title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Japanese Military Affairs Bureau Unit 82 was formed in 1939 or 1940 and based in Taiwan to bring this about. In its final planning stages, the unit was under the then-Colonel Yoshihide Hayashi. Intelligence on Malaya was gathered through a network of agents which included Japanese embassy staff; disaffected Malayans (particularly members of the Japanese established "Tortoise Society"); and Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese business people and tourists. Japanese spies, which included a British intelligence officer, Captain Patrick Stanley Vaughan Heenan and Lord Sempill also provided intelligence and assistance. Heenan's intelligence enabled the Japanese to destroy much of the Allied air forces on the ground.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Prior to hostilities, Japanese intelligence officers like Iwaichi Fujiwara had established covert intelligence offices (or "Kikans") that linked up with the Malay and Indian pro-independence organisations such as Kesatuan Melayu Muda in Malaya and the Indian Independence League. The Japanese gave these movements financial support in return for their members providing intelligence and later assistance in determining Allied troop movements, strengths, and dispositions prior to the invasion.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: By 1941 the Japanese had been engaged for four years in trying to subjugate China. They were heavily reliant on imported materials for their military forces, particularly oil from the United States. From 1940 to 1941, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands imposed embargoes on supplying oil and war materials to Japan. The object of the embargoes was to assist the Chinese and encourage the Japanese to halt military action in China. The Japanese considered that pulling out of China would result in a loss of face and decided instead to take military action against US, British and Dutch territories in South East Asia. The Japanese forces for the invasion were assembled in 1941 on Hainan Island and in French Indochina. The troop build-up in Indo-China and Hainan was noticed by the Allies and, when asked, the Japanese advised that it related to its operations in China.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The occupation commenced with Imperial Japanese Army landings at Padang Pak Amat beach Kota Bharu just after midnight on 8 December 1941, triggering a ferocious battle with the British Indian Army an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor. This battle marked the official start of the Pacific War and the start of the Japanese occupation of Malaya. Kota Bharu airport was occupied in the morning. Sungai Patani, Butterworth, and Alor Star airports were captured on 9 December 1941. Japanese soldiers landing at Kota Bharu divided into two separate forces, with one moving down the east coast towards Kuantan, and the other southwards towards the Perak River. On 11 December 1941, the Japanese started bombing Penang. Jitra and then Alor Star fell into Japanese hands on 12 December 1941. The British had to retreat to the south. On 16 December 1941, the British left Penang to the Japanese, who occupied it on 19 December.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The Japanese continued to advance southwards, capturing Ipoh on 26 December. Fierce resistance to Japanese progress in the Battle of Kampar lasted three days and three nights between 30 December 1941 and 2 January 1942, before the British had to retreat once again. On 7 January 1942, two brigades of the 11th Indian Infantry Division were defeated in the Battle of Slim River, giving the Japanese army easy passage to Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaya. On 9 January, the British position was becoming more desperate and the ABDACOM Supreme Commander, General Wavell, decided to withdraw all the British and Commonwealth forces south to Johor, thus abandoning Kuala Lumpur (which was captured by the Japanese on 13 January).


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The British defensive line was established in north Johor, from Muar in the west, through Segamat, and then to Mersing in the east. The 45th Indian Infantry Brigade were placed along the western part of the line between Muar and Segamat. The Australian Imperial Force (AIF) were concentrated in the middle, from where they advanced north from Segamat, clashing with the advancing Japanese army at Gemas on 14 January. The 15th Division (forming the main Japanese force) arrived on 15 January and forced the Australians back to Segamat. The Japanese then proceeded west towards the inexperienced 45th Indian Brigade, easily defeating them. The Allied command directed the Australian 2/19th and 2/29th Battalions to the west; the 2/19th Battalion engaged the Japanese on 17 January 1942 to the south of Muar.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Fighting continued until 18 January, and despite efforts by the 2/19th and 2/29th Battalions, the Johor defensive line collapsed. The Allies had to retreat across the Johor Causeway to Singapore. As 31 January 1942 approached, the whole of Malaya had fallen into Japanese hands.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Japanese policy for the administration of occupied territories was developed in February 1941 by Colonel Obata Nobuyoshi (Section Chief of Intelligence – Southern Army), and Lt Colonels Otoji Nishimura and Seijiro Tofuku of the General Staff. These set out five principles: acquisition of vital materials for national defence, restoration of law and order, self-sufficiency for the troops in the occupied territories, respect for established local organisations and customs, and no hasty discussion of future status of sovereignty. Administrative-wise, the Straits Settlements were to be placed directly under the Japanese Army, the Federated Malay States and Johor will remain as autonomous protectorates under their sultans, while the four northern states were to eventually revert to Thai rule.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Once occupied Malaya was placed under the Malay Military Administration (Malai Gunsei Kumbu) of the Imperial Japanese Army. The 25th Army's chief of staff was the superintendent and its Chief of General Affairs Department Colonel Watanabe Wataru its executive officer. It was Wataru that implemented the occupation policies. He had a particularly hard-line view, treating the Chinese particularly harshly because of their support for mainland China against Japanese. Malays and Indians were dealt with more moderately because of their cooperation.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Wataru strongly believed British rule had introduced a hedonistic and materialistic way of life to the indigenous people. He considered that they needed to be taught to endure hardship with physical and spiritual training and education. Wataru also believed that they must also be ready to give their lives if necessary to establish Hakkō ichiu (the whole world under one roof) and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: When Wataru was replaced in March 1943 by Major-General Masuzo Fujimuro, the Japanese war position had deteriorated and they recognized that they needed the co-operation of the entire population. Gradually the more repressive policies towards the Chinese were lifted and advisory councils were formed. In March 1944 Colonel Hamada Hiroshi established a public reading room to engage in discussion with the Chinese community leaders and youth.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The Japanese sought to change the common language of Malaya to Japanese. Its initial moves were to change shop signs and street names. Penang was renamed Tōjō Island (東條島, "Tōjō-tō") and Malaya renamed Malai (馬来, "Malai"). The time zone was also moved to align with Japan.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The Japanese custom of bowing was also introduced with the populace expected to bow to Japanese soldiers on guard duty. Malay was considered a dialect and the Japanese wanted it to be standardised with Sumatran.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The invading Japanese forces used slogans such as "Asia untuk orang Asia" (translation: Asia for Asians) to win support from the local Malays. Malay radicals had been given strict instruction to abide by Japanese military plans to create "Asians for Asians" and a "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" with Malaya as an important base. The Japanese worked hard to convince the local population that they were the actual saviours of Malaya while Britain was portrayed as an imperialist force that wished to exploit Malaya's resources. However, in November 1943, when the Japanese held the Greater East Asia Conference, both Malaya and Indonesia were excluded as the Japanese Military wanted to annex both regions.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The Japanese news agency, Dōmei Tsushin, was granted a monopoly covering Malaya, Singapore, and British Borneo. All news publications in this region fell under its control. An exception may have been The Perak Times which was published by John Victor Morais in Ipoh from 1942 to 1943.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: In Penang, on 8 December 1942 the Penang Malay, Chinese, and English newspapers were combined in the Penang Shimbun. Abdullah Ariff, a pioneer Malay watercolourist, drew cartoons for the newspaper. Ariff became an active member of the pro-independence UMNO after the war and eventually a Penang City Councillor from 1955 to 1957. The Malai Sinpo replaced the Malay Mail on 1 January 1943 and was published in Kuala Lumpur. The Jawi script Warta Malaya, owned by Ibrahim Yaacob and financed by the Japanese, ceased publication prior to the Japanese invasion and resumed for a short period from mid 1942 until 14 August 1942. During that brief period, it was managed by the Japanese.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The 25th Army Headquartered at Singapore provided garrison duty in Malaya until January 1944. It was replaced by the 29th Army's, 94th Infantry Division, under Lieutenant General Teizo Ishiguro, which was Headquartered in Taiping, Perak until the end of the war.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The Second (with the 25th Army) and later the Third (with the 29th Army) Field Kempeitai Units of the Southern Expeditionary Army Group provided military police and maintained public order in the same manner as the German SS. These units were able, at will, to arrest and interrogate, with torture, both military and civilians. The civilian police force was subservient to them. The Commander of the 2nd Field Kempeitai unit was Lieutenant Colonel Oishi Masayuki. No 3 Kempeitai was commanded by Major-General Masanori Kojima. By the end of the war there were 758 Kempeitai stationed in Malaya, with more in the Thai occupied Malay states.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: During the occupation Penang was used as a submarine port by the Japanese, Italian, and German navies. The Imperial Japanese Navy's 6th fleet Submarine Squadron 8 was based at Penang from February 1942 under Rear-Admiral Ishizaki Noboru. The base was used as a refuelling depot for submarines bound for German-occupied Europe and for operations in the Indian Ocean. In early 1943 the first German and Italian submarines began to call at Penang. In April 1943 under "Kapitanleutnant" Wilhelm Dommes was sent to set up and command the German U-boat base at Penang. This base was the only operational base used by all three Axis navies.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Japanese submarines from Penang participated in the Battle of Madagascar on 29 May 1942 attacking shipping in Diego Suarez harbour. Seven Italian BETASOM submarines were adapted to carry critical matériel from the Far East ("Bagnolin", "Barbarigo", , "Giuseppe Finzi", "Reginaldo Giuliani", , and ) of which two were sunk by the Allies, two were captured at Penang by the Germans after the September 1943 Italian surrender and used by them, and a fifth was captured in Bordeaux by the Germans, but not used.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Of the first 11 U-boats assigned to the Monsun Gruppe at the base, only , , , and arrived between October and November 1943. Of the second group sent in late 1943 only made it through the Allied-held oceans. It arrived in April 1944 at a time when the focus had changed from combat missions to transport between Europe and Asia. These cargo missions were to transport much-needed war supplies between Germany and Japan.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: By March 1944 the base was running short of supplies, was under a growing threat from Allied anti-submarine patrols. It lacked air support and reconnaissance. The Japanese had pulled their submarines out of Penang before the end on 1944 because the base had fallen within Allied bombing range. The Germans remained until December 1944 before withdrawing to Singapore.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: When Germany surrendered the surviving submarines were taken by the Japanese and the German sailors moved to Batu Pahat. When the British returned in 1945 the sailors were imprisoned at Changi, with the last, "Fregattenkapitän" Wilhelm Dommes, being repatriated to Germany in 1947.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Overall control and administration was the responsibility of the 25th Army. The transfer of the northern Malay states to Thailand moved them to Thai control. With the transfer of Malaya from the 25th to the 29th Army, Johore was placed under control of the Southern Army based at Singapore.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Japanese and Taiwanese civilians headed the Malayan civil service and police during the occupation. The structure remained similar to that of Malaya's pre-war civil service with many for Civil Servants being reappointed. Many of the laws and regulations of the British administration continued in use. The Sultans were initially allowed to continue as nominal rulers, with the intent that they would eventually be completely removed from power.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Up until 1909 Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu were Thai territories. As part of an agreement in 1909 Thailand transferred them to British control.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: In July 1943, Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo announced that Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu were to be returned to Thailand as part of the military alliance signed between Thailand and Japan on 21 December 1941. Thailand administered the states as Syburi, Palit, Kalantan and Trangkanu provinces from 18 October 1943 until the surrender of the Japanese at the end of the war. Japanese troops and Kempeitai continued to be stationed at the aforementioned states.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The Japanese undertook recruiting, particularly with the Indian and Malay populations, both prior to and after the occupation.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Prior to the invasion of Malaya, Japanese intelligence officer Major Iwaichi Fujiwara had formed links with Pritam Singh Dhillon of the Indian Independence League. Fujiwara and Dhillon convinced Major Mohan Singh to form the Indian National Army (INA) with disaffected Indian soldiers captured during the Malayan Campaign. Singh was an officer in 1 Battalion of the 14th Punjab Regiment and had been captured after the Battle of Jitra. As the Japanese campaign progressed more Indian troops were captured with significant numbers being convinced to join the new force under Singh.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: After the fall of Singapore, the army came into being. By 1 September 1942, it numbered 40,000 volunteers drawn from both former soldiers and civilians in Malaya and Singapore. Singh, now designated a general, was to command it. Already at a conference held in Bangkok during 15–23, June 1942, the Indian Independence League under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose, had appointed Singh its commander-in-chief.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Though Singh had a good relationship with Fujiwara he became disenchanted with some orders from the Imperial Japanese Army. This led to arrest on 29, December 1942, by the Kempeitai. With the return of Subhas Chandra Bose, from Germany in June 1943 the Indian National Army was revived in the form of Azad Hind Fauj. Bose organised finance and manpower under the cause for Indian independence among the expatriate Indian population. The INA had a separate women's unit, the Rani of Jhansi Regiment (named after Rani Lakshmi Bai) headed by Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan, which was seen as a first of its kind in Asia.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Even when faced with military reverses in the later stages of the war, Bose was able to maintain support for the Azad Hind movement.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Another link forged by Fujiwara was with Ibrahim Yaacob of Kesatuan Melayu Muda a pro-independence Malay organisation. On the eve of World War II, Yaacob and the members of Kesatuan Melayu Muda actively encouraged anti-British sentiment. With Japanese aid the organisation purchased the influential Singapore-based Malay publication "Warta Malaya". Close to the time of the Japanese invasion Yaacob, Ishak Muhammad and a number of Kesatuan Melayu Muda leaders were arrested and imprisoned by the British.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: During the Battle of Malaya, Kesatuan Melayu Muda members assisted the Japanese as they believed that the Japanese would give Malaya independence. When the Japanese captured Singapore the arrested members released by the Japanese. Mustapha Hussain, the organisation's vice-president and the others requested the Japanese grant Malaya independence but request was turned down. The Japanese instead disbanded Kesatuan Melayu Musa and established the Pembela Tanah Ayer (also known as the Malai Giyu Gun or by its Malay acronym PETA) militia instead. Yaacob was given the rank of lieutenant colonel in charge of the 2,000 man militia.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Once the Japanese had taken Malaya and Singapore from the British their attention turned to consolidating their position. Of primary concern were the ethnic Chinese who were known to financially support both Nationalist and Communist forces in China fighting the Japanese. In December 1941 a list of key elements to eliminate within the Chinese population had been drawn up. On 17 February 1942 Lieutenant-General Tomoyuki Yamashita, commander of the 25th Army, ordered anti-Japanese elements within the Chinese be eliminated. The method employed had been used by the occupying divisions; the 5th, 18th, and Imperial Guards in earlier actions in China, whereby suspects were executed without trial. That same day 70 surviving soldiers of the Malay Regiment were taken out of the prisoner of war holding area at Farrer Park, Singapore by the Japanese to the battlefield at Pasir Panjang and shot. Some Malay Regiment officers were beheaded by the Japanese. An explanation given in a proclamation by Yamashita on 23 February 1942 was that they were dealing with rebellious Chinese. This message was elaborated on in a Syonan Times article of 28 February 1942 titled "Sword that kills one and saves many".


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Commencing in February in Singapore and then throughout Malaya a process of rounding up and executing those Chinese perceived as being threats began. This was the start of the Sook Ching massacres in which an estimated 50,000 or more ethnic Chinese were killed, predominantly by the Kempeitai.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Specific incidents include Kota Tinggi, Johore on 28 February 1942 (2,000 killed); Gelang Patah, Johore on 4 March (300 killed); Benut, Johore on 6 March (number unknown); Johore Baharu, Senai, Kulai, Sedenak, Pulai, Rengam, Kluang, Yong Peng, Batu Pahat, Senggarang, Parit Bakau, and Muar between February and March (estimated up to 25,000 Chinese were killed in Johore); Tanjong Kling, Malacca on 16 March (142 killed); Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan on 15 March (76 killed); Parit Tinggi, Negeri Sembilan on 16 March (more than 100 killed, the entire village); Joo Loong Loong (near the present village of Titi) on 18 March (1474 killed, entire village eliminated by Major Yokokoji Kyomi and his troops); and Penang in April (several thousand killed by Major Higashigawa Yoshinura). With increased guerilla activity more massacres occurred, including Sungei Lui, a village of 400 in Jempol District, Negeri Sembilan, that was wiped out on 31 July 1942 by troops under a Corporal Hashimoto.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: News of the Sook Ching massacres reached the west by February 1943, with Chinese sources stating that 97,000 suspected anti-Japanese Chinese had been imprisoned or killed by the Japanese in Singapore and Malaya. The same article also stated that the Japanese had set up mutual guarantee units whereby a group of 30 Chinese families would guarantee that none of their members would oppose the Japanese. If they did then the whole group was executed.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: As is with the Changi Prison in Singapore, major civilian prisons throughout Malaya (such as the Pudu Prison and Taiping Prison) were reconstituted by the Japanese for use as detention and execution grounds. Various schools, including the Malay College at Kuala Kangsar, were also repurposed as interrogation facilities for the Japanese.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The Japanese were also accused of conducting medical experiments on Malayans, and were known to have taken Malay and Chinese girls and women to serve as comfort women.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The Japanese required the Chinese community through the Japanese controlled Overseas Chinese Organisation to raise Malay $50 million as atonement for its support of the Chinese war effort. When the organisation only raised $28 million, the organisation was required to take out a loan for the balance.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Initially, Malaya's two other major ethnic groups, the Indians and Malays, escaped the worst of Japanese maltreatment. The Japanese wanted the support of the Indian community to free India from British rule, and did not consider the Malays to be a threat. All three races were encouraged to assist the Japanese war effort by providing finance and labour. Some 73,000 Malayans were thought to have been coerced into working on the Thai-Burma Railway, with an estimated 25,000 dying. The Japanese also took the railway track from Malacca and other branch lines for construction of the railway.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: As the war progressed all three ethnic communities began to suffer deprivations from increasingly severe rationing, hyper-inflation, and a lack of resources. A blockade by Allied forces on the Japanese occupied territories coupled with a submarine campaign reduced the ability of the Japanese to move supplies between its occupied countries. Both the Malay and Indian communities gradually came into more conflict with the occupying Japanese prompting more joining the resistance movement, including Abdul Razak bin Hussein, and Abdul Rahman bin Hajih Tiab. Yeop Mahidin Bin Mohamed Shariff, a former Royal Malay Regiment officer, founded a Malay-based resistance group immediately after the fall of Singapore in February 1942.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: About 150,000 tons of rubber was taken by the Japanese, but this was considerably less than Malaya had exported prior to the occupation. Because Malaya produced more rubber and tin than Japan was able to utilize, Malaya's export income fell as it no longer had access to world markets. Real per capita income fell to about half its 1941 level in 1944 and less than half the 1938 level in 1945. A further factor was a lack of available merchant shipping, noticeable from early in 1942. As an alternative to shipping the Japanese sought to create a rail link from Malaya to Manchukuo.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Prior to the war, Malaya produced 40% of the world's rubber and a high proportion of the world's tin. It imported more than 50% of its rice requirements, a staple food for its population. The Allied blockade meant that both imports and the limited exports to Japan were dramatically reduced. In June 1943 tin was in short supply in Japan despite it occupying Malaya because of the transport problems.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: During the occupation the Japanese replaced the Malayan dollar with their own version. Prior to occupation, in 1941, there was about Malaya $219 million in circulation. Japanese currency officials estimated that they had put $7,000 to $8,000 million into circulation during occupation. Some Japanese army units had mobile currency printing presses and no record was kept of the quantity or value of notes printed. When Malaya was liberated there was $500 million of uncirculated currency held by the Japanese in Kuala Lumpur. The unrestrained printing of banknotes in the final months of the war created hyperinflation with the Japanese money becoming valueless at the end of the war.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: During the war the Allies dropped propaganda leaflets stressing that the Japanese issued money would be valueless when Japan surrendered. This tactic was suggested by Japanese policymakers as one of the reasons for the currencies falling value as Japanese defeats increased. Although a price freeze was put in place in February 1942, by the end of the war prices in Malaya were 11,000 times higher than at the start of the war. Monthly inflation reached over 40% in August 1945. Counterfeiting of the currency was also rife with both the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) printing $10 notes and $1 notes and the American Office of Strategic Services (OSS) printing $10 notes.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Following the Japanese invasion of Malaya on 8 December 1941, the British colonial authorities accepted the Malayan Communist Party's (MCP) standing offer of military co-operation and on 15 December, all left-wing political prisoners were released. From 20 December, the British military began to train party members in guerilla warfare at the hastily established 101st Special Training School (101st STS) in Singapore. About 165 MCP members were trained before the fall of Singapore to the Japanese. These fighters, scantily armed and equipped by the hard-pressed British, hurriedly dispersed and attempted to harass the occupying army.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Just before Singapore fell on 15 February 1942, the party began organise armed resistance in Johor. 4 armed groups, which became known as 'Regiments', were formed, with the 101st Special Training School's (101st STS) trainees serving as nuclei. In March, this force was dubbed the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) and began sabotage and ambushes against the Japanese. The Japanese responded with reprisals against Chinese civilians. These reprisals, coupled with increasing economic hardship, caused large numbers of Malayan Chinese to flee the cities. They became squatters at the forest margins, where they became the main source of recruits, food, and other assistance for the MPAJA. The MPAJA consolidated this support by providing protection.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: In February 1942, Lai Teck, an alleged British agent who had infiltrated the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) was arrested by the Japanese. He became a double agent providing information to the Japanese on the MCP and MPAJA. Acting on information he provided the Japanese attacked a secret conference of more than 100 MCP and MPAJA leaders on 1 September 1942 at the Batu Caves, north of Kuala Lumpur, killing most of them. The loss of personnel forced the MPAJA to abandon its political commissar system, and the military commanders became the heads of the regiments. Following this setback and under the leadership of Lai Teck, the MPAJA avoided engagements and concentrated on consolidation, amassing 4,500 soldiers by early 1943. Lai Teck was not suspected as being a traitor until after the war. He was eventually tracked down and assassinated by Viet Minh operatives.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: From May onward, British commandos from Force 136 infiltrated Malaya and made contact with the guerrillas. In 1944, an agreement was reached whereby the MPAJA would accept some direction from the Allied South East Asia Command (SEAC), and the Allies would give the MPAJA weapons and supplies. It was not until the spring of 1945, however, that significant amounts of material began to arrive by air drop.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Also operating at the same time as the MPAJA was the Pahang Wataniah, a resistance group formed by Yeop Mahidin. Mahadin had formed the group with consent of the Sultan of Pahang and set up a training camp at Batu Malim. The unit had an initial strength of 254 men and was assisted by Force 136, which assigned Major Richardson to help train the unit. Mahidin earned him the nickname "Singa Melayu" (Malay Lion) for his bravery and exploits. Between the Japanese surrender announcement and the return of the British the Wataniah provided protection for the Sultan from the MPAJA.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: After the war ended the MPAJA was banned due to their communist ideologies and the Pahang Wataniah was reorganised, becoming the Rejimen Askar Wataniah, a territorial army.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The principles of Allied strategic doctrine in the event of Japan entering the war were established at a secret conference between 29 January 1941 and 27 March 1941. The strategy set forth the principle of Europe first, with the Far East being a defensive war. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and the American president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, met at the First Washington Conference. This conference reaffirmed the doctrine of Europe first. At the third Washington Conference in May 1943 alleviating pressure on China was discussed, in particular through the Burma campaign. At the Quebec Conference in August intensifying the war against Japan was decided and South East Asia Command reorganised. The Second Quebec Conference in September 1944 discussed the involvement of the British Navy against the Japanese.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The first strategic bombing raid was carried out by American Flying Fortresses on 2 February 1942 against Kuantan and Kuala Lumpur's airfields. These may have been planes from the 7th Bombardment Group operating out of Java.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Missions did not resume against Malaya until 27 October 1944 when B-24 Liberators of No. 159 Squadron RAF flying from Khargpur mined the Penang Strait causing its eventual abandonment by Japanese submarine forces. They laid more mines on 26 November and 23 January 1945.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: On 11 January 1945 B-29's of the 20th Air Force attacked Penang. A further attack on Penang occurred on 24 February. This was followed by an attack on the marshaling yards in Kuala Lumpar and Alor Star airfield on 10 March. The Royal Selangor museum was hit by bombs on 15 March. The bombs were intended for the Kuala Lumpar marshaling yards. On 28 March mines were dropped in several harbours and the last Malaya mission by the 20th Air Force took place on 29 March when attack was made on a mix of targets. Attacks on the ports ceased around this time as Mountbatten intended to use the ports during the proposed invasion of Malaya. Attacks continued against rail, coastal shipping, and other targets.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: After the defeat by the Japanese, a number of Allied personnel and European civilians retreated into the jungle. Some, including British woman Nona Baker, joined the MPAJA. Others, such as Freddie Spencer Chapman, were Force 136 operatives who sought to begin a sabotage campaign against the occupying Japanese forces. In August 1943 the Allies set up South East Asia Command to oversee the war in South East Asia, including Malaya. As the war progressed further Allied operatives were landed either from submarine or be parachuted in to provide assistance to the resistance movements.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Allied navy units, particularly submarines, attacked Japanese shipping throughout the occupation and on occasion brought Force 136 operatives to Malaya. Air action was primarily confined to B-24 Liberators or Navy PB4Y Privateers supplying the resistance with arms and supplies, until late 1944 when B-29's of the US Twentieth Air Force carried out raids on installations at Penang and Kuala Lumpur. In May 1945 a British task force sank the Japanese cruiser "Haguro" in the Battle of the Malacca Strait.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Tun Ibrahim Ismail landed in Malaya in October 1944 as part of a Force 136 operation to convince the Japanese that the Allies were planning landings on the Isthmus of Kra, 650 miles to the north to establish a beachhead in Malaya under Operation Zipper. This was to be followed by a drive south to liberate Singapore, Operation Mailfist, and an offensive to retake northern Malaya designated Operation Broadsword. In preparation for the landings, a British task force sailed through the Straits of Malacca in July 1945 clearing mines and attacking Japanese facilities. British carrier borne aircraft attacked targets along the West Coast of Malaya and aircraft of the United States Seventh Fleet attacked targets on the East Coast as a prelude to Operation Zipper. Before the Operation could commence the war ended.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: On 15 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address to the Empire announcing acceptance the terms for ending the war that the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration. British B-24 and Mosquito bombers then undertook reconnaissance and leaflet drops over Malayan cities after the surrender announcement. One Mosquito bomber developed engine problems and was forced to land at the Japanese held Sungai Besi aerodrome near Kuala Lumpur. The Japanese provided assistance to the aircrews until they were picked up by another Mosquito.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: In the period between the Emperor's announcement and the arrival of Allied forces in Malaya sporadic fighting broke out between the Chinese and Malay communities, particularly in Perak. The MPAJA launched reprisals against collaborators in the Malay police force and the civilian population and began to forcibly raise funds. Many in the rank and file advocated revolution. The cautious approach prevailed among the majority of the leadership at Lai Teck's instigation, a decision which would later be viewed as a major missed opportunity. A few of the Japanese occupation troops also came under attack from civilians during this period as they withdrew from outlying areas.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Under Operation Jurist, Penang became the first state in Malaya to be liberated from Japanese rule. The Japanese garrison in Penang surrendered on 2 September 1945 aboard HMS "Nelson" and a party of the Royal Marines retook Penang Island the following day. The British subsequently recaptured Singapore, with the Japanese garrison on the island surrendering on 12 September. After the Singapore surrender, British forces reached Kuala Lumpur, where the Commander of the 29th Army surrendered on 13 September 1945. Another surrender ceremony was held in Kuala Lumpur on 22 February 1946 for General Itagaki, the Commander of the 7th Area Army.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: On 12 September 1945, the British Military Administration (BMA) was installed in Kuala Lumpur. This was followed by the signing of the Malaya surrender document at Kuala Lumpur by Lieutenant-General Teizo Ishiguro, commander of the 29th Army; with Major-General Naoichi Kawahara, chief of staff; and Colonel Oguri as witnesses.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Later that year, the MPAJA reluctantly agreed to disband. Weapons were handed in at ceremonies where the wartime role of the army was praised.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Japanese troops who remained in Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and Burma at the end of the war were transferred to Rempang and Galang Islands from October 1945 on to await repatriation to Japan. Galang was renamed Sakae by the troops. Lieutenant-General Ishiguro was put in charge of the island by the Allies under supervision of five British officers. More than 200,000 Japanese troops passed through the island under Operation Exodus. A newspaper reported that Kempeitai troops were mistreated by their compatriots. The last troops left the islands in July 1946.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: In addition to Japanese troops, some 7,000 Japanese civilians who had lived in Malaya prior to or during the occupation were also repatriated to Japan.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Members of the Kempeitai and camp guards were treated as prisoners of war because of their treatment of military and civilians. There were a number of war crimes trials. One held in 1947 found 7 Japanese officers guilty. Two were executed: Lieutenant Colonel Masayuki Oishi, commander of 2 Field Kempeitai and Lieutenant General Saburo Kawamura on 26 June 1947. Lieutenant General Takuma Nishimura, one of the five given life sentences, was later found guilty of the Parit Sulong Massacre by an Australian court and executed.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Captain Higashikawa, head of the Penang Branch of the Kempeitai, was executed. Higashikawa's actions were brutal enough for Captain S Hidaka, Penang Chief of Staff for the Imperial Japanese Navy, to raise the matter with Lieutenant-General Ishiguro. Ishiguro had Higashikawa transferred and replaced by Captain Terata.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Sergeant Eiko Yoshimura, the head of Kempeitai in Ipoh, was sentenced to death by hanging for the torture and abuse of civilians, including Sybil Kathigasu. Malay author Ahmad Murad Nasaruddin wrote a book, "Nyawa di-hujong pědang", about her family's incarceration.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Others executed were Colonel Watanabe Tsunahiko, commander of the 11th Regiment by firing squad for his part in the Kuala Pilah massacre; and Captain Iwata Mitsugi, Second Lieutenant Goba Itsuto, and Second Lieutenant Hashimoto Tadashi by hanging at Pudu Jail on 3 January 1948.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: Cemeteries for Malayan and Allied military personnel were created at Kranji War Cemetery in Singapore and Taiping War Cemetery in Bukit Larut (Maxwell Hill), Taiping, Perak. An expedition was mounted October 1946 by the Number 46 War Graves Unit to recover and rebury all personnel they could locate.


title: Japanese occupation of Malaya

text: The main national war memorial is the National Monument in Kuala Lumpur. This memorial commemorates those who served in both World War Two and the Malayan Emergency that followed the war.


title: Moonbase 8

text: Moonbase 8 is an American comedy television series created and written by Fred Armisen, Tim Heidecker, Jonathan Krisel and John C. Reilly, starring Armisen, Heidecker and Reilly in the lead roles. It premiered on November 8, 2020, on Showtime.


title: Moonbase 8

text: "Moonbase 8" follows three subpar astronauts in one of several NASA Moon base training simulators located in Winslow, Arizona, hoping to be the crew selected by NASA to travel to the actual Moon Base, whose construction is nearing completion.


title: Moonbase 8

text: On April 24, 2018, it was announced that A24 had begun production on a comedy television series titled "Moonbase 8" that they independently funded. Executive producers include Fred Armisen, Tim Heidecker, Jonathan Krisel, John C. Reilly, and Dave Kneebone. Krisel directed all six episodes. Production companies involved with the production include A24 and Abso Lutely Productions. A24 began shopping the series to networks once production concluded. The series premiered on November 8, 2020, on Showtime. The entire first season became available on-demand to Showtime subscribers on November 8, 2020.


title: Moonbase 8

text: Alongside the series announcement, it was confirmed that Armisen, Heidecker, and Reilly would star in the series.


title: Moonbase 8

text: Reviews of the series have been mixed. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 57% based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 6.16/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Despite a talented central trio and a few great moments, "Moonbase 8"s portrait of monotonous mediocrity may be too low-key for some viewers to achieve comedic lift off—though that may be exactly the point." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100 based on 18 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Moonbase 8

text: In reviewing the series in contrast to the other "work-space" comedies of 2020, "Avenue 5" and "Space Force", Danette Chavez of "The A.V. Club" stated that "Moonbase 8" has the most potential to continue as a comedy on its own merits, beyond the stunt of the space setting. Ben Travers of "IndieWire" praised the show while saying it still has room to grow, writing "there’s room for creative expansion in future seasons, but this is a small-scale mission that’s off to a solid start".


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: All the King's Men is a 1949 American drama written, produced, and directed by Robert Rossen. It is based on the 1946 Robert Penn Warren novel of the same name. The film stars Broderick Crawford, John Ireland, Mercedes McCambridge, and Joanne Dru. The plot focuses on the rise and fall of the ambitious and ruthless politician Willie Stark (Crawford) in the American South. Though a fictional character, Stark strongly resembles Louisiana governor Huey Long.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: The film won three Academy Awards, including the Academy Award for Best Picture, the award for Best Actor, which went to Broderick Crawford, and the award for Best Supporting Actress, won by Mercedes McCambridge.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: In 2001, "All the King's Men" was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: The story of the rise of politician Willie Stark from a rural county seat to the governor's mansion is depicted in the film. He goes into politics, railing against the corruptly run county government, but loses his race for county treasurer, in the face of unfair obstacles placed by the local machine. Stark teaches himself law, and as a lawyer, continues to fight the local establishment, championing the local people and gaining popularity. He eventually rises to become a candidate for governor, narrowly losing his first race, then winning on his second attempt. Along the way he loses his innocence and becomes as corrupt as the politicians he once fought against. As he rises, Stark philanders and gets involved with many women, taking his PR man/journalist Jack Burden's own girlfriend, Anne Stanton, as his mistress.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: Stark's son Tommy drinks to deal with his feelings about his father, eventually crashes his car, injuring himself and killing his female passenger. When Stark bullies Tommy into playing a football game, Tommy becomes paralyzed after a brutal hit.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: Stark, who had always dealt with those who got in his way by any means, begins to see his world start to unravel and he discovers that not everyone can be bought off.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: The story has a complex series of relationships. All is seen through the eyes of the journalist, Jack Burden, who admires Stark and even when disillusioned still sticks by him. Stark's campaign assistant, Sadie is clearly in love with Stark and wants him to leave his wife, Lucy. When Stark's reputation is brought into disrepute by Judge Stanton (Anne's uncle), he seeks to blacken the judge's name. When Jack finds evidence of the judge's possible wrongdoing, a quarter century earlier, he hides it from Stark. Anne gives the evidence to Stark, who uses it against her uncle, who immediately commits suicide. Anne seems to forgive Stark, but her brother, Adam, the surgeon who helped save Tommy's life after the car crash, cannot. After Stark wins an impeachment investigation, Adam assassinates Stark. The doctor in turn is shot down by Sugar Boy, Stark's fawning assistant. Having lost his respect for him, Jack tries to get Anne's agreement to find a way to destroy Stark's reputation just as he dies.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: Rossen originally offered the starring role to John Wayne, who found the proposed film script unpatriotic and indignantly refused the part. Crawford, who eventually took the role, won the 1949 Academy Award for Best Actor, beating out Wayne, who had been nominated for his role in "Sands of Iwo Jima".


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: The film was shot at various locations in California using local residents, something that was fairly unknown for Hollywood at the time. The old San Joaquin County courthouse in Stockton, built in 1898 and demolished about a dozen years after the film's release, was featured prominently.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: Paul Tatara, a film reviewer for CNN, describes the film as "one of those pictures that was saved in the editing". Al Clark did the original cut but had trouble putting all the footage that Robert Rossen had shot into a coherent narrative. Robert Parrish was brought on board by Rossen and Columbia Studios head, Harry Cohn, to see what he could do. Since Rossen had a hard time cutting anything he shot, after several weeks of tinkering and cutting, the movie was still over 250 minutes long. Cohn was prepared to release it in this version after one more preview, but this threw Rossen into a panic, so Rossen came up with a novel solution. Rossen told Parrish to "[s]elect what you consider to be the center of each scene, put the film in the synch machine and wind down a hundred feet [around 50 seconds] before and a hundred feet after, and chop it off, regardless of what's going on. Cut through dialogue, music, anything. Then, when you're finished, we'll run the picture and see what we've got". When Parrish was done with what Rossen had suggested, they were left with a 109-minute movie that was more compelling to watch. After "All the King's Men" won its Academy Award for Best Picture, Harry Cohn repeatedly gave Parrish credit for saving the film, even though Parrish only did what Rossen told him to do. The editing gambit gives the film a memorably jagged urgency that's unique for a studio-era film. Although Clark is credited as the "Film Editor" (with Parrish being credited as "Editorial Advisor"), both Clark and Parrish received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Film Editing.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: The film received wide acclaim upon its release. Film critic Bosley Crowther lauded the film and its direction in his review, writing, "Robert Rossen has written and directed, as well as personally produced, a rip-roaring film of the same title ... We have carefully used that descriptive as the tag for this new Columbia film because a quality of turbulence and vitality is the one that it most fully demonstrates ... In short, Mr. Rossen has assembled in this starkly unprettified film a piece of pictorial journalism that is remarkable for its brilliant parts." Critic William Brogdon, writing for "Variety" magazine, was also complimentary and praised Broderick Crawford's work, "As the rural Abe Lincoln, springing up from the soil to make himself a great man by using the opinionless, follow-the-leader instinct of the more common voter, Broderick Crawford does a standout performance. Given a meaty part, his histrionic bent wraps it up for a great personal success adding much to the many worthwhile aspects of the drama."


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "All the King's Men" holds a rating of 97% based on 70 reviews, with an average rating of 8.10/10. The consensus summarizes: "Broderick Crawford is spellbinding as politician Willie Stark in director Robert Rossen's adaptation of the Robert Penn Warren novel about the corrosive effects of power on the human soul."


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: Film historian Spencer Selby calls the film "[A] hard-hitting noir adaptation of Warren's eloquent novel".


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: Joe Goldberg, film historian and former story editor for Paramount Pictures, wrote about the content of the plot and its noirish fatalistic conclusion, "The plot makes sense, the dialogue is memorable, the story arises from the passions and ideas of the characters. It deals with graft, corruption, love, drink and betrayal, and the subversion of idealism by power, and it might even make someone angry... The story moves toward its conclusion with the dark inevitability of film noir."


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: In 2001, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". The Academy Film Archive preserved "All the King's Men" in 2000. , it is the last Best Picture winner to be based on a Pulitzer Prize-winning novel.


title: All the King's Men (1949 film)

text: Silver, Alain and James Ursini (editors). "Film Noir: Reader 2". "All the King's Men" film noir themes discussed in essay, "Violence and the Bitch Goddess" by Stephen Farber, pgs. 54-55 (1974). Proscenium Publishers, Inc., New York (July 2003). Second Limelight Edition. .


title: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie

text: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie is a 2012 Japanese animated film based on Masashi Kishimoto's manga and anime series. It was released in Japan on July 28, 2012. The band Asian Kung-Fu Generation performed the theme song . Both the single CD and the film's soundtrack were released on July 25, 2012. The first 1.5 million people to see the film were given the "Motion Comic: Naruto" DVD.


title: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie

text: Following his encounter with his mother, Naruto has returned to the Hidden Leaf. He and the rest of the Konoha 11, led by Kakashi Hatake and Might Guy, drive off a group of White Zetsu posing as fallen Akatsuki members. Upon their return, everyone's parents decide to have their children recommended to become jonin, with the exception of Naruto due to his parents being deceased, and Sakura Haruno, whose parents Kizashi and Mebuki dismiss her capabilities. Naruto begins to feel depressed about not having had parents growing up, leading him to lash out at Iruka Umino. Sakura, after arguing with Mebuki, later uses Naruto as an excuse to avoid her. Alone at the park, the two are confronted by Tobi (who at this point they believe to be Madara Uchiha), who proceeds to blind them with a great light before fleeing.


title: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie

text: Regaining their senses, Naruto and Sakura discover the world around them significantly changed: their friends' personalities are the polar opposite of their original demeanors; Sasuke Uchiha never left the village and is now a womanizer; Naruto is referred to by others as "Menma"; no one knows who Madara is; and Kizashi was the Fourth Hokage, him and Mebuki sacrificing their lives to seal the Nine-Tails inside Menma, leading Sakura to become adored as the "Child of Heroes". It is revealed that Tobi subjected them to a genjutsu-based, limited version of the Infinite Tsukuyomi, the Limited Tsukuyomi, in the hopes of claiming the Nine-Tails without resorting to the Fourth Great Ninja War.


title: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie

text: Naruto and Sakura begin investigating the world in the hopes of finding a way back home, but Sakura begins relishing her lack of parents and newfound fame. They eventually meet with Tsunade, who reveals the existence of a masked ninja who has been attacking villages in order to obtain an object called the Red Moon Scroll; Jiraiya found and hid the scroll before being killed by the Masked Man. With the location known, Tsunade assigns a mission to find it, being led by Naruto's parents Minato Namikaze and Kushina Uzumaki, who never died due to the Harunos' sacrifice and are active, regular ninja. Naruto, Sakura, Kakashi, and Guy also join the mission (the former two hoping to use the scroll to escape the Limited Tsukuyomi), but Naruto becomes enraged at his parents' presence, believing Tobi to be taunting him, and refuses to reciprocate when they show him affection.


title: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie

text: During the mission, the team is attacked by Jiraiya's toads, who never developed a kinship with Minato and Naruto and thus treat the group as intruders. In the ensuing fight, Kushina injures her ankle trying to shield Naruto from a poison attack. Minato eventually obtains the scroll, and Sakura heals Kushina. Naruto's parents lecture and console him over the turn of events, overwhelming Naruto with emotion. Upon learning the scroll can only be activated during a red lunar eclipse, Naruto and Sakura realize they have to wait till then. Sakura soon begins to realize the loneliness Naruto felt as an orphan, while Naruto accepts the fake Minato and Kushina as his parents and begins enjoying spending time with them.


title: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie

text: The village is then attacked by the Masked Man, having allied himself with Tobi, who has used an incorporeal form to observe the Limited Tsukuyomi, The Masked Man captures Sakura to hold ransom for the Red Moon Scroll, then proceeds to destroy the village. Naruto attempts to leave to save Sakura, but Minato and Kushina hold him back. Realizing they are not like his actual parents, Naruto reveals his true identity to them and thanks them for spending time with him. Wearing Kizashi's Hokage cloak, he takes the Red Moon Scroll and leaves to save Sakura and face the Masked Man, finding them at an old training ground used by Jiraiya and Minato.


title: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie

text: While the Akatsuki - a group of mercenaries led by Itachi Uchiha in this universe - dispatch the Masked Man's puppets, Naruto battles against the Masked Man, who is revealed to be the real Menma. Menma absorbs the defeated masked beasts to manifest the Black Nine-Tails, with the Nine-Tails making a temporary truce with Naruto to defeat its counterpart. However, this all plays to Tobi's plan as he possesses Menma so he can personally extract the weakened Nine-Tails from Naruto while completely wiping his mind. Sakura saves Naruto before the Nine-Tails is extracted from him, and Naruto regains his memories from looking at the scroll. Naruto and Sakura, along with assistance from Minato and Kushina, then force Tobi out of Menma and undo the Limited Tsukuyomi. Once back in their reality, after informing Tsunade of their ordeal, Sakura tearfully reunites with her parents while Naruto makes amends with Iruka and realizes he already has a family in his friends.


title: Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie

text: The film debuted in the Japanese box office third earning US$3,799,276. On August 14, 2012, Yahoo announced grossed sales of over ¥1 billion (US$12.7 million) and the rate was expected to be the highest-grossing film surpassing "" (1.37 billion yen/US$17.4 million). Masashi Kishimoto drew Naruto and Menma to commemorate the film's achievement. "Road to Ninja" became the highest grossing "Naruto" film making ¥ 1.46 billion (US$18.3 million) between its opening on July 28 and September 23, but it was surpassed by "". In 2012, the film made ¥ 1.48 billion and ranked 29th among the Japanese box office films, including live action ones. In the Philippines, the film earned a total grossed amount of $123,613.00 (PhP 5,068,627) on its 2-week run.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Betel nut chewing, also called betel quid chewing or areca nut chewing, is a practice in which areca nuts (also called "betel nuts") are chewed together with slaked lime and betel leaves for their stimulant and narcotic effects. The practice is widespread in Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Island Melanesia, and South Asia. It is also found among the indigenous peoples of Taiwan, Madagascar and parts of southern China. It has also been introduced to the Caribbean in colonial times.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The preparation combining the areca nut, slaked lime, and betel leaves is known as a betel quid (also called "paan" or "pan" in South Asia). It can sometimes include other substances for flavoring and to freshen the breath, like coconut, dates, sugar, menthol, saffron, cloves, aniseed, cardamom, and many others. The areca nut itself can be replaced with or chewed with tobacco, and the betel leaves can be excluded altogether. The preparation is not swallowed, but is spat out afterwards. It results in permanent red stains on the teeth after prolonged use. The spit from chewing betel nuts, which also results in red stains, is also often regarded as unhygienic and an eyesore in public facilities in certain countries.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The practice of betel nut chewing originates from Island Southeast Asia where the plant ingredients are native. The oldest evidence of betel nut chewing is found in a burial pit in the Duyong Cave site of the Philippines (where areca palms were originally native to), dated to around 4,630±250 BP. Its diffusion is closely tied to the Neolithic expansion of the Austronesian peoples. It was spread to the Indo-Pacific during prehistoric times, reaching Micronesia at 3,500 to 3,000 BP, Near Oceania at 3,400 to 3,000 BP; South India and Sri Lanka by 3,500 BP; Mainland Southeast Asia by 3,000 to 2,500 BP; Northern India by 1500 BP; and Madagascar by 600 BP. From India, it was also spread westwards to Persia and the Mediterranean. It was also previously present in the Lapita culture, based on archaeological remains dated from 3,600 to 2,500 BP, but it was not carried into Polynesia.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Betel nut chewing is addictive and has been linked with adverse health effects (mainly oral and esophageal cancers), both with and without tobacco. Attempts to control betel nut chewing by the World Health Organization remains problematic as it is deeply rooted in many cultures, including possessing religious connotations in some parts of Southeast Asia and India. It is estimated that around 600 million people practice betel nut chewing worldwide.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Based on archaeological, linguistic, and botanical evidence, the spread of betel chewing is most strongly associated with the Austronesian peoples. Chewing betel requires the combination of areca nut ("Areca catechu") and betel leaf ("Piper betle"). Both plants are native from the region between Island Southeast Asia to Australasia. "A. catechu" is believed to be originally native to the Philippines, where it has the greatest morphological diversity as well as the most closely related endemic species. The origin of the domestication of "Piper betle", however, is unknown, although it is also native to the Philippines, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and Indochina. It is also unknown when the two were combined, as areca nut alone can be chewed for its narcotic properties. In eastern Indonesia, leaves from the wild "Piper caducibracteum" are also harvested and used in place of betel leaves.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The oldest unequivocal evidence of betel chewing is from the Philippines. Specifically that of several individuals found in a burial pit in the Duyong Cave site of Palawan island dated to around 4,630±250 BP. The dentition of the skeletons is stained, typical of betel chewers. The grave also includes "Anadara" shells used as containers of lime, one of which still contained lime. Burial sites in Bohol dated to the first millennium CE also show the distinctive reddish stains characteristic of betel chewing. Based on linguistic evidence of how the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian term "*buaq" originally meaning "fruit" came to refer to "areca nut" in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, it is believed that betel chewing originally developed somewhere within the Philippines shortly after the beginning of the Austronesian expansion (~5,000 BP). From the Philippines, it spread back to Taiwan, as well as onwards to the rest of Austronesia.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: There are very old claims of betel chewing dating to at least 13,000 BP at the Kuk Swamp site in New Guinea, based on probable "Areca" sp. recovered. However, it is now known that these might have been due to modern contamination of sample materials. Similar claims have also been made at other older sites with "Areca" sp. remains, but none can be conclusively identified as "A. catechu" and their association with betel peppers is tenuous or nonexistent.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: It reached Micronesia at around 3,500 to 3,000 BP with the Austronesian voyagers, based on both linguistic and archaeological evidence. It was also previously present in the Lapita culture, based on archaeological remains from Mussau dated to around 3,600 to 2,500 BP. But it did not reach Polynesia further east. It is believed that it stopped in the Solomon Islands due to the replacement of betel chewing with the tradition of kava drinking prepared from the related "Piper methysticum". It was also diffused into East Africa via the Austronesian settlement of Madagascar and the Comoros by around the 7th century.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The practice also diffused to the cultures the Austronesians had historical contact with. It reached the Dong Son culture via the Austronesian Sa Huỳnh culture of Vietnam at around 3,000 to 2,500 BP through trade contacts with Borneo. It is from this period that skeletons with characteristic red-stained teeth start to appear in Mainland Southeast Asia. It is assumed that it reached South China and Hainan at around the same time, though no archaeological evidence for this can be found as of yet. In Cambodia, the earliest evidence of betel nut chewing is from around 2,400 to 2,200 BP. It also spread to Thailand at 1,500 BP, based on archaeobotanical evidence.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In the Indian subcontinent, betel chewing was introduced through early contact of Austronesian traders from Sumatra, Java, and the Malay Peninsula with the Dravidian-speakers of Sri Lanka and southern India at around 3,500 BP. This also coincides with the introduction of Southeast Asian plants like "Santalum album" and "Cocos nucifera", as well as the adoption of the Austronesian outrigger ship and crab-claw sail technologies by Dravidian-speakers. Unequivocal literary references to betel only start appearing after the Vedic period, in works like "Dipavaṃsa" (c. 3rd century CE) and "Mahāvaṃsa" (c. 5th century). Betel chewing only reached northern India and Kashmir after 500 CE through trade with Mon-Khmer-speaking peoples in the Bay of Bengal. From there it followed the Silk Road to Persia and into the Mediterranean.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Chinese records, specifically "Linyi Ji" by Dongfang Shuo associate the growing of areca palms with the first settlers of the Austronesian Champa polities in southern Vietnam at around 2,100 to 1,900 BP. This association is echoed in "Nanfang Cao Mu Zhuang" by Ji Han (c. 304 CE) who also describes its importance in Champa culture, specifically in the way Cham hosts traditionally offer it to guests. Betel chewing entered China through trade with Champa, borrowing the Proto-Malayo-Chamic name "*pinaŋ" resulting in Chinese "bin lang" for "areca nut", with the meaning of "honored guest", reflecting Chamic traditions. The same for the alternate term "bin men yao jian", literally meaning "guest [at the door] medicinal sweetmeat".


title: Betel nut chewing

text: One of the earliest firsthand accounts of betel nut chewing by western authors was from Ibn Battuta. He describes this practice as follows:


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Paan chewing constitutes an important and popular cultural activity in many Asian and Oceanic countries, including India, Myanmar, Cambodia, the Solomon Islands, Thailand, the Philippines, Laos, and Vietnam.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In urban areas, chewing paan is generally considered a nuisance because some chewers spit the paan out in public areas – compare chewing gum ban in Singapore and smoking ban. The red stain generated by the combination of ingredients when chewed are known to make a colourful stain on the ground. This is becoming an unwanted eyesore in Indian cities such as Mumbai, although many see it as an integral part of Indian culture. This is also common in some of the Persian Gulf countries, such as the UAE and Qatar, where many Indians live. Recently, the Dubai government has banned the import and sale of paan and the like.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: According to traditional Ayurvedic medicine, chewing betel leaf is a remedy against bad breath (halitosis), but it can possibly lead to oral cancer if taken with tobacco.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The chewing of the product is part of the culture of Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. Cultivation of areca nut palm and betel leaves is common in rural areas of these countries, being a traditional cash crop, and the utensils used for preparation are often treasured. Now, many young people have given up the habit, especially in urban areas, but many, especially older people, still keep to the tradition.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In Bangladesh, "paan" is chewed throughout the country by all classes and is an important element of Bangladeshi culture. It is the Bengali ‘chewing gum’, and usually for chewing, a few slices of the betel nut are wrapped in a betel leaf, almost always with sliced areca nuts and often with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), and may include cinnamon, clove, cardamom, catechu (khoyer), grated coconut and other spices for extra flavouring. As it is chewed, the peppery taste is savoured, along with the warm feeling and alertness it gives (similar to drinking a fresh cup of coffee). Paan-shupari (shupari being Bengali for areca nut) is a veritable Bangladeshi archetypal imagery, employed in wide-ranging contexts. Prior to British rule, it was chewed without tobacco and it is still rarely chewed with tobacco. Betel leaves are arranged aesthetically on a decorated plate called paandani and it is offered to the elderly people, particularly women, when they engage in leisure time gossip with their friends and relatives. During the zamindari age, paan preparation and the style of garnishing it on a plate (paandani) was indeed a recognised folk art.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In Bangladesh paan is traditionally chewed not only as a habit but also as an item of rituals, etiquette and manners. On formal occasions offering paan symbolized the time for departure. In festivals and dinners, in pujas and punyas paan is an indispensable item. Hindus make use of paans as offerings in worship.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Dhakai Khilipan, a ready pack of betel leaf processed in Dhaka is famous in the sub-continent. Old Dhakaites have a rich heritage of creating the best khili paan with many complex, colourful, aromatic and flavorful ingredients. Although 'paan' has been a staple Bengali custom for ages, a number of high-end stores with premium quality paan has become available in recent times. Paan Supari is perhaps the first such brand, which offers a wide range of khili paan. They also offer a khili paan for diabetic patients called the "paan afsana".


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The sweet paan of the Khasi tribe is famous for its special quality. Paan is also used in Hindu puja and wedding festivals and to visit relatives. It has become a ritual, tradition and culture of Bangladeshi society. Adult women gather with paandani along with friends and relatives in leisure time.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Total cultivated area under the crop in Bangladesh is about 14,175 ha and the total annual production is about 72,500 tons. The average yield per acre is 2.27 tons. There are usually three crops during the twelve months and they are locally called by the name of the respective months in which they are harvested. Paan leaf is usually plucked in Kartik, Phalgun and Ashad. The Kartik paan is considered by consumers to be the best and Ashad paan the worst. When plucking, it is a rule to leave at least sixteen leaves on the vine.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Different varieties of betel leaf are grown and the quality differs in shape, bleaching quality, softness, pungency and aroma of leaf. Tamakh paan, a betel leaf blended with tobacco and spices. Supari paan, another variety of white leaf, Mitha paan, a sweet variety, and Sanchi paan are common varieties of betel leaves. Almost every paan-producing district has its own special variety of betel leaf of which consumers are well acquainted. In the past, the best quality of elegant camphor-scented betel leaf named Kafuri paan was produced in the Sonargaon area of Narayangonj district. It was exported to Calcutta and Middle Eastern countries. The next best is the Sanchi paan grown in Chittagong hill tracts. This variety is not very popular among Bangali people. It is exported to Pakistan for the consumers of Karachi. The commoner varieties are called Desi, Bangla, Bhatial, Dhaldoga, Ghas paan. Bangla paan, is also known as Mitha paan, Jhal paan or paan of Rajshahi. At present, this variety is becoming extinct, due to emergence of more profitable and lucrative fast-growing varieties of paan crops. Normally, betel leaves are consumed with chun, seed cinnamon, cardamoms and other flavored elements.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In a 16th-century cookbook, "Nimatnama-i Nasiruddin-Shahi", describes Ghiyas-ud-din Khalji, the Sultan of Mandu (r. 1469–1500), watches as tender betel leaves of the finest quality are spread out and rosewater is sprinkled on them, while saffron is also added. An elaborate betel chew or paan would contain fragrant spices and rose preserves with chopped areca nuts.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: It is a tradition in South India and nearby regions to give two Betel leaves, areca nut (pieces or whole) and Coconut to the guests (both male and female) at any auspicious occasion. Even on a regular day, it is the tradition to give a married woman, who visits the house, two Betel leaves, areca nut and coconut or some fruits along with a string of threaded flowers. This is referred to as "thamboolam".


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Betel leaf used to make paan is produced in different parts of India. Some states that produce betel leaf for paan include West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh. In West Bengal, two types of betel leaves are produced. These are "Bangla Pata (Country Leaf)" and Mitha Pata (Sweet Leaf)". In West Bengal, "Bangla pata" is produced mainly in district of Dinajpur, Malda, Jalpaiguri, and Nadia. "Mitha pata" is produced in places such as Midnapur and South 24 Parganas.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The skilled paan maker is known as a "paanwala" in North India. In other parts, "paanwalas" are also known as "panwaris" or "panwadis". At North India, there is a tradition to chew paan after Deepawali puja for blessings.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In the Indian state of Maharashtra, the paan culture is widely criticised due to the cleanliness problems created by people who spit in public places. In Mumbai, there have been attempts to put pictures of Hindu gods in places where people commonly tend to spit, in the hope that this would discourage spitting, but success has been limited. One of the great Marathi artists P L Deshpande wrote a comic story on the subject of "paanwala" (paan vendor), and performed a televised reading session on Doordarshan during the 1980s in his unique style.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Paan is losing its appeal to farmers because of falling demand. Consumers prefer chewing tobacco formulations such as gutka over paan. Higher costs, water scarcity and unpredictable weather have made betel gardens less lucrative.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: According to StraitsResearch, The India pan masala market is expected to reach US$10,365 million by 2026 at the CAGR of 10.4% during the forecast period 2019–2026. The India pan masala market is driven by significant switching of consumers from tobacco products to pan masala, aggressive advertising and convenient packaging, and Maharashtra State's revocation of the ban over pan masala products.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In Assam, India, betel nut is traditionally offered as a mark of respect and auspicious beginnings. "Paan-tamul" (betel leaves and raw areca nut) may be offered to guests after tea or meals, served in a brass plate with stands called bota. The areca nut also appears as a fertility symbol in religious and marriage ceremonies. When showing respect to elders or asking for forgiveness, people, especially newlyweds place a pair of "paan-tamul" on a xorai, place it in front of the "elder" and bow to show respect.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Guests may be invited to a wedding reception by offering a few areca nuts with betel leaves. During Bihu, the husori players are offered areca nuts and betel leaves by each household while their blessings are solicited.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: "Paan-tamul" is also offered to guests after the end of every feast, usually the "paan-tamul-soon", or slaked lime with cardamom pods in it to freshen the breath.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: "Bersirih", "nyirih" or "menginang" is a Malayonesian tradition of chewing materials such as nut, betel, gambier, tobacco, clove and limestone. "Menginang" tradition or chewing betel nut is widespread among Indonesian ethnic groups, especially among the Javanese, Balinese and Malay people; dating back to more than 3000 years. Records of travelers from China showed that betel and areca had been consumed since the 2nd century BCE.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In the Malay archipelago, the "menginang" or betel nut chewing has become a revered activity in local tradition; being a ceremoniously conducted gesture to honour guests. A complete and elaborate set of "sirih pinang" equipment is called "tepak", "puan", "pekinangan" or "cerana". The set is usually made of wooden lacquerware, brass or silverwares; and it consists of the "combol" (containers), "bekas sirih" (leaf container), "kacip" (press-knife to cut areca nut), "gobek" (small pestle and mortar), and "ketur" (spit container).


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The "Sirih Pinang" has become a symbol of Malay culture, with the Malay oral tradition having phrases such as "The betel opens the door to the home" or "the betel opens the door to the heart". Menginang is used at many formal occasions such as marriages, births, deaths, and healings. A number of Malay traditional dances—such as the South Sumatran Tanggai dance—are in fact describing the dancers bringing "cerana" or "tepak sirih" equipment, ceremoniously presenting an offering of betel nut to the revered guest.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Betel nut chewing is common among the native ethnic groups of Micronesia. They can be grouped into two different traditions. The betel nut chewing tradition of the Chamorro people of the Mariana Islands prefer ripe (red) areca nuts. The betel nut chewing tradition of the Chuukese, Palauan, and Yapese people, on the other hand, prefer unripe (green) areca nuts. Betel leaf and lime are included in the quid, and commonly tobacco. Flavoring ingredients like ginger, cardamom, and vodka are also sometimes added.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Areca palms have been grown traditionally in Guam, Palau, and Yap since ancient times. It spread to Chuuk in modern times. Betel nut stains have been found in ancient remains of the Chamorro people, indicating that the practice was carried into Micronesia by their Austronesian ancestors in Island Southeast Asia.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: "Kwun-ya" ( [kóːn.jà]) is the word for paan in Myanmar, formerly Burma, where the most common configuration for chewing is a betel vine leaf ("Piper betel"), areca nut (from "Areca catechu"), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and some aroma, although many betel chewers also use tobacco.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Betel chewing has very long tradition in Burma, having been practised since before the beginning of recorded history. Until the 1960s, both men and women loved it and every household used to have a special lacquerware box for paan, called "kun-it" (), which would be offered to any visitor together with cheroots to smoke and green tea to drink. The leaves are kept inside the bottom of the box, which looks like a small hat box, but with a top tray for small tins, silver in well-to-do homes, of various other ingredients such as the betel nuts, slaked lime, cutch, anise seed and a nut cutter. The sweet form ("acho") is popular with the young, but grownups tend to prefer it with cardamom, cloves and tobacco. Spittoons, therefore, are still ubiquitous, and signs saying "No paan-spitting" are commonplace, as it makes a messy red splodge on floors and walls; many people display betel-stained teeth from the habit. Paan stalls and kiosks used to be run mainly by people of Indian origin in towns and cities. Smokers who want to quit would also use betel nut to wean themselves off tobacco.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Taungoo in Lower Burma is where the best areca palms are grown indicated by the popular expression "like a betel lover taken to Taungoo". Other parts of the country contribute to the best paan according to another saying "Tada-U for the leaves, Ngamyagyi for the tobacco, Taungoo for the nuts, Sagaing for the slaked lime, Pyay for the cutch". "Kun, hsay, lahpet" (paan, tobacco and pickled tea) are deemed essential items to offer monks and elders particularly in the old days. Young maidens traditionally carry ornamental betel boxes on a stand called "kundaung" and gilded flowers ("pandaung") in a "shinbyu" (novitiation) procession. Burmese history also mentions an ancient custom of a condemned enemy asking for "a paan and a drink of water" before being executed.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: An anecdotal government survey indicated that 40% of men and 20% of women in Myanmar chew betel. An aggregate study of cancer registries (2002 to 2007) at the Yangon and Mandalay General Hospitals, the largest hospitals in the country, found that oral cancer was the 6th most common cancer among males, and 10th among females. Of these oral carcinoma patients, 36% were regular betel quid chewers. University of Dental Medicine, Yangon records from 1985 to 1988 showed that 58.6% of oral carcinoma patients were regular betel chewers.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Since the 1990s, betel chewing has been actively discouraged by successive governments, from the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) onward, on the grounds of health and tidiness. In April 1995, the Yangon City Development Committee banned betel in Yangon (Rangoon), in anticipation of Visit Myanmar Year 1996, a massive effort to promote the country as a tourist destination. Effective 29 July 2007, betel chewing, along with smoking, has been banned from the Shwedagon Pagoda, the country's most important religious site. In 2010, the Ministry of Education's Department of Basic Education and Burma's Anti-Narcotics Task Force collaborated to prohibit betel shops from operating within of any school.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Paan is chewed mainly by Terai people, although migrants in Terai have also taken up chewing paan in recent times. Throughout Terai, paan is as common as anywhere in northern India. There is some local production, generally not commercial, but most leaves are imported from India. Although not as ubiquitous as in the Terai, most residents of Kathmandu occasionally enjoy paan. A sweet version of paan called "meetha paan" is popular amongst many who do not like the strong taste of plain ("sada") paan. Some parents allow their children to consume meetha in special occasion because it is tobacco-free.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The consumption of paan has long been a very popular cultural tradition throughout Pakistan, especially in Muhajir households, where numerous paans were consumed throughout the day. In general, though, paan is an occasional delicacy thoroughly enjoyed by many, and almost exclusively bought from street vendors instead of any preparations at home. Pakistan grows a large variety of betel leaf, specifically in the coastal areas of Sindh, although paan is imported in large quantities from India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and, recently, Thailand. The paan business is famously handled and run by muhajir traders, who migrated from western India to Pakistan after the independence in 1947 (also cite pg 60, of Pakistan, By Samuel Willard Crompton, Charles F. Gritzner).


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The culture of chewing "paan" has also spread in Punjab where a "paan" shop can be found in almost every street and market. In the famous "Anarkali Bazar" in Lahore a street called "paan gali" is dedicated for "paan" and its ingredients together with other Pakistani products.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Betel nut chewing was formerly widespread in the indigenous ethnic groups of the Philippines. The country is where the areca palm ("Areca catechu") is originally native to and where the tradition started before being spread via the Austronesian expansion (see history section above). The Philippines also has the highest genetic diversity in "Areca catechu" populations and is home to several closely related "Areca" palm species, including a couple of endemic species that are used as (inferior) substitutes for "Areca catechu", these are "Areca caliso" (known as "kaliso" or "sakolon") and "Areca ipot" (known as "ipot" or "saksik"). Several varieties of "Areca catechu" nuts were also known in the Philippines, distinguished chiefly by the shape of the fruits.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Betel nut chewing was described as being a "universal" practice among older people in the early 1900s. The most common configuration of the quid combines areca nut with slaked lime (usually from crushed sea-shells) and betel leaves. Tobacco may or may not be added. In modern times, it has grown out of favor and has been replaced by cigarettes and chewing gum. The practice only survives among more remote ethnic groups like the Cordillerans of Luzon, and the Lumad and Moro people of Mindanao.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In the native languages of the Philippines, betel nut chewing is known variously as "buyo", "bunga", "hitso", or "ngangà" in Tagalog, Bikol, and the Visayan languages; "dapiau" in Ivatan; and "bua", "mama" or "maman" in Ilocano; "luyos" in Kapampangan; "pasa" in Basilan; and "lugos" in Zamboanga; among other names.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In Taiwan betel quid is sold from roadside kiosks, often by the so-called betelnut beauties () — scantily clad girls selling a quid preparation of betel leaf, betel nuts, tobacco and lime. It is a controversial business, with critics questioning entrapment, exploitation, health, class and culture.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In Vietnam, the areca nut and the betel leaf are such important symbols of love and marriage that in Vietnamese the phrase "matters of betel and areca" ("chuyện trầu cau") were historically synonymous with marriage. Areca nut chewing starts the talk between the groom's parents and the bride's parents about the young couple's marriage. Therefore, the leaves and juices are used ceremonially in Vietnamese weddings.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) accept the scientific evidence that chewing betel quids and areca nut is carcinogenic to humans. The main carcinogenic factor is believed to be areca nut. A recent study found that areca-nut paan with and without tobacco increased oral cancer risk by 9.9 and 8.4 times, respectively.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In one study (c. 1985), scientists linked malignant tumours to the site of skin or subcutaneous administration of aqueous extracts of "paan" in mice. In hamsters, forestomach carcinomas occurred after painting the cheek-pouch mucosa with aqueous extracts or implantation of a wax pellet containing powdered "paan" with tobacco into the cheek pouch; carcinomas occurred in the cheek pouch following implantation of the wax pellets. In human populations, they reported observing elevated frequencies of micronucleated cells in buccal mucosa of people who chew betel quid in the Philippines and India. The scientists also found that the proportion of micronucleated exfoliated cells is related to the site within the oral cavity where the "paan" is kept habitually and to the number of betel quids chewed per day. In related studies, the scientists reported that oral leukoplakia shows a strong association with habits of "paan" chewing in India. Some follow-up studies have shown malignant transformation of a proportion of leukoplakias. Oral submucous fibrosis and lichen planus, which are generally accepted to be precancerous conditions, appear to be related to the habit of chewing "paan".


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In a study conducted in Taiwan, scientists reported the extent of cancer risks of betel quid ("paan") chewing beyond oral cancer, even when tobacco was absent. In addition to oral cancer, significant increases were seen among chewers for cancer of the oesophagus, liver, pancreas, larynx, lung, and all cancer. Chewing and smoking, as combined by most betel chewers, interacted synergistically and was responsible for half of all cancer deaths in this group. Chewing betel leaf quid and smoking, the scientists claimed, shortened the life span by nearly six years.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: A "Lancet Oncology" publication claims that "paan masala" may cause tumours in different parts of the body and not just the oral cavity as previously thought.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In a study conducted in Sri Lanka, scientists found high prevalence of oral potentially malignant disorders in rural Sri Lankan populations. After screening for various causes, the scientists reported "paan" chewing to be the major risk factor, with or without tobacco.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: In October 2009, 30 scientists from 10 countries met at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a World Health Organization sponsored group, to reassess the carcinogenicity of various agents including areca nut, a common additive in "paan". They reported there is sufficient evidence that "paan" chewing, even without tobacco, leads to tumours in the oral cavity and oesophagus, and that "paan" with added tobacco is a carcinogen to the oral cavity, pharynx and oesophagus.


title: Betel nut chewing

text: Scientific teams from Taiwan, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea have reported that women who chew areca nut formulations, such as "paan", during pregnancy significantly increase adverse outcomes for the baby. The effects were similar to those reported for women who consume alcohol or tobacco during pregnancy. Lower birth weights, reduced birth length and early term were found to be significantly higher.


title: Alejandro Saab

text: Alejandro Saab (born November 15, 1994) is an American voice actor. Some of his noteworthy roles include Tamotsu Denkigai in "", Takezo Kurata in "Kono Oto Tomare! Sounds of Life", Kazuki Yasaka in "Sarazanmai", Izumi Miyamura in "Horimiya", Tatsuya Shiba in "The Irregular at Magic High School", and Cyno from "Genshin Impact". Outside of voice acting, he also runs a YouTube channel named KaggyFilms and a VTuber channel known as CyYu.


title: Alejandro Saab

text: Saab was born on November 15, 1994. In high school, Saab decided he wanted to pursue a career in voice acting. He later was cast in his first role as Drake in "Fairy Tail". In July 2021, Saab became engaged to fellow voice actor Hayden Daviau. In 2022 the pair married.


title: Alejandro Saab

text: Outside of voice acting, Saab runs a YouTube channel under the name of KaggyFilms, where he posts anime-related content.


title: Hannah (name)

text: Hannah () also spelled Hanna, Hana or Chana, is a feminine given name of Hebrew origin. It is derived from the root "ḥ-n-n", meaning "favour" or "grace"; "A Dictionary of First Names" attributes the name to a word meaning 'He (God) has favoured me with a child'. Anne, Ana, Ann, and other variants of the name derive from the Hellenized Hebrew: Anna (romanization [transcription/transliteration] of Ἅννα [<nowiki>from Greek to Roman {Latin} letters]</nowiki>).


title: Hannah (name)

text: The Phoenician (Punic) name Hannibal derives from the same Canaanite root and means "My grace is Baal". In the Books of Samuel of the Hebrew Bible, Hannah is the mother of the prophet Samuel.


The 2024 United States Senate election in West Virginia will be held on November 5, 2024, to elect a member of the United States Senate to represent the state of West Virginia. Incumbent Democratic Senator Joe Manchin was elected in a 2010 special election to complete the term vacated by the late Robert Byrd. He won his first full term in a landslide in 2012, and was narrowly re-elected to a second full term in 2018. He has indicated that he is running for reelection to a third full term in office, but has not made a definitive statement.


title: 2024 United States Senate election in West Virginia

text: West Virginia was a Democratic stronghold from the New Deal through the 1990s, but like a lot of rural Appalachia, the state has rapidly swung towards the Republican Party in the years since. It is now staunchly Republican, giving Donald Trump a 39 percentage point margin of victory in the 2020 presidential election, his second-strongest performance in the nation. However, Manchin has continued to see electoral success, positioning himself as a centrist to conservative Democrat with strong ties to the state. The Republican Party has reportedly identified the contest as a top priority in the 2024 election cycle.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: Ben Nighthorse Campbell (born April 13, 1933) is an American Cheyenne politician who represented Colorado's 3rd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1987 to 1993, and as a United States Senator from Colorado from 1993 to 2005. He serves as one of forty-four members of the Council of Chiefs of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Tribe. During his time in office, he was the only Native American serving in the U.S. Congress. He was the last Native American elected to the U.S. Senate until the 2022 election of Cherokee Markwayne Mullin.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: Originally a member of the Democratic Party, Campbell switched to the Republican Party on March 3, 1995. Reelected to the U.S. Senate in 1998, Campbell announced in March 2004 that he would not run for reelection to a third term in November of that year. His Senate seat was then won by Democrat Ken Salazar in the November 2004 election. He later expressed interest in running for Governor of Colorado in 2006; however, on January 4, 2006, he announced that he would not enter the race. He later became a lobbyist for the law and lobbying firm Holland & Knight and afterward co-founded his own lobbying firm, Ben Nighthorse Consultants.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: Campbell was born Benny Campbell in Auburn, California. His mother, Mary Vierra (Vieira), was a Portuguese immigrant who had come with her mother to the U.S. at age six through Ellis Island. According to Campbell, his maternal grandfather had entered the United States some time before. The Vierra family settled in the large Portuguese community near Sacramento. When Mary Vierra contracted tuberculosis in her youth, she was forced to convalesce at a nearby hospital, often for months at a time during treatment. It was there that she met an American Indian patient Albert Campbell, who was at the hospital for alcoholism treatment. Albert Campbell was of predominantly Northern Cheyenne descent but, according to Campbell biographer Herman Viola, Albert Campbell spent much of his youth in Crow Agency boarding school and may have had some Pueblo Indian and Apache Indian ancestry as well. The couple married in 1929, and Campbell was born in 1933.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: During Campbell's childhood, his father continued to have problems with alcoholism, often leaving the family for weeks and months at a time. His mother continued to have health problems with tuberculosis, a highly contagious disease that limited the contact she could have with her children and continued to force her into the hospital for long periods of time. These problems led to Ben and his older sister Alberta (who died in an apparent suicide at age 44) spending much of their early lives in nearby Catholic orphanages. As a young man, Campbell was introduced to the Japanese martial art of judo by Japanese immigrant families he met while working in local agricultural fields.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: Campbell attended Placer High School, dropping out in 1951 to join the U.S. Air Force. He was stationed in Korea during the Korean War as an air policeman; he left the Air Force in 1953 with the rank of Airman Second Class, as well as the Korean Service Medal and the Air Medal. While in the Air Force, Campbell obtained his GED and, following his discharge, used his G.I. Bill to attend San Jose State University, where he graduated in 1957 with a Bachelor of Arts in Physical Education and Fine Arts.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: He is listed as "Ben M. Campbell" in his college records and records of his Olympic competition, but was given the name "Nighthorse" when he returned to the Northern Cheyenne reservation for his name-giving ceremony, as a member of his father's family, Blackhorse.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: While in college, Campbell was a member of the San Jose State judo team, coached by future USA Olympic coach Yosh Uchida. While training for the Olympic Games, Campbell attended Meiji University in Tokyo, Japan as a special research student from 1960 to 1964. The Meiji team was world-renowned and Campbell credited the preparation and discipline taught at Meiji for his 1961, 1962, and 1963 U.S. National titles and his gold medal in the 1963 Pan-American Games. In 1964, Campbell competed in judo at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. This made him the first Native American on the United States Olympic Judo Team. He suffered an injury and did not win a medal. He broke his ankle and was out for two years.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: In the years after returning from the Olympic Games, Campbell worked as a deputy sheriff in Sacramento County, California, coached the U.S. National Judo Team, operated his own dojo in Sacramento, and taught high school (physical education and art classes). He and his wife also raised quarterhorses, including a Supreme Champion and AQHA Champion, "Sailors Night". They bought a ranch near Ignacio, Colorado on the Southern Ute reservation in 1978.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: In the book "Ben Nighthorse Campbell: An American Warrior", by Herman Viola, Campbell tells of learning to make jewelry from his father and flattening silver dollars on train tracks for the materials. He also used techniques learned from sword makers in Japan and other non-traditional techniques to win over 200 national and international awards for jewelry design under the name, "Ben Nighthorse" and was included in a feature article in the late 1970s in "Arizona Highways" magazine about Native artists experimenting in the 'new look' of Indian jewelry.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: Campbell was elected to the Colorado State Legislature as a Democrat in November 1982, where he served two terms. He was voted one of the 10 Best Legislators by his colleagues in a 1986 "Denver Post" – News Center 4 survey. Campbell was elected in 1986 to the US House of Representatives, defeating incumbent Congressman Mike Strang; he was re-elected twice to this seat. In 1989, he authored the bill HR 2668 to establish the National Museum of the American Indian, which became PL 101–185.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: The early 1990s marked a turning point in Campbell's political career. In 1992, following the announced retirement of Senator Tim Wirth, Campbell won a three-way Democratic primary with former three-term Governor Richard Lamm and Boulder County Commissioner Josie Heath, who had been the party's nominee in 1990. During the primary campaign, Lamm supporters accused Heath of "spoiling" the election by splitting the vote of the party's left wing. Heath's campaign pointed out that it was Campbell who should not have been running because his voting record in Congress had been much more like that of a Republican. Campbell won the primary with 45% of the vote and then defeated Republican State Senator Terry Considine in the general election. As a Democrat, Campbell was the first Native American elected to serve in the United States Senate since Charles Curtis in the 1920s.


title: Ben Nighthorse Campbell

text: In March 1995, after two years in office, Senator Campbell switched parties from Democratic to Republican in the wake of publicized disputes he had with the Colorado Democratic Party. Campbell said that the final straw for him was the Senate's defeat of the balanced-budget amendment, which he had championed since coming to Washington as a congressman in 1987. Others attributed the switch to personal hostility within the Democratic Party in Colorado.