title: Rochester New York FC

text: On June 15, 2021, Jamie Vardy was announced as co-owner of the franchise and intends to field a team for the 2022 season. Lee Tucker, who was the project leader at Vardy’s successful V9 Academy – which gave opportunities to non-league players in England seeking to break into the professional game, will be appointed Sporting Director.


title: Rochester New York FC

text: On September 1, 2021, it was announced that the club had gone through an extensive makeover as part of the club’s rebirth, the Rhinos had a complete rebrand to Rochester New York FC or RNYFC for short, and had a new logo introduced. The new club badge features an abstract rendering of Rochester's High Falls waterfall.


title: Rochester New York FC

text: The club has announced its return to play in 2022, and will be the first independent club in the new MLS Next Pro league.


title: Rochester New York FC

text: The Raging Rhinos first began play in 1996 at Fauver Stadium, a soccer venue at the University of Rochester. They then played at Frontier Field, a Minor League Baseball park, from 1996 to 2005.


title: Rochester New York FC

text: Starting in 2006, the team played in Marina Auto Stadium, a soccer-specific stadium built for their use. When the Rhinos went on hiatus at the end of 2017, they originally sought to remain at the stadium, scheduling neutral-site USL matches during the 2018 season to meet the terms of their lease. However, in August 2018 the team announced they would be seeking a new venue.


title: Rochester New York FC

text: In June 2021, when the team announced a new co-owner ahead of a planned return to play in 2022, they indicated they would play at Empire United Soccer Complex in Henrietta, New York. However, Empire United's field had no stands, concessions, or other amenities, and would have required upgrades for professional soccer use. In order to be ready for a March 2022 kickoff in MLS Next Pro, the team announced in December 2021 that they would instead play at John L. DiMarco Field, a 1,500-capacity soccer and lacrosse venue at Monroe Community College in Brighton, New York.


title: Rochester New York FC

text: Rochester New York FC has two major supporters' groups. Founded in 2011, the Oak Street Brigade once occupied section 101 at Capelli Sport Stadium, the former home of the Rochester Rhinos. The other major supporters' group is the North Star Ultras, which formed during the club's hiatus and operates alongside the Oak Street Brigade in a united supporters section. Both supporters groups currently occupy section “A” at John L. DiMarco Field at MCC Brighton Campus.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana is a 2014 Indian Malayalam-language coming-of-age romantic comedy film co-written and directed by Jude Anthany Joseph. The story was conceived by Midhun Manuel Thomas and he wrote the screenplay along with the director. It stars Nivin Pauly , Nazriya Nazim , and Vineeth Sreenivasan with Renji Panicker, Aju Varghese. "Ohm Shanthi Oshaana" was produced by Ananya Films and features music by Shaan Rahman.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana was released on 7 February 2014 with positive reviews from critics and became one of the biggest hits of 2014, with the critics praising Nivin's and Nazriya's performance and won three Kerala State Film Awards including Best Popular Film, Best Actress for Nazriya Nazim and Best Editor for Lijo Paul. The film is remade in Bengali as "Ke Tumi Nandini" (2019).


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: The film begins in 1983 as Dr. Mathew Devasya anxiously paces the hall outside of a delivery room. He learns that his wife has delivered a baby boy and thanks God for the good news. A stranger comments that Mathew was lucky the baby was not a girl, as he would have had to worry about her all his life. As the stranger says this, a nurse comes out of the delivery room carrying the baby, apologizing that she made a mistake, and confirming that the baby is actually a girl. Mathew glares at the stranger and praises God once again.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: The story resumes in 1999 where the baby girl, Pooja Mathew, is now a seventeen year old tomboy in grade 12. She introduces the audience to her parents. Her father is a doctor by profession and enjoys recording and listening to his own renditions of songs. Her mother, a college lecturer by profession, is a sweet and down-to-earth woman who loves cooking and appreciating her own culinary skills. Pooja also has two friends: Neetu, a flirt, and Donna, a foodie.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: Pooja recounts her childhood memories of being a tomboy, riding a motorbike, and of her friendship with Rachel Aunty who makes and sells wine as her job. Pooja is her official wine taster. During one of their meetings, she tells Pooja that she can either choose to marry a man she loves or learn to love a stranger that she is forced to marry through arranged marriage. Because of her advice, Pooja decides that she must find someone to love herself.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: She settles on Yardley, a popular boy in her school. During a school trip, Yardley approaches Pooja and reveals his crush on her. The next day, she and her friends see a gang of men harassing girls at a waterpark. Pooja gets angry and gets into a fight with them. When one of the gang twists her arm, a man named Giri appears and saves her. Pooja instantly falls for Giri and immediately rejects Yardley, explaining that she cannot accept his proposal as she does not have romantic feelings for him.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: Over the course of the rest of the film, Pooja constantly tries to attract the attention of and learn more about Giri, who has now graduated from college and lives as a part-time farmer and Kung Fu sensei. At one point, she learns from her cousin David Kanjyani that his twin, Julie Kanjyani, used to be Giri's girlfriend, but was married off to another man from the US by David and Julie's father, resulting in enmity between Giri and David. She also learns from Rachel that Giri had been considered as a good suitor to her daughter Helen as well. The year is 2000. On Giri's birthday, which also happens to be a Palm Sunday, Pooja decides that she will confess to him with a keychain. When she visits him, it begins to rain and they take shelter in a temple. However, when Pooja tries to declare her love, Giri cuts her off. Telling her that she is just a kid and that she needs to concentrate on her studies because she is destined to become successful, he rejects her. Pooja drops the keychain, and leaves Giri behind into the rain in tears.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: Pooja is distraught by Giri's rejection, but focuses on her studies as Giri had requested. She passes her medical entrance exams and goes to Kozhikode Medical College. Pooja tries to contact Giri before leaving, but learns that he was forced to visit China on a Kung Fu Academy trip as he was involved in the love marriage of his friend and the bride's household threatened to kill him. Actress Teenu did the role of the Chinese woman who appears as Giri's wife during a dream Pooja had. At the medical college, she is still friends with Neetu, and another student, Anna. She also befriends a young professor, Dr. Prasad Varkey. During her final year in 2005-06, she runs into Giri again. She confides in Dr. Prasad about Giri and he advises her that enough time has passed and she should pursue him if she is still interested. When Giri's mother is admitted to the hospital, Pooja takes care of her in an effort to get closer to Giri. When Giri's friend Thennal comes to visit, Pooja thinks they are in a relationship and becomes jealous, until she learns that Thennal is already married to Giri's friend.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: Pooja comes home to stay with her parents and continues her pursuit of Giri by helping him with his social activities like performing community weddings. Now Giri is 28 and Pooja is 21. During this time, she surprises him by helping to publish a book his mother wrote. Though Pooja thinks Giri has started to care for her, she is heartbroken to learn that Giri is engaged to Sreelakshmi, one of their childhood friends. She learns that David had betrayed Giri in their college days, hence David runs away whenever he sees Giri. One day after Church, David asks Pooja and Giri to help him elope with his love interest Nazeema. After they help him, David gives Giri a letter, telling him only to read it after they've left. When Giri opens the letter, he finds out that David had actually eloped with Sreelakshmi.


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: Later, Rachel gestures Pooja towards Giri. They go to the same place where Pooja had first proposed to Giri. As she walks up to Giri, he admits that he has loved her all along. He reveals that he kept some memories like the keychain that Pooja originally meant to give him. They get married soon after and Pooja reveals that Dr. Prasad has married Anna, Neetu has married Yardley and that things were going well. Giri has also opened his own KungFu academy. Presently, they (Pooja, Giri and their toddler daughter) are visiting her friend Anna. During their pep-talk, Prasad enquires about the daughter's name to which Giri replies is "Julie" (named after Giri's ex-girlfriend) much to Pooja's annoyance, which she narrates in the end that "men never forget their first lovers".


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: Entertainment website "OneIndia" rated the movie as entertaining, stating that the film has its share of happiness, one-liners and decent performances from the leading pair. The New Indian Express calls "Om Shanthi Oshaana" a "‘Peaceful’ Attempt at film making." "Sify" stated that the director Jude Anthany Joseph "creates an engaging enough drama in "Ohm Shanthi Oshaana", that you're happy to emotionally invest in [it]."


title: Ohm Shanthi Oshaana

text: The film completed 100 days in 12 screens. It grossed over in 4 days at the Indian box office. The film collected 6.1 crore in its three weeks in Kerala box office. The film completed 50 days n 25 screens. Overall, the film grossed at the box office. It was one of the biggest commercial success of 2014 in Malayalam.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The origin of the Moon is usually explained by a Mars-sized body striking the Earth, making a debris ring that eventually collected into a single natural satellite, the Moon, but there are a number of variations on this giant-impact hypothesis, as well as alternative explanations, and research continues into how the Moon came to be. Other proposed scenarios include captured body, fission, formed together (condensation theory, synestia), planetesimal collisions (formed from asteroid-like bodies), and collision theories.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The standard giant-impact hypothesis suggests that a Mars-sized body, called Theia, impacted the proto-Earth, creating a large debris ring around Earth, which then accreted to form the Moon. This collision also resulted in the 23.5° tilted axis of the Earth, thus causing the seasons. The Moon's oxygen isotopic ratios seem to be essentially identical to Earth's. Oxygen isotopic ratios, which may be measured very precisely, yield a unique and distinct signature for each Solar System body. If Theia had been a separate protoplanet, it probably would have had a different oxygen isotopic signature than proto-Earth, as would the ejected mixed material. Also, the Moon's titanium isotope ratio (Ti/Ti) appears so close to the Earth's (within 4 parts per million) that little if any of the colliding body's mass could likely have been part of the Moon.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: Some theories have been stated that presume the proto-Earth had no large moons early in the formation of the Solar System, 4.425  billion years ago, Earth being basically rock and lava. Theia, an early protoplanet the size of Mars, hit Earth in such a way that it ejected a considerable amount of material away from Earth. Some proportion of these ejecta escaped into space, but the rest consolidated into a single spherical body in orbit about Earth, creating the Moon.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The hypothesis requires a collision between a proto-Earth about 90% of the diameter of present Earth, and another body the diameter of Mars (half of the terrestrial diameter and a tenth of its mass). The latter has sometimes been referred to as Theia, the name of the mother of Selene, the Moon goddess in Greek mythology. This size ratio is needed in order for the resulting system to have sufficient angular momentum to match the current orbital configuration. Such an impact would have put enough material into orbit around Earth to have eventually accumulated to form the Moon.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: Computer simulations show a need for a glancing blow, which causes a portion of the collider to form a long arm of material that then shears off. The asymmetrical shape of the Earth following the collision then causes this material to settle into an orbit around the main mass. The energy involved in this collision is impressive: possibly trillions of tonnes of material would have been vaporized and melted. In parts of the Earth, the temperature would have risen to .


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The Moon's relatively small iron core (compared to other rocky planets and moons in the Solar System) is explained by Theia's core mostly merging into that of Earth. The lack of volatiles in the lunar samples is also explained in part by the energy of the collision. The energy liberated during the reaccretion of material in orbit around Earth would have been sufficient to melt a large portion of the Moon, leading to the generation of a magma ocean.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The newly formed Moon orbited at about one-tenth the distance that it does today, and spiraled outward because of tidal friction transferring angular momentum from the rotations of both bodies to the Moon's orbital motion. Along the way, the Moon's rotation became tidally locked to Earth, so that one side of the Moon continually faces toward Earth. Also, the Moon would have collided with and incorporated any small preexisting satellites of Earth, which would have shared the Earth's composition, including isotopic abundances. The geology of the Moon has since been more independent of the Earth.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: A 2012 study on the depletion of zinc isotopes on the Moon found evidence for volatile depletion consistent with the giant-impact origin for Earth and the Moon.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: In 2013, a study was released that indicated that water in lunar magma is indistinguishable from that in carbonaceous chondrites and nearly the same as that of Earth in isotopic composition.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The giant-impact hypothesis was again challenged in September 2013, with a growing sense that lunar origins are more complicated.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: Although the giant-impact hypothesis explains many aspects of the Earth–Moon system, there are still a few unresolved problems, such as the Moon's volatile elements not being as depleted as expected from such an energetic impact.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: Another issue is lunar and Earth isotope comparisons. In 2001, the most precise measurement yet of the isotopic signatures of Moon rocks was published. Surprisingly, the Apollo lunar samples carried an isotopic signature identical to Earth rocks, but different from other Solar System bodies. Because most of the material that went into orbit to form the Moon was thought to come from Theia, this observation was unexpected. In 2007, researchers from Caltech showed that the likelihood of Theia having an identical isotopic signature as the Earth is very small (less than 1 percent chance). Published in 2012, an analysis of titanium isotopes in Apollo lunar samples showed that the Moon has the same composition as Earth, which conflicts with the Moon forming far from Earth's orbit.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: To help resolve these problems, a new theory published in 2012 posits that two bodies—each five times the size of Mars—collided, then recollided, forming a large disc of mixed debris that eventually formed Earth and the Moon. The paper was called “Forming a Moon with an Earth-like composition via a Giant Impact”, by R. M. Canup.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The Moon is traditionally thought to have coalesced from the debris ejected by a giant impact onto the early Earth. However, such models struggle to explain the similar isotopic compositions of Earth and lunar rocks at the same time as the system's angular momentum, and the details of potential impact scenarios are hotly debated. Above a high resolution threshold for simulations, a study published in 2022 finds that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth's Roche limit. Even satellites that initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped and then torqued onto wider, stable orbits. Furthermore, the outer layers of these directly formed satellites are molten over cooler interiors and are composed of around 60% proto-Earth material. This could alleviate the tension between the Moon's Earth-like isotopic composition and the different signature expected for the impactor. Immediate formation opens up new options for the Moon's early orbit and evolution, including the possibility of a highly tilted orbit to explain the lunar inclination, and offers a simpler, single-stage scenario for the origin of the Moon.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: In 2004, astrophysicist proposed a novel model (multiple large asteroid impacts model). In 2013, the model was supported by a group of Russian astronomers and later, in 2017, by planetary researchers at Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. In general terms, the main idea of the model suggests that the Moon was formed as a result of a violent rain of large asteroids (1–100 km) that repeatedly hammered the fledgling Earth over millions of years. A series of smaller impacts, which were likely more common in the early Solar System, could blast enough Earth rocks and dirt into orbit to form a protosatellite disk which later forms into a small moonlet. As repeated impacts created more balls of debris, the moonlets could merge over time into one large moon.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: In 2018 researchers at Harvard and the UC Davis developed computer models demonstrating that one possible outcome of a planetary collision is that it creates a synestia, a mass of vaporized rock and metal which forms a biconcave disc extending beyond the lunar orbit. The synestia will eventually shrink and cool to accrete the satellite and reform the impacted planet.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: This hypothesis states that the Moon was captured by the Earth. This model was popular until the 1980s, and some points in its favor are the Moon's size, orbit, and tidal locking.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: One problem is understanding the capture mechanism. A close encounter of two planetary bodies typically results in either collision or altered trajectories. For this hypothesis to work, there might have been a large atmosphere around the primitive Earth, which would slow the movement of the Moon by aerobraking before it could escape. That hypothesis may also explain the irregular satellite orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. However, this hypothesis does not adequately explain the essentially identical oxygen isotope ratios of the two bodies.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: This is the now discredited hypothesis that an ancient, rapidly spinning Earth expelled a piece of its mass. This was proposed by George Darwin (son of the famous biologist Charles Darwin) in 1879 and retained some popularity until Apollo. The Austrian geologist Otto Ampferer in 1925 also suggested the emerging of the Moon as cause for continental drift.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: It was proposed that the Pacific Ocean represented the scar of this event. Today it is known that the oceanic crust that makes up this ocean basin is relatively young, about 200 million years old or less, whereas the Moon is much older. The Moon does not consist of oceanic crust but of mantle material, which originated inside the proto-Earth in the Precambrian.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The hypothesis of accretion suggests that the Earth and the Moon formed together as a double system from the primordial accretion disk of the Solar System or even a black hole.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: The problem with this hypothesis is that it does not explain the angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system or why the Moon has a relatively small iron core compared to the Earth (25% of its radius compared to 50% for the Earth).


title: Origin of the Moon

text: Dutch scientists Rob de Meijer and Wim van Westrenen suggested in 2010 that the Moon may have formed from a nuclear explosion caused by the centrifugal force of an earlier, spinning proto-Earth. The centrifugal force would have concentrated heavy elements such as thorium and uranium on the equatorial plane and at the boundary between the Earth's outer core and mantle. If the concentrations of these radioactive elements were high enough, this could have led to a nuclear chain reaction that became supercritical, causing a nuclear explosion ejecting the Moon into orbit. This natural nuclear fission reactor has been observed on Earth at a much smaller scale.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: In 2011, it was theorized that a second moon existed 4.5 billion years ago, and later had an impact with the Moon, as a part of the accretion process in the formation of the Moon.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: Uranium–lead dating of Apollo 14 zircon fragments shows the age of the Moon to be about 4.51 billion years.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: A team of researchers of the Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini-RF) instrument on NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft concluded that the Moon's subsurface may be richer in metals, like iron and titanium, more than scientists had believed.


title: Origin of the Moon

text: In July 2020 scientists report that the Moon formed 4.425 ±0.025 bya, about 85 million years earlier than thought, and that it hosted an ocean of magma for substantially longer than previously thought (for ~200 million years).


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Herbert W. Armstrong (July 31, 1892 – January 16, 1986) was an American evangelist who founded the Worldwide Church of God (WCG). An early pioneer of radio and television evangelism, Armstrong preached what he claimed was the comprehensive combination of doctrines in the entire Bible, in the light of the New Covenant scriptures, which he maintained to be the restored true Gospel. These doctrines and teachings have been referred to as Armstrongism by non-adherents.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Armstrong's teachings required observance of parts of the Mosaic Law including seventh-day Sabbath, dietary prohibitions, and the covenant law "Holy Days". He also proclaimed that behind contemporary world events loomed various Biblical prophecies, interpreted in light of British Israelism. As founder and head of the Ambassador International Cultural Foundation, Armstrong and his advisers met with heads of governments in various nations, for which he described himself as an "ambassador without portfolio for world peace."


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Herbert Armstrong was born on July 31, 1892, in Des Moines, Iowa, into a Quaker family, the son of Eva (Wright) and Horace Elon Armstrong. He regularly attended the services and the Sunday school of First Friends Church in Des Moines. At age 18, on the advice of an uncle, he decided to take a job in the want-ad department of a Des Moines newspaper, the "Daily Capital". His early career in the print advertising industry which followed had a strong impact on his future ministry and would shape his communication style.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: On a trip back home in 1917, he met Loma Dillon, a school teacher and distant cousin from nearby Motor, Iowa. They married on his 25th birthday, July 31, 1917, and returned to live in Chicago.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Within a month or two after their marriage, (the US had entered World War I on April 6) Loma had an unusual dream or vision. She was with Herbert, at a road intersection, where she saw in the sky, a banner of dazzling stars, appearing then vanishing twice-over. She was happy, but sad for others, and thought she was witnessing Christ's return. Angels then flew to them and said that Christ was not coming then, but would be "coming very soon". Saying that God was giving them an "important work" to do, preparing the way before Christ's second coming. Now, at that time, Herbert was not at all religious and it was only in later years, that Mr. Armstrong came to believe that the vision "really was a message from God."


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: On May 9, 1918, they had their first child, Beverly Lucile, and on July 7, 1920, a second daughter, Dorothy Jane. In 1924, after several business setbacks, Armstrong and family moved to Eugene, Oregon where his parents lived at the time. While living in Oregon, they had two sons, Richard David (born October 13, 1928) and Garner Ted (born February 9, 1930). Armstrong continued in the advertising business despite the setbacks.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: During their stay in Oregon, his wife, Loma, became acquainted with a member of the Church of God (Seventh Day), Emma Runcorn. Emma and her husband O.J. were lay leaders in the Oregon conference of the Church of God, Seventh Day, a seventh-day-keeping Adventist group that rejected the authority of Ellen G. White and her teachings.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Loma became persuaded the Bible taught Sabbath observance on Saturday, the seventh day, one of the beliefs of that church. Her assertion of this to her husband was met with dismay and appeared to him to be "religious fanaticism." She challenged him to find biblical support for Sunday observance. As his business was struggling against larger competitors, Armstrong had the time to take up this challenge. He began what would become a lifelong habit of intensive, lengthy Bible study sessions. He soon felt God was inspiring this, opening his mind to truths that historical Christian churches had not found or accepted. Shortly after, as related in his autobiography, Armstrong would take up a similar study on the topic of evolution of the species after a conflict with his sister-in-law. His studies on Sabbath and evolution convinced him that his wife was right, and that the theory of evolution was false.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: He was eventually baptized, along with his brother Dwight L. Armstrong, in the summer of 1927 by Dr. Dean, the non-Sabbatarian pastor of Hinson Memorial Baptist Church in Portland, Oregon. It is unknown, however, if he ever joined this denomination. He would later recollect over four decades later that he believed, "On being baptized I "knew" God then and there gave me HIS HOLY SPIRIT!" Despite his own unique teaching on baptism his own account is noteworthy for the absence of any mention of the process of laying on of hands or a special prayer in the dispensation of the Holy Spirit, which were considered fundamental for membership in the Worldwide Church of God and reason for many a new convert's rebaptism.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: In 1931 Armstrong became an ordained minister of the Oregon Conference of the Church of God (Seventh Day). The existence and history of this church became a significant factor in Armstrong's later beliefs.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: While a member of The Church of God (Seventh Day), Armstrong became acquainted with ministers John Kiesz and Israel Hager who began to suspect that Herbert was a little too arrogant and tended to go against church doctrine. They cited Armstrong's refusal to submit to the Church of God ministers to be baptized but went out to a local Baptist minister instead as a point. After his ordination, Armstrong allied himself with two other rogue ministers by the names of Andrew Dugger and C. O. Dodd, both of which had composed a book called "A History of the True Religion, from 33 AD to Date", in which they claimed that the New Testament Church of the first century had secretly descended through history and eventually became the Sabbath-keeping Church of God (Seventh Day). Dugger also predicted that the apocalypse would occur in 1936. Eventually, this led to Dugger and Dodd's ouster and when they promised to make Armstrong an apostle in their new church, The Church of God (Seventh Day), he joined with them.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: After severing ties with the Church of God (Seventh Day) as the result of doctrinal disputes, he began to teach a form of British Israelism, which would later make up his book "The United States and Britain in Prophecy". His ministerial credentials with Dugger's church were revoked in 1938. This, Armstrong believed, indicated God was now directing him in leading a revived work into the next "church era."


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: In October 1933, a small 100-watt radio station in Eugene, Oregon, KORE, offered free time to Armstrong for a morning devotional, a 15-minute time slot shared by other local ministers. After positive responses from listeners, the station owner let Armstrong start a new program of his own. On the first Sunday in 1934, the Radio Church of God first aired. These broadcasts eventually became known as "The World Tomorrow" of the future Worldwide Church of God. Shortly thereafter, in February 1934, Armstrong began the publication of "The Plain Truth", which started out as a church bulletin. It was at this time that Armstrong began to make prophetic claims and among them were the claims that Hitler and Mussolini were the prophesied Beast and False Prophet of the Book of Revelation who would deceive the nations for a short time just before the return of Jesus Christ. This piqued the interest of his audience. The broadcast expanded to other cities, and in 1942 began to be broadcast nationwide from WHO of Des Moines Iowa, a 50,000-watt superstation.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Critics point to statements in his early writings that proved to be inaccurate. For example, a statement from a lead article in the February 1939 edition of "The Plain Truth", about a coming world war, said this:


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: By way of brief review of previous articles, and radio messages, notice, first, that this war will involve ALL nations. It will be the first real world war. Secondly, it will center around Jerusalem...And thirdly, this war will END with the Second Coming of Christ!


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: From his new contacts in Los Angeles, Armstrong began to realize the potential for reaching a much larger audience. He searched for a suitable location and chose Pasadena, California, as being ideal as it was a conservative residential community. During this time, Armstrong also reflected on starting a college to aid the growing church, by teaching and training young men and women. Hence, in 1946 Armstrong moved his headquarters from Eugene to Pasadena and on March 3, 1946, the Radio Church of God was officially incorporated within the state of California. He purchased a lavish mansion on Millionaires Row just off of the Rose Parade route on Orange Grove Boulevard, quickly acquired his own printing plant, and was broadcasting internationally in prime-time radio time slots. On October 8, 1947, his new college, Ambassador College opened its doors with four students.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: During the 1950s and 1960s, the church continued to expand and the radio program was broadcast in England, Australia, the Philippines, Latin America, and Africa. In 1953, "The World Tomorrow" began to air on Radio Luxembourg, making it possible to hear the program throughout much of Europe. The beginning of the European broadcast provides the context of a booklet published in 1956 called "1975 in Prophecy!" In this book Armstrong put forward a controversial vision of what the world could look like by 1975—featuring illustrations of mass burials and tidal waves destroying cities. Overall he thought that World War III and Christ's glorious return were at the doorstep and that world peace and utopia would follow. Armstrong believed that God had exciting plans for mankind that would see the end of such wars—though the message went far beyond an earthly utopia.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Several books and booklets focused on the key events that would signal the imminence of Christ's return, and taught of a specific end-time prophecy to be fulfilled, manifested in the form of European peacekeeping forces surrounding Jerusalem, at which time God's Church would be taken to a place of protection, or "place of safety"—possibly Petra in Jordan. World War III was predicted to be triggered by a "United States of Europe" led by Germany which would destroy both the United States and the United Kingdom. From the place of safety they would continue the work and prepare to help Christ establish Utopia upon His return.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: In 1952 Armstrong published "Does God Heal Today?" which provided the details on his doctrine on healing and his ban on doctors. Among his tenets were that only God heals and that medical science is of pagan origin and is ineffective. He believed that most illnesses were caused by faulty diet and that doctors should prescribe proper diet rather than medicine. He taught that members are not to go to doctors for healing but must trust in divine healing alone. This was his teaching despite his father's death in 1933 after "an all-night vigil of prayer." This teaching has been the cause of much controversy as individuals influenced by such teachings came to die.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: The book "The United States and Britain in Prophecy" was published in 1954. It became the most well-known and requested church publication, with over six million copies distributed. In this book, Armstrong makes the claim that the peoples of the United States, the British Commonwealth nations, and the nations of Northwestern Europe are descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. This belief, called British Israelism, formed the central basis of the theology of the Worldwide Church of God.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Franz Josef Strauss, a major politician in post-WWII Germany, became the target of the broadcasting and publishing media blitz that Armstrong unleashed upon Europe through the daily offshore pirate radio station broadcasts by his son Garner Ted Armstrong, "The Plain Truth", and the Ambassador College campus at Bricket Wood in Hertfordshire, England. Strauss was portrayed as being the coming Führer who would lead a United States of Europe into a prophetic World War III against the U.S. and U.K. at some time between 1972 and 1975, and emerge victorious. In 1971, Strauss played along with the prophetic interest shown in him, as Herbert W. Armstrong recalled in a 1983 letter: "I entertained him at dinner in my home in Pasadena, and he spoke to the faculty and students of Ambassador College. I have maintained contact with him." Strauss also appeared in an interview on "The World Tomorrow" television program.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: The volume of literature requests for material written by Armstrong continued to grow during the 1960s and 70s, and the literature was translated into several languages and distributed to a worldwide audience. They were distributed for free "as a public service." "The Plain Truth" magazine continued to be published and circulated, eventually reaching a monthly press run of eight million.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: On April 15, 1967, Armstrong's wife Loma died, three and a half months before their 50th anniversary. Before she died he sent a co-worker a letter that has often been criticized for its harsh tone to "failing" members and for its calls for more money.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: On January 5, 1968, the Radio Church of God was renamed the "Worldwide Church of God". Shortly before, the church began to broadcast a television version of "The World Tomorrow". The program would eventually expand to 382 U.S. television stations, and 36 television outlets internationally, dwarfing televangelists Jerry Falwell, Jimmy Swaggart, Oral Roberts, and Jim Bakker. By this time, Garner Ted Armstrong, the son of Herbert W. Armstrong, was the voice and face of the program. It was speculated that with his charisma and personality, he was the logical successor to Armstrong, but doctrinal disagreements and widespread reports of extramarital sex led to his suspension in 1972. After initially changing his behavior he returned, but these issues resurfaced, coupled with his challenging his father's authority as Pastor General, resulting in him being permanently "disfellowshipped" (the church's term for excommunication) in 1978.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: With the assistance of church accountant and adviser Stanley Rader, Armstrong created the Ambassador International Cultural Foundation in 1975. The foundation was funded by the church. The foundation's efforts reached into several continents, providing staffing and funds to fight illiteracy, to create schools for the disabled, to set up mobile schools, and for several archaeological digs of biblically significant sites. These humanitarian projects led to Armstrong receiving a series of invitations to meet with prominent heads of state, including (among others) Margaret Thatcher, Emperor Hirohito of Japan, King Hussein of Jordan, and Indira Gandhi. Armstrong was also internationally recognized as Ambassador for World Peace.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: In 1977, Armstrong, then in his 80s, married Ramona Martin, then 38, a long-time member and church secretary who had a 15-year-old son from a previous marriage. The controversial marriage would last for only a few years. The Armstrongs separated in 1982, with Herbert Armstrong returning to live in Pasadena full-time, and the marriage finally ended in divorce in 1984. During pre-trial proceedings in the divorce case, Armstrong's lawyers had sought to limit evidence of "prior incestuous conduct with his daughter for many years," but his wife's attorneys said "it was crucial since the church leader alleged Mrs. Armstrong had breached an agreement of love and fidelity."


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: In his latter years, Armstrong stated that he did not know whether or not Christ would return in his lifetime but did know, based on the sequence of events in the Bible, that the Lord's return was approaching. He had long written of his belief that the primary sign to look for would be some sort of dissolving of the Eastern Bloc alliance under Soviet control, followed by those nations' subsequent incorporation into an eastern leg of a United States of Europe. In August 1985, Armstrong's final work, "Mystery of the Ages", was published. He wrote that "time may prove this to be the most important book written in almost 1,900 years" and called it a "synopsis of the Bible in the most plain and understandable language." It was more or less a compendium of theological concepts, as articulated by Armstrong, which included the notion that God deliberately coded the bible "so that it would not be understood until our modern time".


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: In September 1985, with his failing health widely known, Armstrong delivered his final sermon on the Feast of Trumpets in the Ambassador Auditorium. He spent his final days confined at his home on the college campus in Pasadena, California, on South Orange Grove Boulevard.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Almost until his final days, there was uncertainty about who would succeed Armstrong in the event of his death. The church's Advisory Council of Elders, acting on a clause in church by-laws added in 1981, was to select a successor after his death, yet Armstrong reportedly worried about the ramifications if certain individuals were selected, such as his son Garner Ted or evangelist Roderick Meredith. Finally, Armstrong opted to select the next Pastor General personally. Armstrong told the Church's Advisory Council of Elders of his decision to appoint evangelist-rank minister Joseph W. Tkach on January 7, 1986. Tkach had worked closely with former church executive Stanley R. Rader prior to Rader's retirement from active service with the Church, and had been ordained to the ministerial rank of evangelist along with Rader and Ellis LaRavia in 1979.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Armstrong died shortly before 6:00 a.m. on January 16, 1986, only nine days after naming Tkach as his successor. He was 93. Approximately 4,000 people attended his funeral, including a number of political figures from other countries. He was buried in Altadena's Mountain View Cemetery, between Loma and his mother, Eva Wright Armstrong. Evangelist Herman L. Hoeh, a long-time church member and one of the first graduates of Ambassador College, officiated at the graveside service, and Tkach gave the closing prayer.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: In the years after his death in 1986, WCG leaders came to the conclusion that many of Armstrong's theological arguments were not biblical, causing the church to reject his teachings as "aberrant" and to completely rewrite its doctrines. Today the vastly changed organization is in full agreement with the statement of faith of the National Association of Evangelicals. In April 2009, in light of the major doctrinal shifts made, the church also changed its name to Grace Communion International (GCI) to better reflect its new teachings.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Armstrong's teachings and the church he created have been the subject of much criticism and controversy. Armstrong's theology and teachings are defended by his followers, but face criticism from ex-followers and the greater Christian community. Common points of criticism and controversy include:


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Armstrong was often criticized for having lived in extravagant wealth in comparison to a few church members. Personal luxuries enjoyed by Armstrong included a personal jet, the finest clothing, furniture and other conveniences.


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Armstrong taught the observance of principles that he believed could be inferred from biblical intent. Examples of these teachings include:


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: God's Church, the now imminent Bride of Christ, is not going to rise to meet the returning Christ in the air with painted faces and plucked and repainted eyebrows! How cleverly, without our suspecting it, did Satan influence leading ministers to derail the Church in many ways!...Now JESUS CHRIST, through His chosen apostle, is going to RULE on this question once and for all!...How did it get into our mid-and-latter 20th century society? FROM PROSTITUTES!...Women do not use makeup to PLEASE GOD today – for I can tell you ON HIS AUTHORITY it is NOT pleasing to HIM!


title: Herbert W. Armstrong

text: Here's God's instruction to YOU, today, if you are ill. If we are to live by every Word of God, we should obey this Scripture. God does not say call your family physician...He does not say, call the doctors and let them give medicines and drugs, and God will cause the medicines and drugs and dope to cure you... Instead God says call GOD'S MINISTERS. And let them PRAY, anointing with oil (the type and symbol of the Holy Spirit). Then GOD PROMISES He will HEAL YOU!


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: Draw the Line is the fifth studio album by American hard rock band Aerosmith, released on December 9, 1977. It was recorded between June–October in an abandoned convent near New York City. The portrait of the band on the album cover was drawn by the celebrity caricaturist Al Hirschfeld.


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: By 1977, Aerosmith had released four studio albums, the two most recent"Toys in the Attic" (1975) and "Rocks" (1976)catapulting the band to stardom. However, as the band began recording its next album, "Draw the Line", their excessive lifestyle, combined with constant touring and drug use, began to take its toll. ""Draw the Line" was untogether because we weren't a cohesive unit anymore," guitarist Joe Perry admitted in the Stephen Davis band memoir "Walk This Way". "We were drug addicts dabbling in music, rather than musicians dabbling in drugs. Although the LP would sell well more than a million copies in fewer than six weeks after its release, in 2014 Perry would refer to it as "the beginning of the end" and "the decay of our artistry."


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: According to Steven Tyler's autobiography "Does the Noise In My Head Bother You", manager David Krebs suggested that the band record its next album at an estate near Armonk, New York called the Cenacle, "away from the temptation of drugs." The plan failed miserably, however, with Tyler recalling, "Drugs can be imported, David... we have our resources. Dealers deliver! Hiding us away in a three-hundred room former convent was a prescription for total lunacy." Largely due to their drug consumption, both Tyler and Perry were not as involved in the writing and recording as they had been on previous albums. According to Perry:


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: Producer Jack Douglas, who had started producing the band with "Get Your Wings" in 1974, expressed similar feelings about the apathy that permeated the recording sessions:


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: For his part, Tyler has maintained that it was the band's lethargy, not his, that slowed his progress, because "I wasn't Patti Smith writing poetry. I write exactly to the music, and when the music ain't coming, neither were the lyrics." However, Tyler confessed to Alan di Perna of "Guitar World" in April 1997, "What I specifically remember was not being present in the studio because I was so stoned. In the past, I always had to be there and hear every note that was going downwho was playing what and were they out of tune... I just didn't care anymore." Tyler's condition is evident in some of his lyrics, such as the line "pass me the vial and cross your fingers that it don't take time." In the VH1 "Behind the Music" episode on the group Douglas states, "People were shooting, bullets were flying. It was insane. People, drugs and guns. You know, they don't go together," with drummer Joey Kramer adding, "I don't know if we did any of those sessions, or made any of that record, straight." In his autobiography "Rocks", Perry admits that he had misplaced a cookie tin full of demos for the band that he had prepared in his basement studio, irritating Douglas, but they were eventually found by Perry's wife Elyssa:


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: Relations deteriorated further when Perry presented "Bright Light Fright" to the band and they "didn't like it. I said, 'Do you want to do it or not?' They said no." Perry, who has stated the song was inspired by the Sex Pistols, sang the song himself on the LP. (He had shared lead vocal duties with Tyler on "Combination" from their previous album "Rocks".) Of "Draw the Line," Tyler later recalled, "Joe had this lick on a six-string bass that was so definitive, the song just about wrote itself. It reached down my neck and grabbed the lyrics out of my throat." The song encompasses many of the typical things Aerosmith is known for, including the strong rhythm backbeat and the back-and-forth interplay between guitarists Perry and Brad Whitford. The song slows down before building to a climax showcasing Tyler's trademark scream. The B-side of some versions of "Draw the Line," "Chip Away the Stone", was not on the LP but eventually surfaced on the compilation album "Gems". It was written by Richard Supa, received a fair amount of radio airplay after the release of "Gems" and found its way into Aerosmith's live set-lists for a while.


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: Kramer explained in 1997 that "Kings and Queens," the LP's second single, was a "typical session at the Cenacle. It was recorded in the chapel with the pews out, the drums on the altar. Jack was in the confessional, hitting the snare drum by himself." In his memoir, Tyler writes that the song's lyrics were inspired by a "medieval fantasy" that featured "a stoned-out rock star in his tattered satin rags lying on the ancient stone floor of a castle - slightly mad, but still capable of conjuring up a revolutionary album that would astound the ears of the ones who heard it and make the critics cringe." Jack Douglas plays the mandolin on the track, which was also used as a B-side to Aerosmith's version of the Beatles' "Come Together," released to promote the "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" film and soundtrack. "Get It Up" features Karen Lawrence, singer of the band L.A. Jets, on the chorus. David Krebs later stated that he felt Tyler's lyrics on songs like "Get It Up" did not help the album's standing among Aerosmith fans: "The essence of Aerosmith had always been a positive and very macho sexuality, total unashamed, a little sleazy... They "didn't" want to hear lyrics like 'Get It Up,' which repeated over and over again, "Can't" get it up'... The negative lyrics were a big problem." "Get It Up" was released as the album's third single but failed to break into the singles chart. The song is noted for its usage of slide guitar and was played occasionally by the band during the Aerosmith Express Tour from 1977 to 1978 in support of the "Draw the Line" album. The band did not have enough original material to cover the running time for a single album so they recorded two blues classics: Otis Rush's "All Your Love" and Kokomo Arnold's "Milk Cow Blues." ("All Your Love" did not make "Draw the Line", but would later turn up on the band's box set "Pandora's Box".)


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: Contemporary reviews were quite negative. Billy Altman of "Rolling Stone" called the LP "a truly horrendous record, chaotic to the point of malfunction and with an almost impenetrably dense sound adding to the confusion." Robert Christgau considered the album the product of a band "out of gas".


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: Retrospective reviews are more positive. "Kerrang!" magazine listed the album at No. 37 among the "100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time" for its "high energy", although it never touches heavy metal as a genre, concluding with the comment "sleaze was never so classy." According to Greg Prato of AllMusic, "the band shies away from studio experimenting and dabbling in different styles," returning "to simple, straight-ahead hard rock" and releasing "the last true studio album from Aerosmith's original lineup for nearly a decade." Another AllMusic reviewer stated that, "although some fans see "Draw the Line" as the beginning of a decline for Aerosmith, it still offers up some strong hard-rock tunes. One of its best moments is the title track, one of the group's most relentless rockers." In a review for Ultimate Classic Rock, Sterling Whitaker cited "Get It Up" as an example of a track that "should-have-been-great-but-not-quite," saying that it "featured important elements of the classic Aerosmith sound, but somehow didn't catch fire." Martin Popoff defined "Draw the Line" "complicated, murky and layered", coming across as "the serious, distressed Aerosmith album". He also wrote that despite "being ambiguously dense, uncommunicative and busy", the album showed the band reaching "new levels of musical maturity."


title: Draw the Line (Aerosmith album)

text: "Draw the Line" went platinum its first month of release, entering the music charts on December 24, 1977, peaking at No. 11 on the US "Billboard" 200, and eventually being certified 2x multi-platinum nearly a decade later. Even so, it marks the band's first slowdown in album sales of their 1970s era, after their initial rise with the albums "Toys in the Attic" and "Rocks".


title: Free-rider problem

text: In the social sciences, the free-rider problem is a type of market failure that occurs when those who benefit from resources, public goods (such as public roads or public library), or services of a communal nature do not pay for them or under-pay. Free riders are a problem because while not paying for the good (either directly through fees or tolls or indirectly through taxes), they may continue to access or consume it. Thus, the good may be under-produced, overused or degraded. Additionally, it has been shown that despite evidence that people tend to be cooperative by nature, the presence of free-riders cause this prosocial behaviour to deteriorate, perpetuating the free-rider problem.


title: Free-rider problem

text: The free-rider problem in social science is the question of how to limit free riding and its negative effects in these situations. Such an example is the free-rider problem of when property rights are not clearly defined and imposed. The free-rider problem is common with public goods which are non-excludable and non-rivalrous. Non-excludable means that non-payers cannot be stopped from getting use of or benefits from the good. Non-rival consumption stipulates that the use of a good or service by one consumer does not reduce its availability for another consumer. These characteristics of a public good result in there being little incentive for consumers to contribute to a collective resource as they enjoy its benefits.


title: Free-rider problem

text: A free rider may enjoy a non-excludable and non-rivalrous good such as a government-provided road system without contributing to paying for it. Another example is if a coastal town builds a lighthouse, ships from many regions and countries will benefit from it, even though they are not contributing to its costs, and are thus "free riding" on the navigation aid. A third example of non-excludable and non-rivalrous consumption would be a crowd watching fireworks. The number of viewers, whether they paid for the entertainment or not, does not diminish the fireworks as a resource. In each of these examples, the cost of excluding non-payers would be prohibitive, while the collective consumption of the resource does not decrease how much is available.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Although the term "free rider" was first used in economic theory of public goods, similar concepts have been applied to other contexts, including collective bargaining, antitrust law, psychology, political science, and vaccines. For example, some individuals in a team or community may reduce their contributions or performance if they believe that one or more other members of the group may free ride.


title: Free-rider problem

text: The underlying incentive which generates the free-rider problem can be explained via the application of the Prisoner's dilemma, within the context of contributing to a public good. Suppose two people were to split a contribution to a public service (such as for a police station) with society benefiting from their contribution. According to the Prisoner's dilemma, certain conclusions can be drawn from the results of this scenario. If both parties donate, they are out of pocket and society benefits. If one party doesn't pay (in the hopes that someone else will) they become a free-rider, and the other will have to cover the cost. If the other party also decides to become a free-rider and neither pay, then society receives no benefit. This demonstrates that the free-rider problem is generated by individuals' willingness to let others pay when they themselves can receive the benefit at zero cost. This is reinforced by the economic theory of rational choice, stating that humans make choices which provide them with the greatest benefit. Therefore, if a service or resource is offered for free, then a consumer will not pay for it.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Free riding is a problem of economic inefficiency when it leads to the underproduction or overconsumption of a good. For example, when people are asked how much they value a particular public good, with that value measured in terms of how much money they would be willing to pay, their tendency is to under-report their valuations. Goods that are subject to free riding are usually characterized by: the inability to exclude non-payers, its consumption by an individual does not impact the availability for others and that the resource in question must be produced and/or maintained. Indeed, if non-payers can be excluded by some mechanism, the good may be transformed into a club good (e.g. if an overused, congested public road is converted to a toll road, or if a free public museum turns into a private, admission fee-charging museum). This problem is sometimes compounded by the fact that common-property goods are characterized by rival consumption. Not only can consumers of common-property goods benefit without payment, but consumption by one imposes an opportunity cost on others. The theory of 'Tragedy of the commons' highlights this, in which each consumer acts to maximize their own utility, and thereby relies on others to cut back their own consumption. This will lead to overconsumption and even possibly exhaustion or destruction of the common-property good. If too many people start to free ride, a system or service will eventually not have enough resources to operate. Free-riding is experienced when the production of goods does not consider the external costs, particularly the use of ecosystem services.


title: Free-rider problem

text: An example of this is global climate change initiatives. As climate change is a global issue, the benefits of reduced emissions in one country will extend beyond their own countries' borders and impact countries from around the world. However, this has resulted in some countries acting in their own self-interest, limiting their own efforts and free-riding on the work of others. In some countries, citizens and governments do not wish to contribute to the associated effort and costs of mitigation, as they are able to free-ride on the efforts of others. This free rider problem also raises questions in regards to the fairness and ethicalness of these practices, as countries most likely to suffer the consequences of climate change, are also those who typically emit the least greenhouse gases and have fewer economic resources to contribute to the efforts, such as the small island country of Tuvalu.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Theodore Groves and John Ledyard believe that Pareto-optimal allocation of resources in relation to public goods is not compatible with the fundamental incentives belonging to individuals. Therefore, the free-rider problem, according to most scholars, is expected to be an ongoing public issue. For example, Albert O. Hirschman believed that the free-rider problem is a cyclical one for capitalist economies. Hirschman considers the free-rider problem to be related to the shifting interests of people. When stress levels rise on individuals in the workplace and many fear losing their employment, they devote less of their human capital to the public sphere. When public needs then increase, disenchanted consumers become more interested in collective action projects. This leads individuals to organize themselves in various groups and the results are attempts to solve public problems. In effect this reverses the momentum of free riding. Activities often seen as costs in models focused on self-interest are instead seen as benefits for the individuals who were previously dissatisfied consumers seeking their private interests.


title: Free-rider problem

text: This cycle will reset itself because as individuals' work for public benefit becomes less praiseworthy, supporters' level of commitment to collective action projects will decrease. With the decrease in support, many will return to private interests, which with time resets the cycle. Supporters of Hirschman's model insist that the important factor in motivating people is that they are compelled by a leader's call to altruism. In John F. Kennedy's inaugural address he implored the American people to "ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." Some economists (for example, Milton Friedman) find these calls to altruism to be nonsensical. Scholars like Friedman do not think the free-rider problem is part of an unchangeable virtuous or vicious circle, but instead seek possible solutions or attempts at improvement elsewhere.


title: Free-rider problem

text: An assurance contract is a contract in which participants make a binding pledge to contribute to building a public good, contingent on a quorum of a predetermined size being reached. Otherwise the good is not provided and any monetary contributions are refunded.


title: Free-rider problem

text: A dominant assurance contract is a variation in which an entrepreneur creates the contract and refunds the initial pledge plus an additional sum of money if the quorum is not reached. The entrepreneur profits by collecting a fee if the quorum is reached and the good is provided. In game-theoretic terms this makes pledging to build the public good a dominant strategy: the best move is to pledge to the contract regardless of the actions of others.


title: Free-rider problem

text: A Coasian solution, named for the economist Ronald Coase, proposes that potential beneficiaries of a public good can negotiate to pool their resources and create it, based on each party's self-interested willingness to pay. His treatise, "The Problem of Social Cost" (1960), argued that if the transaction costs between potential beneficiaries of a public good are low—that it is easy for potential beneficiaries to find each other and organize pooling their resources based upon the good's value to each of them—that public goods could be produced without government action.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Much later, Coase himself wrote that while what had become known as the Coase Theorem had explored the implications of zero-transaction costs, he had actually intended to use this construct as a stepping stone to understand the real world of positive transaction costs, corporations, legal systems and government actions:I examined what would happen in a world in which transaction costs were assumed to be zero. My aim in doing so was not to describe what life would be like in such a world but to provide a simple setting in which to develop the analysis and, what was even more important, to make clear the fundamental role which transaction costs do, and should, play in the fashioning of the institutions which make up the economic system.Coase also wrote:The world of zero transaction costs has often been described as a Coasian world. Nothing could be further from the truth. It is the world of modern economic theory, one which I was hoping to persuade economists to leave. What I did in "The Problem of Social Cost" was simply to shed light on some of its properties. I argued in such a world the allocation of resources would be independent of the legal position, a result which Stigler dubbed the "Coase theorem".Thus, while Coase himself appears to have considered the "Coase theorem" and Coasian solutions as simplified constructs to ultimately consider the real 20th-century world of governments and laws and corporations, these concepts have become attached to a world where transaction costs were much lower, and government intervention would unquestionably be less necessary.


title: Free-rider problem

text: A minor alternative, especially for information goods, is for the producer to refuse to release a good to the public until payment to cover costs is met. Author Stephen King, for instance, authored chapters of a new novel downloadable for free on his website while stating that he would not release subsequent chapters unless a certain amount of money was raised. Sometimes dubbed "holding for ransom", this method of public goods production is a modern application of the street performer protocol for public goods production. Unlike assurance contracts, its success relies largely on social norms to ensure (to some extent) that the threshold is reached and partial contributions are not wasted.


title: Free-rider problem

text: One of the purest Coasian solutions today is the new phenomenon of Internet crowdfunding. Here rules are enforced by computer algorithms and legal contracts as well as social pressure. For example, on the Kickstarter site, each funder authorizes a credit card purchase to buy a new product or receive other promised benefits, but no money changes hands until the funding goal is met. Because automation and the Internet so reduce the transaction costs for pooling resources, project goals of only a few hundred dollars are frequently crowdfunded, far below the costs of soliciting traditional investors.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Another solution, which has evolved for information goods, is to introduce exclusion mechanisms which turn public goods into club goods. One well-known example is copyright and patent laws. These laws, which in the 20th century came to be called intellectual property laws, attempt to remove the natural non-excludability by prohibiting reproduction of the good. Although they can address the free rider problem, the downside of these laws is that they imply private monopoly power and thus are not Pareto-optimal.


title: Free-rider problem

text: For example, in the United States, the patent rights given to pharmaceutical companies encourage them to charge high prices (above marginal cost) and to advertise to convince patients to persuade their doctors to prescribe the drugs. Likewise, copyright provides an incentive for a publisher to act like The Dog in the Manger, taking older works out of print so as not to cannibalize revenue from the publisher's own new works. Examples from the entertainment industry include Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment's "vault" sales practice. Examples from the computer software industry include Microsoft's decision to pull Windows XP from the market in mid-2008 to drive revenue from the widely criticized Windows Vista operating system.


title: Free-rider problem

text: The laws also end up encouraging patent and copyright owners to sue even mild imitators in court and to lobby for the extension of the term of the exclusive rights in a form of rent seeking.


title: Free-rider problem

text: These problems with the club-good mechanism arise because the underlying marginal cost of giving the good to more people is low or zero, but, because of the limits of price discrimination those who are unwilling or unable to pay a profit-maximizing price do not gain access to the good. If the costs of the exclusion mechanism are not higher than the gain from the collaboration, club goods can emerge naturally. James M. Buchanan showed in his seminal paper that clubs can be an efficient alternative to government interventions. On the other hand, the inefficiencies and inequities of club goods exclusions sometimes cause potentially excludable club goods to be treated as public goods, and their production financed by some other mechanism. Examples of such "natural" club goods include natural monopolies with very high fixed costs, private golf courses, cinemas, cable television and social clubs. This explains why many such goods are often provided or subsidized by governments, co-operatives or volunteer associations, rather than being left to be supplied by profit-minded entrepreneurs. These goods are often known as "social goods". Joseph Schumpeter claimed that the "excess profits", or profits over normal profit, generated by the copyright or patent monopoly will attract competitors that will make technological innovations and thereby end the monopoly. This is a continual process referred to as "Schumpeterian creative destruction", and its applicability to different types of public goods is a source of some controversy. The supporters of the theory point to the case of Microsoft, for example, which has been increasing its prices (or lowering its products' quality), predicting that these practices will make increased market shares for Linux and Apple largely inevitable.


title: Free-rider problem

text: A nation can be seen as a "club" whose members are its citizens. Government would then be the manager of this club. This is further studied in the theory of the state.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Psychologically, humans are fundamentally considered as free-riders by others only when benefits are consumed while contributions are withheld. Indicating that in all cultures free-riders are recognised, however, cultural differences exist in the degree of tolerance and how these people dealt with them. The impact of social norms on the free-rider problem differs between cultural contexts, which may lead to a variance between results in research on the free-rider problem when applied cross-culturally. Social norms impact on privately and voluntarily provided public goods; however, is considered to have some level of effect on the problem in many contexts. Social sanctioning, for example, is a norm in and of itself that has a high degree of universality. The goal of much research on the topic of social sanctioning and its effect on the free-rider problem is to explain the altruistic motivation that is observed in various societies.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Free riding is often thought of only in terms of positive and negative externalities felt by the public. The impact of social norms on actions and motivations related to altruism are often underestimated in economic solutions and the models from which they are derived.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Often on the foundation of game theory, experimental literature suggests that free riding situations can be improved without any state intervention by seeking to measure the effects of various forms of social sanctions. Peer-to-peer punishment, that is, when members sanction other members that do not contribute to the public good by inflicting a cost on "free-riders", is considered sufficient to establish and maintain cooperation. Although such punishment is often considered altruistic because it comes at a cost to the punisher, it is noted that the exact nature of motivation remains to be explored. Whether costly punishment can explain cooperation is disputed. Recent research finds that costly punishment is less effective in real world environments. For example, punishment works relatively badly under imperfect information where people cannot observe the behavior of others perfectly.


title: Free-rider problem

text: Other research finds that social sanctions cannot be generalized as strategic in the context of public goods. Preferences between secret sanctions (untraceable sanctions between players in the game) and standard sanctions (traceable sanctions including feedback between players in an otherwise identical environment) on free riders did not vary significantly. Rather some individuals preferred to sanction others regardless of secrecy. Other research build on the findings of behavioral economics, finds that in a dilemmatic donation game, donators are motivated by the fear of loss. In the game donators' deposits were only refunded if the donators always punish free riding and non-commitment among other individuals. Pool-punishment (everyone loses their deposit if one donator doesn't punish the free rider) provided more stable results than punishment without consideration of the consensus of the group. Individual-to-individual peer punishment led to less consistently applied social sanctions. Collectively this research, although it is experimental in nature, may prove useful when applied in public policy decisions seeking to improve free-rider problems within society.


title: Yeom Hye-ran

text: Yeom began her career in theater in 1999 and made her screen debut in 2003. She has since played supporting roles in film and television, notably "Dear My Friends" (2016), "I Can Speak" (2017), "Life" (2018), "When the Camellia Blooms", "Innocent Witness" (2019), "Chocolate" (2019-2020) and "The Uncanny Counter" (2020-2021).


title: Drake Maverick

text: James Michael Curtin (born 30 January 1983) is an English former professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE as a writer on Raw. During his time as an on screen performer in the company, he worked under the ring name Drake Maverick. He has also worked for Impact Wrestling (formerly Total Nonstop Action Wresting), under the ring name Rockstar Spud.


title: Drake Maverick

text: During his first decade, Curtin worked in the British independent circuit, winning several championships in promotions like (IPW:UK), One Pro Wrestling (1PW), Revolution Pro Wrestling (RPW), and XWA Wrestling. In 2012, he appeared in the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA, later Impact Wrestling) program British Boot Camp, winning the competition and being signed to a contract with the promotion. In TNA/Impact, he was a two-time X Division Champion.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Curtin left Impact in October 2017 and signed a contract with WWE that same month. He would be named as the on-screen General Manager of 205 Live, the brand created by WWE for their cruiserweight division (205 lbs. and under), and served for a brief time as the manager of AOP on "Raw". In 2019, he became more active as an in-ring competitor, becoming an eight-time 24/7 Champion. He was released from the company in April 2020 due to budget cuts resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic. Following his release, WWE still had Curtin compete in the multi-month Interim NXT Cruiserweight Championship tournament. After losing the finals, he was given a new WWE contract and joined the NXT brand.


title: Drake Maverick

text: James Michael Curtin was born in Birmingham on 30 January 1983. He was originally trained by Jack Storm and Chris Gilbert at the K-Star Wrestling promotion in the Perry Barr area of Birmingham, before eventually coming under the tutelage of "Charming" Don Charles at the SAS Wrestling Academy. Under the ring name Spud, he went on to perform in many independent promotions within the United Kingdom, the United States, and Europe. While on the independent circuit, Spud's first major appearances came with the Revolution British Wrestling promotion in 2003. On 30 August 2003, Spud defeated Jack Hazard to become RBW's first British Welterweight Champion, a title he held for several months before losing it to "The Gift" Ross Jordan in an Iron Man match in December 2003.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Spud began working for Frontier Wrestling Alliance in 2004, and was brought up into the main roster to be used as a jobber for a short time, competing against many larger opponents. During the start of 2005, however, FWA began showcasing their flyweight division; later that year, Spud entered into a tournament to crown a Flyweight Champion. He made it to the tournament final, where he was defeated by Ross Jordan, who became the first FWA Flyweight Champion. However, Jordan was only awarded the match after the referee stopped the contest due to a kayfabe injury to Spud's leg. The pair continued to feud for over 14 months, with Jordan repeatedly attacking Spud in attempts to re-injure his leg. The feud ended when Spud defeated Jordan in a Last Man Standing match at "FWA Last Fight at the Prom" on 30 September 2006.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Following a talent trading agreement with the FWA, Spud made his first US appearance in April 2006, competing for Ring of Honor during their two-night "Weekend of Champions" shows. Spud appeared during ROH's first tour of shows in the UK in August 2006, "Unified" and "Anarchy in the UK". He competed under the FWA banner during the British Under 23's Championship event, being FWA's entry into the tournament to crown the first champion under 23 years of age. However, Spud lost to the tournament's eventual winner Sam Slam in the first round.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Upon the FWA's relaunch, Spud performed under his Rockstar gimmick with an over-the-top entrance including a female security guard, a band, and a groupie. At the comeback show, New Frontiers, Spud was placed into the FWA Flyweight Championship Tournament and won the qualifying fatal four-way match. He lost in the next round to Jonny Storm. In 2010, Spud became locked in a war of words with Storm and would take part in multiple FWA Flyweight Championship tournaments. His feud with Storm culminated in a match at New Frontiers 2011, which ended in a no contest.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Spud competed regularly for the promotion right from its creation in 2004. Through 2005, Spud had a high-profile feud with Jack Storm, which culminated in a street fight in January 2006. While in IPW:UK, Spud became one half of the tag team "Dragon Hearts", with fellow wrestler Dragon Phoenix. On 24 September 2006, Dragon Hearts defeated The Untouchables in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match to become IPW:UK Tag Team Champions. The Dragon Hearts also got involved with IPW:UK's inter-federation feud with Frontier Wrestling Alliance, and even though Spud is a regular for that promotion he wrestled on the side of IPW:UK in a match against Team FWA. The Dragon Hearts teamed up with Leroy Kincaide to face off against Iceman, Jonny Storm, and Jorge Castano in a match that saw both Phoenix and Spud suffer injury. Phoenix suffered a deep wound to his head while Spud suffered what appeared to be a separated or dislocated shoulder due to a dropkick at the hands of Storm. Storm and Spud faced off in a grudge match in early 2007 with Spud picking up the win.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Spud went on to represent IPW:UK in the joint FWA vs IPW:UK Final Frontiers show losing to Hade Vansen. After a losing effort against IPW:UK Tag team champions Swiss Money Holdings in IPW:UK's debut in Liverpool, Luke Dragon Phoenix left the promotion disbanding The Dragon Hearts. Back to singles action, Spud went on to face Big Brother contestant Billi Bhatti in a losing effort thanks to the Hated Heroes. Spud recently defeated Dave Moralez and Eamon O'Neill to advance in the opening rounds of the British National Championship but was defeated by Sam Slam in the Quarter Finals. Spud's last recent appearances for IPW:UK have seen him in losing efforts to former Gladiator's and current TNA star Magnus Nick 'Oblivion' Aldis.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Spud returned to the promotion after 6 months under his "Rockstar" character and defeated Lion Kid to become the IPW:UK Cruiserweight Champion. Spud has appeared for the London and Midlands based promotion SAS Wrestling since its establishment in 2005. He has waged war with long-time nemesis Jack Storm after he turned on him in the "Bring Your Jeans" show of November 2005. Spud battled against Team Charming members for nearly a year to get his hands on Jack Storm. He faced him eventually in the final of the first SAS UK Wrestling Championship tournament by pinning his foe after a hard-fought encounter thought by many as UK Match of the Year in 2006. Spud lost the championship a month later thanks to Jack Storm's manager Charming Don Charles, and in another long feud eventually wrestled him in a one on one Bring Your Jeans Streetfight match pinning him with one foot after a steel chair shot to the head.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Spud became SAS UK Champion once again by defeating Jack Storm in April 2008 in a steel cage match. Recently Spud turned his back on the fans by attacking Phil Bedwell, citing the fans not caring about him as much as they do about the former alcoholic as his motivation, and evolved into his 'Rockstar' persona. Spud defended the championship for most of 2009 against Derise Coffie and Bubblegum before finally losing the championship to Bubblegum in a Steel cage match in June 2010. Spud would continue to sporadically appear of IPW before leaving for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling.


title: Drake Maverick

text: After the feud between FWA and IPW:UK ended, the XWA promotion was founded from the remains of the FWA. Spud feuded with XWA Flyweight Champion El Ligero, defeating him in a last man standing match to become champion with help from The Kartel and Martin Stone to form 'The Firm' faction. Spud won the annual Goldrush rumble to become the No 1 Contender to the XWA Heavyweight Championship while still the XWA Flyweight Champion, which he succeeded in doing after beating Sam Slam at the 2009 Last Fight at the Prom. However, Curtin was stripped of the XWA Flyweight Championship due to his lack of defences and also lost the XWA Heavyweight Championship later in the year to Johnny Phere. Spud, since losing the XWA Heavyweight Championship, suffered a number of defeats and was then injured in September 2010 in a match with Nathan Cruz. Spud made his return in February 2011, confronting Cruz and his former allies Team Rockstar for abandoning him in the annual XWA Goldrush Rumble.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Pro Wrestling Guerrilla made their first tour of the UK in February 2006 where Spud teamed with Topgun Talwar and Aviv Maayan faced Excalibur, Disco Machine and Ronin in a 6-man tag team match where Spud was pinned by Excalibur. At PWG's second UK show in October 2007 Spud faced off against Joey Ryan. Ryan pinned Spud after a Superkick. Spud also became one of the top British stars in the One Pro Wrestling roster since its inception in 2005. Still competing under the out matched underdog gimmick, Spud had a longtime feud with American wrestler Sterling James Keenan and the super heavyweight Abyss. Spud and partner Luke Dragon Phoenix resurfaced in 1PW to win the Tag Team Titles in their debut as a team, but Spud left the promotion in the Winter of 2007 after losing the 1PW Tag Team Titles to The Damned Nation along with partner Luke Dragon Phoenix. Spud later returned to 1PW at The 3rd Year Anniversary, as Hubba Bubba Lucah's mystery tag team partner to finally cause the disbanding of the Damned Nation. On 15 November 2009, he defeated Darkside to win the 1PW Openweight Championship. On 20 September 2014, Spud made his debut for Chikara, losing to Juan Francisco de Coronado.


title: Drake Maverick

text: On 5 September 2012, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) announced that it had completed filming of British Boot Camp that began airing on 1 January 2013, it also including Spud. Spud won the competition and earned a spot in the TNA roster. Spud made his debut on 7 February episode of "Impact Wrestling", in an interview segment that was interrupted by Robbie E and Robbie T and ended with Spud attacking Robbie E. Spud made his in-ring debut on 21 February episode of "Impact Wrestling", defeating Robbie E.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Spud returned on 18 July episode of "Impact Wrestling", when he took part in the Destination X episode of "Impact Wrestling" and entered a tournament to determine the new X Division Champion; he was defeated by Greg Marasciulo in his first round three-way match, which also included Rubix.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Then, Spud was sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling, TNA's developmental territory and made his debut on 13 March 2013 episode of "OVW". He defeated Cliff Compton for the OVW Television Championship, making him the first man to win the title in his debut match. He would go on to defend the title for 59 days and making several successful weekly defences before losing it to Randy Royal.


title: Drake Maverick

text: On 28 November episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud returned as Dixie Carter's new chief of staff. Later on the night, he hosted an in-ring Thanksgiving dinner with the entire heel roster only to be interrupted by Kurt Angle and the faces of TNA which ended in a brawl. On 30 January 2014 episode of "Impact Wrestling", he attempted to interrogate The Wolves (Davey Richards and Eddie Edwards) over who The Investor was, only to get beaten down. After Team Dixie was defeated by Team MVP at Lockdown, MVP, having become the director of wrestling operations, abolished the position of chief of staff.


title: Drake Maverick

text: However, when his TNA contract was up for renewal in April 2014, Carter, upon her return, awarded him a 'substantial contract extension' in reward for his loyalty to her, and also retained his position as her chief of staff. Through TNA's relationship with Wrestle-1, Spud made his debut for the Japanese promotion in Tokyo on 6 July, teaming with Ethan Carter III in a tag team match, where they were defeated by Tajiri and Yusuke Kodama. On 4 September episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud came out to the ring with Ethan Carter III and cut a promo about Carter's anger at those who he held responsible for TNA President and his aunt Dixie Carter getting put through a table.


title: Drake Maverick

text: On 8 October episode of "Impact Wrestling", Ethan Carter III called him out and gave him a chance to make amends. Carter condemned Spud for his failure to stop Bully Ray from putting his aunt, TNA President Dixie Carter, through a table, EC3 would then publicly humiliate Spud by calling him a loser and slapping him in the face. In the end, Spud fought back and immediately punched Carter, and turning face in the process. Rather than physically retaliating, EC3 fired him from his position as the Carters' chief of staff. On 22 October episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud teamed up with Eric Young in a losing effort against EC3 and EC3's new ally Tyrus in a Tag Team tournament.


title: Drake Maverick

text: On 23 January 2015 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud won the Feast or Fired match with an opportunity for the TNA X Division Championship. On 13 March episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud's feud with Carter ended in a Hair vs. Hair match, which Spud lost. The following week on 20 March episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud defeated Low Ki to win the X Division Championship. On 27 March episode of "Impact Wrestling", he successfully defended his title against Low Ki in a rematch. On 1 May episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud lost his X Division Championship against Kenny King in a ladder match, also involving Tigre Uno and Mandrews. However, Spud won the title back on 29 May episode of "Impact Wrestling" during a Gauntlet match.


title: Drake Maverick

text: On 10 June episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud vacated the title to gain a title shot for the World Heavyweight Championship. That same day, Spud faced Kurt Angle for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship but failed to win the title. Later, he began feuding with Austin Aries. He defeated him on 5 August episode of "Impact Wrestling" in a name vs. career match, ending Aries's career at TNA. On 23 September episode of Impact Wrestling, Spud challenged his former rival Ethan Carter III for his TNA World Heavyweight Championship, in a losing effort. During late 2015, Spud took part in the first ever TNA World Title Series as a member of Group UK, on 7 October episode of "Impact Wrestling", defeating Grado in the first round, thus earning him 3 points. He later failed to qualify for the Round of 16 following losses to both Drew Galloway and Bram who were also competing in Team UK.


title: Drake Maverick

text: In February, Spud started an alliance with his former rival Ethan Carter III in order to even things with Hardy and Tyrus, defeating them in a tag-team match on 16 February episode of "Impact Wrestling". At 2016 Lockdown, Spud came out, supposedly to stop Reby Sky from attacking EC3. However, he would close the cage door on EC3 to help Matt Hardy retain his TNA World Heavyweight Championship, turning heel once again in the process. He would follow up, with encouragement from Matt Hardy, by delivering a conchairto to EC3 with his head on the steps. On 9 March 2016 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud aligned with Matt Hardy and Tyrus to form a stable, after explaining his actions as getting revenge against Carter for his cruel treatment of him last year. The trio would go on to face EC3 and Jeff Hardy in a losing effort. On 29 March episode of "Impact Wrestling", Matt Hardy, Rockstar Spud, Tyrus and Reby Hardy were defeated by Carter by disqualification in a Four On One Handicap match. On 10 May episode of "Impact Wrestling", he was defeated by Carter in a Six Sides of Steel match. At May Mayhem, Spud and Tyrus were defeated by Jeff Hardy in a Ladder match. On 31 May episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud and Tyrus were defeated by The BroMans in a number one contendership match to challenge Decay for the TNA World Tag Team Championship at Slammiversary. On 21 June 2016 episode of "Impact Wrestling", he challenged Braxton Sutter, Spud interrupting him when Sutter scheduled match against indy wrestler Balam. Sutter went on to defeat Spud and following his victory, was viciously attacked by Spud. During several months, Rockstar Spud and Braxton Sutter have many confrontation, during X Division matches. On 1 September edition of "Impact Wrestling", Rockstar Spud viciously attacked Sutter with a chair during an Ultimate X match, and attacked him once again on 8 September edition of "Impact Wrestling" after his match against Drew Galloway, breaking one of his teeth. The feud ended in "Empty Arena, No Turnbuckles" match 15 September edition of "Impact Wrestling", which was won by Sutter. At Bound for Glory, he participated in the Bound for Gold but was eliminated by Tyrus.


title: Drake Maverick

text: On 27 October episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud took part in the Team X Gold match teaming with Decay against DJ Z, Braxton Sutter and Mandrews ("Go for Broke"), in a losing effort. On 3 November episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud and Decay lost a three-way match against Go for Broke and The Helms Dynasty. They were defeated once again in a three-way tag team match against Go for Broke and The Helms Dynasty, this time in an elimination match. At "Total Nonstop Deletion", Spud was defeated by Broken Matt Hardy's son King Maxel. The same night, he lost at the Tag Team Apocalypto after his partner, Swoggle, attacked him. On 5 January episode "Impact Wrestling", Spud called out Swoggle, seeking revenge for his betrayal but lost an impromptu match. A frustrated and angry Spud then ostensibly quit TNA. On 12 January 2017 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Spud returned as Aron Rex's manservant, who was now portraying a "Liberace"-esque character. On 19 January 2017 episode of Impact, Aron Rex and Spud defeated Robbie E and Swoggle. The partnership with Rex abruptly ended due to the company's new management and Rex no longer being contracted with Impact Wrestling.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Spud was made the new ring announcer for "Impact Wrestling". On the Impact broadcast aired on 27 April, Spud was viciously attacked with a hammer by Swoggle, who accidentally has his pants ripped off by Spud earlier in the night. This led to a feud which culminated on 29 June 2017 edition of iMPACT in a Mumbai Street Fight, where Spud revealed during the match that he did intentionally have Swoggle's pants ripped off. He, however, then accidentally ripped the pants off the referee(who was the size of Swoggle), eventually leading to him losing to Swoggle. On 30 October 2017, it was reported that Spud was officially released two or three weeks earlier by Impact Wrestling. Curtin reportedly requested the release himself after Impact told him the promotion would reduce his salary.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Curtin signed with WWE in October 2017, but had to postpone his debut until his U.S. work visa was renewed. On 30 January 2018 episode of "205 Live", he made his debut as a face under the ring name Drake Maverick and was appointed the new General Manager of the brand. In his first appearance, he scheduled a 16-man WWE Cruiserweight Championship tournament that would culminate at WrestleMania 34.


title: Drake Maverick

text: On 3 September episode of "Raw", Maverick accompanied the tag team AOP (Akam and Rezar) as their new manager, thus turning heel. On 5 November episode of "Raw", Maverick led AOP to their first reign as Raw Tag Team Champions. At the Survivor Series pay-per-view, Maverick was in AOP's corner for their match against The Bar (Cesaro and Sheamus), threatened by The Bar's associate, Big Show, Maverick wetted his pants, distracting The Bar long enough to allow AOP to score the victory. On 10 December episode of "Raw", AOP lost their title to Bobby Roode and Chad Gable in a three-on-two handicap match, that also involved Maverick. He quietly ended his partnership with AOP when Akam suffered an injury. While acting as a heel on the main roster, Maverick remained acting as a face General Manager on "205 Live". In a dark match before the 9 April episode of "SmackDown", Maverick managed EC3. However, the owner of WWE, Vince McMahon was reported to have disliked the match and manager spots, so the partnership was not brought to television.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Following the introduction of the WWE 24/7 Championship, Maverick chased the current holder of the championship on "Raw", "SmackDown" and "205 Live" throughout the next few months, becoming more active as a wrestler. During his title pursuit, Maverick would create flyers of whoever the current champion was and handed them out to fans, backstage personnel, and superstars in various places. WWE management liked Maverick's ideas and, in regard, gave him a little push. On 29 May episode of "SmackDown", Maverick and R-Truth interrupted the Shane McMahon Appreciation Night in an impromptu match for the title, which Maverick lost. On 18 June, Maverick (disguised as R-Truth's ally Carmella) surprised R-Truth in the parking lot of the arena, pinned him for the title and immediately drove off in the referee's car. This marked his first championship win in WWE. Maverick also became the second holder - after R-Truth - to hold the title for over one day. However, he lost the title to R-Truth during his wedding, two days later. During the following episode of "Raw", Maverick had a rematch against R-Truth for the title, but he was quickly defeated. On 1 July episode of "Raw", Maverick attacked R-Truth with a suitcase and pinned him in the backstage area, while the latter was fleeing from a mob of wrestlers to become a two-time 24/7 Champion. However, Maverick lost the title to Truth 14 days later when Truth pinned him on his hotel room bed during his honeymoon. Throughout the following weeks, he would win and lose the title four times. As part of the 2019 WWE Draft, Maverick was drafted to SmackDown brand, though he would still serve as General Manager of 205 Live.


title: Drake Maverick

text: On 12 April 2020, Maverick was announced as a participant in the Interim NXT Cruiserweight Title Tournament, representing Group A in the tournament. On 15 April 2020, Maverick was originally released from his WWE contract as part of budget cuts stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite this, he was still expected to compete in the Interim Cruiserweight Title tournament. Maverick's release was put into his storyline for the tournament, as he continuously stated that he was not going to leave WWE without the Cruiserweight Championship. He would get into the finals against El Hijo del Fantasma, when he was defeated. After the match, Maverick was offered an NXT contract by Triple H which he signed immediately, re-hiring Maverick after he was originally supposed to only work the tournament.


title: Drake Maverick

text: Soon after, Maverick would form a tag team with Killian Dain. On 23 December episode of NXT, Maverick and Dain lost to NXT Tag Team Champions Danny Burch and Oney Lorcan in a Tag Team Street Fight match for the Tag Team titles. Following this, both Maverick and Dain entered the 2021 Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic, and they defeated Curt Stallion and August Grey in the first round on 15 January episode of "205 Live". However the duo were eliminated in the second round by MSK on 27 January episode of "NXT". On the pre-show, Maverick and Dain defeated Breezeango to earn a future NXT Tag Team Championship match. Maverick and Dain would receive their title opportunity on the following episode of "NXT" where they faced the reigning champions, MSK in a losing effort. After the match Dain and Maverick were both attacked by Imperium. On 25 June, Dain was released from his WWE contract, thus disbanding the team.


title: Drake Maverick

text: He was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2021 Draft and won the 24/7 Championship twice. Curtin was officially released on 18 November.


title: Drake Maverick

text: In February 2022, it was reported that Curtin had once again been rehired by WWE, now working as a member of their creative team.


title: Drake Maverick

text: In August 2006, Curtin appeared on Channel 4's "Big Brother's What They Did After the House", where he was defeated by "Big Brother" contestant Billi Bhatti at an IPW:UK show in Orpington. In January 2011, Curtin appeared as his Rockstar Spud character on BBC Three's "Snog Marry Avoid", where he was given a "makeunder". He also played a small part as a clown in a short film called "Light the Lights".


title: Drude model

text: The Drude model of electrical conduction was proposed in 1900 by Paul Drude to explain the transport properties of electrons in materials (especially metals). Basically, Ohm's law was well established and stated that the current "J" and voltage "V" driving the current are related to the resistance "R" of the material. The inverse of the resistance is known as the conductance. When we consider a metal of unit length and unit cross sectional area, the conductance is known as the conductivity, which is the inverse of resistivity. The Drude model attempts to explain the resistivity of a conductor in terms of the scattering of electrons (the carriers of electricity) by the relatively immobile ions in the metal that act like obstructions to the flow of electrons.


title: Drude model

text: The model, which is an application of kinetic theory, assumes that the microscopic behaviour of electrons in a solid may be treated classically and behaves much like a pinball machine, with a sea of constantly jittering electrons bouncing and re-bouncing off heavier, relatively immobile positive ions.


title: Drude model

text: Here is the time, ⟨p⟩ is the average momentum per electron and , and are respectively the electron charge, number density, mass, and mean free time between ionic collisions. The latter expression is particularly important because it explains in semi-quantitative terms why Ohm's law, one of the most ubiquitous relationships in all of electromagnetism, should hold.