connect to each other. A bath sponge is an example of an open-cell foam: water easily flows through the entire structure, displacing the air. A sleeping mat is an example of a closed-cell foam: gas pockets are sealed from each other so the mat cannot soak up water.


title: Foam

text: Foams are examples of dispersed media. In general, gas is present, so it divides into gas bubbles of different sizes (i.e., the material is polydisperse)—separated by liquid regions that may form films, thinner and thinner when the liquid phase drains out of the system films. When the principal scale is small, i.e., for a very fine foam, this dispersed medium can be considered a type of colloid.


title: Foam

text: One scale is the bubble: material foams are typically disordered and have a variety of bubble sizes. At larger sizes, the study of idealized foams is closely linked to the mathematical problems of minimal surfaces and three-dimensional tessellations, also called honeycombs. The Weaire–Phelan structure is considered the best possible (optimal) unit cell of a perfectly ordered foam, while Plateau's laws describe how soap-films form structures in foams.


title: Foam

text: At lower scale than the bubble is the thickness of the film for metastable foams, which can be considered a network of interconnected films called lamellae. Ideally, the lamellae connect in triads and radiate 120° outward from the connection points, known as Plateau borders.


title: Foam

text: An even lower scale is the liquid–air interface at the surface of the film. Most of the time this interface is stabilized by a layer of amphiphilic structure, often made of surfactants, particles (Pickering emulsion), or more complex associations.


title: Foam

text: Solid foams, both open-cell and closed-cell, are considered as a sub-class of cellular structures. They often have lower nodal connectivity as compared to other cellular structures like honeycombs and truss lattices, and thus, their failure mechanism is dominated by bending of members. Low nodal connectivity and the resulting failure mechanism ultimately lead to their lower mechanical strength and stiffness compared to honeycombs and truss lattices.


title: Foam

text: Several conditions are needed to produce foam: there must be mechanical work, surface active components (surfactants) that reduce the surface tension, and the formation of foam faster than its breakdown.


title: Foam

text: One of the ways foam is created is through dispersion, where a large amount of gas is mixed with a liquid. A more specific method of dispersion involves injecting a gas through a hole in a solid into a liquid. If this process is completed very slowly, then one bubble can be emitted from the orifice at a time as shown in the picture below.


title: Foam

text: One of the theories for determining the separation time is shown below; however, while this theory produces theoretical data that matches with the experimental data, detachment due to capillarity is accepted as a better explanation.


title: Foam

text: where formula_3 is the volume of the bubble, formula_4 is the acceleration due to gravity, and ρ is the density of the gas ρ is the density of the liquid. The force working against the buoyancy force is the surface tension force, which is


title: Foam

text: As more air is pushed into the bubble, the buoyancy force grows quicker than the surface tension force. Thus, detachment occurs when the buoyancy force is large enough to overcome the surface tension force.


title: Foam

text: In addition, if the bubble is treated as a sphere with a radius of formula_8 and the volume formula_3 is substituted in to the equation above, separation occurs at the moment when


title: Foam

text: Examining this phenomenon from a capillarity viewpoint for a bubble that is being formed very slowly, it can be assumed that the pressure formula_11 inside is constant everywhere. The hydrostatic pressure in the liquid is designated by formula_12. The change in pressure across the interface from gas to liquid is equal to the capillary pressure; hence,


title: Foam

text: where R and R are the radii of curvature and are set as positive. At the stem of the bubble, R and R are the radii of curvature also treated as positive. Here the hydrostatic pressure in the liquid has to take in account z, the distance from the top to the stem of the bubble. The new hydrostatic pressure at the stem of the bubble is "p"("ρ" − "ρ")"z". The hydrostatic pressure balances the capillary pressure, which is shown below:


title: Foam

text: At the stem of the bubble, the shape of the bubble is nearly cylindrical; consequently, either R or R is large while the other radius of curvature is small. As the stem of the bubble grows in length, it becomes more unstable as one of the radius grows and the other shrinks. At a certain point, the vertical length of the stem exceeds the circumference of the stem and due to the buoyancy forces the bubble separates and the process repeats.


title: Foam

text: The stabilization of a foam is caused by van der Waals forces between the molecules in the foam, electrical double layers created by dipolar surfactants, and the Marangoni effect, which acts as a restoring force to the lamellae.


title: Foam

text: The Marangoni effect depends on the liquid that is foaming being impure. Generally, surfactants in the solution decrease the surface tension. The surfactants also clump together on the surface and form a layer as shown below.


title: Foam

text: For the Marangoni effect to occur, the foam must be indented as shown in the first picture. This indentation increases local surface area. Surfactants have a larger diffusion time than the bulk of the solution—so the surfactants are less concentrated in the indentation.


title: Foam

text: Also, surface stretching makes the surface tension of the indented spot greater than the surrounding area. Consequentially—since diffusion time for the surfactants is large—the Marangoni effect has time to take place. The difference in surface tension creates a gradient, which instigates fluid flow from areas of lower surface tension to areas of higher surface tension. The second picture shows the film at equilibrium after the Marangoni effect has taken place.


title: Foam

text: Witold Rybczynski and Jacques Hadamard developed an equation to calculate the velocity of bubbles that rise in foam with the assumption that the bubbles are spherical with a radius formula_6.


title: Foam

text: with velocity in units of centimeters per second. ρ and ρ is the density for a gas and liquid respectively in units of g/cm and ῃ and ῃ is the viscosity of the gas and liquid g/cm·s and g is the acceleration in units of cm/s.


title: Foam

text: However, since the density and viscosity of a liquid is much greater than the gas, the density and viscosity of the gas can be neglected, which yields the new equation for velocity of bubbles rising as:


title: Foam

text: Deviations are due to the Marangoni effect and capillary pressure, which affect the assumption that the bubbles are spherical.


title: Foam

text: For laplace pressure of a curved gas liquid interface, the two principal radii of curvature at a point are R and R. With a curved interface, the pressure in one phase is greater than the pressure in another phase. The capillary pressure P is given by the equation of:


title: Foam

text: where formula_21 is the surface tension. The bubble shown below is a gas (phase 1) in a liquid (phase 2) and point A designates the top of the bubble while point B designates the bottom of the bubble.


title: Foam

text: At the top of the bubble at point A, the pressure in the liquid is assumed to be p as well as in the gas. At the bottom of the bubble at point B, the hydrostatic pressure is:


title: Foam

text: where ρ and ρ is the density for a gas and liquid respectively. The difference in hydrostatic pressure at the top of the bubble is 0, while the difference in hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the bubble across the interface is "gz"("ρ" − "ρ"). Assuming that the radii of curvature at point A are equal and denoted by R and that the radii of curvature at point B are equal and denoted by R, then the difference in capillary pressure between point A and point B is:


title: Foam

text: At equilibrium, the difference in capillary pressure must be balanced by the difference in hydrostatic pressure. Hence,


title: Foam

text: Since, the density of the gas is less than the density of the liquid the left hand side of the equation is always positive. Therefore, the inverse of R must be larger than the R. Meaning that from the top of the bubble to the bottom of the bubble the radius of curvature increases. Therefore, without neglecting gravity the bubbles cannot be spherical. In addition, as z increases, this causes the difference in R and R too, which means the bubble deviates more from its shape the larger it grows.


title: Foam

text: Foam destabilization occurs for several reasons. First, gravitation causes drainage of liquid to the foam base, which Rybczynski and Hadamar include in their theory; however, foam also destabilizes due to osmotic pressure causes drainage from the lamellas to the Plateau borders due to internal concentration differences in the foam, and Laplace pressure causes diffusion of gas from small to large bubbles due to pressure difference. In addition, films can break under disjoining pressure, These effects can lead to rearrangement of the foam structure at scales larger than the bubbles, which may be individual (T1 process) or collective (even of the "avalanche" type).


title: Foam

text: Being a multi-scale system involving many phenomena, and a versatile medium, foam can be studied using many different techniques. Considering the different scales, experimental techniques are diffraction ones, mainly light scattering techniques (DWS, see below, static and dynamic light scattering, X-rays and neutron scattering) at sub-micrometer scales, or microscopic ones. Considering the system as continuous, its "bulk" properties can be characterized by light transmittance but also conductimetry. The correlation between structure and bulk is evidenced more accurately by acoustics in particular. The organisation between bubbles has been studied numerically using sequential attempts of evolution of the minimum surface energy either at random (Pott's model) or deterministic way (surface evolver). The evolution with time (i.e., the dynamics) can be simulated using these models, or the "bubble model" (Durian), which considers the motion of individual bubbles.


title: Foam

text: Observations of the small-scale structure can be made by shining the foam with laser light or x-ray beams and measuring the reflectivity of the films between bubbles. Observations of the global structure can be done using neutron scattering.


title: Foam

text: A typical light scattering (or diffusion) optical technique, multiple light scattering coupled with vertical scanning, is the most widely used technique to monitor the dispersion state of a product, hence identifying and quantifying destabilization phenomena. It works on any concentrated dispersions without dilution, including foams. When light is sent through the sample, it is backscattered by the bubbles. The backscattering intensity is directly proportional to the size and volume fraction of the dispersed phase. Therefore, local changes in concentration (drainage, syneresis) and global changes in size (ripening, coalescence) are detected and monitored.


title: Foam

text: Liquid foams can be used in fire retardant foam, such as those that are used in extinguishing fires, especially oil fires.


title: Foam

text: In some ways, leavened bread is a foam, as the yeast causes the bread to rise by producing tiny bubbles of gas in the dough. The dough has traditionally been understood as a closed-cell foam, in which the pores do not connect with each other. Cutting the dough releases the gas in the bubbles that are cut, but the gas in the rest of the dough cannot escape. When dough is allowed to rise too far, it becomes an open-cell foam, in which the gas pockets are connected. Cutting the dough or the surface otherwise breaking at that point would cause a large volume of gas to escape, and the dough would collapse. The open structure of an over-risen dough is easy to observe: instead of consisting of discrete gas bubbles, the dough consists of a gas space filled with threads of the flour-water paste. Recent research has indicated that the pore structure in bread is 99% interconnected into one large vacuole, thus the closed-cell foam of the moist dough is transformed into an open cell solid foam in the bread.


title: Foam

text: The unique property of gas-liquid foams having very high specific surface area is exploited in the chemical processes of froth flotation and foam fractionation.


title: Foam

text: Solid foams are a class of lightweight cellular engineering materials. These foams are typically classified into two types based on their pore structure: open-cell-structured foams (also known as reticulated foams) and closed-cell foams. At high enough cell resolutions, any type can be treated as continuous or "continuum" materials and are referred to as cellular solids, with predictable mechanical properties.


title: Foam

text: Open-cell-structured foams contain pores that are connected to each other and form an interconnected network that is relatively soft. Open-cell foams fill with whatever gas surrounds them. If filled with air, a relatively good insulator results, but, if the open cells fill with water, insulation properties would be reduced. Recent studies have put the focus on studying the properties of open-cell foams as an insulator material. Wheat gluten/TEOS bio-foams have been produced, showing similar insulator properties as for those foams obtained from oil-based resources. Foam rubber is a type of open-cell foam.


title: Foam

text: Closed-cell foams do not have interconnected pores. The closed-cell foams normally have higher compressive strength due to their structures. However, closed-cell foams are also, in general more dense, require more material, and as a consequence are more expensive to produce. The closed cells can be filled with a specialized gas to provide improved insulation. The closed-cell structure foams have higher dimensional stability, low moisture absorption coefficients, and higher strength compared to open-cell-structured foams. All types of foam are widely used as core material in sandwich-structured composite materials.


title: Foam

text: The earliest known engineering use of cellular solids is with wood, which in its dry form is a closed-cell foam composed of lignin, cellulose, and air. From the early 20th century, various types of specially manufactured solid foams came into use. The low density of these foams makes them excellent as thermal insulators and flotation devices and their lightness and compressibility make them ideal as packing materials and stuffings.


title: Foam

text: An example of the use of azodicarbonamide as a blowing agent is found in the manufacture of vinyl (PVC) and EVA-PE foams, where it plays a role in the formation of air bubbles by breaking down into gas at high temperature.


title: Foam

text: The random or "stochastic" geometry of these foams makes them good for energy absorption, as well. In the late 20th century to early 21st century, new manufacturing techniques have allowed for geometry that results in excellent strength and stiffness per weight. These new materials are typically referred to as engineered cellular solids.


title: Foam

text: A special class of closed-cell foams, known as syntactic foam, contains hollow particles embedded in a matrix material. The spheres can be made from several materials, including glass, ceramic, and polymers. The advantage of syntactic foams is that they have a very high strength-to-weight ratio, making them ideal materials for many applications, including deep-sea and space applications. One particular syntactic foam employs shape memory polymer as its matrix, enabling the foam to take on the characteristics of shape memory resins and composite materials; i.e., it has the ability to be reshaped repeatedly when heated above a certain temperature and cooled. Shape memory foams have many possible applications, such as dynamic structural support, flexible foam core, and expandable foam fill.


title: Foam

text: "Integral skin foam", also known as "self-skin foam", is a type of foam with a high-density skin and a low-density core. It can be formed in an "open-mold process" or a "closed-mold process". In the open-mold process, two reactive components are mixed and poured into an open mold. The mold is then closed and the mixture is allowed to expand and cure. Examples of items produced using this process include arm rests, baby seats, shoe soles, and mattresses. The closed-mold process, more commonly known as "reaction injection molding" (RIM), injects the mixed components into a closed mold under high pressures.


title: Foam

text: Foam, in this case meaning "bubbly liquid", is also produced as an often-unwanted by-product in the manufacture of various substances. For example, foam is a serious problem in the chemical industry, especially for biochemical processes. Many biological substances, for example proteins, easily create foam on agitation or aeration. Foam is a problem because it alters the liquid flow and blocks oxygen transfer from air (thereby preventing microbial respiration in aerobic fermentation processes). For this reason, anti-foaming agents, like silicone oils, are added to prevent these problems. Chemical methods of foam control are not always desired with respect to the problems (i.e., contamination, reduction of mass transfer) they may cause especially in food and pharmaceutical industries, where the product quality is of great importance. Mechanical methods to prevent foam formation are more common than chemical ones.


title: Foam

text: The acoustical property of the speed of sound through a foam is of interest when analyzing failures of hydraulic components. The analysis involves calculating total hydraulic cycles to fatigue failure. The speed of sound in a foam is determined by the mechanical properties of the gas creating the foam: oxygen, nitrogen, or combinations.


title: Foam

text: Assuming that the speed of sound is based on the liquid's fluid properties leads to errors in calculating fatigue cycles and failure of mechanical hydraulic components. Using acoustical transducers and related instrumentation that set low limits (0–50,000 Hz with roll-off) causes errors. The low roll-off during measurement of actual frequency of acoustic cycles results in miscalculation due to actual hydraulic cycles in the possible ranges of 1–1000 MHz or higher. Instrumentation systems are most revealing when cycle bandwidths exceed the actual measured cycles by a factor of 10 to 100. Associated instrumentation costs also increase by factors of 10 to 100.


title: Foam

text: Most moving hydro-mechanical components cycle at 0–50 Hz, but entrained gas bubbles resulting in a foamy condition of the associated hydraulic fluid results in actual hydraulic cycles that can exceed 1000 MHz even if the moving mechanical components do not cycle at the higher cycle frequency.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: Perception is an American crime drama television series created by Kenneth Biller and Mike Sussman. The series stars Eric McCormack as Dr. Daniel Pierce, a neuropsychiatrist with schizophrenia who assists the FBI on some of its most complex cases.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: The series aired in the United States on the cable channel TNT from July 9, 2012 to March 17, 2015 and was produced by ABC Studios. On November 13, 2014, TNT canceled the series of "Perception" after three seasons. The remaining episodes of season 3 began airing February 17, 2015.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: Dr. Daniel Pierce, a talented but eccentric neuropsychiatrist, is enlisted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to assist in solving some of its most complex cases in Chicago. Dr. Pierce works closely with Special Agent Kate Moretti, a former student who recruited him to work with the FBI. Also on the team are Max Lewicki, Dr. Pierce's teaching assistant, and Natalie Vincent, a hallucination manifested as a result of his schizophrenia who also serves as his best friend.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: Episodes typically begin with a scene of Pierce giving a lecture to his students about an aspect of the human brain that becomes significant within the plot of the episode. The episodes also typically end with observations said to students about the paradoxes of human perception.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: Originally known as "Proof", "Perception" was created by Kenneth Biller and Mike Sussman and appeared on TNT's development slate as early as 2009. On September 8, 2010, after having been in development for well over a year, TNT placed a pilot order for "Perception". Kenneth Biller and Mike Sussman wrote the pilot, Alan Poul was attached to the project as director, with Kenneth Biller, Mike Sussman and Alan Poul serving as executive producers. Neuroscientist David Eagleman served as the technical consultant to the series.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: On March 22, 2011, TNT green-lighted the series with an order of 10 episodes to air in the summer of 2012. Along with the series pickup, TNT announced that Alan Poul would not be continuing as an executive producer on the series beyond the pilot; they also announced that the character portrayed by McCormack had been renamed Daniel Pierce.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: On August 17, 2011, TNT announced that production had commenced on the remaining nine episodes of "Perception". The series is produced by ABC Studios.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: Casting announcements began in October 2010, with Eric McCormack first to be cast, McCormack portrays Dr. Geoffrey (later renamed Daniel) Pierce, "an eccentric neuroscientist who uses his unique outlook to help the federal government solve complex cases. With an intimate knowledge of human behavior and a masterful understanding of the mind, this quirky, crime-solving professor pulls lessons from an odd and imaginative view of the world." Next to join the series was Arjay Smith as Max Lewicki, "Pierce's teaching assistant, a perpetual student who has spent nine years in college and has had sixteen majors and not a single degree. His primary job is to keep Pierce in line and on task." Rachael Leigh Cook was next to be cast as Kate Rossi, "Pierce’s former student and the person responsible for recruiting him to work for the government." Kelly Rowan was the last actor to be cast, portraying Natalie Vincent, "Pierce’s best friend and every bit his intellectual equal."


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: Along with the announcement that production had started on the series, the network announced that Levar Burton had joined the series as a recurring guest star; he portrays Paul Haley, "a dean at the university". TNT also announced that the character portrayed by Cook had been renamed Kate Moretti.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: On August 22, 2011, it was announced that Jamie Bamber had been cast in a recurring role as "a new professor who catches the eye of Kate Moretti". On October 14, 2011, TNT Public Relations announced that Freddy Rodriguez was cast in a two-episode role as "an eccentric ex-student of McCormack's Dr. Daniel Pierce".


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: On January 29, 2013, Scott Wolf joined the series in the major recurring role of Donnie, Kate's ex-husband who works as an Assistant U.S. Attorney. On February 13, 2014, Peter Coyote signed onto the season three guest role of James Alan Pierce, Daniel's father.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: Although the series is set in Chicago, Illinois, filming for the pilot took place in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Afterwards, filming was shifted to Los Angeles, California.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: "Perception" premiered on TVB Pearl in Hong Kong on September 11, 2012. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the series premiered on Watch on October 3, 2012. The second season debuted on September 3, 2013. In South Africa, it began airing on DStv on November 5, 2012. In India, it started airing on Zee Café on January 19, 2013. In Australia, Universal Channel premiered it on April 3, 2013. The third season premiered on January 5, 2015. TVNZ in New Zealand debuted the show on January 22, 2014.


title: Perception (American TV series)

text: On May 21, 2013, the complete first season was released on DVD. The series is also available for streaming on Amazon.com, Disney+ Star, iTunes, and American Broadcast Company's streaming service.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: Erwin Helmchen (10 May 1907 – 8 June 1981) was a German footballer who played as a striker. He is the most prolific goalscorer in official matches in recorded history according to RSSSF with at least 987 goals scored in 578 official matches, as well as the second goalscorer in league matches with over 720 goals, the second-most prolific goalscorer for a single team in official matches with at least 667 goals and the goalscorer with most career hat-tricks with at least 141.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: Helmchen started his career at FV Brandenburg Cottbus () in 1923, at the age of 16. In Lower Lusatia, he took part with the FV Brandenburg in the finals of the South Eastern German football championship. However, the Breslau clubs, Sportfreunde Breslau and Breslauer SC 08 dominated the competition. He scored 151 goals in 86 official games.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: In 1928, Helmchen joined PSV Chemnitz. He scored in his first five seasons at PSV 213 goals in the regional championship rounds, However, they found fierce rivalry with the local competitors Chemnitzer BC. In 1932, PSV managed to reach the Central German football championship final against Dresdner SC to win 3–2 after extra-time. Helmchen scored 51 goals in the championship for PSV, with a total of 120 goals in the 1931–32 season. PSV later participated in the 1932 German football championship, where they lost 2–3 to the eventual German champions Bayern Munich in the quarter-finals. However, Helmchen managed to score 5 goals in that competition to finish in second place behind Karl Ehmer.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: The Gauliga Sachsen was inaugurated in 1933. Helmchen with his club in the debut season 1933–34 finished third behind Dresdner SC and VfB Leipzig. In 1934–35 and 1935–36 seasons, PSV Chemnitz managed to win two titles in the Gauliga Sachsen, both in front of the Dresdner SC. In the 1935 German football championship, PSV lost in the semi-finals 2–3 against the eventual winners FC Schalke 04, both PSV goals were scored by Helmchen. In total Helmchen scored 678 goals in 372 official matches for PSV Chemnitz.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: In the 1935–36 Reichsbundpokal (), PSV won against Gauliga Südwest/Mainhessen team in the final, with Helmchen scoring nine goals in total. In the 1936 German football championship group stage, PSV defeated Schalke 3–2 in front of 40,000 spectators in Dortmund's Stadion Rote Erde, and Helmchen contributed two goals to the win. However, Schalke managed to win 2–1 against PSV at Ostragehege to advance to the next round on goal difference. With a total of ten goals, Helmchen once again underlined his above-average qualifications in the final round.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: PSV was runner-up with his team in the 1936–37 season, then third in 1938 and 1941, but it was no longer enough to make another entry into the final round of the German championship. However, PSV lost two Reichsbundpokal finals in 1936–37 against Gauliga Niederrhein and 1939–40 Gauliga Bayern teams, as Helmchen was a captain in the latter final.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: After the Second World War, Helmchen joined SG Chemnitz Nord in 1945, where Helmchen played for in Chemnitz regional competitions. The team finished first in 1947 and third in 1948. In the 1948–49 season, his team lost the finals against Meeraner SV. He was called up on 23 January 1949 in the selection game between Saxony and Berlin by Saxony coach Helmut Schön as a centre forward. He scored the last goals in the autumn round of 1949–50 in the state class of Saxony for SG Chemnitz Nord, which by then had changed it name once more to BSG Fewa Chemnitz.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: Helmchen later moved to Schleswig-Holstein. First, he was at Eintracht Rendsburg and from February 1950 at VfB Lübeck, where he was a player-coach in the football league north. In the following season 1950–51, Helmchen won the championship with VfB in the Schleswig-Holstein-Liga, but failed in the promotion round to the upper league. In 1951–52, he won the state league championship again with VfB, but the return to the Oberliga Nord was not successful at the second attempt. He trained with the national league team SV Friedrichsort until 1956.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: He was called up on 24 May 1931, in the German defeat 0–6 against Austria. In 1937, there were two more appearances in test matches before international matches: on 22 May in Stuttgart against Manchester City and on 24 October in Berlin against Gau Brandenburg. However, he did not feature in any of the national team matches, due to several reasons including injury, bad form, leaving a bad impression and, on one occasion, having to attend a wedding.


title: Erwin Helmchen

text: Helmchen lived with his wife Erna in Kiel, Elmschenhagen until his death on 8 June 1981, where he is also buried. The wish he expressed to want to rest under the ground of the Chemnitz "Stadium on Gellertstrasse" was symbolically fulfilled on 8 September 2001. On this day, Holstein Kiel and Chemnitzer FC met in the Regionalliga Nord for their first league game. The CFC fan club "Clubsurfer" then called out the "Lawn for Erwin" campaign, in which a piece of turf from the Chemnitz soccer turf was cut off and placed on Helmchen's grave in Kiel with a small devotion.


title: Cielito Lindo

text: "Cielito Lindo" is a popular Mexican song "copla", popularized in 1882 by Mexican author Quirino Mendoza y Cortés (c. 1862–1957). It is roughly translated as "Lovely Sweet One". Although the word "cielo" means "sky" or "heaven", it is also a term of endearment comparable to "sweetheart" or "honey." "Cielito", the diminutive, can be translated as "sweetie"; "lindo" means "cute", "lovely" or "pretty". Sometimes the song is known by words from the refrain, "Canta y no llores" or simply the "Ay, Ay, Ay, Ay song".


title: Cielito Lindo

text: Commonly played by mariachi bands, it has been recorded by many artists in the original Spanish as well as in English and other languages. There is some debate as to whether the song talks about the Sierra Morena, a mountain range in the south region of Spain, or the similarly named Sierra Morones in the Mexican state of Zacatecas. It has become a famous song of Mexico, especially in Mexican expatriate communities around the world or for Mexicans attending international events such as the Olympic Games or the FIFA World Cup.


title: Cielito Lindo

text: It has been sung by a host of artists, such as Tito Guizar, Pedro Infante, Vicente Fernandez, Placido Domingo, Luciano Pavarotti, Eartha Kitt, Menudo and Ana Gabriel. It was part of the iconic Mexican movie "Los tres Garcia".


title: Cielito Lindo

text: The scheme corresponds to the Spain Castilian classical stanza known as "seguidilla", i.e. seven lines of alternating heptasyllabic and pentasyllabic verses. Lyrics vary widely from performer to performer and every singer is free to add and remove some verses for his or her own interpretation. Some of the most traditional lyrics are the following:


title: Cielito Lindo

text: In the article ""¡Hasta que me cayó el veinte!"" Ortega discusses the origins of the first verse of this song. His research discovered that in the early 17th century, armed bandits would take refuge in the Sierra Morena mountains of Spain and that people feared for their lives when they had to travel through the region. The words of the first verse of "Cielito Lindo" were found in a song from that era, hinting at that fear. But with time the meaning of the verse changed as people began romanticizing it. "Your face is the Sierra Morena. Your eyes are thieves who live there." The verse had other melodies put to it and variations on the lyrics. Quirino Mendoza, the composer, adapted the verse to his own melody and gave us the song we know today.


title: Cielito Lindo

text: "Cielito Lindo" should not be confused with another popular and traditional song called "Cielito lindo huasteco" also known as "Cielito lindo" from La Huasteca in Mexico. This song, distinctly different from the common version above, has been played by many "conjuntos huastecos", as it is considered one of the most popular Son Huasteco or Huapango songs. While the music is quite different, the lyrics of both songs have a similar metric structure, and both use the phrases "cielito lindo" and "ay ay ay ay" as fillers, though in different places within the stanza.


title: Cielito Lindo

text: Some singers, for example Julio Iglesias, perform the song under the title "De domingo a domingo", taken from the first words of the lyrics as sung in that version; as with the other song, the lyrics used vary widely among performers, and some borrow stanzas from the former. One frequently sung stanza has the words "Árbol de la esperanza, mantente firme" ("Tree of hope, stay firm") which appear in an eponymous painting by Frida Kahlo.


title: Cielito Lindo

text: Sometimes mariachis perform combined versions of "Cielito Lindo" and "Cielito lindo huasteco" which are completely different, thus creating some confusion about both.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: Charlotte is a 2021 animated biographical drama film about German painter Charlotte Salomon, directed by Éric Warin and Tahir Rana, from a screen story by Erik Rutherford and a screenplay by Rutherford and David Bezmozgis, inspired by Salomon's autobiographical painting series, "Life? or Theatre?". It stars the voices of Keira Knightley, Brenda Blethyn, Jim Broadbent, Sam Claflin, Henry Czerny, Eddie Marsan, Helen McCrory (in her final appearance), Sophie Okonedo and Mark Strong. Knightley, Marion Cotillard, and Xavier Dolan serve as executive producers. "Charlotte" is an international co-production between Canada, Belgium and France.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: The film made its world premiere at the 2021 Toronto International Film Festival on September 13, 2021. It was released in Canada on 22 April 2022 and in France on 9 November 2022.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: Producer Julia Rosenberg fell in love with Charlotte Salomon as an artist at the age of 13 when she was first given a collection of her work, "Life? or Theatre?". While jogging one morning in 2011, Rosenberg had an idea that if Salomon drew her life story as a painting series, then she had to produce an animated dramatic film. Rosenberg then sent an email to the Charlotte Salomon Foundation, and that's how the project started. In May 2012, Rosenberg officially optioned Salomon's memoir, "Life? or Theatre?".


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: The film was originally announced in 2016 as a project to be directed by Bibo Bergeron, and written by Erik Rutherford and Miriam Toews. The screenplay was written in four or five years by Erik Rutherford and David Bezmozgis. The Charlotte Salomon Foundation had script approvals.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: An international co-production between Canada, Belgium, and France, the film was produced by Canada's January Films and Sons of Manual, in co-production with Belgium's Walking the Dog, and France's Les Productions Balthazar, in association with Telefilm Canada, Trinity Media Financing, Umedia, Serendipity Point Films, Centre National du Cinéma et de l’Image Animée, Eurimages, Crave, CBC Films, Ontario Creates, Screen Flanders, Région Nouvelle-Aquitaine, and Flanders Audiovisual Fund.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: In July 2021, it was announced that the cast included Keira Knightley, Brenda Blethyn, Jim Broadbent, Sam Claflin, Henry Czerny, Eddie Marsan, Helen McCrory, Sophie Okonedo and Mark Strong, with Marion Cotillard and Romain Duris set to voice a French-language version of the film. Warin and Rana directed from a screenplay by Erik Rutherford and David Bezmozgis, with Knightley, Cotillard, Xavier Dolan, and Nancy Grant set to executive produce, with Elevation Pictures set to distribute in Canada, Diaphana Distribution in France, and The Searchers in Belgium.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: The film's original version is in English. Keira Knightley was recorded before animation. Marion Cotillard (who voiced Charlotte Salomon in the French version) came on afterwards and recorded with the final film. Cotillard had previously worked with executive producers Xavier Dolan and Nancy Grant in the film "It's Only the End of the World" (2016). Cotillard told French magazine "L'Obs" that she had never heard of Charlotte Salomon until Grant approached her for this project. Grant gave Cotillard a book of Salomon's paintings and she felt moved by the artist's work.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: It had its world premiere at the 2021 Toronto International Film Festival on 13 September 2021. In December 2021, Good Deed Entertainment acquired North American distribution rights to the film, and set it for a 22 April 2022 limited release in the United States.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: The film had a limited theatrical release in Canada on 22 April 2022 by Elevation Pictures. It will be released in France on 9 November 2022 by Nour Films.


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 69% approval rating, based on 39 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The website's consensus reads, "While it lacks the spark of its subject's remarkable work, "Charlotte" offers a worthy introduction to a remarkable -- albeit tragic -- real-life story." On Metacritic, the film received a score of 58 out of 100, based on 13 critic reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Charlotte (2021 film)

text: In December 2021, the film was named to TIFF's annual year-end Canada's Top Ten list of the best Canadian films of 2021.