title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: With a philosophical system that centered around life, Ortega y Gasset also stepped out of Descartes' "cogito ergo sum" and asserted "I live therefore I think". This stood at the root of his Kantian-inspired perspectivism, which he developed by adding a non-relativistic character in which absolute truth does exist and would be obtained by the sum of all perspectives of all lives, since for each human being life takes a concrete form and life itself is a true radical reality from which any philosophical system must derive. In this sense, Ortega coined the terms "vital reason" (, "reason with life as its foundation") to refer to a new type of reason that constantly defends the life from which it has surged and "ratiovitalism" (), a theory that based knowledge in the radical reality of life, one of whose essential components is reason itself. This system of thought, which he introduces in "History as System", escaped from Nietzsche's vitalism in which life responded to impulses; for Ortega, reason is crucial to create and develop the above-mentioned project of life.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: For Ortega y Gasset, vital reason is also "historical reason", for individuals and societies are not detached from their past. In order to understand a reality we must understand, as Dilthey pointed out, its history.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: Ortega y Gasset's influence was considerable, not only because many sympathized with his philosophical writings, but also because those writings did not require that the reader be well-versed in technical philosophy.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: Among those strongly influenced by Ortega y Gasset were Luis Buñuel, , , Xavier Zubiri, Ignacio Ellacuría, Emilio Komar, José Gaos, Luis Recasens, , Francisco Ayala, María Zambrano, , Máximo Etchecopar, Pedro Laín Entralgo, , Julián Marías, John Lukacs, Pierre Bourdieu, , Vicente Ferreira da Silva, Vilém Flusser and Félix Martí-Ibáñez.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: The Ortega hypothesis, based on a quote in "The Revolt of the Masses", states that average or mediocre scientists contribute substantially to the advancement of science.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: The American philosopher Graham Harman has recognized Ortega y Gasset as a source of inspiration for his own object-oriented ontology.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: "La rebelión de las masas" ("The Revolt of the Masses") has been translated into English twice. The first, in 1932, is by a translator who wanted to remain anonymous, generally accepted to be J.R. Carey.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: The second translation was published by the University of Notre Dame Press in 1985, in association with W.W. Norton & Co. This translation was by Anthony Kerrigan (translator) and Kenneth Moore (editor), with an introduction by Saul Bellow.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: Mildred Adams is the translator (into English) of the main body of Ortega's work, including "Invertebrate Spain", "Man and Crisis", "What is Philosophy?", "Some Lessons in Metaphysics", "The Idea of Principle in Leibniz and the Evolution of Deductive Theory", and "An Interpretation of Universal History".


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: The Madrid School (also School of Madrid; ) was a group of philosophers, the members of which were students of Ortega y Gasset, who share an intellectual tradition of arguing against naturalism and positivism. Members included José Gaos, Julián Marías, and Xavier Zubiri.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: Ortega y Gasset had considerable influence on writers of the Generation of '27, a group of poets that arose in Spanish literature in the 1920s.


title: José Ortega y Gasset

text: Much of Ortega y Gasset's work consists of course lectures published years after the fact, often posthumously. This list attempts to list works in chronological order by when they were written, rather than when they were published.


title: Accor Arena

text: Accor Arena (originally known as Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy, and previously as AccorHotels Arena; also known as Bercy in competitions where commercial names are prohibited, such as in the Olympic Games) is an indoor sports arena and concert hall located in the neighborhood of Bercy, on boulevard de Bercy, in the 12th arrondissement of Paris, France. The closest métro station is Bercy.


title: Accor Arena

text: Designed by the architectural firm Andrault-Parat, Jean Prouvé and Aydin Guvan, the arena has a pyramidal shape and walls covered with a sloping lawn. It has a seating capacity ranging from 7,000 to 20,300, depending on the event.


title: Accor Arena

text: As part of the 2014–15 renovations efforts, the arena was renamed to Bercy Arena on 1 January 2015. It was again renamed to AccorHotels Arena in October 2015, and again to AccorArena in June 2020.


title: Accor Arena

text: The arena is one of the main venues for concerts in Paris. It has hosted numerous French and international performers over the years. Among those who have performed there the most are French rock singer Johnny Hallyday with 93 solo concerts from 1987 to 2016 and 6 concerts with the group , French singer-songwriter Michel Sardou with 91 concerts from 1989 to 2012, French entertainer Dorothée with 56 concerts from 1990 to 1996 and another one in 2010, Canadian singer Celine Dion with 35 concerts from 1995 to 2017, Canadian-born French singer Mylène Farmer with 33 concerts from 1989 to 2013, Norwegian band A-ha with 2 concerts in 1988 and American singer-songwriter Madonna with 21 concerts from 1990 to 2015. French duo Daft Punk performed and recorded the performance for Alive 2007.


title: Accor Arena

text: The Accor Arena is the main venue for the Paris Masters ATP Tour tennis tournament, and hosts the annual LNB All-Star Game basketball event and the Grand Slam Paris judo tournament. It is also used for many other sports events, such as table tennis, handball, basketball, boxing, gymnastics, track cycling and show jumping.


title: Accor Arena

text: POPB hosted the European gymnastics championship in 2000, the 1991 and 1996 FIBA EuroLeague Final Fours, and the FIBA EuroBasket championship in 1999, among others. It also hosted the 2009–10 EuroLeague Final Four. It also hosted the Masters Karting Paris Bercy star race, from 1993 to 2001, and again in 2011. It was co-host of the 2017 IIHF World Championship and the FIBA Women's EuroBasket 2021.


title: Accor Arena

text: The arena hosted the 2017 European League of Legends Championship Series Summer Finals and the 2019 League of Legends World Championship Finals.


title: Accor Arena

text: On January 24, 2020, it hosted an NBA regular season game between the Milwaukee Bucks and Charlotte Hornets, who would be represented by Frenchman Nicolas Batum. The Detroit Pistons and Chicago Bulls are scheduled to play at the arena on January 19, 2023 during the 2022–23 NBA season.


title: Fish migration

text: Fish migration is mass relocation by fish from one area or body of water to another. Many types of fish migrate on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annually or longer, and over distances ranging from a few metres to thousands of kilometres. Such migrations are usually done for better feeding or to reproduce, but in other cases the reasons are unclear.


title: Fish migration

text: Fish migrations involve movements of schools of fish on a scale and duration larger than those arising during normal daily activities. Some particular types of migration are "anadromous", in which adult fish live in the sea and migrate into fresh water to spawn; and "catadromous", in which adult fish live in fresh water and migrate into salt water to spawn.


title: Fish migration

text: Marine forage fish often make large migrations between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds. Movements are associated with ocean currents and with the availability of food in different areas at different times of year. The migratory movements may partly be linked to the fact that the fish cannot identify their own offspring and moving in this way prevents cannibalism. Some species have been described by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as highly migratory species. These are large pelagic fish that move in and out of the exclusive economic zones of different nations, and these are covered differently in the treaty from other fish.


title: Fish migration

text: Salmon and striped bass are well-known anadromous fish, and freshwater eels are catadromous fish that make large migrations. The bull shark is a euryhaline species that moves at will from fresh to salt water, and many marine fish make a diel vertical migration, rising to the surface to feed at night and sinking to lower layers of the ocean by day. Some fish such as tuna move to the north and south at different times of year following temperature gradients. The patterns of migration are of great interest to the fishing industry. Movements of fish in fresh water also occur; often the fish swim upriver to spawn, and these traditional movements are increasingly being disrupted by the building of dams.


title: Fish migration

text: As with various other aspects of fish life, zoologists have developed empirical classifications for fish migrations. The first two terms have been in long-standing wide usage while others are of more recent coinage:


title: Fish migration

text: Although these classifications were originated for fish, they are, in principle, applicable to any aquatic organism.


title: Fish migration

text: Forage fish often make great migrations between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds. Schools of a particular stock usually travel in a triangle between these grounds. For example, one stock of herrings have their spawning ground in southern Norway, their feeding ground in Iceland and their nursery ground in northern Norway. Wide triangular journeys such as these may be important because forage fish, when feeding, cannot distinguish their own offspring.


title: Fish migration

text: Capelin are a forage fish of the smelt family found in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In summer, they graze on dense swarms of plankton at the edge of the ice shelf. Larger capelin also eat krill and other crustaceans. The capelin move inshore in large schools to spawn and migrate in spring and summer to feed in plankton rich areas between Iceland, Greenland and Jan Mayen. The migration is affected by ocean currents. Around Iceland maturing capelin make large northward feeding migrations in spring and summer. The return migration takes place in September to November. The spawning migration starts north of Iceland in December or January.


title: Fish migration

text: The diagram on the right shows the main spawning grounds and larval drift routes. Capelin on the way to feeding grounds is coloured green, capelin on the way back is blue, and the breeding grounds are red.


title: Fish migration

text: In a paper published in 2009, researchers from Iceland recount their application of an interacting particle model to the capelin stock around Iceland, successfully predicting the spawning migration route for 2008.


title: Fish migration

text: The term highly migratory species (HMS) has its origins in Article 64 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The Convention does not provide an operational definition of the term, but in an annex (UNCLOS Annex 1) lists the species considered highly migratory by parties to the convention. The list includes: tuna and tuna-like species (albacore, bluefin, bigeye tuna, skipjack, yellowfin, blackfin, little tunny, southern bluefin and bullet), wahoo, pomfret, marlin, sailfish, swordfish, saury and oceangoing sharks, dolphins and other cetaceans.


title: Fish migration

text: These high trophic level oceanodromous species undertake migrations of significant but variable distances across oceans for feeding, often on forage fish, or reproduction, and also have wide geographic distributions. Thus, these species are found both inside the exclusive economic zones and in the high seas outside these zones. They are pelagic species, which means they mostly live in the open ocean and do not live near the sea floor, although they may spend part of their life cycle in nearshore waters.


title: Fish migration

text: Highly migratory species can be compared with straddling stock and transboundary stock. Straddling stock range both within an EEZ as well as in the high seas. Transboundary stock range in the EEZs of at least two countries. A stock can be both transboundary and straddling.


title: Fish migration

text: It can be challenging to determine the population structure of highly migratory species using physical tagging. Traditional genetic markers such as short-range PCR products, microsatellites and SNP-arrays have struggled to identify population structure and distinguish fish stocks from separate ocean basins. However, population genomic research using RAD sequencing in yellowfin tuna, albacore, and wahoo has been able to distinguish populations from different ocean basins and reveal fine-scale population structure. Similar population genomics methods have also provided improved insight towards population structure in striped marlin.


title: Fish migration

text: Some of the best-known anadromous fishes are the Pacific salmon species, such as Chinook (king), coho (silver), chum (dog), pink (humpback) and sockeye (red) salmon. These salmon hatch in small freshwater streams. From there they migrate to the sea to mature, living there for two to six years. When mature, the salmon return to the same streams where they were hatched to spawn. Salmon are capable of going hundreds of kilometers upriver, and humans must install fish ladders in dams to enable the salmon to get past. Other examples of anadromous fishes are sea trout, three-spined stickleback, sea lamprey and shad.


title: Fish migration

text: Several Pacific salmon (Chinook, coho and Steelhead) have been introduced into the US Great Lakes, and have become potamodromous, migrating between their natal waters to feeding grounds entirely within fresh water.


title: Fish migration

text: Remarkable catadromous migrations are made by freshwater eels. Examples are the American eel and the European eel which migrate huge distances from freshwater rivers to spawn in the Sargasso sea, and whose subsequent larvae can drift in currents for months and even years before returning to their natal rivers and streams as glass eels or elvers.


title: Fish migration

text: An example of a euryhaline species is the bull shark, which lives in Lake Nicaragua of Central America and the Zambezi River of Africa. Both these habitats are fresh water, yet bull sharks will also migrate to and from the ocean. Specifically, Lake Nicaragua bull sharks migrate to the Atlantic Ocean and Zambezi bull sharks migrate to the Indian Ocean.


title: Fish migration

text: Diel vertical migration is a common behavior; many marine species move to the surface at night to feed, then return to the depths during daytime.


title: Fish migration

text: A number of large marine fishes, such as the tuna, migrate north and south annually, following temperature variations in the ocean. These are of great importance to fisheries.


title: Fish migration

text: Freshwater (potamodromous) fish migrations are usually shorter, typically from lake to stream or vice versa, for spawning purposes. However, potamodromous migrations of the endangered Colorado pikeminnow of the Colorado River system can be extensive. Migrations to natal spawning grounds can easily be 100 km, with maximum distances of 300 km reported from radiotagging studies. Colorado pikeminnow migrations also display a high degree of homing and the fish may make upstream or downstream migrations to reach very specific spawning locations in whitewater canyons.


title: Fish migration

text: Sometimes fish can be dispersed by birds that eat fish eggs. They carry eggs in the digestive tracts and then deposit them in their faeces in a new place. The survival rate for fish eggs that have passed through a bird's digestive tract is low.


title: Fish migration

text: Since prehistoric times humans have exploited certain anadromous fishes during their migrations into freshwater streams, when they are more vulnerable to capture. Societies dating to the Millingstone Horizon are known which exploited the anadromous fishery of Morro Creek and other Pacific coast estuaries. In Nevada the Paiute tribe has harvested migrating Lahontan cutthroat trout along the Truckee River since prehistoric times. This fishing practice continues to current times, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has supported research to assure the water quality in the Truckee can support suitable populations of the Lahontan cutthroat trout.


title: Fish migration

text: Because salmonids live an anadromous lifestyle, they encounter a larger range of viruses from both freshwater and marine ecosystems. Myxovirus resistance (Mx) proteins are part of a GTP-ase family that aid in viral immunity, and previously, rainbow trout ("Oncorhynchus mykiss") have been shown to possess three different Mx genes to aid in viral defence in both environments. The number of Mx genes can differ among species of fish, with numbers ranging from 1 to 9 and some outliers like Gadiformes that have totally lost their Mx genes. A study was performed by Wang et al. (2019) to identify more potential Mx genes that resided in rainbow trout. An additional six Mx genes were identified in that study, now named Mx4-9. They also concluded that the trout Mx genes were "differentially expressed constitutively in tissues" and that this expression is increased during development. The Mx gene family is expressed at high levels in the blood and intestine during development, suggesting they are a key to immune defense for the growing fish. The idea that these genes play an important role in development against viruses suggests they are critical in the trout's success in an anadromous lifestyle.


title: Ceto

text: Ceto (; ) is a primordial sea goddess in Greek mythology, the daughter of Pontus and his mother, Gaia. As a mythological figure, she is considered to be one of the most ancient deities, and bore a host of monstrous children fathered by Phorcys, another child of Gaia and Pontus. The small Solar System body 65489 Ceto was named after her, and its satellite after Phorcys.


title: Ceto

text: Ceto was also variously called Crataeis (Κράταιις, "Krataiis", from κραταιίς "mighty") and Trienus (Τρίενος, "Trienos", from τρίενος "within three years"), and was occasionally conflated by scholars with the goddess Hecate (for whom Crataeis and Trienus are also epithets).


title: Ceto

text: This goddess should not be confused with the minor Oceanid also named Ceto, or with various mythological beings referred to as "ketos" (plural "kētē" or "ketea"); this is a general term for "sea monster" in Ancient Greek.


title: Ceto

text: Besides Ceto, Gaia (Earth) and Pontus had four other offspring, Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys and Eurybia. Hesiod's "Theogony" lists the children of Ceto and Phorcys as the two Graiae: Pemphredo and Enyo, and the three Gorgons: Sthenno, Euryale, and Medusa, with their last offspring being an unnamed serpent (later called Ladon, by Apollonius of Rhodes) who guards the golden apples. Also according to Hesiod, the half-woman, half-snake Echidna was born to a "she" who was probably meant by Hesiod to be Ceto, (with Phorcys the likely father); however the "she" might instead refer to the Oceanid Callirhoe. The mythographer Pherecydes of Athens (5th century BC) has Echidna as the daughter of Phorcys, without naming a mother.


title: Ceto

text: The mythographers Apollodorus and Hyginus, each name a third Graiae, as the offspring of Ceto and Phorcys, Dino and Persis respectively. Apollodorus and Hyginus also make Ladon the offspring of Echidna and Typhon, rather than Ceto and Phorcys.


title: Ceto

text: The Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius cites Phorcys and Ceto as the parents of the Hesperides, but this assertion is not repeated in other ancient sources.


title: Ceto

text: Homer refers to Thoosa, the mother of Polyphemus in the "Odyssey", as a daughter of Phorcys, but does not indicate whether Ceto is her mother.


title: Ceto

text: Pliny the Elder mentions worship of "storied Ceto" at Joppa (now Jaffa), in a single reference, immediately after his mention of Andromeda, whom Perseus rescued from a sea-monster. S. Safrai and M. Stern suggest the possibility that someone at Joppa established a cult of the monster under the name Ceto. As an alternative explanation, they posit that Pliny or his source misread the name "cetus"—or that of the Syrian goddess Derceto.


title: Leon Balogun

text: Leon Aderemi Balogun (born 28 June 1988) is a professional footballer who plays as a defender for Queens Park Rangers and the Nigeria national team. Balogun has previously played for Türkiyemspor Berlin, Hannover 96, Werder Bremen, Fortuna Düsseldorf, Darmstadt 98, Mainz 05, Brighton & Hove Albion, Wigan Athletic and Rangers.


title: Leon Balogun

text: After his contract with 2. Bundesliga side Fortuna Düsseldorf expired in summer 2014, he was without a club for three months until he joined fellow leaguer Darmstadt 98. He signed a contract until the end of the 2014–15 season.


title: Leon Balogun

text: Balogun made his competitive debut for the Sussex club coming on as an early substitute against Manchester United replacing injured Lewis Dunk. The Seagulls went on to beat United 3–2 at Falmer Stadium.


title: Leon Balogun

text: He scored his first goal for the Albion to make it 2–0 against bitter rivals Crystal Palace at Falmer Stadium where he scored in 25 seconds after being subbed on replacing Pascal Groß as a result of a Shane Duffy red card for head butting. The game finished 3–1 to the Albion to claim the boasting rights in the M23 derby.


title: Leon Balogun

text: On 27 August 2019, Balogun played in his first ever EFL Cup match in a 2–1 away win over Bristol Rovers.


title: Leon Balogun

text: Balogun signed for Wigan Athletic on 31 January 2020 on a six-month loan deal. On 25 June 2020, he signed a short term permanent contract with the Latics until the end of the 2019–20 season.


title: Leon Balogun

text: Balogun signed for Scottish Premiership club Rangers on 24 July 2020 on a one-year contract, with an option in the club's favour to extend for a further year. He made his debut for Rangers a week later, on 1 August, in a Scottish Premiership match against Aberdeen where he impressed during a 1–0 win. During February 2021, he deputised at right back after an injury to club captain James Tavernier and the suspension of reserve player Nathan Patterson. Balogun previously played at right back earlier in his career when in Germany.


title: Leon Balogun

text: On 9 April 2021, Balogun signed a new one-year contract with Rangers. He scored his first goal for the club on 27 October 2021, in a Europa League group stage match against Brøndby IF. Balogun left Rangers in June 2022 after his contract expired, with his final appearance coming in their 2022 Scottish Cup Final victory. Rangers legend Ally McCoist commented two months later that he had been "surprised" by Balogun's departure, and suggested that the club should re-sign him.


title: Leon Balogun

text: Balogun signed a one-year contract with Queens Park Rangers on 26 August 2022. He scored his first goal for the club on 22 October 2022, which proved to be the winner, against his former club Wigan Athletic.


title: Leon Balogun

text: Born to a Nigerian father and German mother, Balogun was called up by Nigeria for a March 2014 friendly against Mexico as a replacement for Joseph Yobo. Balogun entered at half-time, but was injured after 20 minutes in a collision with signage on the touchline. He fractured his foot and was set to miss 2–3 months after surgery. However, he later confirmed to news media that his injury did not require surgery.


title: Leon Balogun

text: He played his third game for the country on 13 June 2015 when he featured in a 2–0 win over Chad in the opening game of qualifying for the 2017 African Nations Cup.


title: Leon Balogun

text: In June 2018, he was named in Nigeria's final 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. Balogun played in every minute of the three games Nigeria played in, including a 2–0 win over Iceland, but were eliminated after finishing 3rd in their group.


title: Leon Balogun

text: Balogun was included in Nigeria's squad for the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations. His first appearance in the competition came in Nigeria's second group game against Guinea in which Nigeria won 1–0 to seal qualification into the knockouts. Balogun made 4 appearances in the competition where The Super Eagles finished as bronze medallists.


title: Leon Balogun

text: Balogun was born in Berlin, West Germany to a Nigerian-Yoruba father and a German mother. Balogun was raised Roman Catholic and sent to Catholic school from a young age, but he resented his strict upbringing and became an atheist in his formative years. However, during the hardships of early footballing career Balogun started believing in God again and is now a devout Christian. Balogun speaks fluent English and German, but does not speak Yoruba, the language of his father as his parents tried to assimilate him into German culture.


title: Leon Balogun

text: In November 2019 Balogun said there needed to be a collective response from players to racism in football.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) is an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. UGT is an audience-centered approach to understanding mass communication Diverging from other media effect theories that question "what does media do to people?", UGT focuses on "what do people do with media?"


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: It postulates that media is a highly available product and the audiences are the consumers of the same product.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: This communication theory is positivistic in its approach, based in the socio-psychological communication tradition, and focuses on communication at the mass media scale. The driving question of UGT is: "Why" do people use media and what do they use them for? UGT discusses how users deliberately choose media that will satisfy given needs and allow one to enhance knowledge, relaxation, social interactions/companionship, diversion, or escape.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: UGT assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media. Rather, the audience has power over their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives. Unlike other theoretical perspectives, UGT holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve gratification. This theory would then imply that the media compete against other information sources for viewers' gratification.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: UGT has a heuristic value today because it gives communication scholars a "perspective through which a number of ideas and theories about media choice, consumption, and even impact can be viewed".


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Uses and gratifications theory was developed from a number of prior communication theories and research conducted by fellow theorists.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Gratifications sought (GS) and gratifications obtained (GO) is one of the research issues dealing with U&G theory, and it is a contrast between "what you were seeking from experience" versus "what you actually got from the experience - whether it was a satisfying experience or not."


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: The personal motivations for media use suggest that the media offer gratifications which are expected by audiences. These gratifications can be thought of as experienced psychological effects which are valued by individuals. In 1980s, Palmgreen and Rayburn thus proposed a model of the gratifications sought (GS) and gratifications obtained (GO) process. GS refers to the rewards people seek from medida. GO refers to the rewards people receive from medida.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: In 1980, to investigate the relationship between GS and GO, Palmgreen et al. conducted a study of gratifications sought and obtained from the most popular television news programs. This study investigated the relationship between gratifications sought (GS) from television news and gratifications obtained (GO) from network evening news programs Each GS correlated moderately to strongly with its corre sponding GO for the respondent's most-watched program. Correlations between each GS and noncorresponding GOs were generally much lower. The findings indicate considerable promise for a sought versus obtained conceptualization of uses and gratifi cations.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: In 1985, Palmgreen et al. conducted an investigation that provides support for a process model of uses and gratifications based upon an expectancy-value approach. Results of the study supported the hypothesis that gratifications obtained are strongly related to the beliefs about media attributes but are not related to evaluations of those attributes. Also, the belief X evaluation products are correlated with gratifications obtained. When controls were instituted for certain intervening variables posited by the model, the hypothesized reductions in various relationships occurred. The model has significant implications for media consumption processes. Further, the results demonstrated that gratifications sought and obtained may be measured at the same level of abstraction, contrary to earlier speculation.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: The studies of Katz and his colleagues laid a theoretical foundation of building the uses and gratifications approach. Since then, the research on this subject has been strengthened and extended. The current status of uses and gratifications is still based on Katz's first analysis, particularly as new media forms have emerged in such an electronic information age when people have more options of media use.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Mobile phones, a comparatively new technology, have many uses and gratifications attached to them. Due to their nature of mobility, constant access, and options to both add and access content, this field is expanding with new research on the motivations behind using mobile phones.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: The specific function of text messaging has been studied to find its uses and gratifications and explore any potential gender differences. The researchers proposed seven uses and gratifications; they are listed below, from highest to lowest ranked according to the study's results:


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: The results also displayed gender differences (in an undergraduate population): women scored the UG of accessibility/mobility, relaxation and escape, and coordination higher than the men did. These results may imply social and societal expectations for females around independence but connected to family and friends and/or a tendency for women to rely more on detailed conversation in text messaging than men.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Since many now use their mobile phones as devices to connect to the internet and both contribute and retrieve content, researchers have investigated the UG of smart devices which engage multiple media. The uses and gratifications for contributing mobile content differ from those for retrieving mobile content.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: The Internet provides a new and deep field for exploring UGT. It was found to have three main categories of gratifications: content gratification, process gratification, and social gratification.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Scholars like LaRose et al. utilize UGT to understand Internet usage via a socio-cognitive framework to reduce uncertainties that arise from homogenizing an Internet audience and explaining media usage in terms of only positive outcomes (gratifications). LaRose et al. created measures for self-efficacy and self-disparagement and related UGT to negative outcomes of online behavior (like Internet addiction) as well.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Recent research has looked at social networking services, personal and subject-based blogs, and internet forums put together to study the U&G in posting social content, the relationship between gratifications and narcissism, and the effects of age on this relationship and these gratifications. Users have motivations of the following overall:


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Forums were found to be the main media for venting negative feelings, potentially due to the fact that comparatively, forums are more of a one-way street. Use of social media cures loneliness and satisfies a compulsion for addictive behaviors. Similar to the variables of gender, location, and audience as previous research has found, the U&G differed by category of narcissism. The researchers found four multi-dimensional narcissistic personality types: feeling authoritative or superior, exhibitionistic, exploitative, and often hungry for vanity. The U&G differed depending on the specific type of narcissism a given user had. For instance, those who were exhibitionistic tended to focus on the social media U&G of showing affection, expressing negative feelings, and being recognized. Those who viewed themselves as superior had higher uses and gratifications by cognitive motivations than by recognition. The vain narcissists were most gratified by recognition and attention, and they did not vent negative feelings. Exhibitionists were motivated by all gratifications of social media. No generational differences were found in the narcissistic tendencies.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Basic research finds that socialization motivates use of friend-networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook. The uses and gratifications theory suggests that individual users will continue to be engaged with social networking sites if their gratifications and needs are fulfilled by such tools. Particulars under socialization might be finding old friends, making new friends, learning about events, creating social functions, and feeling connected. Some further exploration has demonstrated that although emotional, cognitive, social, and habitual uses are motivational to use social media, not all uses are consistently gratified. In research examining Facebook groups' users' gratifications in relation to their civic participation offline, 1,715 college students were asked "to rate their level of agreement with specific reasons for using Facebook groups, including information acquisition about campus/community, entertainment/recreation, social interaction with friends and family, and peer pressure/self satisfaction." The study ultimately yielded results through principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation. The results showed that there were four needs for using Facebook groups, "socializing, entertainment, self-status seeking, and information."


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: In a similar case study, one of the research questions posed was “What are students’ needs and gratifications in pervasively adopting social networking sites?” In this study, the researcher used five categories of uses and gratifications theory to explain the motives behind students’ social media use. The categories are as follows: (i) Purposive value (refers to seeking new knowledge and information), (ii) self-discovery (refers to an individual's motivation to understand aspects of one's self through online group participation), (iii) maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity (refers to the social benefits an individual derives from establishing and maintaining contact with other people in an online network), (iv) social enhancement (refers to values an individual derives from gaining acceptance and the approval of others as well as enhancing his/her social status within the online network), and (v) entertainment value (refers to the fun and enjoyment an individual derives from interacting with others in an online network). The results indicated that university students show willingness to use social networking sites when they know that others in their social network group have the same values regarding the benefits of such tools and similar needs to establish or maintain satisfying relationships with others in their network. The need for entertainment and maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity with others yielded the largest statistical impact on students’ intentions to use SNSs in this study. This indicates that such tools are largely considered pleasure-oriented platforms through which enjoyment and pleasure can be obtained, and connections with others facilitated.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Since Facebook is such a widely used platform that offers users a variety of different features and functions, researchers have conducted Uses and Gratifications analysis on specific features of the platform such as photo sharing and streaming music.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Photo Sharing: Researchers have identified six primary needs that users are seeking to gratify by sharing photos on Facebook. Thus, these needs are motivations that can predict photo sharing on Facebook. These specific motivations are: affection, attention seeking, disclosure, habit, information sharing, and social influence These motivations were identified using factor analysis. The same study also used correlation testing to determine that age correlates positively with the motivations of disclosure and social influence and that gender differences exist in the gratifications of habit and disclosure.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Using Facebook to Listen to Music: In addition to photo sharing, Facebook also allows users to publish their music listening history and listen to music through the platform (San Pascual, 2013). Using a principal axis factor analysis, Krause, North, and Heritage (2014) found three primary motivations for using Facebook music listening applications: communication, entertainment, and habitual diversion.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Twitter is an online micro-blogging platform that contains both mass-media functions and interpersonal communication options via sending tweets. Research has found a positive correlation between active time spent on Twitter and the gratification of a need for "an informal sense of camaraderie"—connection—with other users. Furthermore, the frequency of tweets and number of replies and public messages mediated the relationship between Twitter users. This helped increase both use and gratification of the media by satisfying the need for connection.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Snapchat is a photo-sharing social media platform with more than 178 million users worldwide. Similar to other forms of social media, people use Snapchat to fulfill specific media needs, in particular bonding social capital needs. Compared to social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, Snapchat is used more to fulfill private media needs. For example, Phua, Jin, and Kim found that Snapchat interactions were similar to interactions found in close interpersonal relationships. The application has been used to attain emotional support from others, look for advice on important decisions, and seek help to solve problems, satisfying the need to socialize, vent negative feelings, and connect with others.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Many other aspects of UGT are featured in using various websites that are related to social networking. Many review services, such as Yelp.com, have an aspect of social networking, with user profiles and interconnectivity. Many news websites feature the ability to share articles and pictures directly from their page to users' personal social networking pages across platforms. Understandably, information seeking is an overwhelming U&G for these applications, especially the review sites like Yelp.com. Other U&G included entertainment, convenience, interpersonal utility, and passing time. A more sinister aspect of UGT and a reason to use social media establishes a platform for cyberbullying.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: People engage in cyberbullying online and through social media in order to gratify themselves. Cyberbullying fulfills a need to be vengeful and malicious, while avoiding face-to-face contact. Similarly, besides information seeking, users who share news are motivated by U&G of socializing and status seeking, especially if they have had prior experience with social media.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: As with text messaging, similar U&G were studied with instant messaging, or participating in an "online chat," and these results were also mitigated by gender:


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Again, differences were found based on amount of use and gender. Those who used the instant messaging service frequently ("heavy users") were found to be most motivated by affection and sociability; those who did not ("light users") were most motivated by fashion. Women chatted longer and for sociability; men chatted for less time per session and for entertainment and relaxation.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Facebook offers features - such as direct messaging and group chats- that replicate functions that are available to users on instant messaging platforms. Studies using the uses and gratifications framework have found that media users may use social networking platforms because each platform offers its own unique gratifications for the users own unique needs and motivations for using the given platform. Using a comparative analysis between the needs and gratifications derived from Facebook and Instant Messaging, Quan-Haase and Young determined that users use Facebook to say in the know about fun activities/ happenings in user's own personal interpersonal circles, while Instant Messaging is more about developing new relationships and maintaining existing relationships


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: This new branch of research explores the U&G of starting to play games online. Achievement, enjoyment and social interaction are all motivations for starting to play an online game, and their success at the game as well as the extent to which their uses were gratified predicted their continuance in playing.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: In 2017, researchers applied Uses and Gratification Theory to study user behavior among Pokémon Go users. Results show that enjoyment, physical activity, nostalgia, image, normative influences and flow drive various forms of user behavior. In addition, perceived physical risks (but not perceived privacy risks) lead to weaker forms of usage. Findings of this study show that Uses and Gratification theory provides a promising framework to study Augmented Reality, and that U&GT provides a robust framework that can be supplemented with other theories.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: In 2011, a test was conducted with 312 college students to investigate their viewing of animated news. The use of melodramatic animation in news was seen as an emerging technique used in news reporting at the time. The respondents were given 59 statements to rate according to how well each of these statements applies to their viewing of animated news. Factor analysis and hierarchical regression were employed for data analysis.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: In the study, seven motives were identified, through factor analysis, for viewing such animated news videos. These motives included companionship, social interaction, relaxation, information seeking, interpersonal learning, entertainment and pass time.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: The results of hierarchical regression analysis suggest predictive relationships among personality characteristics (sensation seeking and locus of control), the seven motives, the effects of perceived news credibility and newsworthiness, and the intention to share such animated news videos with others.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Research has shown that media taken in for entertainment purposes (i.e., movies, songs, television, etc.) have a wide range of uses and emotional gratifications, and that these are not mutually exclusive but can overlap with each other. Rehman (1983) demonstrated a relationship between gratifications sought and obtained from the movies and movie attendance.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Communicating in online communities enables the interaction of people globally. There are four types of online communities that vary according to the individual’s need’s that need to be satisfied. There’s a community of interest that uses interpersonal communication to interact on a specific topic There's communities of relationship which focus more on building personal and intimate relationships. It can also reunite people regarding more personal life experiences. Communities of transaction involving individuals who seek information buying and selling of products. Finally, there are communities of fantasy that allow participants to create a false reality by creating a new environment and personality.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Media system dependency theory (MSDT or media dependency theory) has been studied as an offshoot of UGT. However, media dependency theory focuses on audiences' goals for media consumption as the source of their dependency; while uses and gratification theory focuses on audience's needs as drivers for media consumption. MSDT states that as a person becomes increasingly dependent on media to satisfy their needs, that media will become more important in a person's life and thereby have increased influence and effects on that person. MSDT acknowledges and builds upon UGT because it is based on the assumptions that people have different uses for media that arise from their needs.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Building on UGT, Social Cognitive Theory helped distinguish GS versus GO stimulus for media consumption. Social cognitive theory explains behavior in terms of the reciprocal causation between individuals, environments, and behaviors. This allows for a more personal application of UGT instead of a large, blanketing assumption about a large audience of mass media. If GO is greater than GS then there will be more audience satisfaction. Lastly, audiences' GS are not always the reality of their GO.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Cultivation theory is concerned with understanding the role that media play in shaping a person's world view—specifically television. Whereas UGT tries to understand the motivations that drive media usage, Cultivation theory focuses on the psychological effects of media. Cultivation theory is used especially to study violence in television and how it shapes audience's understanding of the reality of violence in society. Often, because of media's influence, audiences have a more heightened and unrealistic perception of the amount of violence. A UGT approach may be implemented to Cultivation theory cases to understand why an audience would seek violent media and if audiences seek television violence to satisfy the need of confirmation of their worldview.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Hypodermic needle model (known as the hypodermic-syringe model, transmission-belt model, or magic bullet theory) is a model of communication suggesting that an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver. The model was originally rooted in 1930s behaviourism and largely considered obsolete for a long time, but big data analytics-based mass customisation has led to a modern revival of the basic idea. After that, a shift which rediscovered the relationship between media and people occurred and led to establishment of uses and gratifications approach.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: In media studies, mass communication, media psychology, communication theory, and sociology, media influence and media effects are topics relating to mass media and media culture's effects on individual or an audience's thoughts, attitudes, and behavior. Whether it is written, televised, or spoken, mass media reaches a large audience. Mass media's role and effect in shaping modern culture are central issues for study of culture.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Uses and gratifications has, almost since its inception, been viewed by some as the Pluto of communication theory, which is to say critics argue that it does not meet the standards necessary to be theory. Critics argue that it instead is more of an approach to analysis or a data-collecting strategy.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Using this sociologically-based theory has little to no link to the benefit of psychology due to its weakness in operational definitions and weak analytical mode. It also is focused too narrowly on the individual and neglects the social structure and place of the media in that structure. Ruggiero (2000) wrote that "most scholars agree that early research had little theoretical coherence and was primarily behaviorist and individualist in its methodological tendencies." Blumler (1979) and other critics have argued that line between gratification and satisfaction is blurred, and Blumler wrote that "the nature of the theory underlying uses and gratifications research is not totally clear."


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Despite such criticism, contemporary thought suggests that uses and gratifications as theory may be in the process of gaining new life as a result of new communication technology. While it was easy to question the agency of media consumers who had three television networks from which to choose, it's much harder to argue that a consumer who now has 100 cable channels and Internet-streaming video is not making their own decisions. Sundar & Limperos (2013) write that what had been called the "audience" is now referred to as "users," and "usage implies volitional action, not simply passive reception."


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Among the most criticized tenets of uses and gratifications as theory is the assumption of an active audience. Ruggerio (2000) noted three assumptions that are necessary to the idea of active audience: First, media selection is initiated by the individual. Second, expectations regarding the use of media must be a product of individual predispositions, social interactions and environmental factors. And third, the active audience exhibits goal-directed behavior. This concept of active audience finds, at best, limited acceptance outside of the United States.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Jay Blumler presented a number of interesting points, as to why Uses and Gratifications cannot measure an active audience. He stated, "The issue to be considered here is whether what has been thought about Uses and Gratifications Theory has been an article of faith and if it could now be converted into an empirical question such as: How to measure an active audience?" (Blumler, 1979). Blumler then offered suggestions about the kinds of activity the audiences were engaging with in the different types of media.


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: In 1973, Blumler, McQuail and Brown extended Lasswell's four groups. These included four more primary factors for which one may use the media:


title: Uses and gratifications theory

text: Katz, Gurevitch and Haas, also in 1973, saw mass media as a means by which individuals connect or disconnect themselves with others. They developed 35 needs taken from the largely speculative literature on the social and psychological functions of the mass media and put them into five categories:


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: , known in PAL regions as A.O.T.: Wings of Freedom, is an action hack and slash video game based on the animated series "Attack on Titan", which is based on the Hajime Isayama's manga series of the same name, released for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, and PlayStation Vita in Japan. It was released on February 18, 2016, in Japan. On April 7, Koei Tecmo announced a Western release in North America and Europe for August 2016. Microsoft Windows and Xbox One versions were also revealed. On March 20, 2018, "Attack on Titan 2", the game's sequel, was released worldwide.


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: The game's visuals matches that of the anime series and it features one player fighting multiple enemies. The 3D Maneuvering Gear can be used to ascend to high areas.


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: The game features ten playable characters. Initially, only three can be selected. But as players progress through Attack (story) mode, more characters are unlocked. These characters include Eren Yeager, Mikasa Ackerman, Armin Arlert, Jean Kirschtein, Connie Springer, Sasha Braus, Krista Lenz, Levi, Zoë Hange, and Erwin Smith.


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: The game retells key moments from the "Attack on Titan" manga (chapters 1 through 33), which are also covered by the first season of the anime series, in addition to new scenarios involving the key characters.


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: In 845, when Eren was just 10 years old, the "Colossal Titan" suddenly appeared. Large enough to breach the Wall, it allowed other Titans to rampage through the city. One of them ate Carla, Eren's mother. With the so-called "Armored Titan" now preventing access, Wall Maria was abandoned and humanity were forced to fall back to Wall Rose. Having lost his family, his home and his dreams, Eren swore revenge on the Titans. Aiming to become a member of the Scout Regiment, he joined the "104th Cadet Corps."


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: Five years after Eren enlisted, the "Colossal Titan" suddenly appeared again. Eren tried to fight it alone but failed to defeat it. He returned to headquarters and then takes a squad out himself, but the mission was a failure with Eren suffering a terrible injury to his leg and many soldiers being killed. When Armin was about to be eaten by a Titan, Eren sacrifices his life to save him. Immediately before the Trost District Wall was destroyed by the Colossal Titan, elite members of the Scout Regiment were on a mission outside the Wall. The principal role of the Scout Regiment was to scout beyond the Wall, seeking a way to take back Wall Maria which was lost 5 years previously. Setting up supply bases in destroyed towns and villages, they sought to secure a route for a large force to make their way to the Shiganshina District, where the Wall was destroyed. Fighting with the Titans outside the wall as they go, they sought to secure the route while making new discoveries along the way.


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: The brave resistance offered by the Garrison Regiment, combined with the return of the Scout Regiment, was enough to keep Wall Rose safe from the Titans. Within the Walls, however, the same chaos descended as was experienced when Wall Maria was lost 5 years previously. Not only has the Colossal Titan attacked humanity again, but the damaged Wall has been repaired - unbelievably - by the "power of the Titans." Is Eren an ally for humanity or just another enemy? As the debate continues within the Walls, the Scout Regiment - newly joined by Eren - begin their 57th mission to the outside world.


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: The game was published by Koei Tecmo and developed by Omega Force, and was first announced at Gamescom. A new trailer was unveiled on November 6, 2015, in addition to details about the Collector's Edition. It was released for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, and PlayStation Vita in Japan. Subsequent versions for Xbox One and Microsoft Windows were announced following its Western announcement by Koei Tecmo. Initially the English voice cast were going to record dialogue, however the budget would not allow for this.


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: "Attack on Titan" sold approximately 150,682 copies in its first week in Japan, outselling "Street Fighter V" during that week. As of April 28, Koei Tecmo announced it had sold 280,000 copies in total in Japan. As of Koei Tecmo's 2016/17 FY report, the game has sold in 350,000 copies in the West and a cumulative 700,000 copies worldwide.


title: Attack on Titan (video game)

text: Attack on Titan received generally positive reviews. "Famitsu" four reviewers awarded it consecutive scores of 8/9/9/8, which added up to an overall score of 34/40. PlayStation LifeStyle awarded it a score of 8.0 out of 10, saying "Attack on Titan is an excellent example of a passion project made right." However, in other places, it got mixed reviews.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Aromatherapy is based on the usage of aromatic materials including essential oils and other aroma compounds, with claims for improving psychological and physical well-being. It is offered as a complementary therapy or as a form of alternative medicine, the first meaning alongside standard treatments, the second instead of conventional, evidence-based treatments.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Aromatherapists, people who specialize in the practice of aromatherapy, utilize blends of supposedly therapeutic essential oils that can be used as topical application, massage, inhalation or water immersion. There is no good medical evidence that aromatherapy can either prevent, treat or cure any disease. Placebo-controlled trials are difficult to design as the point of aromatherapy is the smell of the products. There is disputed evidence that it may be effective in combating postoperative nausea and vomiting.


title: Aromatherapy

text: The use of essential oils for therapeutic, spiritual, hygienic and ritualistic purposes goes back to ancient civilizations including the Indians, Chinese, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans who used them in cosmetics, perfumes and drugs. Oils were used for aesthetic pleasure and in the beauty industry. They were a luxury item and a means of payment. It was believed the essential oils increased the shelf life of wine and improved the taste of food.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Oils are described by Dioscorides, along with beliefs of the time regarding their healing properties, in his "De Materia Medica", written in the first century. Distilled cedarwood oil was used by the ancient Egyptians, and the process of distilling essential oils like rose essence was refined by the 11th century Persian scholar Ibn Sina. Hildegard of Bingen used distilled lavender oil for medicinal treatments in the 12th century, and by the 15th century, oils were commonly distilled from various plant sources.


title: Aromatherapy

text: In the era of modern medicine, the naming of this treatment first appeared in print in 1937 in a French book on the subject: "Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales" by , a chemist. An English version was published in 1993. In 1910, Gattefossé burned a hand very badly and later claimed he treated it effectively with lavender oil.


title: Aromatherapy

text: A French surgeon, , pioneered the medicinal uses of essential oils, which he used as antiseptics in the treatment of wounded soldiers during World War II.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Aromatherapy products, and essential oils, in particular, may be regulated differently depending on their intended use. A product that is marketed with a therapeutic use in the US is regulated by the US Food & Drug Administration (FDA); a product with a cosmetic use is not (unless information shows that "it is unsafe when consumers use it according to directions on the label, or in the customary or expected way, or if it is not labeled properly".) The US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulates any aromatherapy advertising claims.


title: Aromatherapy

text: There are no standards for determining the quality of essential oils in the United States; while the term "therapeutic grade" is in use, it does not have a regulatory meaning.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Analysis using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry has been used to identify bioactive compounds in essential oils. These techniques are able to measure the levels of components to a few parts per billion. This does not make it possible to determine whether each component is natural or whether a poor oil has been "improved" by the addition of synthetic aromachemicals but the latter is often signalled by the minor impurities present. For example, linalool made in plants will be accompanied by a small amount of hydro-linalool whilst synthetic linalool has traces of dihydro-linalool.


title: Aromatherapy

text: There is no good medical evidence that aromatherapy can prevent or cure any disease. However, for cancer patients, aromatherapy tests showed mixed results in lowering anxiety and depression symptoms. In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; aromatherapy was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Evidence for the efficacy of aromatherapy in treating medical conditions is poor, with a particular lack of studies employing rigorous methodology. A number of systematic reviews have studied the clinical effectiveness of aromatherapy in respect to pain management in labor, the treatment of post-operative nausea and vomiting, managing challenging behaviors in people suffering from dementia and symptom relief in cancer. However, some studies have come to the conclusion that while it does improve the patient's mood, there is no conclusive evidence on how it works with pain management. Studies have been inconclusive because no straightforward evidence exists. All of these reviews report a lack of evidence on the effectiveness of aromatherapy.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Aromatherapy carries a number of risks of adverse effects and with this in consideration, combined with the lack of evidence of its therapeutic benefit, makes the practice of questionable worth.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Many studies exploring the concerns that essential oils are highly concentrated and can irritate the skin when used in undiluted form often referred to as neat application. Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application such as jojoba oil, olive oil, sweet almond oil or coconut oil. Phototoxic reactions may occur with many cold pressed citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime. Also, many essential oils have chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will, after a number of uses, cause reactions on the skin and more so in the rest of the body). Chemical composition of essential oils could be affected by herbicides if the original plants are cultivated versus wild-harvested. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Most oils can be toxic to humans as well. A report of three cases documented gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender and tea tree oils. The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK issued a rebuttal. The Australian Tea Tree Association, a group that promotes the interests of Australian tea tree oil producers, exporters and manufacturers issued a letter that questioned the study and called on the "New England Journal of Medicine" for a retraction. Another article published by a different research group also documented three cases of gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender oil. A recent research, made by NIEHS scientists and published on Endocrine Society's "Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism", concluded that persistent exposure to lavender products is associated with premature breast development in girls and "that chemicals in lavender oil and tea tree oil are potential endocrine disruptors with varying effects on receptors for two hormones — estrogen and androgen".


title: Aromatherapy

text: Essential oils can be extremely toxic when ingested or absorbed internally. Doses as low as 2 ml have been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of as little as 4 ml. A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja and cedar oils. Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children. As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.


title: Aromatherapy

text: Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interactions with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate-heavy oils like wintergreen may cause bleeding in users taking the anticoagulant warfarin.


title: Aromatherapy

text: In late 2021, an aromatherapy spray was recalled after it was found to be contaminated with "Burkholderia pseudomallei", the bacteria that causes melioidosis, which led to four cases of the disease and two deaths.


title: Pepito Manaloto

text: Pepito Manaloto: Tuloy ang Kuwento () formerly "Pepito Manaloto", "Pepito Manaloto: Ang Tunay na Kwento", "Pepito Manoloto: Kuwento Kuwento" and "Pepito Manaloto: Ang Unang Kuwento", is a Philippine television sitcom series broadcast by GMA Network. Directed by Michael V., it stars Michael V. and Sef Cadayona in the title role. It premiered on March 28, 2010, as "Pepito Manaloto" on the network's Sunday night line up.


title: Pepito Manaloto

text: It was relaunched on September 16, 2012, as "Pepito Manoloto: Ang Tunay na Kuwento". While "Pepito Manaloto: Kuwento Kuwento" was aired on October 17, 2020, and concluded on May 29, 2021. A prequel series, "Pepito Manaloto: Ang Unang Kuwento" was launched on July 17, 2021, and concluded on June 4, 2022. "Pepito Manaloto: Tuloy Ang Kuwento", started airing on June 11, 2022 which featured the return of the original cast.


title: Pepito Manaloto

text: The show follows the life of Pepito Manoloto, who was blessed and won the lottery. Along with him are his wife Elsa; their son and daughter, Chito and Clarissa; Pepito's best friend Patrick; their employees, Maria, Robert and Baby; and their neighbors, Tommy, Deedee and Mimi.


title: Pepito Manaloto

text: Principal photography was halted in March 2020 due to the enhanced community quarantine in Luzon caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The show resumed its programming on September 5, 2020. Principal photography for "Pepito Manaloto: Ang Unang Kuwento" commenced in June 2021.


title: Pepito Manaloto

text: According to AGB Nielsen Philippines' Mega Manila household television ratings, the pilot episode of "Pepito Manaloto" earned a 28.2% rating. While the first episode of the show as "Pepito Manaloto: Ang Tunay na Kuwento" scored a 26.6% rating. The pilot episode of "Pepito Manaloto: Ang Unang Kuwento" a 14.7% rating from Nationwide Urban Television Audience Measurement.


title: Mobile Suit Gundam: The 08th MS Team

text: The series is set in Universal Century 0079 in the jungles of Southeast Asia. The Earth Federation and the Principality of Zeon are fighting a brutal guerrilla war for control of the area and its resources. Zeon's best hope for victory in the region rests with an experimental mobile armor and its pilot, Aina Sahalin. Meanwhile, the Earth Federation Army receive reinforcements in the form of Ensign Shiro Amada, newly named commander of the 08th MS Team. Aina and Shiro know each other from a mutual rescue in space, but when Shiro discovers that Aina is in fact the pilot of the Zeon mobile armor he is arrested for treason.


title: Mobile Suit Gundam: The 08th MS Team

text: The Federation offers Shiro one chance at redemption: he must take the 08th MS Team deep into Zeon held territory to find Zeon's hidden base. With the Zeon backed into a corner, and the Federation dependent on Shiro and his team for victory, the star crossed lovers must decide where their true allegiances lie: with each other, or with their respective sides.


title: Mobile Suit Gundam: The 08th MS Team

text: The series first took shape in 1995. The OVA's first episode released on January 25, 1996. Production went well until director Takeyuki Kanda died on July 27, 1996 in a car crash. GONZO's Umanosuke Iida took over production for the rest of the series. This resulted in delays in releasing the other OVA episodes in Japan. The opening theme is by Chihiro Yonekura while the ending themes are "10 Years After" by Chihiro Yonekura (episodes 1-10), by Chihiro Yonekura (episode 11), and by Chihiro Yonekura (episode 12).


title: Mobile Suit Gundam: The 08th MS Team

text: Mobile Suit Gundam: The 08th MS Team Miller's Report is a compilation film released on August 1, 1998. The film largely focuses on Shiro Amada's court martial over his concern towards the enemy. The film mixes footage from the first eight episodes along with new footage. It also introduces the titular character, Alice Miller, an Earth Federation investigator assigned to gather additional evidence against Shiro. The ending theme is by Chihiro Yonekura. "Miller's Report" was not fully shown on TV in America, although the new scenes were all spliced into the eighth episode for the Toonami broadcast. "Miller's Report" was released on DVD in America separately from the main series, but is included as a fifth disc with all 12 episodes (4 discs) in the Collector's Edition Box Set. Bandai Visual released the film on Blu-ray in 2011. The film explains the plot connection between episodes eight and nine by showing Eledore's return from leave and the team's issuance of new orders.


title: Mobile Suit Gundam: The 08th MS Team

text: "Mobile Suit Gundam 08th MS Team: U.C.0079＋α", a manga adaptation by Umanosuke Iida, was serialized in "Monthly Gundam Ace" from 2007 to 2009 and collected into four volumes.


title: Malappuram district

text: Malappuram (), is one of the 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala, with a coastline of . It is the most populous district of Kerala, which is home to around 13% of the total population of the state. The district was formed on 16 June 1969, spanning an area of about . It is the third-largest district of Kerala by area, as well as the largest district in the state, bounded by Western Ghats and Arabian Sea to either side. The district is divided into seven Taluks: Eranad, Kondotty, Nilambur, Perinthalmanna, Ponnani, Tirur, and Tirurangadi.


title: Malappuram district

text: Malayalam is the most spoken language. The district has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. Malappuram was the first e-literate as well as the first cyber literate district of India. The district has four major rivers, namely Bharathappuzha, Chaliyar, Kadalundippuzha, and Tirur Puzha, out of which the former three are also included in the five longest rivers in Kerala.


title: Malappuram district

text: Malappuram metropolitan area is the fourth largest urban agglomeration in Kerala after Kochi, Calicut, and Thrissur urban areas and the 25th largest in India with a total population of 1.7 million. 44.2% of the district's population reside in the urban areas according to the 2011 census of India. Being home to 4 universities in the state which includes the University of Calicut, Malappuram is a hub of higher education in Kerala. The district contains 2 revenue divisions, 7 taluks, 12 municipalities, 15 blocks, 94 Grama Panchayats, and 16 Kerala Legislative Assembly constituencies in it.


title: Malappuram district

text: During British Raj, Malappuram became the headquarters of European and British troops and it later became the headquarters of the Malabar Special Police (M.S.P), formerly known as Malappuram Special Force formed in 1885, which is also the oldest armed police battalion in the state. The oldest Teak plantation of world at Conolly's plot is situated at Chaliyar valley in Nilambur. The oldest Railway line in the state was laid from Tirur to Chaliyam in 1861, passing through Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Vallikkunnu. The second railway line in the state was also laid in the same year from Tirur to Kuttippuram via Tirunavaya. The Nilambur–Shoranur line, also laid in the colonial era, is one among the shortest and picturesque Short Gauge Railway Lines in India.


title: Malappuram district

text: The term, "Malappuram", which means "over the hill" in Malayalam, derives from geography of Malappuram, the administrative headquarters of the district. The midland area of district is characterised by several undulating hills such as Arimbra hills, Amminikkadan hills, Oorakam Hill, Cheriyam hills, Pandalur hills, and Chekkunnu hills, all of which lie away from the Western Ghats. However, the coconut-fringed sandy coastal plain is an exception for the general hilly nature.


title: Malappuram district

text: The remains of pre-historic symbols including Dolmens, Menhirs, and Rock-cut caves have found from various parts of district. Rock-cut caves have found from Puliyakkode, Thrikkulam, Oorakam, Melmuri, Ponmala, Vallikunnu, and Vengara. The ancient maritime port of Tyndis, which was then a centre of trade with Ancient Rome, is roughly identified with Ponnani, Tanur, and Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu-Chaliyam-Beypore region. Tyndis was a major center of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire. Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of "Tyndis" was located at the northwestern border of "Keprobotos" (Chera dynasty). The region, which lies north of the port at "Tyndis", was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period. According to the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", a region known as "Limyrike" began at "Naura" and "Tyndis". However the Ptolemy mentions only "Tyndis" as the "Limyrike"'s starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 sesterces. Pliny the Elder mentioned that "Limyrike" was prone by pirates. The Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the "Limyrike" was a source of peppers. The River Bharathappuzha (River Ponnani) had importance since Sangam period (1st-4th century CE), due to the presence of Palakkad Gap which connected the Malabar coast with Coromandel coast through inland.


title: Malappuram district

text: The Kurumathur inscription found near Areekode dates back to 871 CE. Three inscriptions written in Old Malayalam those date back to 932 CE, those were found from Triprangode (near Tirunavaya), Kottakkal, and Chaliyar, mention the name of Goda Ravi of Chera dynasty. The Triprangode inscription states about the agreement of Thavanur. Several inscriptions written in Old Malayalam those date back to 10th century CE, have found from Sukapuram near Edappal, which was one of the 64 old Nambudiri villages of Kerala.


title: Malappuram district

text: Descriptions about the rulers of Eranad and Valluvanad regions can be seen in the Jewish copper plates of Bhaskara Ravi Varman (around 1000 CE) and Viraraghava copper plates of Veera Raghava Chakravarthy (around 1225 CE). The Zamorin of Calicut originally belonged to Nediyiruppu at Kondotty in Eranad before he shifted his seat to the neighbouring Kozhikode. Eranad was ruled by a Samanthan Nair clan known as Eradis, similar to the Vellodis of neighbouring Valluvanad and Nedungadis of Nedunganad. The rulers of Eranad were known by the title "Eralppad"/"Eradi". It was the ruler of Eranad ("Eradi" of Nediyiruppu) who established the kingdom of Calicut and developed Kozhikode as a major port city in the Malabar Coast. Just after that, the rulers of Parappanad (Parappanangadi) and the Vettathunadu (Tanur) became vassals of Zamorin. The Parappanad royal family is a cousin dynasty of Travancore royal family. Besides, a larger portion of Valluvanad Kovilakams (Nilambur, Manjeri, Malappuram, Kottakkal, and Ponnani) also became vassals of the Zamorin.


title: Malappuram district

text: The original headquarters of the "Perumbadappu Swaroopam", who later became the Kingdom of Cochin, was at Chithrakoodam in Vanneri, Perumpadappu, which is located 10 km south to Puthuponnani, in Ponnani taluk. When Perumpadappu came under the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut, the rulers of Perumpadappu fled to Kodungallur, and later they moved to Kochi, where they established the Kingdom of Cochin. By 1250-1300 CE, almost whole of the district came under the rule of Zamorin.


title: Malappuram district

text: The Mamankam festival, which had a special political importance in the medieval Kerala, was held at Tirunavaya, which lies on the northern bank of the river Bharathappuzha, in the district. The rivalry that existed between the Nambudiris in the Nambudiri villages of Panniyoor and Chowwara (Sukapuram) was also of great political importance in medieval Kerala. Panniyoor is situated opposite to Kuttippuram town while Sukapuram lies in Edappal. The Zamorins found themselves intervened in the so-called "Koormatsaram" between Nambudiris of Panniyurkur and Chovvarakur. In the most recent event, the Thirumanasseri Nambudiri had assaulted and burned the nearby rival village. The rulers of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu came to help the Chovvaram and raided Panniyur simultaneously. Thirumanasseri Nadu was overran by its neighbours on south and east. The Thirumanasseri Nambudiri appealed to the Zamorin for help, and promised to cede the port of Ponnani, where the river Bharathappuzha merges with Arabian Sea, to Zamorin as the price for his protection. Thirumanassery Nambudiri, the Koya of Kozhikode, and ruler of Vettathunadu supported the Zamorin. Zamorin, looking for such an opportunity, gladly accepted the offer. In his military campaigns into Valluvanadu, the Zamorin received unambiguous assistance from the Muslim Middle Eastern sailors of Beypore, Chaliyam, Tanur, and Kodungallur, and the Koya of Kozhikode. As a reward by the Zamorin, the port at Ponnani became an important trade and cultural centre of middle eastern sailors. It seems that the Muslim judge of Kozhikode offered all help in "money and material" to the Samoothiri to strike at Tirunavaya. The Zamorin continued his conquest to Valluvanadu and conquered the regions of Kottakkal, Malappuram, Manjeri, and Nilambur. It was thus that Perumpadappu and a larger portion of Valluvanad came under the rule of Zamorin. Thus Zamorin became the "Raksha Purusha" of Mamankam, and the ruler of Tirunavaya, neighbouring Triprangode, and Ponnani.


title: Malappuram district

text: Under the Zamorin, the regions included in the district emerged as major centres of foreign maritime trade in medieval Kerala. The Zamorin earned a greater part of his revenue by taxing the spice trade through his ports. Major ports in the kingdom of Zamorin included Parappanangadi, Tanur, and Ponnani. Parappanangadi ("Barburankad"), Tirurangadi ("Tiruwarankad"), Tanur, and Ponnani ("Funan") were also important among the trade settlements under the rule of the Zamorin, according to the 16th-century historical work "Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen". "Thrikkavil Kovilakam" in Ponnani served as a second home for Zamorin. Ponnani acted as the naval headquarters of his kingdom. Malappuram was the headquarters of "Para Nambi", who was a local chieftain of the Zamorin. Other "Kovilakams" of Zamorin included the "Kizhakke Kovilakam" at Kottakkal, "Manjeri Kovilakam" at Manjeri, and "Nilambur Kovilakam" at Nilambur. "Parappanad Kovilakam" at Parappanangadi and "Tanur Kovilakam" at Tanur were vassal royal houses of the Zamorin. However the "Mankada Kovilakam" at Mankada near Angadipuram was the seat of ruling family of the "Valluvanad Rajas". "Azhvanchery Mana", which was the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who was the supreme head of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is located at Athavanad near Kuttippuram, in Tirur Taluk. "Azhvanchery Thamprakkal" and the lord of Kalpakanchery in Kingdom of Tanur were usually present at the "Ariyittu Vazhcha" (Coronation) of a new Zamorin. The Arabs had the monopoly of trade in the early Middle Ages. The original headquarters of the "Palakkad Raja"s were also at Athavanad.


title: Malappuram district

text: The squadron of Vasco da Gama left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching Calicut in May 1498. At the time of the arrival of Vasco da Gama and his Portuguese fleet at Calicut, the Zamorin of Calicut was residing at Ponnani. The Zamorin had provided the Portuguese all facilities for trade. However, the Portuguese provocations on the Arab properties lead to a conflict between the Zamorin and the Portuguese. Furthermore, Ponnani, which was the second headquarters of the Zamorin, was an important target of the Portuguese. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur ("Vettathunadu") became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of Tanur also sided with Cochin. Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th centuries were selected from Vettom. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504). However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature, was born at Tirur ("Vettathunadu") during Portuguese period. The medieval Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics that flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries, was also primarily based in "Vettathunadu" (Tirur region)


title: Malappuram district

text: In 1507, the Portuguese Viceroy Francisco de Almeida raided Ponnani and started building a fortress there in 1585. The district witnessed several battles between Kozhikode naval chiefs, known as the Kunhali Marakkars, and the Portuguese for the monopoly in spice trade. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast. Tanur town was one of the earliest Portuguese colonies in the Indian subcontinent. The towns of Ponnani and Parappanangadi were burnt by the Portuguese in the years 1525 and 1573-74 respectively. Some of the kings of Kingdom of Cochin in 16th century CE, when Cochin became a major power on the Malabar coast, were usually selected from the royal family of Kingdom of Tanur. Portuguese were expelled from Kingdom of Tanur with the Battle at Chaliyam fort of 1571. Chaliyam was the northern border of Vettathunadu. During that battle, the Zamorin received unambigious assistance from the Mappilas of Ponnani, Tanur, and Parappanangadi.


title: Malappuram district

text: The "Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen" written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) in Ponnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast. It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo. In 1532 with the help of the ruler of Tanur, a chapel was built at Chaliyam, together with a house for the commander, barracks for the soldiers, and store-houses for trade. Diego de Pereira, who had negotiated the treaty with the Zamorin, was left in command of this new fortress, with a garrison of 250 men; and Manuel de Sousa had orders to secure its safety by sea, with a squadron of twenty-two vessels. The Zamorin soon repented of having allowed this fort to be built in his dominions, and used ineffectual endeavours to induce the ruler of Parappanangadi, Caramanlii (King of Beypore?) (Some records say that the ruler of Tanur was also with them ) to break with the Portuguese, even going to war against them. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort. The continuous wars lead by the Portuguese on one side and the Zamorin who had the support of the Arab merchants, and the local Nair and Mappila forces on the other side, ultimately lead to the decline of Arab monopoly of foreign trade in the coastal towns. Unmindful of Portuguese opposition, the Zamorin entered into a treaty with the Dutch East India Company on 11 November 1604. This was followed by another treaty in 1608, which confirmed the earlier treaty and the Dutch assured assistance to Zamorin in expelling the Portuguese. The rise of the Dutch monopoly caused the Portuguese dominance also to decline. The cultural renaissance followed by the unrest of the 16th century produced the poets such as Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan and Poonthanam Nambudiri, who were instrumental in the development of Malayalam literature into the current form, and Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, who was also a member of the medieval Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.


title: Malappuram district

text: By the middle of 17th century, the Dutch had monopoly of foreign trade in the ports of Kerala, except for small English factories at Ponnani and Kozhikode. Though the arrival of William Keeling in 1650 was a beginning for the monopoly of the British East India Company in the region, they weren't able to establish supremacy until 1792. During the 18th century, the "de facto" Mysore kingdom rulers Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan unified all smaller feudal states in the Northern Kerala and they were made part of the Kingdom of Mysore. For a short span of time in 1766, Manjeri was the headquarters of Sultan Hyder Ali. When the "Samutiri Kovilakam" at Calicut was besieged by the Mysore Sultan Haidar 'Ali (18th century AD), the Zamorin sent his family members to "Thrikkavil Kovilakam" at Ponnani. The Battle of Tirurangadi was a series of engagements that took place between the British army and Tipu Sultan between 7 and 12 December 1790 at Tirurangadi, during the Third Anglo-Mysore War. In 1792, Tipu Sultan was defeated by English East India Company through Third Anglo-Mysore War, and the Treaty of Seringapatam was agreed. As per this treaty, most of the Malabar Region, including the present-day Malappuram district, was integrated into the English East India Company. The Koyi Thampurans of Travancore belongs to Parappanad Royal Family. It was from this family that the consorts of the Rani's Travancore family were usually selected. The oldest teak plantation of the world at Conolly's plot is just from Nilambur town. It was named in memory of Henry Valentine Conolly, the then district collector of Malabar. The first railway line in the state started its function from Tirur to Chaliyam on 12 March 1861, with the oldest railway station at Tirur.


title: Malappuram district

text: The district was the venue for many of the Mappila revolts (uprisings against the British East India Company in Kerala) between 1792 and 1921. It is estimated that there were about 830 riots, large and small, during this period. During 1841-1921 there were more than 86 revolts against the British officials alone. The district was included in the subdistricts of Eranad, Valluvanad, and Ponnani in South Malabar during the British rule. The Malabar Special Police was headquartered at Malappuram. MSP is also the oldest armed police battalion in the state. The British had established Haig Barracks on the top of Malappuram city, at the bank of the Kadalundi River, to station their forces.


title: Malappuram district

text: The Malabar district political conference of Indian National Congress held at Manjeri on 28 April 1920 strengthened Indian independence movement and national movement in British Malabar. That conference declared that the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms were not able to satisfy the needs of British India. It also argued for land reform to seek solutions for the problems caused by the tenancy that existed in Malabar. However, the decision widened the drift between extremists and moderates within the Congress. The conference resulted in the dissatisfaction of landlords with the Indian National Congress. It caused the leadership of the Malabar district Congress Committee to come under the control of the extremists who stood for labourers and the middle class.


title: Malappuram district

text: Malabar Rebellion was the last and important among the revolts. The Battle of Pookkottur adorns an important role in the rebellion. After the army, police, and British authorities fled, declaration of independence took place over 200 villages in Eranad, Valluvanad, Ponnani, and Kozhikode taluks by 28 August 1921. However less than six months after the declaration of autonomy, the East India Company reclaimed the territory and annexed it to the British Raj. The Wagon tragedy took place following the Malabar rebellion, where 64 prisoners died on 20 November 1921.


title: Malappuram district

text: The erstwhile Madras presidency became Madras State following the independence of India in 1947. Malappuram revenue division was one of the five revenue divisions in the erstwhile Malabar District with the jurisdiction of Eranad (Manjeri) and Valluvanad (Perinthalmanna) Taluks. The other four revenue divisions in the Malabar district were Thalassery, Kozhikode, Palakkad, and Fort Cochin. On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed on linguistic basis. The district of Malappuram was formed with four subdistricts (Eranad, Perinthalmanna, Tirur, and Ponnani), four towns, fourteen developmental blocks, and 95 Gram panchayats at the time. Later, Tirur Taluk was bifurcated to form Tirurangadi Taluk, and Eranad Taluk was trifurcated to form two more Taluks namely Nilambur and Kondotty. The University of Calicut, which is also the second-oldest existing university in Kerala, and the Calicut International Airport, which is also the second-oldest existing airport in the state, started functioning at Tenhipalam and Karipur, in the years 1968 and 1988, respectively. In the 1970s, the oil reserves in the Persian Gulf countries were opened to commercial extraction and thousands of unskilled workers migrated to the gulf. They sent money home, supporting the rural economy, and by the late 20th century, the region attained First World health standards and near-universal literacy.


title: Malappuram district

text: Bounded by Kozhikode district to the northwest, Wayanad district to the northeast, Nilgiri hills to the east, Palakkad district to the southeast, Thrissur district to the southwest, and Arabian Sea to the west, Malappuram has a total geographical area of 3,554 km, which ranks third in the state in terms of area. The district possesses 9.15% of the total area of the state. The district is located at 75°E - 77°E longitude and 10°N - 12°N latitude on the geographical map. Similar to other parts of Kerala, Malappuram also has a coastal area (lowland) bounded by Arabian Sea on the west, a midland at the centre, and a hilly area (highland), bounded by Western Ghats on the east. Unlike other districts of Kerala, hilly areas are widely seen in the midland area too. The 2,554 m high Mukurthi peak, which is situated in the border of Nilambur Taluk and Ooty Taluk, and is also the fifth-highest peak in South India as well as the third-highest in Kerala after Anamudi (2,696 m) and Meesapulimala (2,651 m), is the highest point of elevation in Malappuram district. It is also the highest peak in Kerala outside the Idukki district. The 2,383 high Anginda peak, which is located closer to Malappuram-Palakkad-Nilgiris district border is the second-highest peak. Vavul Mala, a 2,339 m high peak situated on the trijunction of Nilambur Taluk of Malappuram, Wayanad, and Thamarassery Taluk of Kozhikode districts, is the third-highest point of elevation in the district.


title: Malappuram district

text: On the basis of topography, geology, soils, climate, and natural vegetation, the district is divided into 5 sub-micro regions:


title: Malappuram district

text: The Malappuram coast lies all along the coastal tract of Malappuram from Vallikunnu at the north to Perumpadappu at the south. It makes its boundaries with the Kozhikode coast to the north, Malappuram undulating plain to the east, the Thrissur coast to the south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. The region is drained by the major rivers like Chaliyar, Kadalundi, Bharathappuzha, Tirurpuzha, etc. canals and backwaters. The region is coconut-fringed. The coastal plain slopes towards the west very gently. The major towns including Ponnani, Edappal, Tirur, Tanur, Tirurangadi, and Parappanangadi lies in this region. The maximum height of this region is located at Kalpakanchery village (104 m) in Tirur Taluk.


title: Malappuram district

text: The Malappuram undulating plain, lying parallel to the coast, makes it boundaries with Nadapuram-Mavur undulating plains to the north, Chaliyar river basin, and Perinthalmanna undulating uplands to the east, Pattambi undulating plain to the south and Malappuram coast to the west. Nenmini hill (478 m) at Kannamangalam is the highest point and the Vazhayur in the northern part (95 m) is the lowest in the region. A few hills and slopes are seen here.


title: Malappuram district

text: The Chaliyar River Basin makes its boundaries by Nilambur forested hills to its north and east, Perinthalmanna undulating uplands to the south, and Malappuram undulating plain to its east. It falls under the middle course of Chaliyar and has ups and downs in the form of isolated hills.


title: Malappuram district

text: The Nilambur forested hills, also referred to as the "Nilambur valley" in colonial records, make its boundary with Kozhikode forested hills and Wayanad forested hills to the north, Tamil Nadu to the east, Mannarkad-Palakkad forested hills to the south, and the Chaliyar river basin to the west. It is a part of the Western Ghats. Several peaks having an elevation of more than 1000m from the sea level are seen here. The highest altitude of this region is at Mukurthi (2594 m), which lies east of the Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary on the border of Kerala with Tamil Nadu. The lowest point is located at Mampad (115 m). The hilly forested area of Nilambur forms a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.


title: Malappuram district

text: The Perinthalmanna undulating uplands make its boundary with Chaliyar river basin to the north, Mannarkad-Palakkad forested hills to the east, Palakkad Gap to the south, and Malappuram undulating plain to the west. A number of small isolated hills are seen here. Kodikuthimala is one among them. The Kadalundi River drains this region. The maximum height of the region is 610 m at Makkaraparamba.


title: Malappuram district

text: Malappuram ranks fifth in the length of coastline among the districts of Kerala having a coastline of 70 km (11.87% of the total coastline of the state). The coastal belt of Malappuram lies in three municipal towns, namely Tanur, Ponnani, and Parappanangadi, and eight Gram panchayats namely Vallikkunnu, Tanalur, Niramaruthur, Vettom, Mangalam, Purathur, Veliyankode, and Perumbadappu. Ponnani, Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Kootayi, all of which lie in the western part of the district, are the major fishing centres. The sea coast of the district is filled with marine wealth. Apart from being a favourite destination of the Arab traders earlier, Ponnani was also a captivating destination for many Muslim spiritual leaders, who were instrumental in the propagation of Islam here. The port city is also known as "The Little Mecca of Malabar" as well as "The City of Gold coins". During the months of February/April, thousands of migratory birds arrive here. Located close to Ponnani is Biyyam Kayal, a placid, green-fringed waterway with a water sports facility. The Conolly Canal meets with Arabian sea at Puthuponnani. The coastal town of Tanur was the capital of the "Kingdom of Vettathunad" in the early medieval period, and is known for Keraladeshpuram Temple. Parappanangadi was the seat of the ruling families of Parappanad kingdom in the early medieval period.