title: Memristor

text: Chua and Kang later generalized the concept to memristive systems. Such a system comprises a circuit, of multiple conventional components, which mimics key properties of the ideal memristor component and is also commonly referred to as a memristor. Several such memristor system technologies have been developed, notably ReRAM.


title: Memristor

text: The identification of memristive properties in electronic devices has attracted controversy. Experimentally, the ideal memristor has yet to be demonstrated.


title: Memristor

text: Chua in his 1971 paper identified a theoretical symmetry between the non-linear resistor (voltage vs. current), non-linear capacitor (voltage vs. charge), and non-linear inductor (magnetic flux linkage vs. current). From this symmetry he inferred the characteristics of a fourth fundamental non-linear circuit element, linking magnetic flux and charge, which he called the memristor. In contrast to a linear (or non-linear) resistor, the memristor has a dynamic relationship between current and voltage, including a memory of past voltages or currents. Other scientists had proposed dynamic memory resistors such as the memistor of Bernard Widrow, but Chua introduced a mathematical generality.


title: Memristor

text: The memristor was originally defined in terms of a non-linear functional relationship between magnetic flux linkage Φ("t") and the amount of electric charge that has flowed, "q"("t"):


title: Memristor

text: The "magnetic flux linkage", Φ, is generalized from the circuit characteristic of an inductor. It "does not" represent a magnetic field here. Its physical meaning is discussed below. The symbol Φ may be regarded as the integral of voltage over time.


title: Memristor

text: In the relationship between Φ and q, the derivative of one with respect to the other depends on the value of one or the other, and so each memristor is characterized by its memristance function describing the charge-dependent rate of change of flux with charge.


title: Memristor

text: Substituting the flux as the time integral of the voltage, and charge as the time integral of current, the more convenient forms are;


title: Memristor

text: To relate the memristor to the resistor, capacitor, and inductor, it is helpful to isolate the term "M"("q"), which characterizes the device, and write it as a differential equation.


title: Memristor

text: The above table covers all meaningful ratios of differentials of "I", "q", "Φ", and "V". No device can relate "dI" to "dq", or "dΦ" to "dV", because "I" is the derivative of "q" and "Φ" is the integral of "V".


title: Memristor

text: It can be inferred from this that memristance is charge-dependent resistance. If "M"("q"("t")) is a constant, then we obtain Ohm's Law "R"("t") = "V"("t")/"I"("t"). If "M"("q"("t")) is nontrivial, however, the equation is not equivalent because "q"("t") and "M"("q"("t")) can vary with time. Solving for voltage as a function of time produces


title: Memristor

text: This equation reveals that memristance defines a linear relationship between current and voltage, as long as "M" does not vary with charge. Nonzero current implies time varying charge. Alternating current, however, may reveal the linear dependence in circuit operation by inducing a measurable voltage without net charge movement—as long as the maximum change in "q" does not cause much change in "M".


title: Memristor

text: Furthermore, the memristor is static if no current is applied. If "I"("t") = 0, we find "V"("t") = 0 and "M"("t") is constant. This is the essence of the memory effect.


title: Memristor

text: As long as "M"("q"("t")) varies little, such as under alternating current, the memristor will appear as a constant resistor. If "M"("q"("t")) increases rapidly, however, current and power consumption will quickly stop.


title: Memristor

text: "M"("q") is physically restricted to be positive for all values of "q" (assuming the device is passive and does not become superconductive at some "q"). A negative value would mean that it would perpetually supply energy when operated with alternating current.


title: Memristor

text: In order to understand the nature of memristor function, some knowledge of fundamental circuit theoretic concepts is useful, starting with the concept of device modeling.


title: Memristor

text: Engineers and scientists seldom analyze a physical system in its original form. Instead, they construct a model which approximates the behaviour of the system. By analyzing the behaviour of the model, they hope to predict the behaviour of the actual system. The primary reason for constructing models is that physical systems are usually too complex to be amenable to a practical analysis.


title: Memristor

text: In the 20th century, work was done on devices where researchers did not recognize the memristive characteristics. This has raised the suggestion that such devices should be recognised as memristors. Pershin and Di Ventra have proposed a test that can help to resolve some of the long-standing controversies about whether an ideal memristor does actually exist or is a purely mathematical concept.


title: Memristor

text: The rest of this article primarily addresses memristors as related to ReRAM devices, since the majority of work since 2008 has been concentrated in this area.


title: Memristor

text: Dr. Paul Penfield, in a 1974 MIT technical report mentions the memristor in connection with Josephson junctions. This was an early use of the word "memristor" in the context of a circuit device.


title: Memristor

text: where formula_9 is a constant based on the physical superconducting materials, formula_10 is the voltage across the junction and formula_11 is the current through the junction.


title: Memristor

text: Through the late 20th century, research regarding this phase-dependent conductance in Josephson junctions was carried out. A more comprehensive approach to extracting this phase-dependent conductance appeared with Peotta and DiVentra's seminal paper in 2014.


title: Memristor

text: Due to the practical difficulty of studying the ideal memristor, we will discuss other electrical devices which can be modelled using memristors. For a mathematical description of a memristive device (systems), see Theory.


title: Memristor

text: A discharge tube can be modelled as a memristive device, with resistance being a function of the number of conduction electrons formula_12.


title: Memristor

text: formula_14 is the voltage across the discharge tube, formula_11 is the current flowing through it and formula_12 is the number of conduction electrons. A simple memristance function is formula_17. formula_18 and formula_19 are parameters depending on the dimensions of the tube and the gas fillings. An experimental identification of memristive behaviour is the "pinched hysteresis loop" in the formula_20 plane. For an experiment that shows such a characteristic for a common discharge tube, see "A physical memristor Lissajous figure" (YouTube). The video also illustrates how to understand deviations in the pinched hysteresis characteristics of physical memristors.


title: Memristor

text: formula_22 is a material constant, formula_23 is the absolute body temperature of the thermistor, formula_24 is the ambient temperature (both temperatures in Kelvin), formula_25 denotes the cold temperature resistance at formula_26, formula_27 is the heat capacitance and formula_28 is the dissipation constant for the thermistor.


title: Memristor

text: A fundamental phenomenon that has hardly been studied is memristive behaviour in pn-junctions. The memristor plays a crucial role in mimicking the charge storage effect in the diode base, and is also responsible for the conductivity modulation phenomenon (that is so important during forward transients).


title: Memristor

text: In 2008, a team at HP Labs found experimental evidence for the Chua's memristor based on an analysis of a thin film of titanium dioxide, thus connecting the operation of ReRAM devices to the memristor concept. According to HP Labs, the memristor would operate in the following way: the memristor's electrical resistance is not constant but depends on the current that had previously flowed through the device, i.e., its present resistance depends on how much electric charge has previously flowed through it and in what direction; the device remembers its history—the so-called "non-volatility property". When the electric power supply is turned off, the memristor remembers its most recent resistance until it is turned on again.


title: Memristor

text: Following this claim, Leon Chua has argued that the memristor definition could be generalized to cover all forms of two-terminal non-volatile memory devices based on resistance switching effects. Chua also argued that the memristor is the oldest known circuit element, with its effects predating the resistor, capacitor, and inductor. There are, however, some serious doubts as to whether a genuine memristor can actually exist in physical reality. Additionally, some experimental evidence contradicts Chua's generalization since a non-passive nanobattery effect is observable in resistance switching memory. A simple test has been proposed by Pershin and Di Ventra to analyze whether such an ideal or generic memristor does actually exist or is a purely mathematical concept. Up to now, there seems to be no experimental resistance switching device (ReRAM) which can pass the test.


title: Memristor

text: These devices are intended for applications in nanoelectronic memory devices, computer logic, and neuromorphic/neuromemristive computer architectures. In 2013, Hewlett-Packard CTO Martin Fink suggested that memristor memory may become commercially available as early as 2018. In March 2012, a team of researchers from HRL Laboratories and the University of Michigan announced the first functioning memristor array built on a CMOS chip.


title: Memristor

text: According to the original 1971 definition, the memristor is the fourth fundamental circuit element, forming a non-linear relationship between electric charge and magnetic flux linkage. In 2011, Chua argued for a broader definition that includes all two-terminal non-volatile memory devices based on resistance switching. Williams argued that MRAM, phase-change memory and ReRAM are memristor technologies. Some researchers argued that biological structures such as blood and skin fit the definition. Others argued that the memory device under development by HP Labs and other forms of ReRAM are not memristors, but rather part of a broader class of variable-resistance systems, and that a broader definition of memristor is a scientifically unjustifiable land grab that favored HP's memristor patents.


title: Memristor

text: In 2011, Meuffels and Schroeder noted that one of the early memristor papers included a mistaken assumption regarding ionic conduction. In 2012, Meuffels and Soni discussed some fundamental issues and problems in the realization of memristors. They indicated inadequacies in the electrochemical modeling presented in the "Nature" article "The missing memristor found" because the impact of concentration polarization effects on the behavior of metal−TiO−metal structures under voltage or current stress was not considered. This critique was referred to by Valov "et al." in 2013.


title: Memristor

text: In a kind of thought experiment, Meuffels and Soni furthermore revealed a severe inconsistency: If a current-controlled memristor with the so-called "non-volatility property" exists in physical reality, its behavior would violate Landauer's principle, which places a limit on the minimum amount of energy required to change "information" states of a system. This critique was finally adopted by Di Ventra and Pershin in 2013.


title: Memristor

text: Within this context, Meuffels and Soni pointed to a fundamental thermodynamic principle: Non-volatile information storage requires the existence of free-energy barriers that separate the distinct internal memory states of a system from each other; otherwise, one would be faced with an "indifferent" situation, and the system would arbitrarily fluctuate from one memory state to another just under the influence of thermal fluctuations. When unprotected against thermal fluctuations, the internal memory states exhibit some diffusive dynamics, which causes state degradation. The free-energy barriers must therefore be high enough to ensure a low bit-error probability of bit operation. Consequently, there is always a lower limit of energy requirement – depending on the required bit-error probability – for intentionally changing a bit value in any memory device.


title: Memristor

text: where "u"("t") is an input signal, and "y"("t") is an output signal. The vector x represents a set of "n" state variables describing the different internal memory states of the device. ẋ is the time-dependent rate of change of the state vector x with time.


title: Memristor

text: When one wants to go beyond mere curve fitting and aims at a real physical modeling of non-volatile memory elements, e.g., resistive random-access memory devices, one has to keep an eye on the aforementioned physical correlations. To check the adequacy of the proposed model and its resulting state equations, the input signal "u"("t") can be superposed with a stochastic term "ξ"("t"), which takes into account the existence of inevitable thermal fluctuations. The dynamic state equation in its general form then finally reads:


title: Memristor

text: where "ξ"("t") is, e.g., white Gaussian current or voltage noise. On base of an analytical or numerical analysis of the time-dependent response of the system towards noise, a decision on the physical validity of the modeling approach can be made, e.g., would the system be able to retain its memory states in power-off mode?


title: Memristor

text: Such an analysis was performed by Di Ventra and Pershin with regard to the genuine current-controlled memristor. As the proposed dynamic state equation provides no physical mechanism enabling such a memristor to cope with inevitable thermal fluctuations, a current-controlled memristor would erratically change its state in course of time just under the influence of current noise. Di Ventra and Pershin thus concluded that memristors whose resistance (memory) states depend solely on the current or voltage history would be unable to protect their memory states against unavoidable Johnson–Nyquist noise and permanently suffer from information loss, a so-called "stochastic catastrophe". A current-controlled memristor can thus not exist as a solid-state device in physical reality.


title: Memristor

text: The above-mentioned thermodynamic principle furthermore implies that the operation of two-terminal non-volatile memory devices (e.g. "resistance-switching" memory devices (ReRAM)) cannot be associated with the memristor concept, i.e., such devices cannot by itself remember their current or voltage history. Transitions between distinct internal memory or resistance states are of probabilistic nature. The probability for a transition from state {i} to state {j} depends on the height of the free-energy barrier between both states. The transition probability can thus be influenced by suitably driving the memory device, i.e., by "lowering" the free-energy barrier for the transition {i} → {j} by means of, for example, an externally applied bias.


title: Memristor

text: A "resistance switching" event can simply be enforced by setting the external bias to a value above a certain threshold value. This is the trivial case, i.e., the free-energy barrier for the transition {i} → {j} is reduced to zero. In case one applies biases below the threshold value, there is still a finite probability that the device will switch in course of time (triggered by a random thermal fluctuation), but – as one is dealing with probabilistic processes – it is impossible to predict when the switching event will occur. That is the basic reason for the stochastic nature of all observed resistance-switching (ReRAM) processes. If the free-energy barriers are not high enough, the memory device can even switch without having to do anything.


title: Memristor

text: When a two-terminal non-volatile memory device is found to be in a distinct resistance state {j}, there exists therefore no physical one-to-one relationship between its present state and its foregoing voltage history. The switching behavior of individual non-volatile memory devices thus cannot be described within the mathematical framework proposed for memristor/memristive systems.


title: Memristor

text: An extra thermodynamic curiosity arises from the definition that memristors/memristive devices should energetically act like resistors. The instantaneous electrical power entering such a device is completely dissipated as Joule heat to the surrounding, so no extra energy remains in the system after it has been brought from one resistance state x to another one x. Thus, the internal energy of the memristor device in state x, "U"("V", "T", x), would be the same as in state x, "U"("V", "T", x), even though these different states would give rise to different device's resistances, which itself must be caused by physical alterations of the device's material.


title: Memristor

text: Other researchers noted that memristor models based on the assumption of linear ionic drift do not account for asymmetry between set time (high-to-low resistance switching) and reset time (low-to-high resistance switching) and do not provide ionic mobility values consistent with experimental data. Non-linear ionic-drift models have been proposed to compensate for this deficiency.


title: Memristor

text: A 2014 article from researchers of ReRAM concluded that Strukov's (HP's) initial/basic memristor modeling equations do not reflect the actual device physics well, whereas subsequent (physics-based) models such as Pickett's model or Menzel's ECM model (Menzel is a co-author of that article) have adequate predictability, but are computationally prohibitive. As of 2014, the search continues for a model that balances these issues; the article identifies Chang's and Yakopcic's models as potentially good compromises.


title: Memristor

text: Martin Reynolds, an electrical engineering analyst with research outfit Gartner, commented that while HP was being sloppy in calling their device a memristor, critics were being pedantic in saying that it was not a memristor.


title: Memristor

text: Chua suggested experimental tests to determine if a device may properly be categorized as a memristor:


title: Memristor

text: According to Chua all resistive switching memories including ReRAM, MRAM and phase-change memory meet these criteria and are memristors. However, the lack of data for the Lissajous curves over a range of initial conditions or over a range of frequencies complicates assessments of this claim.


title: Memristor

text: Experimental evidence shows that redox-based resistance memory (ReRAM) includes a nanobattery effect that is contrary to Chua's memristor model. This indicates that the memristor theory needs to be extended or corrected to enable accurate ReRAM modeling.


title: Memristor

text: In 2008, researchers from HP Labs introduced a model for a memristance function based on thin films of titanium dioxide. For R ≪ R the memristance function was determined to be


title: Memristor

text: where R represents the high resistance state, R represents the low resistance state, "μ" represents the mobility of dopants in the thin film, and "D" represents the film thickness. The HP Labs group noted that "window functions" were necessary to compensate for differences between experimental measurements and their memristor model due to non-linear ionic drift and boundary effects.


title: Memristor

text: For some memristors, applied current or voltage causes substantial change in resistance. Such devices may be characterized as switches by investigating the time and energy that must be spent to achieve a desired change in resistance. This assumes that the applied voltage remains constant. Solving for energy dissipation during a single switching event reveals that for a memristor to switch from "R" to "R" in time "T" to "T", the charge must change by ΔQ = "Q"−"Q".


title: Memristor

text: Substituting "V" = "I"("q")"M"("q"), and then ∫d"q"/"V" = ∆"Q"/"V" for constant "V"To produces the final expression. This power characteristic differs fundamentally from that of a metal oxide semiconductor transistor, which is capacitor-based. Unlike the transistor, the final state of the memristor in terms of charge does not depend on bias voltage.


title: Memristor

text: The type of memristor described by Williams ceases to be ideal after switching over its entire resistance range, creating hysteresis, also called the "hard-switching regime". Another kind of switch would have a cyclic "M"("q") so that each "off"-"on" event would be followed by an "on"-"off" event under constant bias. Such a device would act as a memristor under all conditions, but would be less practical.


title: Memristor

text: where "u"("t") is an input signal, "y"("t") is an output signal, the vector x represents a set of "n" state variables describing the device, and "g" and "f" are continuous functions. For a current-controlled memristive system the signal "u"("t") represents the current signal "i"("t") and the signal "y"("t") represents the voltage signal "v"("t"). For a voltage-controlled memristive system the signal "u"("t") represents the voltage signal "v"("t") and the signal "y"("t") represents the current signal "i"("t").


title: Memristor

text: The "pure" memristor is a particular case of these equations, namely when "x" depends only on charge (x = "q") and since the charge is related to the current via the time derivative d"q"/d"t" = "i"("t"). Thus for "pure" memristors "f" (i.e. the rate of change of the state) must be equal or proportional to the current "i"("t") .


title: Memristor

text: One of the resulting properties of memristors and memristive systems is the existence of a pinched hysteresis effect. For a current-controlled memristive system, the input "u"("t") is the current "i"("t"), the output "y"("t") is the voltage "v"("t"), and the slope of the curve represents the electrical resistance. The change in slope of the pinched hysteresis curves demonstrates switching between different resistance states which is a phenomenon central to ReRAM and other forms of two-terminal resistance memory. At high frequencies, memristive theory predicts the pinched hysteresis effect will degenerate, resulting in a straight line representative of a linear resistor. It has been proven that some types of non-crossing pinched hysteresis curves (denoted Type-II) cannot be described by memristors.


title: Memristor

text: The concept of memristive networks was first introduced by Leon Chua in his 1965 paper "Memristive Devices and Systems." Chua proposed the use of memristive devices as a means of building artificial neural networks that could simulate the behavior of the human brain. In fact, memristive devices in circuits have complex interactions due to Kirchhoff's laws.


title: Memristor

text: A memristive network is a type of artificial neural network that is based on memristive devices, which are electronic components that exhibit the property of memristance.


title: Memristor

text: In a memristive network, the memristive devices are used to simulate the behavior of neurons and synapses in the human brain. The network consists of layers of memristive devices, each of which is connected to other layers through a set of weights. These weights are adjusted during the training process, allowing the network to learn and adapt to new input data.


title: Memristor

text: One advantage of memristive networks is that they can be implemented using relatively simple and inexpensive hardware, making them an attractive option for developing low-cost artificial intelligence systems. They also have the potential to be more energy efficient than traditional artificial neural networks, as they can store and process information using less power. However, the field of memristive networks is still in the early stages of development, and more research is needed to fully understand their capabilities and limitations.


title: Memristor

text: there is an exact and in closed form equation (Caravelli-Traversa-Di Ventra equation, CTD) which describes the evolution of the internal memory of the network for each device.


title: Memristor

text: For a simple memristor model (but not realistic) of a switch between two resistance values, given by the Williams-Strukov model formula_34, with formula_35,


title: Memristor

text: where formula_37 is the diagonal matrix with elements formula_38 on the diagonal, formula_39 are based on the memristors physical parameters. The vector formula_40 is the vector of voltage generators in series to the memristors. The circuit topology enters only in the projector operator formula_41, defined in terms of the cycle matrix of the graph. The equation provides a concise mathematical description of the interactions due to Kirchhoff 's laws. Interestingly, the equation shares many properties in common with a Hopfield network, such as the existence of Lyapunov functions and classical tunnelling phenomena. In the context of memristive networks, the CTD equation may be used to predict the behavior of memristive devices under different operating conditions, or to design and optimize memristive circuits for specific applications.


title: Memristor

text: Some researchers have raised the question of the scientific legitimacy of HP's memristor models in explaining the behavior of ReRAM. and have suggested extended memristive models to remedy perceived deficiencies.


title: Memristor

text: One example attempts to extend the memristive systems framework by including dynamic systems incorporating higher-order derivatives of the input signal "u"("t") as a series expansion


title: Memristor

text: where "m" is a positive integer, "u"("t") is an input signal, "y"("t") is an output signal, the vector x represents a set of "n" state variables describing the device, and the functions "g" and "f" are continuous functions. This equation produces the same zero-crossing hysteresis curves as memristive systems but with a different frequency response than that predicted by memristive systems.


title: Memristor

text: Another example suggests including an offset value formula_43 to account for an observed nanobattery effect which violates the predicted zero-crossing pinched hysteresis effect.


title: Memristor

text: Interest in the memristor revived when an experimental solid-state version was reported by R. Stanley Williams of Hewlett Packard in 2007. The article was the first to demonstrate that a solid-state device could have the characteristics of a memristor based on the behavior of nanoscale thin films. The device neither uses magnetic flux as the theoretical memristor suggested, nor stores charge as a capacitor does, but instead achieves a resistance dependent on the history of current.


title: Memristor

text: Although not cited in HP's initial reports on their TiO memristor, the resistance switching characteristics of titanium dioxide were originally described in the 1960s.


title: Memristor

text: The HP device is composed of a thin (50 nm) titanium dioxide film between two 5 nm thick electrodes, one titanium, the other platinum. Initially, there are two layers to the titanium dioxide film, one of which has a slight depletion of oxygen atoms. The oxygen vacancies act as charge carriers, meaning that the depleted layer has a much lower resistance than the non-depleted layer. When an electric field is applied, the oxygen vacancies drift (see "Fast ion conductor"), changing the boundary between the high-resistance and low-resistance layers. Thus the resistance of the film as a whole is dependent on how much charge has been passed through it in a particular direction, which is reversible by changing the direction of current. Since the HP device displays fast ion conduction at nanoscale, it is considered a nanoionic device.


title: Memristor

text: Memristance is displayed only when both the doped layer and depleted layer contribute to resistance. When enough charge has passed through the memristor that the ions can no longer move, the device enters hysteresis. It ceases to integrate "q"=∫"I" d"t", but rather keeps "q" at an upper bound and "M" fixed, thus acting as a constant resistor until current is reversed.


title: Memristor

text: Memory applications of thin-film oxides had been an area of active investigation for some time. IBM published an article in 2000 regarding structures similar to that described by Williams. Samsung has a U.S. patent for oxide-vacancy based switches similar to that described by Williams.


title: Memristor

text: In April 2010, HP labs announced that they had practical memristors working at 1 ns (~1 GHz) switching times and 3 nm by 3 nm sizes, which bodes well for the future of the technology. At these densities it could easily rival the current sub-25 nm flash memory technology.


title: Memristor

text: It seems that memristance has been registered in nanoscale thin films realized with silicon dioxide since 60s


title: Memristor

text: while Tony Kenyon and his group has clearly demonstrated that the resistive switching in silicon oxide thin films is due to silicon nanoinclusions in highly nonstoichiometric suboxide phases


title: Memristor

text: In 2004, Krieger and Spitzer described dynamic doping of polymer and inorganic dielectric-like materials that improved the switching characteristics and retention required to create functioning nonvolatile memory cells. They used a passive layer between electrode and active thin films, which enhanced the extraction of ions from the electrode. It is possible to use fast ion conductor as this passive layer, which allows a significant reduction of the ionic extraction field.


title: Memristor

text: In July 2008, Erokhin and Fontana claimed to have developed a polymeric memristor before the more recently announced titanium dioxide memristor.


title: Memristor

text: In 2010, Alibart, Gamrat, Vuillaume et al. introduced a new hybrid organic/nanoparticle device (the NOMFET : Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field Effect Transistor), which behaves as a memristor and which exhibits the main behavior of a biological spiking synapse. This device, also called a synapstor (synapse transistor), was used to demonstrate a neuro-inspired circuit (associative memory showing a pavlovian learning).


title: Memristor

text: In 2012, Crupi, Pradhan and Tozer described a proof of concept design to create neural synaptic memory circuits using organic ion-based memristors. The synapse circuit demonstrated long-term potentiation for learning as well as inactivity based forgetting. Using a grid of circuits, a pattern of light was stored and later recalled. This mimics the behavior of the V1 neurons in the primary visual cortex that act as spatiotemporal filters that process visual signals such as edges and moving lines.


title: Memristor

text: In 2012, Erokhin and co-authors have demonstrated a stochastic three-dimensional matrix with capabilities for learning and adapting based on polymeric memristor.


title: Memristor

text: In 2014, Bessonov et al. reported a flexible memristive device comprising a MoO/MoS heterostructure sandwiched between silver electrodes on a plastic foil. The fabrication method is entirely based on printing and solution-processing technologies using two-dimensional layered transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs). The memristors are mechanically flexible, optically transparent and produced at low cost. The memristive behaviour of switches was found to be accompanied by a prominent memcapacitive effect. High switching performance, demonstrated synaptic plasticity and sustainability to mechanical deformations promise to emulate the appealing characteristics of biological neural systems in novel computing technologies.


title: Memristor

text: Atomristor is defined as the electrical devices showing memristive behavior in atomically thin nanomaterials or atomic sheets. In 2018, Ge and Wu et al. in the Akinwande group at the University of Texas, first reported a universal memristive effect in single-layer TMD (MX, M = Mo, W; and X = S, Se) atomic sheets based on vertical metal-insulator-metal (MIM) device structure. The work was later extended to monolayer hexagonal boron nitride, which is the thinnest memory material of around 0.33 nm. These atomristors offer forming-free switching and both unipolar and bipolar operation. The switching behavior is found in single-crystalline and poly-crystalline films, with various conducting electrodes (gold, silver and graphene). Atomically thin TMD sheets are prepared via CVD/MOCVD, enabling low-cost fabrication. Afterwards, taking advantage of the low "on" resistance and large on/off ratio, a high-performance zero-power RF switch is proved based on MoS or h-BN atomristors, indicating a new application of memristors for 5G, 6G and THz communication and connectivity systems. In 2020, atomistic understanding of the conductive virtual point mechanism was elucidated in an article in nature nanotechnology.


title: Memristor

text: The ferroelectric memristor is based on a thin ferroelectric barrier sandwiched between two metallic electrodes. Switching the polarization of the ferroelectric material by applying a positive or negative voltage across the junction can lead to a two order of magnitude resistance variation: (an effect called Tunnel Electro-Resistance). In general, the polarization does not switch abruptly. The reversal occurs gradually through the nucleation and growth of ferroelectric domains with opposite polarization. During this process, the resistance is neither R or R, but in between. When the voltage is cycled, the ferroelectric domain configuration evolves, allowing a fine tuning of the resistance value. The ferroelectric memristor's main advantages are that ferroelectric domain dynamics can be tuned, offering a way to engineer the memristor response, and that the resistance variations are due to purely electronic phenomena, aiding device reliability, as no deep change to the material structure is involved.


title: Memristor

text: In 2013, Ageev, Blinov et al. reported observing memristor effect in structure based on vertically aligned carbon nanotubes studying bundles of CNT by scanning tunneling microscope.


title: Memristor

text: Later it was found that CNT memristive switching is observed when a nanotube has a non-uniform elastic strain Δ"L"0. It was shown that the memristive switching mechanism of strained СNT is based on the formation and subsequent redistribution of non-uniform elastic strain and piezoelectric field "Edef" in the nanotube under the influence of an external electric field "E"("x","t").


title: Memristor

text: Biomaterials have been evaluated for use in artificial synapses and have shown potential for application in neuromorphic systems. In particular, the feasibility of using a collagen‐based biomemristor as an artificial synaptic device has been investigated, whereas a synaptic device based on lignin demonstrated rising or lowering current with consecutive voltage sweeps depending on the sign of the voltage furthermore a natural silk fibroin demonstrated memristive properties; spin-memristive systems based on biomolecules are also being studied.


title: Memristor

text: In 2012, Sandro Carrara and co-authors have proposed the first biomolecular memristor with aims to realize highly sensitive biosensors. Since then, several memristive sensors have been demonstrated.


title: Memristor

text: Chen and Wang, researchers at disk-drive manufacturer Seagate Technology described three examples of possible magnetic memristors. In one device resistance occurs when the spin of electrons in one section of the device points in a different direction from those in another section, creating a "domain wall", a boundary between the two sections. Electrons flowing into the device have a certain spin, which alters the device's magnetization state. Changing the magnetization, in turn, moves the domain wall and changes the resistance. The work's significance led to an interview by IEEE Spectrum. A first experimental proof of the spintronic memristor based on domain wall motion by spin currents in a magnetic tunnel junction was given in 2011.


title: Memristor

text: The magnetic tunnel junction has been proposed to act as a memristor through several potentially complementary mechanisms, both extrinsic (redox reactions, charge trapping/detrapping and electromigration within the barrier) and intrinsic (spin-transfer torque).


title: Memristor

text: Based on research performed between 1999 and 2003, Bowen et al. published experiments in 2006 on a magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) endowed with bi-stable spin-dependent states(resistive switching).


title: Memristor

text: The MTJ consists in a SrTiO3 (STO) tunnel barrier that separates half-metallic oxide LSMO and ferromagnetic metal CoCr electrodes. The MTJ's usual two device resistance states, characterized by a parallel or antiparallel alignment of electrode magnetization, are altered by applying an electric field. When the electric field is applied from the CoCr to the LSMO electrode, the tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) ratio is positive. When the direction of electric field is reversed, the TMR is negative. In both cases, large amplitudes of TMR on the order of 30% are found. Since a fully spin-polarized current flows from the half-metallic LSMO electrode, within the Julliere model, this sign change suggests a sign change in the effective spin polarization of the STO/CoCr interface. The origin to this multistate effect lies with the observed migration of Cr into the barrier and its state of oxidation. The sign change of TMR can originate from modifications to the STO/CoCr interface density of states, as well as from changes to the tunneling landscape at the STO/CoCr interface induced by CrOx redox reactions.


title: Memristor

text: and 2009. While the drift of oxygen vacancies within the insulating MgO layer has been proposed to describe the observed memristive effects, another explanation could be charge trapping/detrapping on the localized states of oxygen vacancies


title: Memristor

text: and its impact on spintronics. This highlights the importance of understanding what role oxygen vacancies play in the memristive operation of devices that deploy complex oxides with an intrinsic property such as ferroelectricity or multiferroicity.


title: Memristor

text: The magnetization state of a MTJ can be controlled by Spin-transfer torque, and can thus, through this intrinsic physical mechanism, exhibit memristive behavior. This spin torque is induced by current flowing through the junction, and leads to an efficient means of achieving a MRAM. However, the length of time the current flows through the junction determines the amount of current needed, i.e., charge is the key variable.


title: Memristor

text: The combination of intrinsic (spin-transfer torque) and extrinsic (resistive switching) mechanisms naturally leads to a second-order memristive system described by the state vector x = ("x","x"), where "x" describes the magnetic state of the electrodes and "x" denotes the resistive state of the MgO barrier. In this case the change of "x" is current-controlled (spin torque is due to a high current density) whereas the change of "x" is voltage-controlled (the drift of oxygen vacancies is due to high electric fields). The presence of both effects in a memristive magnetic tunnel junction led to the idea of a nanoscopic synapse-neuron system.


title: Memristor

text: A fundamentally different mechanism for memristive behavior has been proposed by Pershin and Di Ventra. The authors show that certain types of semiconductor spintronic structures belong to a broad class of memristive systems as defined by Chua and Kang. The mechanism of memristive behavior in such structures is based entirely on the electron spin degree of freedom which allows for a more convenient control than the ionic transport in nanostructures. When an external control parameter (such as voltage) is changed, the adjustment of electron spin polarization is delayed because of the diffusion and relaxation processes causing hysteresis. This result was anticipated in the study of spin extraction at semiconductor/ferromagnet interfaces, but was not described in terms of memristive behavior. On a short time scale, these structures behave almost as an ideal memristor. This result broadens the possible range of applications of semiconductor spintronics and makes a step forward in future practical applications.


title: Memristor

text: The SDC device is the first memristive device available commercially to researchers, students and electronics enthusiast worldwide.


title: Memristor

text: The SDC device is operational immediately after fabrication. In the GeSe active layer, Ge-Ge homopolar bonds are found and switching occurs. The three layers consisting of GeSe/Ag/GeSe, directly below the top tungsten electrode, mix together during deposition and jointly form the silver-source layer. A layer of SnSe is between these two layers ensuring that the silver-source layer is not in direct contact with the active layer. Since silver does not migrate into the active layer at high temperatures, and the active layer maintains a high glass transition temperature of about , the device has significantly higher processing and operating temperatures at and at least , respectively. These processing and operating temperatures are higher than most ion-conducting chalcogenide device types, including the S-based glasses (e.g. GeS) that need to be photodoped or thermally annealed. These factors allow the SDC device to operate over a wide range of temperatures, including long-term continuous operation at .


title: Memristor

text: Memristors remain a laboratory curiosity, as yet made in insufficient numbers to gain any commercial applications. Despite this lack of mass availability, according to Allied Market Research the memristor market was worth $3.2 million in 2015 and will be worth $79.0 million by 2022.


title: Memristor

text: Memristors can potentially be fashioned into non-volatile solid-state memory, which could allow greater data density than hard drives with access times similar to DRAM, replacing both components. HP prototyped a crossbar latch memory that can fit 100 gigabits in a square centimeter, and proposed a scalable 3D design (consisting of up to 1000 layers or 1 petabit per cm). In May 2008 HP reported that its device reaches currently about one-tenth the speed of DRAM. The devices' resistance would be read with alternating current so that the stored value would not be affected. In May 2012, it was reported that the access time had been improved to 90 nanoseconds, which is nearly one hundred times faster than the contemporaneous Flash memory. At the same time, the energy consumption was just one percent of that consumed by Flash memory.


title: Memristor

text: Memristor have applications in programmable logic signal processing, Super-resolution imaging physical neural networks, control systems, reconfigurable computing, in-memory computing, brain–computer interfaces and RFID. Memristive devices are potentially used for stateful logic implication, allowing a replacement for CMOS-based logic computation Several early works have been reported in this direction.


title: Memristor

text: In 2009, a simple electronic circuit consisting of an LC network and a memristor was used to model experiments on adaptive behavior of unicellular organisms. It was shown that subjected to a train of periodic pulses, the circuit learns and anticipates the next pulse similar to the behavior of slime molds "Physarum polycephalum" where the viscosity of channels in the cytoplasm responds to periodic environment changes. Applications of such circuits may include, e.g., pattern recognition. The DARPA SyNAPSE project funded HP Labs, in collaboration with the Boston University Neuromorphics Lab, has been developing neuromorphic architectures which may be based on memristive systems. In 2010, Versace and Chandler described the MoNETA (Modular Neural Exploring Traveling Agent) model. MoNETA is the first large-scale neural network model to implement whole-brain circuits to power a virtual and robotic agent using memristive hardware. Application of the memristor crossbar structure in the construction of an analog soft computing system was demonstrated by Merrikh-Bayat and Shouraki. In 2011, they showed how memristor crossbars can be combined with fuzzy logic to create an analog memristive neuro-fuzzy computing system with fuzzy input and output terminals. Learning is based on the creation of fuzzy relations inspired from Hebbian learning rule.


title: Memristor

text: In 2013 Leon Chua published a tutorial underlining the broad span of complex phenomena and applications that memristors span and how they can be used as non-volatile analog memories and can mimic classic habituation and learning phenomena.


title: Memristor

text: In 2009, Di Ventra, Pershin, and Chua extended the notion of memristive systems to capacitive and inductive elements in the form of memcapacitors and meminductors, whose properties depend on the state and history of the system, further extended in 2013 by Di Ventra and Pershin.


title: Memristor

text: In September 2014, Mohamed-Salah Abdelouahab, Rene Lozi, and Leon Chua published a general theory of 1st-, 2nd-, 3rd-, and nth-order memristive elements using fractional derivatives.


title: Memristor

text: Sir Humphry Davy is said by some to have performed the first experiments which can be explained by memristor effects as long ago as 1808. However the first device of a related nature to be constructed was the memistor (i.e. memory resistor), a term coined in 1960 by Bernard Widrow to describe a circuit element of an early artificial neural network called ADALINE. A few years later, in 1968, Argall published an article showing the resistance switching effects of TiO which was later claimed by researchers from Hewlett Packard to be evidence of a memristor.


title: Memristor

text: Leon Chua postulated his new two-terminal circuit element in 1971. It was characterized by a relationship between charge and flux linkage as a fourth fundamental circuit element. Five years later he and his student Sung Mo Kang generalized the theory of memristors and memristive systems including a property of zero crossing in the Lissajous curve characterizing current vs. voltage behavior.


title: Memristor

text: On May 1, 2008, Strukov, Snider, Stewart, and Williams published an article in "Nature" identifying a link between the two-terminal resistance switching behavior found in nanoscale systems and memristors.


title: Memristor

text: On 23 January 2009, Di Ventra, Pershin, and Chua extended the notion of memristive systems to capacitive and inductive elements, namely capacitors and inductors, whose properties depend on the state and history of the system.


title: Memristor

text: In July 2014, the MeMOSat/LabOSat group (composed of researchers from Universidad Nacional de General San Martín (Argentina), INTI, CNEA, and CONICET) put memory devices into a Low Earth orbit. Since then, seven missions with different devices are performing experiments in low orbits, onboard Satellogic's Ñu-Sat satellites.


title: Memristor

text: In 2021, Jennifer Rupp and Martin Bazant of MIT started a "Lithionics" research programme to investigate applications of lithium beyond their use in battery electrodes, including lithium oxide-based memristors in neuromorphic computing.


title: 3Below: Tales of Arcadia

text: 3Below: Tales of Arcadia (or simply 3Below) is an American computer-animated science fantasy television series produced by DreamWorks Animation, and is the second installment of Guillermo del Toro's "Tales of Arcadia" trilogy.


title: 3Below: Tales of Arcadia

text: The series was announced on December 12, 2017 by Netflix and DreamWorks. On October 5, 2018, the premiere date was announced and the first teaser was released. The 13-episode first season was released on December 21, 2018 on Netflix. The series concluded with the release of the second season on July 12, 2019.


title: 3Below: Tales of Arcadia

text: A third and final installment of "Tales of Arcadia", titled "", was released on August 7, 2020. The full-length feature film, "" was released on Netflix on July 21, 2021.


title: 3Below: Tales of Arcadia

text: Two royal extraterrestrial siblings, Crown Princess Aja and Crown Prince Krel of House Tarron, their doglike pet named Luug, and their bodyguard, Varvatos Vex, escape from their home planet of Akiridion-5 after a coup and crash-land on Earth, specifically in the city of Arcadia Oaks, California. There, the aliens adjust to human culture and try to fix their spaceship (as well as to restore their nearly-dead parents King Fialkov and Queen Coranda) to return and take back Akiridion-5, which is being taken over by an evil dictator known as General Val Morando, who has already sent out a team of intergalactic bounty hunters, called the Zeron Brotherhood, to find and catch the alien prince and princess.


title: 3Below: Tales of Arcadia

text: After investigating a way to stop Val Morando and find the hiding place of Aja and Krel, Zadra, one of the noble protectors of the royals from Akiridion-5, arrives on Earth. Meanwhile, after learning of his involvement in Morando's coup, Aja and Krel decide to exile Vex. During his exile, Vex is captured by the Zeron Brotherhood and imprisoned at a bounty hunter outpost located on Earth's moon. In Season 2, Aja and Krel learn of his capture and launch a rescue mission. Soon after the rescue, however the gang discovers that Morando is heading for Earth. After successfully defeating him, Aja (now Queen), Vex, Zadra, Luug and the rest finally return home, joined by Eli, who has volunteered to be Earth's ambassador on Akiridion 5. Crown Prince Krel decides that Earth has become his home, and decides to stay with his new human best friends.


title: 3Below: Tales of Arcadia

text: Princess Aja and Crown Prince Krel also appeared in the "" episodes "In Good Hands", and "The Eternal Knight Pt. 1" in their borrowed human forms.


title: 3Below: Tales of Arcadia

text: The series currently holds a 100% on Rotten Tomatoes. It has been praised for its depiction of immigration through a sci-fi lens, with Dave Trumbore of "Collider" writing, "... the subtext here, which is hard to miss even for younger viewers, is that Aja, Krel, and Vex are stand-ins for immigrants, refugees, and "illegal aliens" ... the show is re-examining the actions of the anti-immigrant government agents and the aliens' allies alike."


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: Nageshvara is one of the legendary temples mentioned in the Shiva Purana and is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas. It is located in Dwarka, Gujarat, India.


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: According to Shiv Mahapuraan, Brahma (The Creator) and Vishnu (The Preserver) once had a disagreement about which of them was supreme. To test them, Shiva pierced the three worlds as an immeasurable pillar of light, the Jyotirlinga. Vishnu and Brahma parted company to determine the extent of each end of the pillar. Brahma, who had set off upward, lied that he had discovered the upper end of the pillar, but Vishnu, who had gone in the direction of the base of the pillar, admitted that he had not. Shiva then appeared as a second Jyotirlinga and cursed Brahma, telling him that he would have no place in the ceremonies. The Jyotirlinga is the supreme indivisible reality from which Shiva appears. Jyothirlinga shrines commemorate this time when Shiva appeared. It was believed that there were originally sixty-four jyotirlingas. Twelve are considered to be especially auspicious and holy. Each of the twelve sites takes the name of the presiding deity and each is considered a separate manifestation of Shiva. At all these sites, the primary deity is a lingam representing the beginning less and endless "Stambha" pillar, symbolizing the Shiva's infinite nature. The twelve jyothirlinga are Somnath in Gujarat, Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh, Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh, Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh, Kedarnath in Himalayas, Bhimashankar in Maharashtra, Viswanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, Triambakeshwar in Maharashtra, Vaidyanath at Deoghar in Jharkhand, Aundha Nagnath temple in Maharashtra, Rameshwar at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar at Aurangabad in Maharashtra.


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: The Shiva Purana says Nageshvara Jyotirlinga is in 'the Darukavana', which is an ancient name of a forest in India. 'Darukavana' finds mention in Indian epics, such as "Kamyakavana", "Dvaitavana", "Dandakavana".


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: A narrative in the Shiva Purana about the Nageshvara Jyotirlinga tells of a demon named Daruk, who attacked a Shiva devotee named Supriya and imprisoned him along with many others in his city of Darukavana, a city under the sea inhabited by sea snakes and demons. At the urgent exhortations of Supriya, the prisoners started to chant the holy mantra of Shiva and immediately thereafter Lord Shiva appeared and the demon was vanquished, later residing there in the form of a Jyotirlinga. The demon had a wife, a demoness named Daruka who worshipped Mata Parvati. As a result of her penance and devotion, Mata Parvati enabled her to master the forest where she performed her devotions, and renamed the forest 'Darukavana' in her honour. Wherever Daruka went the forest followed her. In order to save the demons of Darukavana from the punishment of the gods, Daruk summoned up the power Parvati had given her. She then moved the entire forest into the sea where they continued their campaign against the hermits, kidnapping people and keeping them confined in their new lair under the sea, which was how that great Shiva devotee, Supriya, had wound up there.


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: The arrival of Supriya caused a revolution. He set up a lingam and made the prisoners recite the mantra "Om Namaha Shivay" in honour of Shiva while he prayed to the lingam. The demons' response to the chanting was to attempt to kill Supriya, though they were thwarted when Shiva appeared and handed him a divine weapon that saved his life. Daruka and the demons were defeated and Parvati saved the remaining demons. The lingam that Supriya had set up was called Nagesha; it is the tenth lingam. Shiva once again assumed the form of a Jyotirlinga with the name Nageshwar, while the Goddess Parvati was known as Nageshwari. Lord Shiva then announced that he would show the correct path to those who would worship him.


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: Shiva MahaPurana indicates that the location was on Western (Arabian) Sea. In KotiRudra Samhita, Chapter 29, the following shloka says


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: The actual location of the legendary forest of Darukavana is still debated. No other important clues indicate the location of the Jyotirlinga. 'Darukavana' on the Western Sea remains the only clue.


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: The name Darukavana, named after Queen Daruka, is possibly derived from "daruvana" (forest of deodar trees, or simply, forest of wood), is thought to exist in Almora. Deodar ("daru vriksha") is found abundantly only in the western Himalayas, not in peninsular India. Deodar trees have been associated with Lord Shiva in ancient Hindu texts. Hindu sages used to reside and perform meditation in deodar forests to please Lord Shiva. Also, according to the ancient treatise "Prasadmandanam",


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: "हिमाद्रेरूत्तरे पार्श्वे देवदारूवनं परम् पावनं शंकरस्थानं तत्र् सर्वे शिवार्चिताः।" Because of this the 'Jageswara' temple in Almora, Uttarakhand is commonly identified as Nageshvara Jyotirlinga.


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: The written name of Darukavana could be misread as 'Dwarakavana' which would point to the Nageswara temple at Dwaraka. However, no forest is in this part of Dwaraka that finds mention in any of the Indian epics. The narratives of Shri Krishna, mention Somanatha and the adjoining Prabhasa tirtha, but not Nageswara or Darukavana in Dwaraka.


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: Darukavana might exist next to the Vindhya Mountains. It is south-southwest of the Vindhyas extending to the sea in the west. In the "Dvadasha Jyotirlinga Stotra" (6), Shankaracharya praised this Jyotirlinga as "Naganath":


title: Nageshvara Jyotirlinga

text: This could be taken to mean that it is located in the south ['yamye'] at the town of 'Sadanga', which was the ancient name of Aundh in Maharashtra, south of the Jageswara shrine in Uttarakhand and west of Dwaraka Nageshvara.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Jarryd Lee Hayne (born 15 February 1988) is a former professional rugby league footballer who also briefly played American football and rugby union sevens.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne began his career in 2006 as a er for the Parramatta Eels, winning the NRL's Dally M Rookie of the Year award. The following year, he made his debut for New South Wales in State of Origin and internationally, and began playing primarily as a . Hayne won the Dally M Medal in 2009 and 2014 as the league's player of the year, and the Rugby League International Federation's International Player of the Year award in 2009. He represented Australia at the 2013 Rugby League World Cup, and his father's native at the 2008 and 2017 tournaments when not selected for Australia.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne attracted significant attention when he made the switch from one of the NRL's top players to a rookie with the San Francisco 49ers in the 2015 NFL season. At the end of the season, Hayne ended his NFL career. In 2016, he represented in rugby union sevens, but after not being selected for the 2016 Olympic squad, he returned to the NRL with the Gold Coast Titans before a final season with Parramatta in 2018.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In March 2021, he was found guilty of two counts of aggravated sexual assault of a woman at her home in Newcastle, New South Wales in 2018, and was given a minimum sentence of three years and eight months in prison, with earliest release in January 2025. In February 2022, the Court of Criminal Appeal allowed the appeal, quashed Hayne's conviction and ordered a fresh trial.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne was born in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, on 15 February 1988. He is the son of a Fijian father, Manoa Thompson, and an Australian mother, Jodie Hayne. His father played professional rugby league for South Sydney, Western Suburbs and the Auckland Warriors while also representing Fiji. Hayne was one of three children raised by his single mother, and grew up in a red brick Campbelltown housing commission house in Minto. In early life Hayne took up athletics winning multiple titles. He still holds the under 8- and under 9-year-old Public School Sports Association (PSSA) 100 metre records. He competed in Little Athletics until under 15 age group. He attended school at John Warby Public School, Leumeah High and Westfields Sports High School but dropped out of high school early to pursue a career in rugby league.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne began playing junior rugby league for Campbelltown City, East Campbelltown and Cabramatta at the age of six.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne made his NRL debut with the Parramatta Eels at 18 years of age on 19 May 2006 against the Penrith Panthers at CUA Stadium. Jason Taylor, who was making his first grade coaching debut, chose him on the wing. Taylor later said, "Everyone knew his talent, it wasn't just me." Hayne quickly made an impression on the competition scoring 17 tries within 16 games in his debut season. This tally included a personal best of four tries in the Parramatta Eels' 46–12 victory over Newcastle Knights. His excellent try scoring ability saw him rewarded with the 2006 Dally M 'Rookie of the Year' award and a spot on the Kangaroos Squad. He was also named the 2006 Parramatta Eels season's rookie of the year.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: He started the season at centre but later moved to fullback due to an injury to Luke Burt and scored 12 tries, including the winning try against the New Zealand Warriors in the First Qualifying Final of the 2007 NRL Finals series. Following Parramatta's close victory against Brisbane in July 2007, Hayne was accused of diving to impede Brisbane's momentum after a heavy hit from Sam Thaiday. Then Brisbane coach Wayne Bennett said "You talk about ethics in our sport. You talk about not laying [sic] on the ground" and then claimed Hayne should be cited for "bringing the game into disrepute." Hayne denied that he dived to deliberately impede Brisbane's momentum and claimed that he was genuinely hurt after the collision with Thaiday. He was never found guilty of any wrongdoing by the NRL Judiciary. In the 2007 Grand Final qualifier, Hayne was again accused of diving when he stayed down and received a penalty for a high shot. Players also accused Hayne of winking after the incident, Clint Newton saying "To lay down like he did and then get up and wink, I don't think that's in the spirit of the game. Straight after he got up, he winked at Dallas Johnson – facing us." Hayne denied the accusations, saying, "I don't engage in that shit, I just score tries and make people happy".


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Before the start of the 2008 season, Hayne was on a night out with St George player Mark Gasnier when a fight broke out between them and another group. Hayne and Gasnier were subsequently shot at by a gunman in a passing taxi. In the coming years, Hayne has said that the shooting incident changed his life and was a turning point in his career.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Parramatta announced Hayne had signed with the club for a $2M extension. On 15 September, he was officially announced as Rugby League's fastest man, after becoming the highest placed league player in the Gatorade Bolt, although other noted league speedsters such as David Mead, Michael Jennings, Brett Stewart and Kevin Gordon did not participate.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: At the start of the 2009 NRL season, Hayne played at with very limited success. Hayne was moved back to his preferred position of fullback just before the round 8 clash with the North Queensland Cowboys. His return to form at prompted Dean Ritchie of "Daily Telegraph" to call Hayne "the most gifted Parramatta player since the great Brett Kenny." Hayne's performances for Parramatta stepped up to another level as the 2009 season progressed. His influence on the game from fullback was lauded by many pundits as the Eels made a late season surge. From Round 19 to Round 24, he won six consecutive Man of the Match awards. He was described as "the best player in any code of football in Australia" by Phil Gould. Hayne has won the Dally M Medals for "Player of the Year" and "Fullback of the Year" respectively. He became one of the youngest winners of the prestigious award and only the second fullback in history to be crowned Dally M "Player of the Year". Hayne escaped a grade two charge after coming into contact with the head of Bryson Goodwin, sliding in with his knees to stop Goodwin in the act of scoring a try during the Preliminary Final against the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs. Hayne pleaded guilty to a grade one charge, however a grade two charge would have resulted in Hayne missing the 2009 NRL Grand Final.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In 2009, Hayne was the Dally M Medal winner, Dally M fullback of the year, NSW State of Origin player of the series, International Federation player of the year, Parramatta player of the season, Fiji Bati player of the year and "Rugby League Week" player of the year.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne's performance for the Parramatta Eels in the 2009 grand final against the Melbourne Storm was largely viewed in Australian and New Zealand media as disappointing. Journalist Josh Massoud, writing for "The Daily Telegraph" wrote, "For reasons only known to the god he recently discovered, Eels superstar Hayne failed to contest the ball." Prior to the game the media focused much on Hayne's match-up with the Melbourne Storm fullback Billy Slater which was touted as "one of the most anticipated individual match-ups in Grand Final history". Phil Gould said "Hayne was just shut out of the game, his performance wasn't actually that bad".


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne's 2009 season has since been described as one of the greatest individual seasons in Australian rugby league history. Such was the euphoria surrounding Parramatta's run to the 2009 grand final that the then NSW Premier Nathan Rees pledged to name one of the new trains which were due to be rolled out next year on The Sydney network "The Hayne Train" if Parramatta were to have won the match. The train was to be painted blue and gold and run on the western line.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: For the 2010 ANZAC Test, Hayne was selected to play for Australia on the wing in their victory against New Zealand.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Being named as co-captain of Parramatta in 2013, Hayne has had an impressive season, particularly with regards to his goal line defence. This earned him a call up for New South Wales in the first game of the 2013 Origin Series at his preferred position of fullback after incumbent Brett Stewart was injured. Hayne scored the first try of the series for NSW and was instrumental once again in their only victory of the series.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In 2014 Hayne started the season with his most consistent display of rugby league, leading the Dally M medal rankings after 10 Rounds. He was selected for New South Wales in his favoured fullback position for Game One of the 2014 State of Origin series. He produced a man of the match performance, setting up one try and scoring one to deliver New South Wales a 12–8 win in Brisbane and a 1–0 series lead. During the annual 2014 players poll, where 100 players from the 16 clubs are interviewed, Hayne was voted as 'best in the game,' the first NSW player since Andrew Johns won the honour in 2006. In Round 22 of the season, playing against the Canberra Raiders, Hayne scored another 50m solo try to bring up his 100th career try. He became only the third player behind Luke Burt and Brett Kenny to score 100 tries for Parramatta. In Round 23 of the season Hayne topped his 2006 try scoring effort, reaching his 18th for the season against the Bulldogs. Hayne finished the season as the NRL's leading try-scorer with 20 for the season. On 29 September 2014, on the Dally M Awards night, Hayne and North Queensland Queensland Cowboys captain Johnathan Thurston were the joint winners of the 2014 Dally M Player of the Year Award after the most thrilling countdown in the award's history. For Hayne, it is his second Dally M Player of the Year award following his win in 2009 and also claimed the Fullback of the Year and Best Representative Player awards, respectively.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 2 August 2016, after his time in American football and rugby sevens, it was announced that Hayne would be returning to the NRL, signing a two-year contract with the Gold Coast Titans. His contract was touted to be as worth as much as $1.2 million a season, the most any NRL player has been paid in one year. Hayne made himself available for immediate selection and made his debut for the Titans against the New Zealand Warriors on 7 August 2016. In Round 22, in his second game back, Hayne kicked the match-winning field goal in the Titans' 19–18 victory over the Wests Tigers. The win catapulted the Titans into a rare finals berth against Brisbane, resulting in a 44–28 loss in week one of the finals.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In the 2017 NRL season, Hayne was involved in a long running player-coach feud with Gold Coast coach Neil Henry. In an interview, Hayne declared he was willing to walk away from the club if Henry does not want him. He claimed the coach had stopped talking to him. After months of media speculation and poor performances on the field by Hayne and the rest of the Gold Coast side the board had an emergency meeting to discuss the future of Hayne and Henry. On 20 August 2017, the board decided to terminate Henry effective immediately. Later in the year on 30 November, just 16 months and winning just eight of 23 matches, the Gold Coast granted Hayne a release from the final year of his contract. On 1 December 2017, Hayne joined his old club, the Parramatta Eels, announcing it will be a one-year deal.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 11 March 2018, Hayne played his 200th NRL game in his first game back for Parramatta in a 24–14 loss. In round 3 against Cronulla, Hayne was taken off the field after 30 minutes with a hip injury that ruled him out for the next four-weeks. Hayne returned in Round 7 against Manly but was taken off the field just 10 minutes into the match after re-injuring his hip. In April 2018, Parramatta went on to win their first game of the season 44–10.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 9 June 2018, Hayne returned to the starting side and scored two tries for Parramatta in their 20–14 victory over North Queensland. On 11 August 2018, Hayne scored a hat-trick in Parramatta's 40–4 victory over St George.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne finished 2018 with a club best 10 tries from 15 appearances, as well as topping the Parramatta charts for line breaks and tackle busts. Parramatta finished 2018 with their third wooden spoon in just seven seasons. And although he went public with his ambition to re-sign with the Parramatta club, they resisted in making him an offer due to allegations of sexual assault. He would never play another NRL game again.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On August 21, 2019, Hayne was voted as one of the best players of the decade in the NRL team of the decade announcement which spanned from the 2010 to 2019 seasons. Premiership-winning coaches Phil Gould, Craig Bellamy, Trent Robinson and Ricky Stuart were also part of the panel along with Hall of Famers Peter Sterling, Darren Lockyer, Danny Buderus and Laurie Daley.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne made his representative rugby league debut for the Australian Prime Minister's XIII on 30 September 2006 against Papua New Guinea at Lloyd Robson Oval in Port Moresby. He would be the top try scorer in his team's 28–8 victory. On 3 May 2007, Hayne was selected to make his debut on the wing for the City New South Wales team in the City vs Country Origin clash in Coffs Harbour. He impressed enough in his City debut to secure a place in the New South Wales state team for the 2007 State of Origin Game I on 23 May 2007 at Suncorp Stadium in Brisbane. He would go on to represent New South Wales in each of the three state games in 2007, scoring two tries in the process. On 21 October 2007, Hayne made his international debut for Australia in the Trans-Tasman Test against New Zealand at Westpac Stadium in Wellington. He scored a solo try on debut in Australia's record 58–0 victory.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: After competing in each of the three State of Origin matches for New South Wales in 2007, Hayne was selected for NSW in two of the three games in 2008 and only missed Game II through suspension. In 2010, Hayne was named and played for the NSW Blues in all three losing matches in the 2010 State of Origin series against the Queensland Maroons.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In 2011, Hayne was controversially not named in the NSW Blues side for Game 1, which they lost. However, he returned to the side in Game Two, helping them win 18 – 8. He also played in the deciding Game 3, this time in the centres. To the surprise of many, Hayne's long kicking ability was utilised by the Blues, in an effort to stop the ensuing Queensland attack. Despite losing, Hayne made two line breaks, and scored one try. He also had the second highest run metres for NSW (156m) behind Paul Gallen (160m). He is likely to have played on the wing for Australia following the 2011 season, but was not selected due to injury.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne was selected to play on the wing for New South Wales in all three games of the 2012 State of Origin series which was again won by Queensland. Hayne was moved to his preferred position of fullback for Game I of the 2013 State of Origin series and scored a try during New South Wales' 14–6 victory. A hamstring injury ruled Hayne out for the remainder of the series as New South Wales would again taste series defeat for the eighth straight year.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: A determined Hayne returned to the fold for Game I of the 2014 State of Origin series and was selected a fullback for each of the three games. The Blues would finally secure a series victory in what would be Hayne's last State of Origin series before switching to American football. Hayne was awarded The Brad Fittler Medal for being NSW's best player in The 2014 series. One of the enduring moments in Origin history is when Hayne ran into the crowd after NSW won it first series in 9 years. In the post match interview with Andrew Johns, a visibly emotional Hayne said “Ooh, it's been a long time, it's been a long time. We fought hard. Whoah. Yes, son! Yes, son!".


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne was selected to play in The 2017 State of Origin series at Centre. In game one he starred for New South Wales on the field scoring a try in a convincing 28–4 victory over Queensland. In game two, Hayne scored a try in the first half as New South Wales raced out to a 16–6 lead. Just before half time, Hayne had the chance to put winger Brett Morris over for a try in the corner to make it 20-6 but decided to attempt the try himself but was tackled short of the goal line. This was seen as a turning point in the match as Queensland came back in the second half to win the game 18–16. Former Queensland coach Wayne Bennett said to the media that Hayne's decision not to pass the ball to Morris was "Selfish" and a "Show boat" move, he then said “For Jarryd Hayne, there's no excuses for why he didn't pass the ball to Morris,”. Hayne kept his spot in the side for Game three where New South Wales lost to Queensland 22–6 at Suncorp Stadium.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Despite having already represented Australia, Hayne was selected to play for his father's native Fiji in the 2008 Rugby League World Cup. On 1 November 2008 he made his debut for the Fiji Bati against France at WIN Stadium in Wollongong and scored two tries. Fiji topped Group B and advanced to the Semi-final qualifier against Ireland at Skilled Park on the Gold Coast. Hayne was instrumental in Fiji's 30–14 victory. Fiji then lost to Australia in the semi-final at Sydney Football Stadium. Hayne later said he found God during his 2008 World Cup experience with Fiji and believed his participation helped him become the best rugby league player in the world in 2009.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne was voted by the public to play fullback for the NRL All Stars team in the inaugural 2010 All Stars match at Skilled Park. He was again voted as the starting fullback for the NRL All Stars team in the 2013 All Stars match at Suncorp Stadium in Brisbane and scored the only try for the NRL All Stars.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne was named at centre by Australian coach Tim Sheens for the Kangaroos' squad for the 2013 Rugby League World Cup, which was held in England, France, Wales and Ireland. He scored two tries against Ireland before becoming the sixth Australian to score four tries in a world cup match when he did so against the United States in Australia's 62–0 win. A week later Hayne scored three tries and set up two in Australia's 64–0 win over Fiji to make himself the competition's lead try scorer. Hayne continued his run of form in the Grand final against New Zealand, after almost being knocked unconscious inside the game's first five minutes. He went on to produce two remarkable try assists for winger Brett Morris as Australia were crowned 2013 world champions. He was named Australia's joint players-player alongside Johnathan Thurston. Hayne's world cup campaign was hailed by his Kangaroos teammates, Brett Morris declaring that "If there was a Harlem Globetrotters of rugby league, he'd be in it. To play outside him for the last couple of weeks is something I'll remember." By the end of the tournament Hayne was the equal top try scorer with teammate Brett Morris.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In his rugby league career, Hayne is known for his post-try celebration nicknamed the 'Hayne Plane'. After scoring a try he would extend both arms to the side and replicate the wings of a plane, the adjacent picture shows the 'Hayne Plane' in action.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In 2009, it was reported that the new Greater Western Sydney franchise in the Australian Football League had offered Hayne a contract worth $1.5 million a season to quit rugby league and take up Australian rules football. On 17 December 2009, Hayne announced he would remain in the National Rugby League by re-signing with Parramatta for a further four years. The deal was reportedly worth $500,000 a season. Greater Western Sydney Giants CEO Dave Matthews later confirmed the club did approach Hayne about a code switch in 2009. He was also reportedly chased by several rugby union teams at the time.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In 2011, aged 23, Hayne intended to quit rugby league to pursue his dream of playing in the National Football League via the American collegiate system. However, his failure to complete 12th grade and receive his High School Certificate (HSC) meant Hayne was ineligible to play college football in the United States. In 2013, he organised two American football training sessions with college team UTS between the 2013 NRL season and the 2013 Rugby League World Cup. He also requested Gridiron Australia organise an open trial with an NFL franchise but his commitments to the Australian national rugby league team during the 2013 Rugby League World Cup prohibited him from attempting the sport switch at that time. In June 2014, NFL star and future 49ers teammate Reggie Bush viewed Hayne's rugby league highlights tape and commented "He actually looks like an NFL running back. Looks like he could come play with us tomorrow." On 15 October 2014, Hayne announced during a press conference that he would be departing rugby league in pursuit of a career in the NFL. Prior to his announcement, Hayne was reportedly in negotiations with Parramatta to sign a new five-year contract worth $1.35 million a season, which would equate to more than 20% of the NRL's 2015 salary cap of $6.55 million, which would have been the largest playing contract ever offered to an NRL player.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 3 March 2015, the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League (NFL) announced they had signed undrafted free agent Hayne to a three-year contract with a base salary of US$1,575,000 over duration of the contract and a US$115,000 guarantee should he not make 53-man roster in his first preseason. Hayne impressed several veteran Niners during the team's off season workouts in Phoenix, Arizona in early 2015. Then–starting quarterback Colin Kaepernick called him "a phenomenal athlete", adding, "It doesn't seem like there's much of a learning curve for him." Running back Reggie Bush predicted that Hayne would likely make the 49ers' 53-man roster. He was expected to compete for the running back, kick returner, and other special teams positions.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 15 August 2015, Hayne made his preseason debut against the Houston Texans, completing a 53-yard run with his second touch of the ball. He finished the game with 5 rushes for 63 yards (avg 12.6), 2 punt returns for 24 yards (avg 12.0) and 1 kick return for 33 yards.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In Hayne's second preseason game against the Dallas Cowboys, Hayne impressed again, finishing as the game's leading rusher with 54 yards on eight carries. Again, in one of Hayne's first touches of the game, he pulled off a huge play, this time off a punt return, catching the ball over his shoulders and running for a 27-yard gain. Hayne also impressed at running back, bursting through a hole and broke free down the left sideline for a gain of 34 yards. He played all four preseason games.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 5 September 2015, Hayne made the 53-man final roster by surviving the last day of cuts before the start of the regular season, capping a swift transition to his new sport. On 14 September 2015, Hayne made his NFL debut for the 49ers against the Minnesota Vikings at Levi's Stadium in Week 1 of the 2015 NFL season. He recorded 20 yards from scrimmage in San Francisco's 20–3 victory over the Vikings. However, Hayne also muffed his first attempt at a punt reception in front of the U.S. television audience on "Monday Night Football".


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 31 October 2015, he was waived by the 49ers, and subsequently signed with their practice squad. On 26 December 2015, the 49ers promoted Hayne to the 53-man roster again after placing guard Alex Boone on their injured reserve list.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne announced his retirement from the NFL on 15 May 2016, and joined the Fiji sevens team in hopes of playing in the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. He later explained that he retired due to not wanting to learn a new playbook, as the 49ers had hired Chip Kelly to be their new head coach for the 2016 season.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne made his rugby sevens debut for Fiji on 21 May 2016 at Twickenham Stadium in the London Sevens. He competed in five of the six matches for a total game time of approximately fifteen minutes. Fiji reached the semi final of the Cup stage which was enough to secure the 2015–16 World Rugby Sevens Series. He made the initial 23-member training squad for the Fiji team for the Olympics, but was not selected in the final squad.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In 2015, Hayne was accused of sexual assault in America by a woman known only by the initials JV. The woman claimed she was a virgin and heavily intoxicated when she met Hayne at a San Jose bar with friends in 2015 while he was playing in the NFL with the San Francisco 49ers. The woman alleged that Hayne went back to her apartment where he sexually assaulted her. Police investigated the incident but decided not to charge Hayne. The woman then filed a civil lawsuit against Hayne in December 2017. On 31 August 2019 Hayne settled the suit, paying almost $100,000 to the alleged victim.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 19 November 2018, Hayne was charged with aggravated sexual assault and inflicting actual bodily harm for an alleged incident that took place in the Newcastle region on 30 September 2018. On 25 July 2019, Hayne pleaded not guilty to rape charges in relation to the incident.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: On 7 December 2020, the judge presiding over Hayne's trial discharged the jury after they had failed to reach either a unanimous or a majority verdict. On 16 December 2020, the case was set down for a retrial in Sydney. The retrial commenced on 8 March 2021. On 22 March 2021, Hayne was found guilty of two counts of sexual intercourse without consent, but not guilty of recklessly inflicting actual bodily harm. On 6 May 2021, Judge Syme sentenced Hayne to a maximum of 5 years and 9 months with a non-parole period of 3 years and 8 months. In February 2022, the Court of Criminal Appeal quashed Hayne's conviction and ordered a fresh trial. Subsequently, Hayne was granted bail of $20,000 and released from Cooma Correctional Centre.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: Hayne is a Christian. He became a member of the Hillsong Church in 2008, partly inspired by his Fijian teammates at the 2008 World Cup. Hayne is a supporter of Liverpool F.C. of the English football Premier League, and considers Steven Gerrard as one of his sporting heroes.


title: Jarryd Hayne

text: In 2016, after returning to Australia following his brief career in the American National Football League (NFL), Hayne met Amellia Bonnici. The couple have a daughter and married in January 2021.


title: Aparna Brielle

text: Aparna Brielle (born Aparna Parthasarathy on February 5, 1994) is an American actress. She portrayed Sarika Sarkar on the NBC television series "A.P. Bio".


title: Aparna Brielle

text: Aparna Brielle was born in Clackamas, Oregon to Indian American couple Partha Rajagopal and Girija Parthasarathy, and was raised in the Cedar Mill area of the Portland, Oregon, metropolitan area. She has one younger brother, Vijay. As a child, she attended Valley Catholic School (then known as St. Mary of the Valley) in Beaverton, Oregon. At the age of nine, Brielle was amongst the youngest Bharatanatyam dancers in the world to graduate in an Arangetram performance after a mere three years of training. She attended the Arts & Communications High School, appearing in performances such as their fall 2011 production of "Godspell", still performing as Aparna Parthasarathy. Brielle then attended Linfield College, where she majored in marketing.


title: Aparna Brielle

text: In 2014, Brielle made her television debut on NBC's supernatural drama "Grimm". In 2015, she appeared in TNT's "The Librarians" and in 2016, she appeared in Fox's short-lived "Cooper Barrett's Guide to Surviving Life".


title: Aparna Brielle

text: In 2017, Brielle was cast as Sarika, "a career-driven student who's constantly trying to do everything right and climb the ladder" in the NBC comedy "A.P. Bio", which premiered in 2018.


title: Aparna Brielle

text: Brielle also stars as Lorna Reddy in "Dead Girls Detective Agency", one of several new digital shows produced by NBCUniversal and Snap Inc. as part of their Snap Originals series. The first season began airing October 22, 2018, with a new episode available for viewing every day. "Dead Girls Detective Agency" was renewed for a third and fourth season and began airing new episodes on August 11, 2019.


title: Aparna Brielle

text: In early 2019, Brielle joined Kevin Smith's View Askewniverse, playing Jihad in "Jay and Silent Bob Reboot", which was released on October 15 of that same year. According to Smith, the "plucky Jihad" is part of a girl gang not unlike the characters played by Shannon Elizabeth, Ali Larter, Jennifer Schwalbach, and Eliza Dushku; however, the girls are not international jewel thieves, and their specific grouping was set up as a commentary on youth and diversity being a common focal-point in Hollywood's reboots and remakes.


title: Aparna Brielle

text: On May 12, 2020, it was revealed that Brielle had landed the starring role of the sequel to "Mallrats" as Banner Bruce, daughter of Brodie Bruce (Jason Lee) and Rene Mosier (Shannen Doherty). This marks her second collaboration with Kevin Smith, who said, "I was so impressed with Aparna Brielle, I built ["Twilight of the Mallrats"] around her."


title: Aparna Brielle

text: In August 2021, Brielle joined the cast of Netflix's "Boo, Bitch" in the role of Riley, who is described as "a mean girl who disguises her meanness through calculated manipulation. Riley has made Erika’s life miserable ever since their freshman year." The mini-series is set to air on July 8, 2022.


title: Aparna Brielle

text: Netflix announced that Brielle would join the cast of their Arnold Schwarzenegger Spy Adventure Series in April 2022. Brielle will be playing Tina, "an NSA analyst on loan to the CIA. Despite her youth, she is very good at her job – extremely capable and intelligent, though a bit intimidated by her new colleagues."


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) is one of two potentially fatal syndromes of zoonotic origin caused by species of hantavirus. These include


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: Black Creek Canal virus (BCCV), New York orthohantavirus (NYV), Monongahela virus (MGLV), "Sin Nombre orthohantavirus" (SNV), and certain other members of hantavirus genera that are native to the United States and Canada.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: Specific rodents are the principal hosts of the hantaviruses including the hispid cotton rat ("Sigmodon hispidus") in southern Florida, which is the principal host of Black Creek Canal virus. The deer mouse ("Peromyscus maniculatus") in Canada and the Western United States is the principal host of Sin Nombre virus. The white-footed mouse ("Peromyscus leucopus") in the eastern United States is the principal host of New York virus. In South America, the long-tailed mouse ("Oligoryzomys longicaudatus") and other species of the genus "Oligoryzomys" have been documented as the reservoir for Andes virus.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: Initially, HPS has an incubation phase of 2–4 weeks, in which patients remain asymptomatic. Subsequently, patients can experience 3–5 days of flu-like prodromal phase symptoms, including fever, cough, muscle pain, headache, lethargy, shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: In the following 5–7 day cardiopulmonary phase, the patient's condition rapidly deteriorates into acute respiratory failure, characterized by the sudden onset of shortness of breath with rapidly evolving pulmonary edema, as well as cardiac failure, with hypotension, tachycardia and shock. In this phase, patients may develop acute respiratory distress syndrome. It is often fatal despite mechanical ventilation and intervention with diuretics.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: After the cardiopulmonary phase, patients can enter a diuretic phase of 2–3 days characterized by symptom improvement and diuresis. Subsequent convalescence can last months to years.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: The virus can be transmitted to humans by a direct bite or inhalation of aerosolized virus, shed from stool, urine, or saliva from a natural reservoir rodent. In general, droplet and/or fomite transfer has not been shown in the hantaviruses in either the pulmonary or hemorrhagic forms.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: The preferred method for diagnosis of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome is serological testing which identifies both acute (IgM) and remote infections (IgG); however, PCR may also be used to identify early infections.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: Rodent control in and around the home or dwellings remains the primary prevention strategy, as well as eliminating contact with rodents in the workplace and at campsites. Closed storage sheds and cabins are often ideal sites for rodent infestations. Airing out of such spaces prior to use is recommended. People are advised to avoid direct contact with rodent droppings and wear a mask while cleaning such areas to avoid inhalation of aerosolized rodent secretions.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: There is no cure or vaccine for HPS. Treatment involves supportive therapy, including mechanical ventilation with supplemental oxygen during the critical respiratory-failure stage of the illness. Although ribavirin can be used to treat hantavirus infections, it is not recommended as a treatment for HPS due to unclear clinical efficacy and likelihood of medication side effects. Early recognition of HPS and admission to an intensive care setting offers the best prognosis.


title: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

text: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome was first recognized during the 1993 outbreak in the Four Corners region of the southwestern United States. It was identified by Dr. Bruce Tempest. It was originally called Four Corners disease, but the name was changed to Sin Nombre virus after complaints by Native Americans that the name "Four Corners" stigmatized the region. It has since been identified throughout the United States.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III on 7 October 1763. It followed the Treaty of Paris (1763), which formally ended the Seven Years' War and transferred French territory in North America to Great Britain. The Proclamation forbade all settlements west of a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains, which was delineated as an Indian Reserve. Exclusion from the vast region of Trans-Appalachia created discontent between Britain and colonial land speculators and potential settlers. The proclamation and access to western lands was one of the first significant areas of dispute between Britain and the colonies and would become a contributing factor leading to the American Revolution. The 1763 proclamation line is situated similar to the Eastern Continental Divide, extending from Georgia to the divide's northern terminus near the middle of the northern border of Pennsylvania, where it intersects the northeasterly St. Lawrence Divide, and extends further through New England.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: The Royal Proclamation continues to be of legal importance to First Nations in Canada, being the first legal recognition of aboriginal title, rights and freedoms, and is recognized in the Canadian Constitution of 1982, in part as a result of direct action by indigenous peoples of Canada, known as the Constitution Express movement of 1981–1982.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: The Seven Years' War and its North American theater, the French and Indian War, ended with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Under the treaty, all French colonial territory west of the Mississippi River was ceded to Spain, while all French colonial territory east of the Mississippi River and south of Rupert's Land (save Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which France kept) was ceded to Great Britain. Both Spain and Britain received some French islands in the Caribbean, while France kept Haiti and Guadeloupe.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: The Proclamation of 1763 dealt with the management of former French territories in North America that Britain acquired following its victory over France in the French and Indian War, as well as regulating colonial settlers' expansion. It established new governments for several areas: the province of Quebec, the new colonies of West Florida and East Florida, and a group of Caribbean islands, Grenada, Tobago, Saint Vincent, and Dominica, collectively referred to as the British Ceded Islands.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: At the outset, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 defined the jurisdictional limits of the British territories of North America, limiting British colonial expansion on the continent. What remained of the Royal Province of New France east of the Great Lakes and the Ottawa River, and south of Rupert's Land, was reorganised under the name "Quebec." The territory northeast of the St. John River on the Labrador coast was reassigned to the Newfoundland Colony. The lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny Mountains became (British) Indian Territory, barred to settlement from colonies east of the line.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: The proclamation line was not intended to be a permanent boundary between the colonists and Native American lands, but rather a temporary boundary that could be extended further west in an orderly, lawful manner. It was also not designed as an uncrossable boundary; people could cross the line, but not settle past it. Its contour was defined by the headwaters that formed the watershed along the Appalachians. All land with rivers that flowed into the Atlantic was designated for the colonial entities, while all the land with rivers that flowed into the Mississippi was reserved for the Native American populations. The proclamation outlawed the private purchase of Native American land, which had often created problems in the past. Instead, all future land purchases were to be made by Crown officials "at some public Meeting or Assembly of the said Indians". British colonials were forbidden to settle on native lands, and colonial officials were forbidden to grant ground or lands without royal approval. Organized land companies asked for land grants, but were denied by King George III.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: British colonists and land speculators objected to the proclamation boundary since the British government had already assigned land grants to them. Including the wealthy owners of the Ohio company who protested the line to the governor of Virginia, as they had plans for settling the land to grow business. Many settlements already existed beyond the proclamation line, some of which had been temporarily evacuated during Pontiac's War, and there were many already granted land claims yet to be settled. For example, George Washington and his Virginia soldiers had been granted lands past the boundary. Prominent American colonials joined with the land speculators in Britain to lobby the government to move the line further west.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: The colonists' demands were met and the boundary line was adjusted in a series of treaties with the Native Americans. The first two of these treaties were completed in 1768; the Treaty of Fort Stanwix adjusted the border with the Iroquois Confederacy in the Ohio Country and the Treaty of Hard Labour adjusted the border with the Cherokee in the Carolinas. The Treaty of Hard Labour was followed by the Treaty of Lochaber in 1770, adjusting the border between Virginia and the Cherokee. These agreements opened much of what is now Kentucky and West Virginia to British settlement. The land granted by the Virginian and North Carolinian government heavily favored the land companies, seeing as they had more wealthy backers than the poorer settlers who wanted to settle west to hopefully gain a fortune.


title: Royal Proclamation of 1763

text: Many colonists disregarded the proclamation line and settled west, which created tension between them and the Native Americans. Pontiac's Rebellion (1763–1766) was a war involving Native American tribes, primarily from the Great Lakes region, the Illinois Country, and Ohio Country who were dissatisfied with British postwar policies in the Great Lakes region after the end of the Seven Years' War. They were able to take over a large number of the forts which commanded the waterways involved in trade within the region and export to Great Britain. The Proclamation of 1763 had been in the works before Pontiac's Rebellion, but the outbreak of the conflict hastened the process.