title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Before his stint as an Algerian politician, Bouteflika served during the Algerian War as a member of the National Liberation Front. After Algeria gained its independence from France, he served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs between 1963 until 1979. He served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during the 1974–1975 session. In 1983 he was convicted of stealing millions of dinars from Algerian embassies during his diplomatic career.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In 1999, Bouteflika was elected president of Algeria in a landslide victory. He would win re-elections in 2004, 2009, and 2014. As President, he presided over the end of the Algerian Civil War in 2002 when he took over the project of his immediate predecessor President Liamine Zéroual, and he ended emergency rule in February 2011 amidst regional unrest. Following a stroke in 2013, Bouteflika had made few public appearances throughout his fourth term, making his final appearance in 2017.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Bouteflika resigned on 2 April 2019 after months of mass protests. With nearly 20 years in power, he is the longest-serving head of state of Algeria to date. Following his resignation, Bouteflika became a recluse and died at the age of 84 in 2021, over two years after his resignation.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Abdelaziz Bouteflika was born on 2 March 1937 in Oujda, French Morocco. He was the son of Mansouria Ghezlaoui and Ahmed Bouteflika from Tlemcen, Algeria. He had three half-sisters (Fatima, Yamina, and Aïcha), as well as four brothers (Abdelghani, Mustapha, Abderahim, and Saïd) and one sister (Latifa). Saïd Bouteflika, 20 years his junior, would later be appointed special counselor to his brother in 1999. Unlike Saïd, who was raised mostly in Tlemcen, Abdelaziz grew up in Oujda, where his father had emigrated as a youngster. The son of a zaouia sheikh, he was well-versed in the Qur'an. He successively attended three schools in Oudja: Sidi Ziane, El Hoceinia, and Abdel Moumen High Schools, where he reportedly excelled academically. He was also affiliated with Qadiriyya Zaouia in Oujda.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In 1956, Bouteflika went to the village of Ouled Amer near Tlemcen and subsequently joined—at the age of 19—the National Liberation Army, which was a military branch of the National Liberation Front. He received his military education at the École des Cadres in Dar El Kebdani, Morocco. In 1957–1958, he was designated a controller of Wilaya V, making reports on the conditions at the Moroccan border and in west Algeria, but later became the administrative secretary of Houari Boumédiène. He became one of his closest collaborators and a core member of his Oujda Group. In 1960, he was assigned to leading the Malian Front in the Algerian south and became known for his nom de guerre of Abdelkader al-Mali, which has survived until today. In 1962, at the arrival of independence, he aligned with Boumédienne and the border armies in support of Ahmed Ben Bella against the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Following independence in 1962, Bouteflika became deputy for Tlemcen in the Constituent Assembly and Minister for Youth and Sport in the government led by Ahmed Ben Bella; the following year, he was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: He was a prime mover in the military coup led by Houari Boumediene that overthrew Ben Bella on 19 June 1965. Bouteflika continued as Minister for Foreign Affairs until the death of President Boumédienne in 1978.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: He also served as president of the United Nations General Assembly in 1974 and of the seventh special session in 1975, becoming the youngest person to have done so. Algeria at this time was a leader of the Non-Aligned Nations Movement. He had discussions there with Henry Kissinger in the first talks between the United States and Algerian officials since the resumption of diplomatic relations between the two countries.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In 1981, he was charged with having stolen Algerian embassies' money between 1965 and 1979. On 8 August 1983, Bouteflika was convicted by the Court of Financial Auditors and found guilty of having fraudulently taken 60 million dinars during his diplomatic career. Bouteflika was granted amnesty by President Chadli Bendjedid, his colleagues Senouci and Boudjakdji were jailed. After the amnesty, Bouteflika was given back his diplomatic passport, a villa where he used to live but did not own, and all his debt was erased. He never paid back the money "he reserved for a new foreign affairs ministry's building".


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Following Boumédienne's unexpected death in 1978, Bouteflika was seen as one of the two main candidates to succeed the powerful president. Bouteflika was thought to represent the party's "right wing" that was more open to economic reform and rapprochement with the West. Colonel Mohamed Salah Yahiaoui represented the "boumédiennist" left wing. In the end, the military opted for a compromise candidate, the senior army colonel Chadli Bendjedid. Bouteflika was reassigned the role of Minister of State, but successively lost power as Bendjedid's policies of "de-Boumédiennisation" marginalised the old guard.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: After six years abroad, the army brought him back to the Central Committee of the FLN in 1989, after the country had entered a troubled period of unrest and disorganised attempts at reform, with power-struggles between Bendjedid and a group of army generals paralysing decision-making.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In 1999, after Zéroual unexpectedly stepped down and announced early elections, Bouteflika successfully ran for president as an independent candidate, supported by the military. All other candidates withdrew from the election immediately prior to the vote, citing fraud concerns. Bouteflika subsequently organised a referendum on his policies to restore peace and security to Algeria (involving amnesties for Islamist guerrillas) and to test his support among his countrymen after the contested election. He won with 81% of the vote, but this figure was also disputed by opponents.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Bouteflika presided over the Organisation of African Unity in 2000, secured the Algiers Peace Treaty between Eritrea and Ethiopia, and supported peace efforts in the African Great Lakes region. He also secured a friendship treaty with nearby Spain in 2002, and welcomed president Jacques Chirac of France on a state visit to Algiers in 2003. This was intended as a prelude to the signature of a friendship treaty.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Algeria has been particularly active in African relations, and in mending ties with the West, as well as trying to some extent to resurrect its role in the declining non-Aligned movement. However, it has played a more limited role in Arab politics, its other traditional sphere of interest. Relations with the Kingdom of Morocco remained quite tense, with diplomatic clashes on the issue of the Western Sahara, despite some expectations of a thaw in 1999, which was also the year of King Mohamed VI's accession to the throne in Morocco.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: On 8 April 2004, Bouteflika was re-elected by an unexpectedly high 85% of the vote in an election that was accepted by Western observers as a free and fair election. This was contested by his rival and former chief of staff Ali Benflis. Several newspapers alleged that the election had not been fair. Frustration was expressed over extensive state control over the broadcast media. The electoral victory was widely seen as a confirmation of Bouteflika's strengthening control over the state, cemented through forcing General Mohammed Lamari to resign as his chief of staff and replacing him "with Ahmed Salah Gaid, his close friend and ally."


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Only 17% of people in Kabylia voted in 2004, which represented a significant increase over the violence-ridden legislative elections of 2002. Country-wide, the registered turnout rate was 59%.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: During the first year of his second term, Bouteflika held a referendum on his "Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation", inspired by the 1995 "Sant'Egidio Platform" document. The law born of the referendum showed that one of Bouteflika's goals in promoting this blanket amnesty plan was to help Algeria recover its image internationally and to guarantee immunity to institutional actors.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: The first year of Bouteflika's second term implemented the Complementary Plan for Economic Growth Support (PCSC), which aimed for the construction of 1 million housing units, the creation of 2 million jobs, the completion of the East–west highway, the completion of the Algiers subway project, the delivery of the new Algiers airport, and other similar large scale infrastructure projects.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: The PCSC totaled $60 billion of spending over the five-year period. Bouteflika also aimed to bring down the external debt from $21 billion to $12 billion in the same time. He also obtained from Parliament the reform of the law governing the oil and gas industries, despite initial opposition from the workers unions. However, Bouteflika subsequently stepped back from this position and supported amendments to the hydrocarbon law in 2006, which propose watering down some of the clauses of the 2005 legislation relating to the role of Sonatrach, the state owned oil & gas company, in new developments.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: During Bouteflika's second term he was sharply critical of the law—passed after the 2005 French riots—ordering French history school books to teach that French colonisation had positive effects abroad, especially in North Africa. The diplomatic crisis which ensued delayed the signing of a friendship treaty between the two countries.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Ties to Russia were strengthened and Russia agreed to forgive debts if Algeria began buying arms and gave Russian gas companies (Gazprom, Itera, and Lukoil) access to joint fossil-fuel ventures in Algeria.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In 2004 Bouteflika organised the Arab League Summit and became President of the Arab League for one year; however his calls for reform of the League did not gain sufficient support to pass during the Algiers summit.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: At the March 2005 meeting of Arab leaders, held in Algiers, Bouteflika spoke out strongly against Israel, "The Israelis' continuous killing and refusal of a comprehensive and lasting peace, which the Arab world is calling for, requires from us to fully support the Palestinian people." Despite criticism from the west, specifically the United States, Bouteflika insisted that Arab nations would reform at their own pace.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: On 16 July 2009, President of Vietnam Nguyễn Minh Triết, met with Bouteflika on the sidelines of the 15th Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) summit in Egypt. President Triet and Bouteflika agreed that the two countries still have great potential for development of political and trade relations. Triet praised the Algerian government for creating favourable conditions for the Vietnam Oil and Gas Group to invest in oil and gas exploration and exploitation in Algeria.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In March 2016, the foreign ministers of the Arab league voted to declare Hezbollah a terrorist organization, Bouteflika voted with Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq to reject the motion.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In sub-Saharan Africa, a major concern of Bouteflika's Algeria had been on-and-off Tuareg rebellions in northern Mali. Algeria has asserted itself forcefully as mediator in the conflict, perhaps underlining its growing regional influence. Compromise peace agreements were reached in 2007 and 2008, both mediated by Algiers.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In 2006, Bouteflika appointed a new Prime Minister, Abdelaziz Belkhadem. Belkhadem then announced plans that violate the Algerian Constitution to allow the President to run for office indefinitely and increase his powers. This was widely regarded as aimed to let Bouteflika run for president for a third term. In 2008, Belkhadem was shifted out of the premiership and his predecessor Ahmed Ouyahia brought in, having also come out in favor of the constitutional amendment.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: The Council of Ministers announced on 3 November 2008 that the planned constitutional revision proposal would remove the presidential term limit previously included in Article 74. The People's National Assembly endorsed the removal of the term limit on 12 November 2008; only the Rally for Culture and Democracy (RCD) voted against its removal.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Following the constitutional amendment allowing him to run for a third term, on 12 February 2009, Bouteflika announced his independent candidacy in the 2009 presidential election. On 10 April 2009, it was announced that Bouteflika had won the election with 90.24% of the vote, on a turnout of 74%, thereby obtaining a new five-year term. Several opposition parties had boycotted the election, with the opposition Socialist Forces Front citing a "tsunami of massive fraud."


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In 2010, journalists gathered to demonstrate for press freedom and against Bouteflika's self-appointed role as editor-in-chief of Algeria's state television station. In February 2011, the government rescinded the state of emergency that had been in place since 1992 but still banned all protest gatherings and demonstrations. However, in April 2011, over 2,000 protesters defied an official ban and took to the streets of Algiers, clashing with police forces. Protesters noted that they were inspired by the recent Egyptian Revolution, and that Algeria was a police state and "corrupt to the bone".


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Following yet another constitutional amendment, allowing him to run for a fourth term, Bouteflika announced that he would. He met the electoral law requiring a candidate to collect over 60,000 signatures from supporters in 25 provinces. On 18 April 2014, he was re-elected with 81% of the vote, while Benflis was second placed with 12.18%. The turnout was 51.7%, down from the 75% turnout in 2009. Several opposition parties boycotted the election again, resulting in allegations of fraud.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Bouteflika cabled his congratulations to freshly-reelected Bashar al-Assad on 19 April 2014. Bouteflika was admitted to a clinic at Grenoble in France in November 2014. In November 2016, he was hospitalized in France for medical checks.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: On 20 February 2017, the German Chancellor Angela Merkel canceled her trip to Algeria an hour before takeoff, reportedly because Bouteflika had severe bronchitis.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In June 2017, Bouteflika made a rare, and brief, appearance on Algerian state television presiding over a cabinet meeting with his new government. In a written statement, he ordered the government to reduce imports, curb spending, and be wary of foreign debt. He called for banking sector reform and more investment in renewable energy and "unconventional fossil hydrocarbons." Bouteflika was reliant on a wheelchair and had not given a speech in public since 2014 due to aphasia following his stroke. That same year, he made his final public appearance while unveiling a new metro station and the newly renovated Ketchaoua Mosque in Algiers.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: During his final term as president, Bouteflika was usually not been seen in public for more than two years, and several of his close associates had not seen him for more than one year. It was alleged that he could hardly speak and communicated by letter with his ministers.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: On 10 February 2019, a press release signed by the long-ailing Bouteflika announcing he would seek a fifth consecutive term provoked widespread discontent. Youth protesters demanded his picture be removed from city halls in Kenchela and Annaba in the days before the national demonstrations on 22 February, organized via social media. Those in Algiers, where street protests are illegal, were the biggest in nearly 18 years. Protestors ripped down a giant poster of Bouteflika from the landmark Algiers central post office.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: On 11 March 2019, after sustained protests, Bouteflika announced that he would not seek a new term. However, his withdrawal from the elections was not enough to end the protests. On 31 March 2019, Bouteflika along with the Prime Minister Noureddine Bedoui who had taken office 20 days earlier, formed a 27-member cabinet with only 6 of the appointees being retained from the outgoing president administration. The next day, Bouteflika announced that he would resign by 28 April 2019. Acceding to demands by the army chief of staff, he ultimately resigned a day later, on 2 April 2019.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Following his resignation, Bouteflika resumed his reclusiveness and made no public appearances due to failing health. Bouteflika spent his final years in a medicalised state residence in Zéralda, a suburb of Algiers. He also had a private residence in El Biar.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In November 2005, Bouteflika was admitted to a hospital in France, reportedly had a gastric ulcer hemorrhage, and discharged three weeks later. However, the length of time for which Bouteflika remained virtually incommunicado led to rumours that he was critically ill with stomach cancer. He checked into the hospital again in April 2006.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: A leaked diplomatic cable revealed that, by the end of 2008, Bouteflika had developed stomach cancer.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: In 2013, Bouteflika had a debilitating stroke. A journalist, Hichem Aboud, was pursued for "threatening national security, territorial integrity, and normal management of the Republic's institutions" and the newspapers for which he wrote were censored, because he wrote that the President had returned from Val-de-Grâce in a "comatose state" and had characterized Saïd Bouteflika as the puppet-master running the administration.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: His death was announced on state television by President Abdelmadjid Tebboune. He had been in failing health since he had a stroke in 2013. President Tebboune declared three days of national mourning after his death. Cuba announced September 21 as the day of national mourning with the flags half-masted. He was buried at the El Alia Cemetery on 19 September in a subdued ceremony.


title: Abdelaziz Bouteflika

text: Bouteflika's rule was marred by allegations of fraud and vote-tampering at elections from 1999 to 2019. He had already been convicted in 1983 of corruption. Per Suisse secrets he held an account, during much of his presidency with a maximum balance worth over 1.4 million Swiss francs ($1.1 million) along with other family members.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Maria Anna of Spain (18 August 160613 May 1646) was a Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia by marriage to Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor. She acted as regent on several occasions during the absences of her spouse, notably during his absence in Bohemia in 1645.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Daughter of King Philip III of Spain and Margaret of Austria, prior to her Imperial marriage she was considered a possible wife for Charles, Prince of Wales; the event, later known in history as the "Spanish match", provoked a domestic and political crisis in the Kingdoms of England and Scotland. In the imperial court in Vienna she continued to be strongly influenced by her native Spanish culture (from clothes to music) and also to promote the strengthening of relations between the Imperial and Spanish branches of the House of Habsburg.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Infanta Maria Anna of Spain was born in the Palace of El Escorial, near Madrid, on 18 August 1606 as the fourth child and third (but second surviving) daughter of King Philip III of Spain and his wife Margaret of Austria, Archduchess of the Inner Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg. Of her seven siblings, only four survived infancy: Anna (later wife of King Louis XIII of France), Philip IV of Spain, Charles (who died young in 1632) and Ferdinand (the later known Cardinal-Infante and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands). Maria Anna's parents had a close kinship: her father was her mother's first cousin once-removed and they were related through multiple lines of descent. On her father's side she was the granddaughter of King Philip II of Spain, and his fourth wife and niece Archduchess Anna of Austria, and on her mother's side she was the granddaughter of Charles II, Archduke of Inner Austria and his wife and niece Princess Maria Anna of Bavaria.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: From early childhood, Maria Anna played an important role in the matrimonial projects of her father. In adolescence she was betrothed to Archduke John-Charles, eldest son and heir of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and his first wife Maria Anna of Bavaria. Her fiancé was her first cousin, being the son of her mother's brother. The marriage never took place due to Archduke John-Charles' early death in 1618.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: In 1622, King James I of England received an offer from the Spanish King Philip IV to strengthen the relations of their countries through a dynastic marriage between Charles, Prince of Wales, and Infanta Maria Anna. London and Madrid began active negotiations. The possible marriage between the Prince of Wales and the Spanish Infanta, was known in history under the name "Spanish match", and caused an internal political crisis in both England and Scotland. In 1623 the Prince of Wales, accompanied by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, visited Madrid to meet his intended bride. However, Maria Anna did not wish to marry a Protestant and Charles would not convert to Catholicism. At the end, the wedding never took place not only for political reasons but also because of the reluctance of the new Spanish King to conclude a dynastic marriage with the House of Stuart. Charles eventually married Henrietta Maria of France.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: At the end of 1626, Maria Anna was betrothed to Ferdinand, the younger brother of her first fiancé, and the new heir of Emperor Ferdinand II. Ferdinand was her first cousin, being the son of her mother's brother. The formal engagement was preceded by a series of negotiations which were conducted in 1625. That same year, Ferdinand was crowned King of Hungary, and in 1627 King of Bohemia. In the negotiations were included all the life aspects of the Infanta at the court of her future spouse. Despite the desire of the groom that Maria Anna's confessor would be the Jesuit Ambrosio Peñalosa, the appointment eventually went to Capuchin Diego Quiroga. In the marriage contract signed by both parties in 1628, it was noted that Maria Anna could retain her rights of inheritance over the Spanish throne, while her older sister Infanta Anna, married to King Louis XIII of France in 1615, was forced to renounce her rights.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Maria Anna had left Madrid for Vienna in December 1629, fully three years after her engagement, and nearly five years after the proposal for marriage was first mooted. The journey, once embarked upon, took more than a year to complete. On route by sea, in Genoa complications arose due to an epidemic of the plague that erupted in the Italian Peninsula. For this reason, the party was unable to stop in Bologna, where Cardinal Antonio Barberini (nephew of Pope Urban VIII), was waiting for the Infanta to give her the Golden Rose. The party moved to Naples, where Maria Anna finally received the award. Leaving Naples, the Infanta crossed the Papal States, having made a pilgrimage to the Basilica della Santa Casa. On this section of her journey, Maria Anna was accompanied by Roman aristocracy, led by another nephew of Pope Urban VIII, Taddeo Barberini, Prince of Palestrina. On 26 January 1631, she arrived in Trieste, where she met Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria, her future brother-in-law, who would first stand in for his brother at a wedding-by-proxy and then escort the Infanta to Vienna. That very day, Maria Anna was married to King Ferdinand of Hungria-Bohemia "per procura" with Archduke Leopold Wilhelm serving as the proxy.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Before the official wedding, King Ferdinand, not trusting the previous portraits that he had seen of the Infanta, decided to secretly view his bride. The Royal "oberhofmeister" asked for an audience with Maria Anna; on this visit, he was accompanied by some nobles, among whom was her groom. Struck by the beauty of the Infanta, King Ferdinand immediately revealed his identity and began a conversation with Maria Anna in Spanish. The love and respect that the future emperor felt for his wife lasted throughout their marriage. He was never unfaithful to her and never had any illegitimate children.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: In Vienna on 20 February 1631, Maria Anna was married to King Ferdinand of Hungary-Bohemia. The festivities lasted a whole month. The marriage was described as friendly. Maria Anna was described as happy-tempered, friendly, and intelligent, and she was able to relieve the feelings of the rather melancholic Ferdinand.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Maria Anna arrived at the Imperial court in Vienna with the Spanish fashion, theatre, dance and music (including the first sounded guitar). As the wife of the heir, she maintained good relations with all the members of her husband's family; however, she had a complicated relationship with Ferdinand's stepmother, the Empress Dowager Eleonora Gonzaga, mainly because between both began a competition for influence at the Imperial court. Maria Anna also paid much attention to the arts, especially painting. She collected works of Italian, Spanish and Flemish painters of the late Renaissance and early Baroque.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: In Regensburg on 22 December 1636 Ferdinand was elected as King of the Romans, and a week later he was crowned by the Archbishop of Mainz. Maria Anna was crowned Queen of Germany one month later, on 21 January 1637. After his father's death on 15 February 1637, Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor under the regnal name of Ferdinand III and also became sovereign King of Hungary and Bohemia. As his wife, she received the titles of Holy Roman Empress and sovereign Queen. Her coronation as Queen of Hungary took place in Pressburg during the Hungarian Diet of 1637–1638.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Maria Anna, being active in politics as the adviser of her spouse, was an important mediator between the Emperor and their Spanish relatives. Despite the fact that she always defended the interests of her husband, she did not forget the interests of her brothers King Philip IV and the Cardinal-Infante. In her court, which was consisted mainly of Spaniards, frequent guests were the Spanish ambassador and diplomats. The Emperor, during his absences from the Imperial court in Vienna, appointed his wife as regent, for example in 1645 during the Thirty Years' War, when he was in the Kingdom of Bohemia.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: In March 1645 Maria Anna and her children left Linz, due to the approach of the Protestant Swedish army, and moved to Vienna. By April it was ready to cross the Danube there and threatened to occupy the city. The Imperial family fled instead temporarily to Graz. After returning to Vienna, they were forced to move again to Linz because of the plague. The Empress' sixth pregnancy became known in January 1646; four months later, on 12 May at Linz Castle, Maria Anna suddenly felt ill with fever and heavy bleeding and died the next morning. Her unborn child, a girl, was taken out alive from her womb. She was named Maria after her mother, but only lived a few hours. On 24 May both mother and daughter in the same coffin were moved to Vienna and buried in the Imperial Crypt, which already contained the coffins with the remains of the two sons of the Empress who died earlier. The funeral cortege was accompanied by the Spanish ambassador and the Empress' maid of honor. Very upset by the death of his wife and child, the Emperor was unable to attend the funeral. However, after returning to Vienna in late August he finally paid his respects to the remains of Maria Anna, and in September he announced the engagement of their eldest daughter Maria Anna with Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias. However, the Prince died the following month shortly after the announcement. The Spaniards courtiers members of the late Empress' household who came with her from Spain, including her confessor and the maids of honor of the late Empress, stayed at the Imperial court in Vienna and lived there for a few more years after her death.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Jowitt views the character of princess Donusa in Massinger's 1624 play "The Renegado" as an allegory of the Infanta during the failed marriage attempt.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: In 1634, the Spanish poet and playwright Pedro Calderón de la Barca, in honor of the victory of the Spaniards and Austrians over the Swedes in the Battle of Nördlingen, set in Madrid a performance in which Maria Anna with her husband was one of the actors.


title: Maria Anna of Spain

text: Save a few portraits of Maria Anna as child, almost all of them are included in the collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. In the earliest of these paintings, made by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz, she is shown at one year of age. The collection of the Portland Art Museum includes a 1630s portrait of Maria, painted by Felipe Diriksen. A portrait of the Infanta Maria Anna, then Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, made by Diego Velázquez, court painter at Madrid, was part of the collection of the Museo del Prado. Portraits of the Empress made by Frans Luycx (painter at the court in Vienna), Bartolomé González y Serrano, Rodrigo de Villandrando, Justus Sustermans, Juan van der Hamen and other unknown authors are also stored in the collections of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Museo del Prado, the gallery of the Schloss Esterházy in Eisenstadt and the Musée Fesch in Ajaccio.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: Believe is the third studio album by Canadian singer Justin Bieber, released on June 15, 2012, by Island Records. Looking to transition from the teen pop styles of his two-piece debut effort "My World" (2009) and "My World 2.0" (2010), Bieber opted to create a follow-up record that featured more prominent elements of Eurohouse, dance-pop and contemporary R&B. As executive producers, mentor Usher and manager Scooter Braun enlisted collaborators including Darkchild, Hit-Boy, Diplo and Max Martin with the intention of creating a mature-sounding project.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: Upon its release, "Believe" received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who appreciated its progression from Bieber's earlier works. It debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 albums chart with first-week sales of 374,000 copies, and was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales exceeding one million units. Internationally, the record enjoyed similar success. It debuted atop the Canadian Albums Chart, where it eventually attained double-Platinum recognition. The album additionally debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, and was later certified Gold there. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "Believe" was the sixth best-selling album of 2012 worldwide, with sales of three million copies.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: Five singles were released from "Believe", several of which became international successes. Its lead single, "Boyfriend", peaked at number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, and reached number one on the Canadian Hot 100. Follow-ups "As Long as You Love Me" and "Beauty and a Beat" performed moderately worldwide, and positioned within the top-ten of the aforementioned singles charts in the United States and Canada. "Right Here" received little promotion, consequentially peaking in the lower end of the "Billboard" Hot 100, while the final single, "All Around the World", performed moderately in most markets. The project was additionally promoted through Bieber's second worldwide concert series, the Believe Tour, in 2012 and 2013. Bieber's third remix album, "Believe Acoustic", was released in January 2013, featuring acoustic and live versions of songs from "Believe".


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: On March 2, 2012, Bieber appeared on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" to announce that the first single from his upcoming album would be called "Boyfriend". The single was later released on March 26, 2012. The song was written by Bieber and Mike Posner, and produced by Posner and Mason Levy.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: Bieber also invited his fans to participate in one of the creative decisions for the "Boyfriend" single. Two potential cover arts were published on Bieber's website, and fans were encouraged to vote for which one they preferred. The cover with the most votes became the official cover for the single.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: According to a writer from "Los Angeles Times", the album adds a Eurohouse beat to Bieber's usual R&B. and according to "The A.V. Club", "Believe" is loaded up with "EDM accouterments, seeking a comfortable middle ground where Bieber's impressively refined Pop-Rnb croon can rub up on Techno blasts and garish Dubstep drops."


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: The intro track "All Around The World" is a "dubsteppy" synth-pop and Eurodance song. According to "Billboard" the song's "breathy vocals swirl around a beat that pierces the listener on first contact. Ludacris raps in double-time as the album's electronica obsession is immediately presented." "Boyfriend" is an acoustic R&B-influenced track with hip-hop elements. "As Long As You Love Me" is an EDM, electropop and dubstep song. According to "Entertainment Weekly", "Catching Feelings" "turns [Bieber] it into a soulful R&B". The fifth track "Take You" club-friendly anthem starts off with a Latin-tinged acoustic guitar before transforming into a synth-pop Euro-dance number. And the song is a Dubsteppy Eurodance song "that sweeps through different tempos". The sixth song "Right Here" features Drake. It is a pop, hip hop-soul ballad. According to Bieber's manager Scooter Braun, "Fall" was inspired by "the weepy romance" "A Walk to Remember". Further saying, "Bieber tries to extract sorrow from the rumbling percussion, falling to his knees as layered vocals increase the melodrama". The eighth song, "Die in Your Arms", is a pop-R&B track that incorporates hip hop beats, finger snaps and melodic piano chords in its instrumentation and is similar to early tracks by the Jackson 5. Leah Collins of the National Post described the song as a "Baby 2.0", adding that "like 'Baby', 'Die in Your Arms' has a certain old-fashioned pop flavour." "Thought of You", a Diplo produced song, has a "falsetto-driven ode to living in the moment; [...] its bass thickening around a series of futuristic movements until ending, somehow appropriately, with a piano and a siren." The tenth track, "Beauty and a Beat" features Nicki Minaj. It is a electropop, EDM, and R&B song. Sarah Deen of Metro described it as a "frantic dance track", while "Rolling Stone" Jon Dolan called the song a "disco inferno".


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: "One Love" has "space-age synths, watered down DnB beat and defiant lack of fluff make it a total mega-hit". The twelfth track, "Be Alright", according to "Billboard" is "a guitar ballad as a soothing lullaby, in which Bieber doesn't try to over-sing his basic love lyrics." The title track, "Believe", according to the same magazine, is a "substantial anthem that plays out like a Disney song". The song involves a gospel choir, while the sound of an acoustic guitar is almost as common as a dance beat. "Out Of Town Girl" "make[s] for a superior throwback R&B joint that could well end up as the album's secret keeper".


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: Bieber announced via Twitter that the first single off third studio album, "Believe" was released in March 2012. On March 1, 2012, Bieber appeared on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" to announce that the first single from his upcoming album, "Believe", was called "Boyfriend" and was released on March 26, 2012. The song was written by Bieber and Mike Posner, and produced by Posner and Mason Levy. Two cover arts were published on Bieber's website, and fans were encouraged to vote for which cover they would preferred; with the most votes for cover and it will become the official cover of for the single. "Boyfriend" reached number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It also reached the top ten in several countries worldwide.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: Island Def Jam confirmed on June 26, 2012, that "As Long as You Love Me" featuring Big Sean, which was previously released as the third and final promo single as part of the iTunes album countdown to "Believe", was released as the official second single off the album. It was released July 10, 2012. It peaked at 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the US.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: "Beauty and a Beat", is the third single off the album. It was released on October 24, 2012, and features vocals from rapper Nicki Minaj. It has so far peaked at 5 in the US.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: "Right Here" featuring Drake was released as the fourth U.S. single, impacting U.S. Rhythmic radio on February 5, 2013.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: "All Around the World" which was released as a promotional single, was then released as the fourth international single from "Believe". It was released in the US on February 26, 2013, as the fifth and final US single and in the UK on April 1, 2013.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: The first promotional single from the album, the Rodney Jerkins, Dennis Aganee Jenkins, Travis Sayles-produced "Die in Your Arms", was released to iTunes on May 29, 2012. The song samples Michael Jackson's "We've Got a Good Thing Going" and was written with ten co-writers. The second promo single "All Around the World", which features Ludacris, was released on iTunes on June 4, 2012. "As Long as You Love Me" featuring Big Sean was released on June 11, 2012, as the third promotional single.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: On May 7, 2012, Bieber announced that he would release a song titled "Turn to You (Mother's Day Dedication)" on May 11, 2012, for Mother's Day weekend. He stated that the proceeds of the song would go to help single mothers. Although some had suspected it would, "Turn to You (Mother's Day Dedication)" did not make the final track listing for "Believe". It was revealed during Bieber's interview with Fuse, that he collaborated with Lil Wayne on a song called "Backpack" that would be included on a "repackaged" version of the album. "Right Here", featuring Drake, also debuted at number 95 on the Hot 100. "Be Alright" was not released as a single from the album but was certified Gold in Denmark.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: "Believe" has received generally favorable reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 68, based on 14 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews".


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: While BBC Music noted Bieber's ongoing "tween appeal," it also examined his gradual stylist evolution from his previous album. "The New York Times" noted the search for maturity Bieber exhibited. It complimented the natural strength of his voice, which did not need as much technical enhancement as it did previously. However, "Slant Magazine" criticized the production's need to "slice, dice, and Auto-Tune [Bieber's] notes into shape" "Entertainment Weekly" praised the pop star's evolution, calling the album both a "reinvention and a reintroduction." "Rolling Stone" noted the deeper voice and more intense beats found on the album, although it lampooned one of his euphemisms for newfound sexual maturity.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: "The New York Times" noted the difficulty Bieber faced in creating the album—a tension between his love of R&B and the profitability of pop music—while suggesting that his "savvy compromises" made the conflict manageable." "Entertainment Weekly" praised the variety of audiences for the album, calling it "the rare album that tries to be everything to everyone and largely succeeds."


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: Reviews of the vocals on specific songs were mixed. "The New York Times" review complained of certain songs where Bieber "sounded bored" and unlike himself, although other tracks were said to show him when he "leans on his instincts." The review credited Bieber for his "limber and wounded" vocals. It suggested that Bieber's voice would continue to evolve, and that in a few years it could fully express "angst". It said Bieber was "more credible when begging or retreating", while BBC Music stated similarly that "his confidence, for the most part, [is] played down."


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: A large number of reviews compared Bieber to Justin Timberlake, a once-teenage pop star who achieved great success during his evolution from teenage boy band member to young adult. Most found the situations very different, saying Bieber was better suited to pursuing his own style rather than follow in the footsteps of Timberlake. "The New York Times", however, complimented his references to Michael Jackson as aspirational. Meanwhile, reviewers tended to Dislike Bieber's work with other pop stars. BBC Music said that, despite an abundance of guest contributors, Bieber is "overshadowed."


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: Assessments of the long-term impact of the album generally avoided calling "Believe" a revolutionary step forward. "The Independent" roundly criticized the artist's lack of innovation, calling it a "pitifully timid affair". "The New York Times" noted that while Bieber was not ushering in radical changes to pop music, he was at least playing to his personal strengths. "Billboard" noted the singer's potential with future releases, pointing out "multiple songs that hint at what Bieber could become someday."


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: "Believe" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 374,000. It was Bieber's fourth number-one album. It dropped two spots in its second week to number three with sales of 115,000 copies. "Believe" was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on July 31, 2012, and has sold 1,610,000 copies in the US as of December 2015


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: The album sold 57,000 copies in its first week in Canada, debuting atop the Canadian Albums Chart. In the following week, the album fell to number two selling 18,000 copies, behind Linkin Park's "Living Things." It also debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with sales of 38,115 copies, making Bieber the second youngest male solo artist ever to reach number one. In Japan, the album entered the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart at number seven, selling 13,886 copies. As of July 26, 2012, the album has sold over 98,000 copies in Canada. In Brazil, the album was certified platinum by Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos (ABPD) within three days of release. The album debuted at number-one in Mexico and was later certified Platinum by Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ending the year as the 14th best selling of 2012. In November 2013, Universal Music México awarded Bieber with a triple platinum certification for sales of over 180,000 copies as well as over 300,000 digital tracks.


title: Believe (Justin Bieber album)

text: On December 14, 2012, Bieber announced on "The Ellen Show" that he would be releasing an acoustic album of "Believe". It was released on January 29, 2013.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (; 27 January 1775 – 20 August 1854), later (after 1812) von Schelling, was a German philosopher. Standard histories of philosophy make him the midpoint in the development of German idealism, situating him between Johann Gottlieb Fichte, his mentor in his early years, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, his one-time university roommate, early friend, and later rival. Interpreting Schelling's philosophy is regarded as difficult because of its evolving nature.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Schelling's thought in the main has been neglected, especially in the English-speaking world. An important factor in this was the ascendancy of Hegel, whose mature works portray Schelling as a mere footnote in the development of idealism. Schelling's "Naturphilosophie" also has been attacked by scientists for its tendency to analogize and lack of empirical orientation. However, some later philosophers have shown interest in re-examining Schelling's body of work.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Schelling was born in the town of Leonberg in the Duchy of Württemberg (now Baden-Württemberg), the son of Joseph Friedrich Schelling and Gottliebin Marie. He attended the monastic school at Bebenhausen, near Tübingen, where his father was chaplain and an Orientalist professor. From 1783 to 1784 Schelling attended a Latin school in Nürtingen and knew Friedrich Hölderlin, who was five years his senior. On 18 October 1790, at the age of 15, he was granted permission to enroll at the Tübinger Stift (seminary of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg), despite not having yet reached the normal enrollment age of 20. At the Stift, he shared a room with Hegel as well as Hölderlin, and the three became good friends.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Schelling studied the Church fathers and ancient Greek philosophers. His interest gradually shifted from Lutheran theology to philosophy. In 1792 he graduated with his master's thesis, titled "Antiquissimi de prima malorum humanorum origine philosophematis Genes. III. explicandi tentamen criticum et philosophicum", and in 1795 he finished his doctoral thesis, titled "De Marcione Paulinarum epistolarum emendatore" ("On Marcion as emendator of the Pauline letters") under Gottlob Christian Storr. Meanwhile, he had begun to study Kant and Fichte, who influenced him greatly. Representative of Schelling´s early period is also a discourse between him and the philosophical writer , who was Fichte´s housemate at that time, in letters and in Fichte´s Journal (1796/97) on "interaction", "the pragmatic" and Leibniz.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In 1797, while tutoring two youths of an aristocratic family, he visited Leipzig as their escort and had a chance to attend lectures at Leipzig University, where he was fascinated by contemporary physical studies including chemistry and biology. He also visited Dresden, where he saw collections of the Elector of Saxony, to which he referred later in his thinking on art. On a personal level, this Dresden visit of six weeks from August 1797 saw Schelling meet the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel and Karl Friedrich Schlegel and his future wife Caroline (then married to August Wilhelm), and Novalis.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: After two years tutoring, in October 1798, at the age of 23, Schelling was called to University of Jena as an extraordinary (i.e., unpaid) professor of philosophy. His time at Jena (1798–1803) put Schelling at the centre of the intellectual ferment of Romanticism. He was on close terms with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who appreciated the poetic quality of the "Naturphilosophie", reading "Von der Weltseele". As the prime minister of the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, Goethe invited Schelling to Jena. On the other hand, Schelling was unsympathetic to the ethical idealism that animated the work of Friedrich Schiller, the other pillar of Weimar Classicism. Later, in Schelling's "Vorlesung über die Philosophie der Kunst" ("Lecture on the Philosophy of Art", 1802/03), Schiller's theory on the sublime was closely reviewed.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In Jena, Schelling was on good terms with Fichte at first, but their different conceptions, about nature in particular, led to increasing divergence. Fichte advised him to focus on transcendental philosophy: specifically, Fichte's own "Wissenschaftlehre". But Schelling, who was becoming the acknowledged leader of the Romantic school, rejected Fichte's thought as cold and abstract.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Schelling was especially close to August Wilhelm Schlegel and his wife, Caroline. A marriage between Schelling and Caroline's young daughter, Auguste Böhmer, was contemplated by both. Auguste died of dysentery in 1800, prompting many to blame Schelling, who had overseen her treatment. Robert Richards, however, argues in his book "The Romantic Conception of Life" that Schelling's interventions were most likely irrelevant, as the doctors called to the scene assured everyone involved that Auguste's disease was inevitably fatal. Auguste's death drew Schelling and Caroline closer. Schlegel had moved to Berlin, and a divorce was arranged with Goethe's help. Schelling's time at Jena came to an end, and on 2 June 1803 he and Caroline were married away from Jena. Their marriage ceremony was the last occasion Schelling met his school friend the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, who was already mentally ill at that time.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In his Jena period, Schelling had a closer relationship with Hegel again. With Schelling's help, Hegel became a private lecturer ("Privatdozent") at Jena University. Hegel wrote a book titled "Differenz des Fichte'schen und Schelling'schen Systems der Philosophie" ("Difference between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy", 1801), and supported Schelling's position against his idealistic predecessors, Fichte and Karl Leonhard Reinhold. Beginning in January 1802, Hegel and Schelling published the "Kritisches Journal der Philosophie" ("Critical Journal of Philosophy") as co-editors, publishing papers on the philosophy of nature, but Schelling was too busy to stay involved with the editing and the magazine was mainly Hegel's publication, espousing a thought different from Schelling's. The magazine ceased publication in the spring of 1803 when Schelling moved from Jena to Würzburg.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: After Jena, Schelling went to Bamberg for a time, to study Brunonian medicine (the theory of John Brown) with and Andreas Röschlaub. From September 1803 until April 1806 Schelling was professor at the new University of Würzburg. This period was marked by considerable flux in his views and by a final breach with Fichte and Hegel.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In Würzburg, a conservative Catholic city, Schelling found many enemies among his colleagues and in the government. He moved then to Munich in 1806, where he found a position as a state official, first as associate of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities and secretary of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, afterwards as secretary of the Philosophische Klasse (philosophical section) of the Academy of Sciences. 1806 was also the year Schelling published a book in which he criticized Fichte openly by name. In 1807 Schelling received the manuscript of Hegel's "Phaenomenologie des Geistes" ("Phenomenology of the Spirit" or "Mind"), which Hegel had sent to him, asking Schelling to write the foreword. Surprised to find critical remarks directed at his own philosophical theory, Schelling wrote back, asking Hegel to clarify whether he had intended to mock Schelling's followers who lacked a true understanding of his thought, or Schelling himself. Hegel never replied. In the same year, Schelling gave a speech about the relation between the visual arts and nature at the Academy of Fine Arts; Hegel wrote a severe criticism of it to one of his friends. After that, they criticized each other in lecture rooms and in books publicly until the end of their lives.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Without resigning his official position in Munich, he lectured for a short time in Stuttgart ("Stuttgarter Privatvorlesungen" [Stuttgart private lectures], 1810), and seven years at the University of Erlangen (1820–1827). In 1809 Karoline died, just before he published "Freiheitsschrift" ("Freedom Essay") the last book published during his life. Three years later, Schelling married one of her closest friends, Pauline Gotter, in whom he found a faithful companion.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: During the long stay in Munich (1806–1841) Schelling's literary activity came gradually to a standstill. It is possible that it was the overpowering strength and influence of the Hegelian system that constrained Schelling, for it was only in 1834, after the death of Hegel, that, in a preface to a translation by Hubert Beckers of a work by Victor Cousin, he gave public utterance to the antagonism in which he stood to the Hegelian, and to his own earlier, conception of philosophy. The antagonism certainly was not new; the 1822 Erlangen lectures on the history of philosophy expressed the same in a pointed fashion, and Schelling had already begun the treatment of mythology and religion which, in his view, constituted the true positive complements to the negative of logical or speculative philosophy.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Public attention was powerfully attracted by hints of a new system which promised something more positive, especially in its treatment of religion, than the apparent results of Hegel's teaching. The appearance of critical writings by David Friedrich Strauss, Ludwig Feuerbach, and Bruno Bauer, and the disunion in the Hegelian school itself, expressed a growing alienation from the then dominant philosophy. In Berlin, the headquarters of the Hegelians, this found expression in attempts to obtain officially from Schelling a treatment of the new system that he was understood to have in reserve. Its realization did not come about until 1841, when Schelling's appointment as Prussian privy councillor and member of the Berlin Academy, gave him the right, a right he was requested to exercise, to deliver lectures in the university. Among those in attendance at his lectures were Søren Kierkegaard (who said Schelling talked "quite insufferable nonsense" and complained that he did not end his lectures on time), Mikhail Bakunin (who called them "interesting but rather insignificant"), Jacob Burckhardt, Alexander von Humboldt (who never accepted Schelling's natural philosophy), future church historian Philip Schaff and Friedrich Engels (who, as a partisan of Hegel, attended to "shield the great man's grave from abuse"). The opening lecture of his course was attended by a large and appreciative audience. The enmity of his old foe, H. E. G. Paulus, sharpened by Schelling's success, led to surreptitious publication of a verbatim report of the lectures on the philosophy of revelation. Schelling did not succeed in obtaining legal condemnation and suppression of this piracy and he stopped delivering public lectures in 1845.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In 1793 Schelling contributed to Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob Paulus's periodical "Memorabilien". His 1795 dissertation was "De Marcione Paullinarum epistolarum emendatore" ("On Marcion as emendator of the Pauline letters"). In 1794, Schelling published an exposition of Fichte's thought entitled "Ueber die Möglichkeit einer Form der Philosophie überhaupt" ("On the Possibility of a Form of Philosophy in General"). This work was acknowledged by Fichte himself and immediately earned Schelling a reputation among philosophers. His more elaborate work, "Vom Ich als Prinzip der Philosophie, oder über das Unbedingte im menschlichen Wissen" ("On Self as Principle of Philosophy, or on the Unrestricted in Human Knowledge", 1795), while still remaining within the limits of the Fichtean idealism, showed a tendency to give the Fichtean method a more objective application, and to amalgamate Spinoza's views with it. He contributed articles and reviews to the "Philosophisches Journal" of Fichte and Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer, and threw himself into the study of physical and medical science. In 1795 Schelling published "Philosophische Briefe über Dogmatismus und Kritizismus" ("Philosophical Letters on Dogmatism and Criticism"), consisting of 10 letters addressed to an unknown interlocutor that presented both a defense and critique of the Kantian system.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Between 1796/97 there was written a seminal manuscript now known as the "Das älteste Systemprogramm des deutschen Idealismus" ("The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism"). It survives in Hegel's handwriting. First published in 1916 by Franz Rosenzweig, it was attributed to Schelling. It has also been claimed that Hegel or Hölderlin was the author.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In 1797, Schelling published the essay "Neue Deduction des Naturrechts" ("New Deduction of Natural Law"), which anticipated Fichte's treatment of the topic in "Grundlage des Naturrechts" ("Foundations of Natural Law"). His studies of physical science bore fruit in "Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur" ("Ideas Concerning a Philosophy of Nature", 1797), and the treatise "Von der Weltseele" ("On the World-Soul", 1798). In "Ideen" Schelling referred to Leibniz and quoted from his "Monadology". He held Leibniz in high regard because of his view of nature during his natural philosophy period.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In 1800 Schelling published "System des transcendentalen Idealismus" ("System of Transcendental Idealism"). In this book Schelling described transcendental philosophy and nature philosophy as complementary to one another. Fichte reacted by stating that Schelling's argument was unsound: in Fichte's theory nature as Not-Self ("Nicht-Ich" = object) could not be a subject of philosophy, whose essential content is the subjective activity of the human intellect. The breach became unrecoverable in 1801 after Schelling published "Darstellung des Systems meiner Philosophie" ("Presentation of My System of Philosophy"). Fichte thought this title absurd since, in his opinion, philosophy could not be personalized. Moreover, in this book Schelling publicly expressed his estimation of Spinoza, whose work Fichte had repudiated as dogmatism, and declared that nature and spirit differ only in their quantity, but are essentially identical. According to Schelling, the absolute was the indifference to identity, which he considered to be an essential philosophical subject.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: The "Aphorismen über die Naturphilosophie" ("Aphorisms on Nature Philosophy"), published in the "Jahrbücher der Medicin als Wissenschaft" (1805–1808), are for the most part extracts from the Würzburg lectures, and the "Denkmal der Schrift von den göttlichen Dingen des Herrn Jacobi" ("Monument to the Scripture of the Divine Things of Mr. Jacobi") was a response to an attack by Jacobi (the two accused each other of atheism). A work of significance is the 1809 "Philosophische Untersuchungen über das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit und die damit zusammenhängenden Gegenstände" ("Philosophical Inquiries into the Essence of Human Freedom"), which elaborates, with increasing mysticism, on ideas in the 1804 work "Philosophie und Religion" ("Philosophy and Religion"). However, in a change from the Jena period, evil is not an appearance coming from quantitative differences between the real and the ideal, but is something substantial. This work clearly paraphrased Kant's distinction between intelligible and empirical character. Schelling himself called freedom "a capacity for good and evil".


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: The 1815 essay "Ueber die Gottheiten zu Samothrake" ("On the Divinities of Samothrace") was ostensibly a part of a larger work, "Weltalter" ("The Ages of the World"), frequently announced as ready for publication, but of which little was ever written. Schelling planned "Weltalter" as a book in three parts, describing the past, present, and future of the world; however, he began only the first part, rewriting it several times and at last keeping it unpublished. The other two parts were left only in planning. Christopher John Murray describes the work as follows:


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Building on the premise that philosophy cannot ultimately explain existence, he merges the earlier philosophies of Nature and identity with his newfound belief in a fundamental conflict between a dark unconscious principle and a conscious principle in God. God makes the universe intelligible by relating to the ground of the real but, insofar as nature is not complete intelligence, the real exists as a lack within the ideal and not as reflective of the ideal itself. The three universal ages – distinct only to us but not in the eternal God – therefore comprise a beginning where the principle of God before God is divine will striving for being, the present age, which is still part of this growth and hence a mediated fulfillment, and a finality where God is consciously and consummately Himself to Himself.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: No authentic information on Schelling's new positive philosophy ("positive Philosophie") was available until after his death at Bad Ragatz, on 20 August 1854. His sons then issued four volumes of his Berlin lectures: vol. i. "Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology" (1856); ii. "Philosophy of Mythology" (1857); iii. and iv. "Philosophy of Revelation" (1858).


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Schelling, at all stages of his thought, called to his aid outward forms of some other system. Fichte, Spinoza, Jakob Boehme and the mystics, and finally, major Greek thinkers with their Neoplatonic, Gnostic, and Scholastic commentators, give colouring to particular works. In Schelling's own view, his philosophy fell into three stages. These were:


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: The function of Schelling's "Naturphilosophie" is to exhibit the ideal as springing from the real. The change which experience brings before us leads to the conception of duality, the polar opposition through which nature expresses itself. The dynamic series of stages in nature are matter (as the equilibrium of the fundamental expansive) and contractive forces (light, with its subordinate processes of magnetism, electricity, and chemical action) and organism (with its component phases of reproduction, irritability and sensibility).


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Some scholars characterize Schelling as a protean thinker who, although brilliant, jumped from one subject to another and lacked the synthesizing power needed to arrive at a complete philosophical system. Others challenge the notion that Schelling's thought is marked by profound breaks, instead arguing that his philosophy always focused on a few common themes, especially human freedom, the absolute, and the relationship between spirit and nature. Unlike Hegel, Schelling did not believe that the absolute could be known in its true character through rational inquiry alone.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Schelling is still studied, although his reputation has varied over time. His work impressed the English romantic poet and critic Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who introduced his ideas into English-speaking culture, sometimes without full acknowledgment, as in the "Biographia Literaria". Coleridge's critical work was influential, and it was he who introduced into English literature Schelling's concept of the unconscious. Schelling's "System of Transcendental Idealism" has been seen as a precursor of Sigmund Freud's "Interpretation of Dreams" (1899).


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: Up to 1950, Schelling was almost a forgotten philosopher even in Germany. In the 1910s and 1920s, philosophers of neo-Kantianism and neo-Hegelianism, like Wilhelm Windelband or Richard Kroner, tended to describe Schelling as an episode connecting Fichte and Hegel. His late period tended to be ignored, and his philosophies of nature and of art in the 1790s and first decade of the 19th century were the main focus. In this context Kuno Fischer characterized Schelling's early philosophy as "aesthetic idealism", focusing on the argument where he ranked art as "the sole document and the eternal organ of philosophy" ("das einzige wahre und ewige Organon zugleich und Dokument der Philosophie"). From socialist philosophers like György Lukács, he was regarded as anachronistic. An exception was Martin Heidegger, who found in Schelling's "On Human Freedom" central themes of Western ontology - being, existence, and freedom - and expounded on them in his 1936 lectures.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In the 1950s, the situation began to change. In 1954, the centennial of his death, an international conference on Schelling was held. Several philosophers, including Karl Jaspers, gave presentations about the uniqueness and relevance of his thought, the interest shifting toward his later work on the origin of existence. Schelling was the subject of Jürgen Habermas's 1954 dissertation.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In 1955 Jaspers published "Schelling", representing him as a forerunner of the existentialists and Walter Schulz, one of organizers of the 1954 conference, published "Die Vollendung des Deutschen Idealismus in der Spätphilosophie Schellings" ("The Perfection of German Idealism in Schelling's Late Philosophy") claiming that Schelling had made German idealism complete with his late philosophy, particularly with his Berlin lectures in the 1840s. Schulz presented Schelling as the person who resolved the philosophical problems which Hegel had left incomplete, in contrast to the contemporary idea that Schelling had been surpassed by Hegel much earlier. Theologian Paul Tillich wrote: "what I learned from Schelling became determinative of my own philosophical and theological development". Maurice Merleau-Ponty likened his own project of natural ontology to Schelling's in his 1957–58 Course on Nature.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In the 1970s nature was again of interest to philosophers in relation to environmental issues. Schelling's philosophy of nature, particularly his intention to construct a program which covers both nature and the intellectual life in a single system and method, and restore nature as a central theme of philosophy, has been reevaluated in the contemporary context. His influence and relation to the German art scene, particularly to Romantic literature and visual art, has been an interest since the late 1960s, from Philipp Otto Runge to Gerhard Richter and Joseph Beuys. This interest has been revived in recent years through the work of the environmental philosopher Arran Gare who has identified a tradition of Schellingian science overcoming the opposition between science and the humanities, and offering the basis for an understanding of ecological science and ecological philosophy.


title: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

text: In relation to psychology, Schelling was considered to have coined the term "unconsciousness". Slavoj Žižek has written two books attempting to integrate Schelling's philosophy, mainly his middle period works including "Weltalter", with work of Jacques Lacan. The opposition and division in God and the problem of evil in God examined by the later Schelling influenced Luigi Pareyson's thought. Ken Wilber places Schelling as one of two philosophers who "after Plato, had the broadest impact on the Western mind".


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses are a family of animal viruses that constitute the family Parvoviridae. They have linear, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes that typically contain two genes encoding for a replication initiator protein, called NS1, and the protein the viral capsid is made of. The coding portion of the genome is flanked by telomeres at each end that form into hairpin loops that are important during replication. Parvovirus virions are small compared to most viruses, at 23–28 nanometers in diameter, and contain the genome enclosed in an icosahedral capsid that has a rugged surface.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses enter a host cell by endocytosis, travelling to the nucleus where they wait until the cell enters its replication stage. At that point, the genome is uncoated and the coding portion is replicated. Viral messenger RNA (mRNA) is then transcribed and translated, resulting in NS1 initiating replication. During replication, the hairpins repeatedly unfold, are replicated, and refold to change the direction of replication to progress back and forth along the genome in a process called rolling hairpin replication that produces a molecule containing numerous copies of the genome. Progeny ssDNA genomes are excised from this concatemer and packaged into capsids. Mature virions leave the cell by exocytosis or lysis.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses are believed to be descended from ssDNA viruses that have circular genomes that form a loop because these viruses encode a replication initiator protein that is related to NS1 and have a similar replication mechanism. Another group of viruses called bidnaviruses appear to be descended from parvoviruses. Within the family, three subfamilies, 26 genera, and 126 species are recognized. "Parvoviridae" is the sole family in the order "Piccovirales", which is the sole order in the class "Quintoviricetes". This class is assigned to the phylum "Cossaviricota", which also includes papillomaviruses, polyomaviruses, and bidnaviruses.


title: Parvoviridae

text: A variety of diseases in animals are caused by parvoviruses. Notably, the canine parvovirus and feline parvovirus cause severe disease in dogs and cats, respectively. In pigs, the porcine parvovirus is a major cause of infertility. Human parvoviruses are less severe, the two most notable being parvovirus B19, which causes a variety of illnesses including fifth disease in children, and human bocavirus 1, which is a common cause of acute respiratory tract illness, especially in young children. In medicine, recombinant adeno-associated viruses (AAV) have become an important vector for delivering genes to the cell nucleus during gene therapy.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Animal parvoviruses were first discovered in the 1960s, including minute virus of mice, which is frequently used to study parvovirus replication. Many AAVs were also discovered during this time period and research on them over time has revealed their benefit as a form of medicine. The first pathogenic human parvovirus to be discovered was parvovirus B19 in 1974, which became associated with various diseases throughout the 1980s. Parvoviruses were first classified as the genus "Parvovirus" in 1971 but were elevated to family status in 1975. They take their name from the Latin word "parvum", meaning 'small' or 'tiny', referring to the small size of the virus's virions.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses have linear, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes that are about 4–6 kilobases (kb) in length. The parvovirus genome typically contains two genes, termed the NS/rep gene and the VP/cap gene. The NS gene encodes the non-structural (NS) protein NS1, which is the replication initiator protein, and the VP gene encodes the viral protein (VP) that the viral capsid is made of. NS1 contains an HUH superfamily endonuclease domain near its N-terminus, containing both site-specific binding activity and site-specific nicking activity, and a superfamily 3 (SF3) helicase domain toward the C-terminus. Most parvoviruses contain a transcriptional activation domain near the C-terminus that upregulates transcription from viral promoters as well as alternate or overlapping open reading frames that encode a small number of supporting proteins involved in different aspects of the viral life cycle.


title: Parvoviridae

text: The coding portion of the genome is flanked at each end by terminal sequences about 116–550 nucleotides (nt) in length that consist of imperfect palindromes folded into hairpin loop structures. These hairpin loops contain most of the "cis"-acting information required for DNA replication and packaging and act as hinges during replication to change the direction of replication. When the genome is converted to double-stranded forms, replication origin sites are created involving sequences in and adjacent to the hairpins.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Genomic DNA strands in mature virions may be positive-sense or negative-sense. This varies from species to species as some have a preference for packaging strands of one polarity, others package varying proportions, and others package both sense strands at equal proportions. These preferences reflect the efficiency with which progeny strands are synthesized, which in turn reflects the efficiency of specific replication origin sites. The 3′-end (usually pronounced "three prime end") of a negative sense strand, and the 5′-end (usually pronounced "five prime end") of a positive sense strand, is called the left end, and the 5′-end of the negative sense strand, and the 3′-end of a positive sense strand, is called the right end.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvovirus virions are 23–28 nanometers (nm) in diameter and consist of the genome enclosed inside a capsid that is icosahedral in shape with a rugged surface. The capsid is composed of 60 structurally equivalent polypeptide chains derived from the C-terminal end of a VP protein's sequence, interlocking extensively to form an icosahedron with 60 asymmetric, superficial triangular units. These units have 3-fold radial symmetry at two vertices and 5-fold radial symmetry at one, with 2-fold radial symmetry at the line opposite of the 5-fold vertex and a 2/5 circular fold wall surrounding the point of the 5-fold vertex. Twenty 3-fold vertices, thirty 2-fold lines, and twelve 5-fold vertices exist per capsid, the latter corresponding to the 12 vertices of the icosahedron.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Typical features of the capsid surface include depressions at each 2-fold axis, elevated protrusions surrounding the 3-fold axes, and raised cylindrical projections made of five beta-barrels surrounded by canyon-like depressions at the 5-fold axes. Each of these cylinders potentially contains an opening to connect the exterior of the capsid to the interior, which mediates entry and exit of the genome. About 20 nucleotides from the 5′-end of the genome may remain exposed outside of the capsid carrying a copy of NS1 bound to the 5′-end, which is a result of how the genome is synthesized and packaged.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Varying sizes of the VP protein are expressed for different parvoviruses, the smaller ones, VP2–5, being expressed at a higher frequency than the large size, VP1. The smaller VPs share a common C-terminus with different N-terminus lengths due to truncation. For VP1, the N-terminus is extended to contain regions important in the replication cycle, and it is incorporated into the capsid, typically 5–10 per capsid, with the common C-terminus responsible for assembling capsids.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Each VP monomer contains a core beta-barrel structure called the jelly roll motif of eight strands arranged in two adjacent antiparallel beta sheets, labeled CHEF and BIDG after the individual strands, the latter forming the interior surface of the capsid. Individual beta strands are connected by loops that have varying length, sequence, and conformation, and most of these loops extend toward the exterior surface, giving parvoviruses their unique, rough surface. Related parvoviruses share their surface topologies and VP protein folds to a greater degree than their sequence identities, so the structure of the capsid and capsid protein are useful indicators of phylogeny.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses enter cells by endocytosis, using a variety of cellular receptors to bind to the host cell. In endosomes, many parvoviruses undergo a change in conformation so that the phospholipase A2 (PLA) domain on the VP1 N-termini are exposed so the virion can penetrate lipid bilayer membranes. Intracellular trafficking of virions varies, but virions ultimately arrive to the nucleus, inside of which the genome is uncoated from the capsid. Based on studies of minute virus of mice (MVM), the genome is ejected from the capsid in a 3′-to-5′ direction from one of the openings in the capsid, leaving the 5′-end of the DNA attached to the capsid.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses lack the ability to induce cells into their DNA replication stage, called S-phase, so they must wait in the nucleus until the host cell enters S-phase on its own. This makes cell populations that divide rapidly, such as fetal cells, an excellent environment for parvoviruses. Adeno-associated viruses (AAV) are dependent on helper viruses, which may be an adenovirus or a herpesvirus, since coinfection alters the cellular environment to allow for replication. In the absence of coinfection, AAV's genome is integrated into the host cell's genome until coinfection occurs. Infected cells that enter S-phase are forced to synthesize viral DNA and cannot leave S-phase. Parvoviruses establish replication foci in the nucleus that grow progressively larger as infection progresses.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Once a cell enters S-phase and the genome is uncoated, a host DNA polymerase uses the 3′-end of the 3′ hairpin as a primer to synthesize a complementary DNA strand for the coding portion of the genome, which is connected to the 5′-end of the 5′ hairpin. Messenger RNA (mRNA) that encodes NS1 is then transcribed from the genome by the DNA polymerase, capped and polyadenylated, and translated by host ribosomes to synthesize NS1. If proteins are encoded in multiple co-linear frames, then alternative splicing, suboptimal translation initiation, or leaky scanning may be used to translate different gene products.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses replicate their genome via rolling hairpin replication, a unidirectional, strand displacement form of DNA replication that is initiated by NS1. Replication begins once NS1 binds to and makes a nick in a replication origin site in the duplex DNA molecule at the end of one hairpin. Nicking releases the 3′-end of the nicked strand as a free hydroxyl (-OH) to prime DNA synthesis with NS1 remaining attached to the 5′-end. The nick causes the adjacent hairpin to unfold into a linear, extended form. At the 3′-OH, a replication fork is established using NS1's helicase activity, and the extended telomere is replicated by the DNA polymerase. The two telomere strands then refold back in on themselves to their original configurations, which repositions the replication fork to switch templates to the other strand and move in the opposite direction toward the other end of the genome.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses vary in whether the termini are similar or the same, called homotelomeric parvoviruses, or different, called heterotelomeric parvoviruses. In general, homotelomeric parvoviruses, such as AAV and B19, replicate both ends of their genome through the aforementioned process, called terminal resolution, and their hairpin sequences are contained within larger (inverted) terminal repeats. Heterotelomeric viruses, such as minute virus of mice (MVM), replicate one end by terminal resolution and the other end via an asymmetric process called junction resolution so that the correct orientation of the telomere can be copied.


title: Parvoviridae

text: During asymmetric junction resolution, the duplex extended-form telomeres refold in on themselves into a cruciform shape. A replication origin site on the lower strand of the right arm of the cruciform is nicked by NS1, leading to the lower arm of the cruciform unfolding into its linear extended form. A replication fork established at the nick site moves down the extended lower arm to copy the lower arm's sequence. The two strands of the lower arm then refold to reposition the replication fork to go back toward the other end, displacing the upper strand in the process.


title: Parvoviridae

text: The back and forth, end-to-end pattern of rolling hairpin replication produces a concatemer containing multiple copies of the genome. NS1 periodically makes nicks in this molecule and, through a combination of terminal resolution and junction resolution, individual strands of the genome are excised from the concatemer. Excised genomes may either be recycled for further rounds of replication or packaged into progeny capsids. Translation of mRNA containing VP proteins leads to the accumulation of capsid proteins in the nucleus that assemble into these empty capsids.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Genomes are encapsidated at one of the capsid's vertices through a portal, potentially the one opposite the portal used to expel the genome. Once complete virions have been constructed, they may be exported from the nucleus to the exterior of the cell before disintegration of the nucleus. Disruption of the host cell environment may also occur later on in the infection. This results in cell lysis via necrosis or apoptosis, which releases virions to the outside of the cell.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses are believed to be descended from ssDNA viruses that have a circular genome that forms a loop and which replicate via rolling circle replication, which is similar to rolling hairpin replication. These circular ssDNA viruses encode a replication initiator protein that is related to and possesses many of the same characteristics as the replication initiator protein of parvoviruses, such as the HUH endonuclease domain and the SF3 helicase domain. In contrast to these other replication initiator proteins, NS1 shows only vestigial traces of being able to perform ligation, which is a key part of rolling circle replication. The "Bidnaviridae" family, which are also linear ssDNA viruses, appear to be descended from a parvovirus that had its genome integrated into the genome of a polinton, a type of DNA transposon related to viruses in the realm "Varidnaviria".


title: Parvoviridae

text: Based on phylogenetic analysis of the SF3 helicase, parvoviruses split into two branches early in their evolutionary history, one of which contains viruses assigned to the subfamily "Hamaparvovirinae". The other branch split into two sublineages that constitute the other two subfamilies, "Densovirinae" and "Parvovirinae". Parvoviruses in the "Hamaparvovirinae" lineage are likely all heterotelomeric, "Densovirinae" are exclusively homotelomeric, and "Parvovirinae" varies. Telomere sequences have significant complexity and diversity, suggesting that many species have co-opted them to perform additional functions. Parvoviruses are also considered to have high rates of genetic mutations and recombinations.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses constitute the family "Parvoviridae". The family is the sole family in the order "Piccovirales", which is the sole order in the class "Quintoviricetes". The class "Quintoviricetes" belongs to the phylum "Cossaviricota", which also includes papillomaviruses, polyomaviruses, and bidnaviruses. "Cossaviricota" is included in the kingdom "Shotokuvirae", which is assigned to the realm "Monodnaviria". "Parvoviridae" belongs to Group II: ssDNA viruses in the Baltimore classification system, which groups viruses together based on their manner of mRNA synthesis. Within "Parvoviridae", three subfamilies, 26 genera, and 126 species are recognized as of 2020 (-"virinae" denotes subfamily and -"virus" denotes genus):


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses are assigned to the same species if they share at least 85% of their protein sequence identities. Species are grouped together in a genus based on phylogeny of the NS1 and SF3 helicase domains, as well as similarity of NS1 sequence identity and coverage. If these criteria aren't satisfied, then genera can still be established provided that common ancestry is supported. The three subfamilies are distinguished based on phylogeny of the SF3 helicase domain, which corresponds to host range: viruses in "Densovirinae" infect invertebrates, viruses in "Hamaparvovirinae" infect invertebrates and vertebrates, and viruses in "Parvovirinae" infect vertebrates.


title: Parvoviridae

text: In humans, the most prominent parvoviruses that cause disease are parvovirus B19 and human bocavirus 1. B19 infection is often asymptomatic but can manifest in a variety of ways, including Fifth disease with its characteristic rash in children, persistent anemia in immunocompromised persons and in people who have underlying hemoglobinopathies, transient aplastic crises, hydrops fetalis in pregnant women, and arthropathy. Human bocavirus 1 is a common cause of acute respiratory tract infection, especially in young children, wheezing being a common symptom. Other parvoviruses associated with different diseases in humans include human parvovirus 4 and human bufavirus, though the manner by which these viruses cause disease is unclear.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Carnivore-infecting viruses in the genus "Protoparvovirus", in contrast to human parvoviruses, are more life-threatening. Canine parvovirus causes severe illness in dogs, the most common symptom being hemorrhagic enteritis, with up to a 70% mortality rate in pups but usually less than 1% in adults. Feline parvovirus, a closely related virus, likewise causes severe illness in cats along with panleukopenia. In pigs, porcine parvovirus is a major cause of infertility as infection frequently leads to death of the fetus.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Adeno-associated viruses have become an important vector for gene therapy aimed at treating genetic diseases, such as those caused by a single mutation. The recombinant AAV (rAAV) contains a viral capsid but lacks a complete viral genome. Instead, the typical nucleic acid packaged into the capsid contains a promoter region, the gene of interest, and a terminator region, all contained within two inverted terminal repeats derived from the viral genome. rAAV essentially acts as a container that can traverse the cell membrane and deliver its nucleic acid cargo to the nucleus.


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses were discovered relatively late in comparison to other prominent virus families, potentially due to their small size. In the late 1950s and 1960s, a variety of animal parvoviruses were discovered, including minute virus of mice, which has since been used extensively to study rolling hairpin replication. Many AAVs were also discovered during this time period and research on them led to their first usage in gene therapy in the 1980s. Over time, improvements in aspects such as vector design led to certain AAV gene therapy products reaching clinical efficacy in 2008 and being approved in the following years.


title: Parvoviridae

text: In 1974, the first pathogenic human parvovirus was discovered by Yvonne Cossart, et al. When testing for the hepatitis B virus's surface antigen, one serum sample gave anomalous results and with electron microscopy was shown to contain a virus resembling animal parvoviruses. This virus was named B19 after the coding of the serum sample, number 19 in panel B. B19 was later recognized as a species by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) in 1985, and throughout the 1980s it increasingly became associated with various diseases.


title: Parvoviridae

text: In the ICTV's first report in 1971, parvoviruses were grouped together in the genus "Parvovirus". They were elevated to the rank of family in 1975 and remained unassigned to higher taxa until 2019, when they were assigned to higher taxa up to the highest rank, realm. The family was reorganized in 2019, departing from the "traditional" invertebrate-vertebrate distinction between "Densovirinae" and "Parvovirinae" and instead distinguishing the subfamilies based on helicase phylogeny, leading to the establishment of a new subfamily, "Hamaparvovirinae".


title: Parvoviridae

text: Parvoviruses take their name from Latin "parvus" or "parvum", meaning "small" or "tiny", referring to the small size of parvovirus virions compared to most other viruses. In the family name "Parvoviridae", -"viridae" is the suffix used for virus families. The order "Piccovirales" takes the first part of its name from the Italian word "piccolo", meaning "small", and the second part is the suffix used for virus orders. The class "Quintoviricetes" takes the first part of its name from the Galician word "quinto", meaning "fifth", referring to fifth disease (erythema infectiosum) caused by parvovirus B19, and "viricetes", the suffix used for virus classes.


title: Turnstile

text: A turnstile (also called a turnpike, gateline, baffle gate, automated gate, turn gate in some regions) is a form of gate which allows one person to pass at a time. A turnstile can be configured to enforce one-way human traffic. In addition, a turnstile can restrict passage only to people who insert a coin, ticket, pass, or other method of payment. Modern turnstiles incorporate biometrics, including retina scanning, fingerprints, and other individual human characteristics which can be scanned. Thus a turnstile can be used in the case of paid access (sometimes called a faregate or ticket barrier when used for this purpose), for example to access public transport, a pay toilet, or to restrict access to authorized people, for example in the lobby of an office building.


title: Turnstile

text: Turnstiles were originally used, like other forms of stile, to allow human beings to pass while keeping sheep or other livestock penned in. The use of turnstiles in most modern applications has been credited to Clarence Saunders, who used them in his first Piggly Wiggly store.


title: Turnstile

text: Turnstiles are used at a wide variety of settings, including stadiums, amusement parks, mass transit stations, office lobbies, airports, ski resorts, factories, power plants and casinos.


title: Turnstile

text: From a business/revenue standpoint, turnstiles give an accurate, verifiable count of attendance. From a security standpoint, they lead patrons to enter single-file, so security personnel have a clear view of each patron. This enables security to efficiently isolate potential trouble or to confiscate any prohibited materials. On the other hand, physical barriers become a serious safety issue when a speedy evacuation is needed, requiring emergency exits that bypass any turnstiles.


title: Turnstile

text: Persons with disabilities may have difficulties using turnstiles. In these cases, generally a wide aisle gate or a manual gate may be provided. At some locations where luggage is expected, a line of turnstiles may be entirely formed of wide aisle gates, for example at Heathrow Terminals 2 & 3 Underground station.


title: Turnstile

text: Turnstiles often use ratchet mechanisms to allow the rotation of the stile in one direction allowing ingress but preventing rotation in the other direction. They are often designed to operate only after a payment has been made, usually by inserting a coin or token in a slot; or by swiping, tapping, or inserting a paper ticket or electronically-encoded card.


title: Turnstile

text: Turnstiles are often used for counting the numbers of people passing through a gate, even when payment is not involved. They are used extensively in this manner in amusement parks, in order to keep track of how many people enter and exit the park and ride each ride. The first major use of turnstiles at a sporting venue was at Hampden Park in Glasgow, Scotland.


title: Turnstile

text: Waist-high turnstiles are often used in fairs, attractions, and arenas. The user inserts a ticket or pass into the slot, from which a barcode is read; if access is to be granted, a sensor determines the speed with which the user passes through, and sets the electric motor to turn the turnstile at the corresponding speed.


title: Turnstile

text: Sometimes also referred to as "half-height" turnstiles, this fixed arm style has traditionally been the most popular type of turnstile. There are many variations of this style available, including one which is designed to be accompanied by a matching ticket box, and one with a ticket box built in. Some styles are designed to allow entry only after a payment (actual coins and tokens) are inserted, while others allow access after a valid barcode is electronically read.


title: Turnstile

text: A disadvantage to this type is people can "jump the turnstile" as happens commonly on the Moscow Metro and other mass transport systems in Russia.


title: Turnstile

text: The wall mount tripod turnstiles are suitable for places where installation on ground becomes impossible. The turnstile is directly fixed to the wall and all functions are achieved. Such turnstiles are usually used in narrow lanes and where wall installation is more feasible.


title: Turnstile

text: Optical turnstiles are an alternative to the traditional "arm"-style turnstile and are increasingly used in locations where a physical barrier is deemed unnecessary or unaesthetic. Optical turnstiles generally use an infrared beam to count patrons and recognize anyone attempting to enter a site without a valid entry pass.


title: Turnstile

text: The drop-arm optical turnstile is a combination of the security of a tripod or barrier turnstile and a fully optical turnstile. The lanes can have either single or double arms. When access is granted the arms drop into recesses in the cabinet. Once the arms drop out of the way, the turnstile functions as a fully optical turnstile.


title: Turnstile

text: The full-height turnstilea larger version of the waist-high turnstile, commonly high is something like a revolving door. Beyond this, full-height turnstiles often offer better security because they cannot be climbed over or ducked under, and can be designed to lock after each person enters so that the following person must pay a fee or present credentials. They may be designed to allow traffic in both directions, or in a single direction. It is sometimes called a "Rotogate", especially in Chicago, where it is used at unstaffed exits of Chicago 'L' stations, and is also used increasingly in New York City Subway stations since the turn of the 21st century.


title: Anil Dhawan

text: Anil Dhawan is an Indian actor who appears in Hindi films and television. He made his acting debut with the film "Chetna" (1970) followed by "Piya Ka Ghar" (1971). He is also known for his 2018 film Andhadhun.


title: Anil Dhawan

text: Now turned activist, Dhawan was part of Anna Hazare camp in his crusade against corruption in Indian public life.


title: Anil Dhawan

text: Dhawan belongs to Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. His father, Madan Lal Dhawan, was AGM in UCO Bank, who came to India from Peshawar, Pakistan in around 1947. Anil did his high school from St. Francis Xavier's School, Kanpur and graduated from Christ Church College, Kanpur. He later obtained a diploma in acting from Film and Television Institute of India, Pune in the same batch as Jaya Bhaduri. His son is actor Siddharth Dhawan. Director David Dhawan is his brother, another director Rohit Dhawan and actor Varun Dhawan are his nephews. Anil Dhawan has one granddaughter Anjini from his son Siddharth.


title: Anil Dhawan

text: He joined Film and Television Institute of India as he wanted to become an actor . He entered Bollywood in the '70s. His first film was B. R. Ishara's "Chetna" (1970). He worked with rising actor Aditya Pancholi in the television movie "Sone Ka Pinjra" (1986). Actress/director Asha Parekh directed him in the television serial, " Kora Kagaz" in the 1990s. He was junior to actor Navin Nischol in FTII. He is noted for the song "Yeh Jeevan Hai" in the film "Piya Ka Ghar" (1971) with actress Jaya Bhaduri. The music was composed by Laxmikant-Pyarelal and sung by Kishore Kumar.


title: Anil Dhawan

text: In 2011, Anil Dhawan secured pivotal role in "Main Lakshmi Tere Aangan Ki" on Life OK, starring opposite Aruna Irani.


title: Anil Dhawan

text: On his adoration of actress/director Asha Parekh, who directed him in the television serial "Kora Kogaz" in the 1990s: "I have been a great fan of hers. When I joined the industry in the '70s, she was doing her last film as a heroine, "Heera" (1973). I would hop over to wherever she would be shooting and gawk at her."


title: You Can't Hurry Love

text: "You Can't Hurry Love" is a 1966 song originally recorded by the Supremes on the Motown label. It was released on July 25 of 1966 as the second single from their studio album "The Supremes A' Go-Go" (1966).


title: You Can't Hurry Love

text: Written and produced by Motown production team Holland–Dozier–Holland, the song topped the United States "Billboard" pop singles chart, made the UK top five, and made the top 10 in the Australian Singles Chart. It was released and peaked in late summer and early autumn in 1966. Sixteen years later, it would become a number-one hit in the UK when Phil Collins re-recorded the song. It reached number one on the UK Singles Chart for two weeks beginning in January 1983 and reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 that same month.


title: You Can't Hurry Love

text: "Billboard" named the song number 19 on their list of 100 Greatest Girl Group Songs of All Time. The BBC ranked "You Can't Hurry Love" at number 16 on "The Top 100 Digital Motown Chart", which is based solely on all time UK downloads and streams of Motown releases.