title: APT (software)

text: The user indicates one or more packages to be installed. Each package name is phrased as just the name portion of the package, not a fully qualified filename (for instance, in a Debian system, codice_12 would be the argument provided, not codice_13). Notably, APT automatically gets and installs packages upon which the indicated package depends (if necessary). This was an original distinguishing characteristic of APT-based package management systems, as it avoided installation failure due to missing dependencies, a type of dependency hell.


title: APT (software)

text: Another distinction is the retrieval of packages from remote repositories. APT uses a location configuration file (codice_14) to locate the desired packages, which might be available on the network or a removable storage medium, for example, and retrieve them, and also obtain information about available (but not installed) packages.


title: APT (software)

text: APT provides other command options to override decisions made by apt-get's conflict resolution system. One option is to force a particular version of a package. This can downgrade a package and render dependent software inoperable, so the user must be careful.


title: APT (software)

text: Finally, the codice_15 mechanism allows the user to create an alternative installation policy for individual packages.


title: APT (software)

text: APT searches its cached list of packages and lists the dependencies that must be installed or updated.


title: APT (software)

text: APT relies on the concept of repositories in order to find software and resolve dependencies. For APT, a repository is a directory containing packages along with an index file. This can be specified as a networked or CD-ROM location. the Debian project keeps a central repository of over 50,000 software packages ready for download and installation.


title: APT (software)

text: Any number of additional repositories can be added to APT's "sources.list" configuration file (codice_14) and then be queried by APT. Graphical front-ends often allow modifying codice_44 more simply (codice_48). Once a package repository has been specified (like during the system installation), packages in that repository can be installed without specifying a source and will be kept up-to-date automatically.


title: APT (software)

text: In addition to network repositories, compact discs and other storage media (USB keydrive, hard disks...) can be used as well, using codice_49 or adding codice_50 URI to the source list file. codice_49 can specify a folder other than a CD-ROM, using the codice_52 option (i.e. a hard disk or a USB keydrive). The Debian CDs available for download contain Debian repositories. This allows non-networked machines to be upgraded. One can also use codice_53.


title: APT (software)

text: Problems may appear when several sources offer the same package(s). Systems that have such possibly conflicting sources can use APT pinning to control which sources should be preferred.


title: APT (software)

text: The "APT pinning" feature allows users to force APT to choose particular versions of packages which may be available in different versions from different repositories. This allows administrators to ensure that packages are not upgraded to versions which may conflict with other packages on the system, or that have not been sufficiently tested for unwelcome changes.


title: APT (software)

text: In order to do this, the "pins" in APT's "preferences" file (codice_54) must be modified, although graphical front-ends often make pinning simpler.


title: APT (software)

text: Several other front-ends to APT exist, which provide more advanced installation functions and more intuitive interfaces. These include:


title: APT (software)

text: APT front-ends can list the dependencies of packages being installed or upgraded, ask the administrator if packages recommended or suggested by newly installed packages should be installed too, automatically install dependencies and perform other operations on the system such as removing obsolete files and packages.


title: APT (software)

text: The original effort that led to the codice_2 program was the codice_5 replacement project known by its codename "Deity". This project was commissioned in 1997 by Brian White, the Debian release manager at the time. The very first functional version of codice_2 was called codice_58 and was only intended to be a test program for the core library functions that would underpin the new user interface (UI).


title: APT (software)

text: Much of the original development of APT was done on Internet relay chat (IRC), so records have been lost. The 'Deity creation team' mailing list archives include only the major highlights.


title: APT (software)

text: The 'Deity' name was abandoned as the official name for the project due to concerns over the religious nature of the name. The APT name was eventually decided after considerable internal and public discussion. Ultimately the name was proposed on IRC, accepted and then finalized on the mailing lists.


title: APT (software)

text: APT was introduced in 1998 and original test builds were circulated on IRC. The first Debian version that included it was Debian 2.1, released on 9 March 1999.


title: APT (software)

text: In the end the original goal of the Deity project of replacing the codice_5 user interface was a failure. Work on the user interface portion of the project was abandoned (the user interface directories were removed from the concurrent versions system) after the first public release of codice_2. The response to APT as a codice_5 method and a command line utility was so great and positive that all development efforts focused on maintaining and improving the tool. It was not until much later that several independent people built user interfaces on top of codice_62.


title: APT (software)

text: Eventually, a new team picked up the project, began to build new features and released version 0.6 of APT which introduced the Secure APT feature, using strong cryptographic signing to authenticate the package repositories.


title: APT (software)

text: APT was originally designed as a front-end for dpkg to work with Debian's codice_63 packages. A version of APT modified to also work with the RPM Package Manager system was released as APT-RPM. The Fink project has ported APT to Mac OS X for some of its own package management tasks, and APT is also available in OpenSolaris.


title: APT (software)

text: apt-file is a command, packaged separately from APT, to find which package includes a specific file, or to list all files included in a package on remote repositories.


title: Bugle

text: The bugle is one of the simplest brass instruments, normally having no valves or other pitch-altering devices. All pitch control is done by varying the player's embouchure.


title: Bugle

text: The bugle developed from early musical or communication instruments made of animal horns, with the word "bugle" itself coming from "buculus", Latin for bullock (castrated bull). The earliest bugles were shaped in a coil – typically a double coil, but also a single or triple coil – similar to the modern horn, and were used to communicate during hunts and as announcing instruments for coaches (somewhat akin to today's automobile horn). Predecessors and relatives of the bugle included the post horn, the Pless horn (sometimes called the "Prince Pless horn"), the bugle horn, and the shofar, among others. The ancient Roman army used the buccina.


title: Bugle

text: The first verifiable formal use of a brass bugle as a military signal device was the "Halbmondbläser", or half-moon bugle, used in Hanover in 1758. It was crescent-shaped (hence its name) and comfortably carried by a shoulder strap attached at the mouthpiece and bell. It first spread to England in 1764 where it was gradually accepted widely in foot regiments. 18th-century cavalry did not normally use a standard bugle, but rather an early trumpet that might be mistaken for a bugle today, as it lacked keys or valves, but had a more gradual taper and a smaller bell, producing a sound more easily audible at close range but with less carrying power over distance.


title: Bugle

text: Pitch control is done by varying the player's embouchure. Consequently, the bugle is limited to notes within the harmonic series. Scores for standard bugle calls use the five notes of the "bugle scale".


title: Bugle

text: The bugle is used mainly in the military, where the bugle call is used to indicate the daily routines of camp. Historically the bugle was used in the cavalry to relay instructions from officers to soldiers during battle. They were used to assemble the leaders and to give marching orders to the camps.


title: Bugle

text: The Rifles, an infantry regiment in the British Army, has retained the bugle for ceremonial and symbolic purposes, as did other rifle regiments before it. The buglers in each battalion are headed by the bugle major, a senior non-commissioned officer holding the rank of sergeant or above.


title: Bugle

text: In most military units, the bugle can be fitted with a small banner or tabard (occasionally gold fringed) with the arms of its reporting service branch or unit.


title: Bugle

text: In military tradition, the Last Post or Taps is the bugle call that signifies the end of the day's activities. It is also sounded at military funerals to indicate that the soldier has gone to his final rest and at commemorative services such as Anzac Day and Remembrance Day In Australia and New Zealand.


title: Bugle

text: The cornet is sometimes erroneously considered a valved bugle, but the cornet was derived from more narrow-bored instruments, the French () and ().


title: Bugle

text: Keyed bugles () were invented in the early 19th century. In England, a patent for one design was taken out by Joseph Halliday in 1811 and became known as the Kent bugle. This bugle established itself in military band music in Britain and America, and its popularity is indicated by the existence of many published method books and arrangements. It was in wide use until about 1850 by which time it had been largely replaced by the cornet. Richard Willis, appointed the first bandmaster of the United States Military Academy's West Point Band in 1817, wrote and performed many works for the keyed bugle.


title: Bibliophilia

text: Bibliophilia or bibliophilism is the love of books. A bibliophile or bookworm is an individual who loves and frequently reads books.


title: Bibliophilia

text: The classic bibliophile is one who loves to read, admire and collect books, often amassing a large and specialized collection. Bibliophiles usually possess books they love or that hold special value as well as old editions with unusual bindings, autographed, or illustrated copies. "Bibliophile" is an appropriate term for a minority of those who are book collectors.


title: Bibliophilia

text: Bibliophilia is not to be confused with bibliomania, a potential symptom of obsessive–compulsive disorder involving the collecting of books to the extent that interpersonal relations or health may be negatively affected, and in which the mere fact that a physical object is a book is sufficient for it to be collected or beloved. Some use the term "bibliomania" interchangeably with "bibliophily", and in fact, the Library of Congress does not use the term "bibliophily," but rather refers to its readers as either book collectors or bibliomaniacs.


title: Bibliophilia

text: According to Arthur H. Minters, the "private collecting of books was a fashion indulged in by many Romans, including Cicero and Atticus". The term "bibliophile" entered the English language in 1820. A bibliophile is to be distinguished from the much older notion of a bookman (which dates back to 1583), who is one who loves books, and especially reading; more generally, a bookman is one who participates in writing, publishing, or selling books.


title: Bibliophilia

text: Lord Spencer and the Marquess of Blandford were noted bibliophiles. "The Roxburghe sale quickly became a foundational myth for the burgeoning secondhand book trade, and remains so to this day"; this sale is memorable due to the competition between "Lord Spencer and the marquis of Blandford [which] drove [the price of a probable first edition of Boccaccio's "Decameron" up to the astonishing and unprecedented sum of £2,260". J. P. Morgan was also a noted bibliophile. In 1884, he paid $24,750 ($772,130.92, adjusted for inflation for 2021) for a 1459 edition of the Mainz Psalter.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Baron Zemo () is the name of two supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Heinrich Zemo and his son Helmut Zemo have both been depicted as a major adversary of Captain America and the Avengers, as well as the leader of the Masters of Evil, a team comprising numerous villains in the Marvel Universe.


title: Baron Zemo

text: The initial published version of Baron Zemo was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and was first seen in a flashback in "The Avengers" #4 (March 1964). The character did not actually appear in person and was not identified as Heinrich Zemo until "The Avengers" #6 (July 1964) and "Sgt. Fury and His Howling Commandos" #8 in the same month. Zemo was retroactively added into the history of Captain America upon the hero's reintroduction to the Silver Age two issues prior. The character subsequently appears in "The Avengers" #7 (Aug. 1964), #9-10 (Oct.–Nov. 1964), "Tales of Suspense" #60 (Dec. 1964), and "The Avengers" #15 (April 1965), in which he is killed.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Harbin Zemo, the progenitor of the Zemo line was first seen, via flashback, in the "" limited series. The backstory of the 11 barons before Heinrich and Helmut was later touched upon in the limited series "". So far it seems that every baron is succeeded by his son. According to Wendell Volker's notes, Harbin had other children before Hademar who did not survive to adulthood; Herbert had two sons who died of illness prior to Helmuth.


title: Baron Zemo

text: The Zemo barony started in Zeulniz, Germany in 1480 when Harbin Zemo, the granary charge man and ministerialis of the town borrowed a suit of armor and stood alone against an invading horde of Slav raiders. Harbin slew the entire horde and so impressed the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire that he was elevated to nobility and awarded Zeulniz. As time went on Harbin Zemo became irritated and tired of the demands of the barony. Harbin died of old age in 1503 and was succeeded by his son Hademar. Hademar was a weak man who had never seen battle, but who was all too eager to become the next baron. Shortly after Harbin's death, Hademar was made baron. Hademar's 12-year-old son Heller plotted to kill his father and soon became the next baron, thanks to the help of his time-travelling descendant Helmut Zemo. History looks upon Heller as the most progressive of all the 13 barons in the Zemo line.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Helmut's next few trips in time involved him going into battle in 1556 alongside Heller's son Herbert Zemo, who was a proud warrior, assassinating Herbert's son Helmuth Zemo in 1640 and narrowly escaping death at the hands of Helmuth's son, Hackett Zemo in 1710.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Helmut later arrived at Castle Zemo in the 1760s around the time that the seventh baron, Hartwig Zemo died in battle during the Seven Years' War. Helmut began to observe Hartwig's son Hilliard as he romanced Elsbeth Kleinenshvitz, the daughter of a Jewish merchant whose family had worked for the Zemo family from the inception of the barony. After Hartwig died, Hilliard became the eighth baron and was forced to turn against Elsbeth and her family. Men loyal to the barony murdered Elsbeth's family to keep them from becoming too powerful. A pregnant Elsbeth was saved by Helmut Zemo, who was still travelling in time. Hilliard would later go on to marry an Austrian girl named Gretchen.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Helmut is next seen in 1879 as a member of the travelling guard of the tenth Baron Zemo, Hobart. Helmut had worked for Hobart for several weeks and routinely had to defend Hobart from civilian assassination attempts. Unrest had broken out in the German Empire after William I, German Emperor passed legislation to curb socialism following attempts on William's life. The commoners grew angry with the noblemen, including Hobart, despite the fact that Hobart fought for their rights. Helmut Zemo leaped to another time and was unable to save Hobart from being killed.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Helmut next arrived during World War I to meet his grandfather Baron Herman Zemo. Herman was defending Germany against a battalion of British soldiers led by the original Union Jack. Helmut witnessed his grandfather employ his own concoction of mustard gas against the British troops and watched as they died in agony (Union Jack had fled the battle by this time). Helmut went with Herman and his men back to Castle Zemo to find it devastated. Helmut leaped to his next time period to see his father's role in Nazi Germany.


title: Baron Zemo

text: The 12th Baron Zemo, Heinrich Zemo is depicted as one of the top scientists in the Nazi Party. Zemo fought both Captain America and his allies the Howling Commandos during World War II. A brilliant and sadistic scientific genius, Zemo created many weapons of mass destruction for Hitler's army.


title: Baron Zemo

text: In an attempt to regain a level of anonymity, Zemo began wearing a reddish-pink hood over his face as he continued to build weapons for the Nazis. His activities ultimately drew the attention of Captain America, resulting in a confrontation just as Heinrich was ready to unveil his newest scientific breakthrough: Adhesive X, an extremely strong adhesive that could not be dissolved or removed by any known process at the time. It was only after the war that the adhesive-using villain Paste-Pot Pete found a way to neutralize it.


title: Baron Zemo

text: In order to ensure that the Nazis could not use Adhesive X against Allied troops, Captain America confronted Zemo in an attempt to destroy the limited supply. Captain America threw his shield at the vat to release the adhesive onto the ground. Zemo, however, was standing right next to the vat containing the chemical, which poured over his hooded face. The adhesive quickly seeped inside and permanently attached the hood to Heinrich's flesh, preventing Zemo from ever removing his hood. Believing that he had killed his rival at long last, Zemo fled to South America as Hitler and the Nazis fell and World War II ended. After the mask was permanently bonded to his face, Zemo abandoned his long-suffering wife and toddler son, toward whom he had become emotionally and physically abusive. With an army of mercenaries loyal to him, Zemo enslaved a tribe of natives and lived as a king, as he tried desperately to find a solvent that would remove his mask. After decades passed, Captain America was revived by the Avengers. This causes Zemo to renew his rivalry with the Captain. Among his attempts included sending agents to take the place of participants of a hand-to-hand combat demonstration with Captain America in order to capture him. As Captain America learned that Zemo was behind this attack, he sent a taunting message on Zemo's minions' communicator to provoke the villain into becoming more carelessly aggressive against him and thus provide an opportunity for the superhero to deal with the villain directly.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Heinrich then formed the original Masters of Evil to serve as a villainous counterpart to the Avengers; the other founding members included the villainous Black Knight, the Melter, and the Radioactive Man who were gathered by his pilot. He tried to have Adhesive X spread over New York, but the Teen Brigade seized Zemo's pilot, preventing him from speaking, then tied him up to stop him causing trouble. They switched the adhesive with remover made by Paste-Pot Pete. Zemo used his sceptre's hypno-ray on the Teen Brigade, placing them under his control.


title: Baron Zemo

text: In his final battle with Captain America, Captain America used his shield to deflect the sun's rays and cause Zemo to shoot blindly. His ray gun's shot hit a rock, starting an avalanche that killed him, and Captain America felt that Bucky's death had finally been avenged.


title: Baron Zemo

text: The 13th Baron Zemo, Helmut J. Zemo, the son of Heinrich Zemo, then followed in his father's footsteps, battling Captain America many times to avenge the killing of his father. Helmut was then responsible for bringing back the Masters of Evil and then forming the Thunderbolts. He still remains the current Baron Zemo.


title: Baron Zemo

text: The "" miniseries, set in a sword and sorcery version of the Marvel Universe, features an alternate version of Baron Zemo named Dreadlord. He was previously Zymo of Z'axis, a general who fought in the Worldwar. When Z'axis lost the war, Zymo adopted a new identity - and swore that he would not remove his hood until Z'axis triumphed once again.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Baron Zemo and the Masters of Evil are seen among the enthralled villains defending Krona's stronghold.


title: Baron Zemo

text: In the Marvel Noir universe, Baron Zemo is one of several Nazis led by Baron Strucker in repeated battles against adventurer Tony Stark in the 1930s. This version is later revealed to be Howard Stark, who Strucker chemically brainwashed through a combination of zolpidem, ethanol, methyl chloride, and "ophentonyl" to become the latest bearer of the Zemo mantle.


title: Baron Zemo

text: In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Loki disguises himself as Baron Zemo to force thousands of Third Reich soldiers to attack Asgard and recruits Ice Giants to bolster his forces.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Baron Helmut Zemo appears in "Deadpool MAX" as a white supremacist and conspiracy theorist attempting to create a segregated community for Caucasians in America.


title: Baron Zemo

text: Daniel Brühl portrays a modified version of Helmut Zemo in the live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe. The character first appeared in the 2016 film "" and returned in the Disney+ series "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier".


title: 1994 United States elections

text: The 1994 United States elections were held on November 8, 1994. The elections occurred in the middle of Democratic President Bill Clinton's first term in office, and elected the members of 104th United States Congress. The elections have been described as the "Republican Revolution" because the Republican Party captured unified control of Congress for the first time since 1952. Republicans picked up eight seats in the Senate and won a net of 54 seats in the House of Representatives. Republicans also picked up a net of ten governorships and took control of many state legislative chambers.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: Republicans were able to nationalize the election by campaigning on a "Contract with America," and the new Republican majorities passed conservative legislation such as the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, and the Defense of Marriage Act. The election was a major defeat for Clinton's health care plan, but Clinton's subsequent move to the center may have helped him win re-election in 1996. George W. Bush's election as Governor of Texas laid the groundwork for his successful campaign for president in 2000.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: The Republicans heavily attacked Clinton for reneging on his "New Democrat" philosophy that he had run on in 1992. Clinton had passed a tax increase and an assault weapons ban in his first two years in office and had allowed homosexuals to be in the military, sparking backlash. Clinton's push for universal healthcare was the straw that broke the camel's back, as the GOP ran heavily against it in the midterms and is argued to be the main reason why the Democrats faced heavy losses in 1994.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: As of 2022, this is the last time a party flipped control of both houses of congress during a president's first term.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: In the Senate elections, Republicans successfully defended all of their seats and won eight from the Democrats, defeating incumbent Senators Harris Wofford (Pennsylvania) and Jim Sasser (Tennessee), in addition to picking up six open seats in Arizona, Maine, Michigan, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. Notably, since Sasser's defeat coincided with a Republican victory in the special election to replace Al Gore, Tennessee's Senate delegation switched from entirely Democratic to entirely Republican in a single election. Minority leader Robert J. Dole became Majority Leader, while on the Democratic side, Tom Daschle became Minority Leader after the retirement of the previous Democratic leader, George J. Mitchell.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: Initially, the balance was 52–48 in favor of the Republicans, but after the power change, Democrats Richard Shelby and Ben Nighthorse Campbell switched parties, bringing the balance to 54–46. The Democrats took back a seat in January 1996 in a special election in Oregon when Ron Wyden won an open seat left vacated by Republican Bob Packwood.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: Republicans won the national popular vote for the House of Representatives by a margin of 6.8 percentage points and picked up 54 seats. The South underwent a drastic transformation, as Republicans picked up 19 Southern seats, leaving them with more seats than Democrats in the South, last achieved during Reconstruction. 34 incumbents, all Democrats, were defeated. The incumbent Speaker, Democrat Tom Foley, lost re-election in his district, becoming the first Speaker of the House to lose re-election since Galusha Grow in 1863. Other major upsets included the defeat of House Ways and Means Chairman Dan Rostenkowski and House Judiciary Chairman Jack Brooks. The incumbent Republican Minority whip, Newt Gingrich, was re-elected in the Republican landslide and became Speaker as the incumbent Republican Minority Leader, Robert H. Michel, retired. The incumbent Democratic Majority Leader, Dick Gephardt, became Minority Leader.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: Heading into the election, there were 21 seats held by Democrats, 14 held by Republicans, and one by an independent. By the end of the elections, 11 seats would be held by Democrats, 24 by Republicans, and one by an independent.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: During the election campaign, the United States Republican Party released a document that it called the Contract with America. Written by Larry Hunter, who was aided by Newt Gingrich, Robert Walker, Richard Armey, Bill Paxon, Tom DeLay, John Boehner and Jim Nussle, and in part using text from former President Ronald Reagan's 1985 State of the Union Address, the Contract detailed the actions the Republicans promised to take if they became the majority party in the United States House of Representatives, last achieved in 1952. Many of the Contract's policy ideas originated at The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank. The Contract with America was signed by all but two of the Republican members of the House and all of the Party's non-incumbent Republican Congressional candidates.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: Proponents say the Contract was revolutionary in its commitment to offering specific legislation for a vote, describing in detail the precise plan of the Congressional Representatives, last achieved during the 1918 Congressional election had been run broadly on a national level. Furthermore, its provisions represented the view of many conservative Republicans on the issues of shrinking the size of government, promoting lower taxes and greater entrepreneurial activity, and both tort reform and welfare reform.


title: 1994 United States elections

text: In 2014, historian John Steele Gordon, writing in The American, an online magazine published by the American Enterprise Institute, said that "(t)he main reason (for the Republican victory in 1994) was surely the Contract with America..." in part because it "nationalized the election, making it one of reform versus business as usual. The people voted for reform." He said that the Contract "turned out to be a brilliant political ploy. The contract tuned in to the American electorate’s deep yearning for reform in Washington, a yearning that had expressed itself in the elections of both (U.S. Presidents) Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan."


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The Pakistan Rangers () are a paramilitary federal law enforcement organization in Pakistan, operating under the authority of the Interior Secretary of Pakistan. Their primary purpose is to secure and defend sites of significance in the country, although they are also usually involved in major internal and external security operations with the regular Pakistani military and provide assistance to municipal and provincial police forces to maintain law and order against crime, terrorism and unrest.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: "Rangers" is an umbrella term for the "Pakistan Rangers − Punjab" and "Pakistan Rangers − Sindh" (colloquially referred to as the "Punjab Rangers" and "Sindh Rangers", respectively), with the former headquartered in Lahore, Punjab and the latter headquartered in Karachi, Sindh—the two provinces of Pakistan in which each respective force has operational jurisdiction. As such, the Pakistan Rangers are responsible for guarding Pakistan's international border with neighbouring India; the Punjab Rangers patrol of the border running along Pakistan's Punjab province, while the Sindh Rangers patrol around the remainder, some running along Pakistan's Sindh province. The two forces operate under their own separate chains of command and wear distinct uniforms.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Most famously each evening, the Punjab Rangers, together with their Indian counterparts in the Border Security Force, participate in an elaborate flag lowering ceremony at the Wagah−Attari border crossing near Lahore.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The mutually-recognized India–Pakistan international border is different from the disputed and heavily militarized Line of Control (LoC), where the Pakistani province of Punjab adjoins Jammu and Kashmir (a conflict territory between India and Pakistan) and the undisputed international border effectively ends. Consequently, the LoC is not managed by the paramilitary Punjab Rangers, but by the regular Pakistan Army.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Rangers are formally supervised by the Special Security Unit in the National Crises Management Cell, under the federal Ministry of Interior of Pakistan. However, they can also be commanded by officers on secondment from the Pakistan Army. As of 2017, per the British International Institute for Strategic Studies, the Rangers had well over 150,000 active personnel. As part of the paramilitary Civil Armed Forces, the Rangers can fall under the full operational control of the Pakistan Armed Forces. This is not exclusively limited to a wartime scenario, but whenever Article 245 of the Constitution of Pakistan is invoked to provide "military aid to civil power". An example of this occurring was in 2013, when Karachi, Pakistan's most populous city, had ranked as the sixth-most dangerous city worldwide due to intense violence by criminals, corrupt political agents and Islamist militants (whose presence came as a consequence of the Soviet–Afghan War and Pakistan's intake of millions of Afghan refugees in the 1980s). As the situation severely deteriorated and fell out of the control of local police, the Pakistan Rangers undertook a large-scale military operation and initiated an intense crackdown on criminals, the MQM political party, as well as Taliban-aligned militants. This operation took Karachi down from the world's sixth-most dangerous city to 93rd, and allowed the residents of Karachi to resume a normal lifestyle that had been disrupted due to the chaos.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The origins of the Pakistan Rangers go back to 1942, when the British government established a special unit in Sindh known as the Sindh Police Rifles (SPR) which was commanded by British Indian Army officers. The force was established to fight the rebellious groups in sindh as the British government was engaged in World War II. Headquarters of this force was established in Miani Lines Pacca Barrack, Hyderabad Cantonment.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the name of the force was changed from "Sindh Police Rifles" to "Sindh Police Rangers" and the protection of eastern boundaries with India was allotted to various temporary forces, such as the Punjab Border Police Force, Bahawalpur State Police, Khairpur State Police and Sindh Police Rangers.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Because the Rangers were neither correctly structured nor outfitted for a specific duty, on 7 October 1958 they were restructured and renamed to the West Pakistan Rangers. In 1972, following the independence of East Pakistan and Legal Framework Order No. 1970 by the Government of Pakistan, the force was officially renamed from the West Pakistan Rangers to the Pakistan Rangers and put under control of the Ministry of Defence with its headquarters at Lahore.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: In 1974, the organization became part of the Civil Armed Forces under the Pakistani Ministry of Interior, where it has remained since.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: In late 1989, due to growing riots and the worsening situation of law and order in the province of Sindh, a new force was raised for a strategic anti-dacoit operation. The paramilitary force operated under the name of the Mehran Force and consisted of the then-existing Sindh Rangers, three battalions of the Pakistan Army (including the Northern Scouts). The Mehran Force was under the direct command of the Director-General (DG) of the Pakistan Rangers with its nucleus headquarters in Karachi.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Following these series of events, the federal government decided to substantially increase the strength of the Pakistan Rangers and raise a separate, dedicated headquarters for them in the province of Sindh. On 1 July 1995 the Pakistan Rangers were bifurcated into two distinct forces, the Pakistan Rangers – Punjab (Punjab Rangers) and Pakistan Rangers – Sindh (Sindh Rangers). Consequently, the Mehran Force and other Pakistani paramilitary units operating in the province of Sindh were merged with and began to operate under the Sindh Rangers.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The West Pakistan Rangers fought alongside the Pakistan Army in several conflicts, namely the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. After the war in 1971 and subsequent independence of Bangladesh, the force was federalized under the Ministry of Defence as the Pakistan Rangers and shortly afterwards in 1974, it was made a component of the Civil Armed Forces (CAF) under the Ministry of Interior. Since then, the Pakistan Rangers are primarily responsible for guarding the border with neighbouring India during times of peace and war. The Pakistan Rangers are credited for providing the Pakistan Army with additional troops for Special Police Units (SPUs) for various peacekeeping missions during the Yugoslav Wars (United Nations Protection Force - Croatia/Bosnia and Herzegovina) and in Haiti (United Nations Stabilization Mission - Haiti).


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: UN peacekeeping troops from SPUs are entrusted with the task to provide protection and security to UN officials, provide operational and backup support, respond to threats to public order, and assist various humanitarian agencies. The Pakistan Rangers have participated in military exercises with the Pakistan Army's Special Service Group (SSG) and also assisted with military operations in the past since their revitalization and rebuilding after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The first such participation was in 1973, when they operated under the command of the SSG to raid the Iraqi embassy in Islamabad alongside local police. In 1992, the Sindh Rangers saw an extensive deployment throughout Karachi to keep peace in the city in support of the Government of Sindh. The Sindh Provincial Police and Pakistan Rangers were involved in Operation Blue Fox against the MQM with direction from the Pakistan Army. Due to their close association with the military, the Rangers also saw combat against regular Indian troops during the Kargil War of 1999 in Kashmir. In 2007, the Pakistan Rangers alongside regular Pakistani soldiers and SSG commandos participated in Operation Silence against Taliban forces in Islamabad. The conflict started when, after 18 months of tensions between government authorities and Islamist militants, Taliban terrorists attacked the Punjab Rangers guarding the nearby Ministry of Environment building and set it ablaze. Immediately following this event, they proceeded to attack a nearby Pakistani healthcare centre, kidnapping an abundance of Chinese nurses, and subsequently locked themselves inside the Red Mosque with hostages. Two years later, in 2009, the Rangers once again participated in a special military operation in Lahore alongside the SSG, when twelve terrorists operating for the Taliban attacked the Manawan Police Academy in Lahore. The operation ended with eight militants killed and four captured. Later that year, the Government of Pakistan deployed the Punjab Rangers to secure the outskirts of Islamabad when the Taliban had taken over the Buner, Lower Dir, Swat and Shangla districts. Following these incidents, the Rangers participated in the Pakistan Army's Operation Black Thunderstorm.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The Pakistan Rangers are a paramilitary force with the primary purpose of serving as the border guard for Pakistan along the Indo-Pakistani International Border. The two distinct divisions of the Rangers (Sindh and Punjab) function under the authority of a separate Director-General (DG) appointed by the Pakistan Army after clearance from the Chief of Army Staff. The DG of the Rangers holds the 2-star officer rank of Major-General. Currently, the DG of the Sindh Rangers is Major-General Azhar Waqas (HI) M, whereas the DG of the Punjab Rangers is Major-General Syed Asif Hussain.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The equivalent paramilitary force in the provinces of Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is called the Frontier Corps (FC), with each province having its own unique division.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Aside from the primary objective of guarding the border with India, the Rangers are also responsible for maintaining internal security in Pakistan and serve as a major law enforcement organization in the country. Despite this, they do not possess the power to make arrests like the regular police with the exception of when the state temporarily sanctions them with such an authority in times of extreme crisis. Their primary objective as an internal security force is to prevent and suppress crime by taking preventive security measures, cracking down on criminals and thwarting organized crime with the use of major force. All suspects apprehended by the Rangers during a crackdown are later handed over to police for further investigation and possible prosecution when the chaos is brought under control. The same privileges are also temporarily granted by the government to other security organizations such as the Frontier Corps for the same reasons.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The Rangers are also tasked with securing important monuments and guarding national assets in all major cities, including Islamabad.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: In the past, they have also served as prison guards for high-profile terrorists until they were withdrawn from such duties.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The Rangers have notably contributed towards maintaining law and order in Islamabad, Karachi and Lahore in major crises. Due to the developing internal instability in Pakistan, the Rangers have become an extremely necessary force to maintain order throughout the provinces of Sindh and Punjab.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Similarly to regular police, the Sindh and Punjab Rangers collectively function as semi-provincial organizations, independent of one another.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The Sindh force of the Pakistan Rangers, Headquarters at Jinnah Courts Building Dr Zia Ud din Ahmed Road, Karachi-4, is made up of approximately 24,945 personnel, subdivided into 30 wings (which function similarly to a battalion) — each consisting of about 830 Rangers.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: In March 2016, the Sindh Rangers requested the Supreme Court of Pakistan to allow the paramilitary force to establish its own policing stations throughout Karachi, citing the lack of composure and efficiency on the part of the regular Sindh Police.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: In addition to the Sindh Rangers' primary duty of border security (covering the province of Sindh's 912 kilometre-long border with India), they also have the responsibility of patrolling and protecting the Indus River, national highways and areas with hilly terrain where regular police forces cannot operate properly.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Like the Sindh Rangers, the primary duty of the Punjab Rangers is that of border security for the Pakistani province of Punjab's 1,300 kilometre-long border with India. The force, consisting of about 16,100 Rangers, is also employed on internal security duties throughout Pakistan—notably in the Islamabad Capital Territory, Rajanpur, and many other districts and cities.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The specialized anti-terrorist squad of the Pakistan Rangers was launched in early 2004, in the wake of extreme unrest due to the spillover from the War in Afghanistan. Its function is similar to that of the Pakistan Army's SSG albeit on a provincial level. The sector was activated and began to receive training from the SSG due to the inevitable fact that the Rangers (an organization meant to deal with regular criminals) would now have to deal with a threat that would otherwise be undoubtedly superior to them—such as the Taliban and other al-Qaeda-aligned groups.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Selection for the Pakistan Rangers lasts between 2–3 weeks and both males and females can join. Disregarding physical fitness standards, an applicant must be between 18 and 25 or 18–30 years old to qualify for entry with the Punjab Rangers and Sindh Rangers, respectively. The educational standards for the Rangers require that the applicant have passed with a degree in the Faculty of Arts (FA) or Faculty of Science (FSc), roughly equivalent to a high school diploma in the United States from a government-registered college. An applicant must also hold Pakistani citizenship in order to be eligible to join. After selection and training, a Ranger can be deployed to any place in their respective province (countrywide in times of crises) or abroad if necessary, according to the Pakistan Rangers Act of 1959.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Although the Pakistan Rangers are under the administration of the Interior Ministry of Pakistan, key positions in the force, including Director-General (DG) of the Rangers, are headed by the members of the Pakistan Army. The DG of the Pakistan Rangers is appointed by the Pakistan Army's General Headquarters (GHQ). Qualifiers for the position of DG are officers with a two-star rank of Major-General. The majority of the leading officers in the Rangers come from the Pakistan Army, however many departmental officers in the Rangers can be inducted as direct-entry sub-inspectors. These officers can reach a maximum rank of SSR (Senior Superintendent of the Rangers) - roughly equivalent to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the Pakistan Army.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: These Inspectors are called rankers means they have been promoted from OR's to these ranks same as army Sepoys can be promoted to JCO's ranks and in some cases honorary captain. Personnel joining as sepoys can reach a maximum rank of honorary DSR (Deputy Superintendent of the Rangers), which would be equivalent to captain in the Pakistan Army.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: First Officer rank in Pakistan Rangers is Direct Entry Sub Inspector they are called probationer, although they are not gazetted and they are in BPS 14. They have the same protocol which army Second Lieutenant have after the passing out. Direct Entry Sub Inspector can maximum reach to the Rank of SSR (Senior Superintendent of the Rangers) - equivalent to Lieutenant Colonel of Pakistan Army


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: Wagah and Attari, the only open road border crossing between Pakistan and India, is the site of a flag lowering ceremony since 1959. During the ceremony, Indian Border Security Force personnel and Pakistani Rangers carry out a drill in which they mirror each other's actions predominantly consisting of high-kicks, foot stamping, marches and aggressive stares. Despite the outward display of what seems to be aggressive nationalism, arrogance and pride, the meticulously synchronized drills actually require a high degree of cooperation and coordination from both sides. The ceremony is attended by numerous spectators from both nations, as well as foreign tourists.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: When threats to the business and political community were increasing alarmingly in Karachi in the forms of kidnapping for ransom, extortion, industrialists began to shift their investments and activities to Bangladesh and other countries. Chief of Army Staff, General Ashfaq Pervez Kayani took notice of the dire situation and at the request of the government as well as the business community, the Pakistan Rangers were deployed with special powers granted by the constitution. The Rangers played a crucial role in restoring and maintaining peace and curbed law offenders without any discrimination and consideration of political affiliation. The people of Karachi and the business community in particular took major relief from this and lauded the role of the Rangers throughout Sindh. Director-General (DG) of the Sindh Rangers, Ejaz Chaudry visited the Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industry on 17 November 2011 – where the entire business community unanimously acclaimed the Pakistan Rangers' role in maintaining peace in the city and demanded the extension of their stay with special orders for another year.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: U.S. Lieutenant-General Vincent R. Stewart praised the anti-insurgency operations being conducted in North-West Pakistan by the Pakistani military. He also praised the extensive operations carried out in Karachi by the Pakistan Rangers, claiming they all helped reduce violence in the country by a fair amount.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The Pakistan Rangers have also been involved in international peacekeeping operations for the United Nations (UN) in a number of countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Haiti and others.


title: Pakistan Rangers

text: The Sindh Rangers are starting their own radio show in Karachi, known as "Rangers Hour" on FM 101, which is intended to communicate with and broadcast news as well as relevant updates to the people of the metropolis; preceding this, a radio service was also launched by the Sindh Provincial Police on FM 88.6 with a similar purpose. The Sindh Rangers also established a 24-hour helpline (1101) for the people to report any applicable information or crime/terrorism in the city. The Pakistan Rangers' first official animated film, produced by DJ Kamal Mustafa, was released on Defence Day 2020, and showed significant operations carried out by the Rangers in Karachi.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The BMW E23 is the first generation of the BMW 7 Series luxury cars and was produced from 1977 until 1986. It was built in a 4-door sedan body style with 6-cylinder engines, to replace the BMW 'New Six' (E3) sedans. From 1983 until 1986, a turbocharged 6-cylinder engine was available.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: In 1986, the E23 was replaced by the E32 7 Series, however, the E23 models (called L7) remained on sale in the United States until 1987.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The E23 introduced many electronic features for the first time in a BMW, including an on-board computer, service interval indicator, a "check control panel" (warning lights to indicate system faults to the driver), a dictaphone and complex climate control systems. It was also the first BMW to offer an anti-lock braking system (ABS), a driver's airbag (optional, starting in April 1985) and a new design of front suspension.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The initial styling concepts were developed under BMW Design Director Paul Bracq, with Manfred Rennen contributing with the exterior styling.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: All models were powered by a straight-six petrol engine, with the majority of cars using the BMW M30 engine. Most engines were fuel-injected, however the 728 and 730 models of 1978–1979 used a Solex four-barrel carburetor. The fuel-injected models initially used the Bosch L-Jectronic system, until the 1979 732i, which was the first BMW to use the Bosch Motronic fuel-injection system.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: Options included leather upholstery, wood trim, power seats, seat heaters, reclining rear seats, power windows, power mirrors, an in-car cellular telephone and rear-armrest radio controls (only with the executive and highline pack ).


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The 1983 model year facelift (produced from September 1982) included styling changes to the front of the car: wider and more angular 'kidney' grilles, valance/spoiler, bumper bars, etc. Inside the car, the dashboard and instrument panels were also updated. The rear suspension was updated and the 735i engine changed from the M90 to the M30B34.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: In the US, 1984 saw the arrival of the optional 4-speed automatic transmission (replacing the 3-speed unit previously offered), wood trim replacing the plastic above the glove compartment and on the ashtray and electrically adjustable power seats. Michelin TRX tyres (requiring special metric wheels) became available as an option on the 5-speed manual models.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The 725i model was not officially sold, it was produced for West German government agencies, which at the time, were not allowed to have engines larger than 2.5 liter on official cars. 921 models were produced.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The 745i was a high-performance model sold in left-hand-drive European markets from 1979–1986. It was initially powered by the M102 engine, which is a turbocharged 3.2 L version of the M30 straight-six engine, producing at 9 PSI of boost. In 1982, the engine was upgraded to the M106, which increased the capacity to 3.4 litres and the fuel injection system changed from Jetronic to Motronic. Boost pressure was reduced to 6 PSI, however power output was unchanged.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: All M102 cars were built with a 3-speed ZF 3HP22 automatic transmission. All M106 cars were built with a 4-speed ZF 4HP22 automatic transmission. Options included heated front and rear power reclining seats, gasoline fired heater, leather covered cellular telephone, rear-armrest radio control, water buffalo hide upholstery, and burl wood trim.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The name 745i comes from the theoretical assumption that turbocharged engines have approximately 1.4 times more power than naturally aspirated engines. By this assumption, a 3.2 litre (3205 cc) turbocharged engine would have similar power to a 4.5 litre (4487 cc) naturally aspirated engine.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The South African 745i model was powered by the naturally aspirated M88/3 engine, instead of the turbocharged M102/M106 engines of the European 745i. A right-hand-drive version of the turbocharged model was not possible due to the turbocharger being located in the right-hand side of the engine bay. Instead, the 745i was fitted with the M88/3 engine, as used in the E24 M635i and E28 M5. The engine uses a 24-valve DOHC valvetrain and the fuel injection system is Bosch ML-Jetronic.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: A production run of 209 South African 745i was built from 1983 to 1987, 192 of which were with an automatic gearbox and 17 with a 5-speed manual gearbox.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: BMW South Africa entered one of these 745i models in Class A of the South African Modified Saloon Car Championship The 745i won the championship in 1985, the only BMW-Sanctioned motorsport application in the history of BMW 7 Series cars.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: Only the 733i, 735i, and L7 models were sold in the United States and Japan. These markets also received only upscale versions, usually including leather upholstery, cruise control, wood trim, power windows, power sunroof, and other options as standard.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: North American versions were fitted with larger bumpers (to comply with the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) standards), smaller sealed beam headlights, and various forms of emissions equipment that were not found on European-market cars. The engines used in these markets had lower-compression pistons and thus were less powerful than European-market versions. Some features such as ABS were available in markets outside North America before they were fitted on American models.


title: BMW 7 Series (E23)

text: The L7 was a more luxurious version of the 735i for the American market only. It featured special leather upholstery with leather dashboard and door padding (rather than wood trim), a power glass Moonroof, and a variety of optional features as standard. All L7 models were built with automatic transmissions and a standard driver's air bag.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: Monroe County is a county in the state of Florida. As of the 2020 census, the population was 82,874. Its county seat is Key West. Monroe County includes the islands of the Florida Keys and comprises the Key West Micropolitan Statistical Area. Over 99.9% of the county's population lives on the Florida Keys. The mainland, which is part of the Everglades, comprises 87% of the county's land area and is virtually uninhabited with only 17 people in total.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: Monroe County was created in 1823. It was named for James Monroe, the fifth president of the United States from 1817 to 1825.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which (26.3%) is land and (73.7%) is water. It is the largest county in Florida by total area.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: More than 99.9 percent of the Monroe County population lives in the island chain known as the Florida Keys.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: Two thirds of the large area in what local residents call "mainland Monroe" is uninhabited by virtue of being part of the Everglades National Park, and the remainder by the Big Cypress National Preserve in the northeastern interior. The area, officially named Cape Sable Census County Division, is virtually uninhabited. This area has 87.4 percent of the county's land area (859.6 out of ), but it had only 0.022 percent of the county's population (18 out of 82,170) as of the 2021 American Community Survey. The Census Bureau defines this area as Census Tract 9800 of Monroe County, Florida. If it were a separate county, its population density of only 0.0209 sq mi (0.0541 km) would make it the least dense of all US counties or county-equivalents.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: In mainland Monroe, the only three populated places appearing on detailed maps and in the USGS geographic name database are Flamingo, Pinecrest, (not to be confused with much larger Pinecrest of neighboring Miami-Dade County), and Trail City. Flamingo, on the south coast and at the end of State Road 9336 (Flamingo Lodge Highway), is the location of the Flamingo Lodge and the Flamingo Ranger Station (with Visitor Center & Marina). northeast on the highway is the West Lake Trail (station). Pinecrest, located in the northern interior of the county (in the Big Cypress National Preserve) on Loop Road (given that name since it forms a loop with U.S. Highway 41 further north), hosts the Loop Road Education Center. Trail City is west of Pinecrest on Loop Road. Loop Road can be found on most maps as CR 94, although the roadway no longer has a numbered designation and is now managed by the National Park Service.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: Between the south coast of Florida's mainland and the Florida Keys is Florida Bay, which is encompassed by the Everglades National Park and contains numerous islets or keys.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 82,874 people, 32,839 households, and 18,586 families residing in the county.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 73,090 people, 32,629 households, and 18,219 families living in the county. The racial makeup of the county was 89.5% White (71.3% Non-Hispanic White), 5.7% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.4% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. 20.6% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 79,589 people, 35,086 households, and 20,384 families living in the county. The population density was 80 people per square mile (31/km). There were 51,617 housing units at an average density of 52 per square mile (20/km). The racial makeup of the county was 90.65% White, 4.77% Black or African American, 0.38% Native American, 0.83% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.55% from other races, and 1.78% from two or more races. 15.77% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: In 2005 Monroe County had a population that was 75.1% non-Hispanic white, 17.7% Latino, 5.4% African-American and 1.1% Asian.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: In 2000 there were 35,086 households, out of which 20.80% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.80% were married couples living together, 7.30% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.90% were non-families. 28.80% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.73.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: In the county, the population was spread out, with 17.10% under the age of 18, 6.30% from 18 to 24, 31.10% from 25 to 44, 30.90% from 45 to 64, and 14.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 113.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 114.80 males.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: The median income for a household in the county was $42,283, and the median income for a family was $50,734. Males had a median income of $31,266 versus $25,709 for females. The per capita income for the county was $26,102. About 6.80% of families and 10.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.80% of those under age 18 and 8.80% of those age 65 or over.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: As of 2010, 77.57% spoke English as a first language, and 17.56% spoke Spanish, 0.96% spoke French Creole (mainly Haitian Creole), 0.74% spoke French, and 0.50% spoke Russian as their primary language. In total, 22.43% of the population spoke a main language other than English.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: Monroe County cultural organizations include the Key West Literary Seminar, The Studios of Key West, the Red Barn Theatre, Key West Symphony, Sculpture Key West, Fantasy Fest, the San Carlos Institute, Hemingway House and Museum, Customs House Museum, and Key West Art and Historical Society.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: The Florida Keys Council for the Arts is the primary cultural umbrella for the Florida Keys, and serves the population from Key Largo to Key West. A non-profit local arts agency, it makes grants, operates the Monroe County Art in Public Places program, sponsors seminars, and manages the on-line cultural calendar for the region. It also manages the county's Tourism Development Council arts marketing grants and serves as a leading advocate for cultural tourism in lower Florida. In 1998, the Florida Keys Council of the Arts was designated by the Board of Monroe County Commissioners as the area's Local Arts Agency as provided by Florida Statute 286.011. Established in 1997 as the Monroe Council of the Arts Corporation. The name was changed to the Florida Keys Council of the Arts in 2001. Today the organization is the liaison among cultural organizations, all levels of government and the private sector in encouraging and promoting the arts throughout Monroe County. The council endeavors to make the arts a part of the fabric of daily life. From its inception through fiscal year end 2006, FKCA has awarded $433,916 in privately raised funds and grants to literary, visual and performing artists and cultural organizations. Add to that sum the Cultural Umbrella event funding, the South Florida Cultural Consortium Visual & Media Artists Fellowships and The Art in Public Places commissions, and the total distributed in the Keys cultural community through FKCA's efforts come to $2.5 million to date. The annual economic impact of the non-profit cultural community in the Keys is estimated at over $22 million. The Florida Keys Council of the Arts, a non-profit, 501 (c) (3) corporation in a public-private partnership with local county government since 1997 serves 76,329 local residents and three million visitors annually. A ten-member board of directors guides the council, assisted by three alternate directors, two directors Emeritus and twenty-five advisory board members.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: The Monroe County School District serves the entire county, as well as several private schools for primary and secondary education.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: Florida Keys Community College is the primary college education provider with main campus in Key West, Florida. FKCC also operates two additional campuses in the Florida Keys; one in Marathon and another in Key Largo.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: Although Monroe County has voted mostly for the Democratic candidate since 1992, it is a competitive county in presidential elections; it was won by the Democratic Party by margins of 5% in 2008 and 0.5% in 2004 and 2012. Barack Obama was the first candidate for president to win a majority, 51.7%, of the vote since George H. W. Bush's national 7.7% victory in 1988. In 2016, Donald Trump became the first Republican to carry the county in almost three decades, winning a majority and winning it by an even larger margin than Obama had won it by in 2008. In 2020, he won it by a still wider margin.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: On July 17, 2014, a county court judge ruled the state's ban on same sex marriage unconstitutional, ordering the county clerk of court to issue marriage licenses on July 22, 2014.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: The Monroe County Public Library system serves residents of the Florida Keys in five locations: Key West, Big Pine, Marathon, Key Largo, and Islamorada.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: The Monroe County Public Library provides various programs and services to the Monroe County community, including job finding tools. There is a program that preserves the history of the Keys for use by customers. In 2010 the library worked to digitize historical photographs of the Keys.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: Annual visitors cards can be purchased for $30. The library provides access to PCs with internet and word processing capabilities. The library also provides free Wi-Fi for all.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: The Monroe County Public Library is served by the Miami-Dade County subregional library of Florida Bureau of Braille and Talking Books Library.


title: Monroe County, Florida

text: 54% of the people in the county work in the tourist industry. In 2016, tourism brought $2.7 billion to the county.


title: Dark Funeral

text: Dark Funeral is a Swedish black metal band from Stockholm, founded by guitarists Blackmoon and Lord Ahriman in 1993. They emerged during the second wave of black metal.


title: Dark Funeral

text: Their lyrical themes have traditionally pertained to Satanism and anti-Christianity. Certain past and present members including Blackmoon, Ahriman, Caligula, and Chaq Mol have each declared an affinity for Satanism, with Ahriman and Caligula notably being practitioners of LaVeyan Satanism. In their earlier years, their lyrical themes usually revolved specifically around depictions of Hell and Satan. After Emperor Magus Caligula joined the band, their lyrics came to focus more on blasphemy and anti-Christian rhetoric, although there have been several exceptions to this.


title: Dark Funeral

text: The group have released seven full-length albums and are one of the most prominent acts in the Swedish black metal scene.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In 1993, guitarists David Parland, also known as Blackmoon, and Mikael Svanberg, also known as Lord Ahriman, established Dark Funeral, recruiting Paul Mäkitalo, also known as Themgoroth, formerly of the band Scum, as bassist and vocalist, and Joel Andersson, also known as Draugen, shortly thereafter. In January 1994, Dark Funeral recorded their self-titled EP at Unisound Studio with Dan Swanö of Edge of Sanity fame as producer, subsequently being released on 4 May, 1994. That same day, Dark Funeral performed their first gig at Luse Lottes Pub in Oslo, Norway, alongside bands such as fellow live debutees Gorgoroth, and Marduk, who were also performing their first show abroad. Draugen departed Dark Funeral following the EP's recording, being replaced by Equimanthorn.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In 1995, Dark Funeral signed with No Fashion Records, subsequently composing songs in anticipation for their debut full-length album. Initially, the band recorded several tracks that would appear on "The Secrets of the Black Arts" at said Unisound Studio with Swanö as producer, but opted to re-record the album with Peter Tägtgren of Hypocrisy fame at The Abyss Studio, composing a further track, "When Angels Forever Die", and incorporating a cover of Von's "Satanic Blood", for their debut album. Concerning the band's decision to re-record their debut album, within a 2009 interview with "Rites of the Black Moon Webzine", Blackmoon elaborated that the initial recordings at Unisound Studio suffered from a sonic flatness, partly due to Swanö's exhaustion and to the quality of new recording gear that Swanö had recently acquired. Shortly after recording their album at The Abyss, Dark Funeral played their first festival gig, Under the Black Sun I, in Berlin. A few weeks prior to this gig Emperor Magus Caligula (Magnus 'Masse' Broberg, the original vocalist of Hypocrisy) replaced Themgoroth, becoming a permanent member during the summer of 1995. Concerning the factors underlying Themgoroth's departure, Blackmoon elucidated that Themgoroth was unable to fulfil the quality the band expected within their live performances. On 28 January 1996, "The Secrets of the Black Arts" was released, with the album thence being licensed to Metal Blade in North America and Mystic Productions in Poland. Equimanthorn was soon replaced by Alzazmon, later renowned for his work with Dissection and Gorgoroth. The line-up of Emperor Magus Caligula, Lord Ahriman, Alzazmon and Blackmoon recorded their versions of Bathory's "Call from the Grave" and "Equimanthorn" for the Bathory tribute "In Conspiracy with Satan". (These also appeared later re-mastered for the re-titled re-release of the band's debut "In the Sign…"). Blackmoon departed Dark Funeral at the end of 1996, citing conflict with Lord Ahriman as the primary instigator for his decision to depart. Together with Necromass, the band thence embarked on the Satanic War Tour I throughout Europe.


title: Dark Funeral

text: The second leg of the Satanic War Tour followed with Ancient and Bal-Sagoth as support. Dark Funeral played their first show in America at the Expo of the Extreme festival in Chicago. From there, the band embarked on "The American Satanic Crusade Tour" with Usurper in support. Originally, the tour was supposed to also feature Acheron and Deströyer 666, but both bands cancelled. In September, the band returned to The Abyss Studio to record "Vobiscum Satanas".


title: Dark Funeral

text: The Ineffable Kings of Darkness Tour with Enthroned and Liar of Golgotha took place with Dominion joining the band as a session bass player. The band also made their second major festival appearance at the Swedish Hultsfreds festival. After the festival, Typhos was fired and Dominion, who originally was a guitarist, was taken on as the band's second guitarist, and Caligula reverted to doing both vocals and bass.


title: Dark Funeral

text: Before the band headed out on the "Bleed for Satan" tour with Cannibal Corpse and Infernäl Mäjesty, Alzazmon left, and the band's longtime friend Gaahnfaust, who was also in the band back in 1996 for a short time, was recruited. The band returned overseas for another mini-tour, "Black Plague Across the West", when they played in Mexico for the first time before they headed to the US and the state of California. Afterwards, they also embarked on their longest and most successful European tour, "The Satanic Inquisition", together with Dimmu Borgir.


title: Dark Funeral

text: With engineer Tommy Tägtgren, the band recorded the EP "Teach Children to Worship Satan" at The Abyss Studio B (featuring the new song "An Apprentice of Satan" and cover-versions of Slayer, Mayhem, Sodom and King Diamond). For the EP, the band also filmed a live video for "An Apprentice of Satan". They joined Deicide, Immortal, and Cannibal Corpse for the No Mercy Festivals. After the departure of Gaahnfaust, Matte Modin (Defleshed) joined the band as a permanent member and made his debut at the With Full Force festival.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In January/February, the band again entered The Abyss Studio, enlisting the help of producer Peter Tägtgren and studio technician Lars Szöke, to record their third full-length album, "Diabolis Interium". Due to the overwhelming positive response to the new album from both the public and the press, the band was able to secure deals that brought their music across to a much wider audience, with licenses in Japan (Soundholic Co. Ltd), Brazil (Hellion Records), Poland (Mystic Productions), Romania (Rocris Disc), Bulgaria (Rocris Disc), Thailand (S.Stack Co. Ltd), Russia (Irond Records Ltd), Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China (Magnus Music). With the exceptional response to the album in Brazil, which was released through Hellion Records, another local label, Somber Records licensed the band's entire back catalogue. As soon as "Diabolis Interium" was released, Dark Funeral once again went on tour. First they toured Europe, supported by Tidfall, Anorexia Nervosa and Ragnarok. On this tour, the band brought in Mikael Hedlund (Hypocrisy) to play the bass. After this tour, Mikael resumed duties with his main band. They recruited Richard Cabeza for the session bassist slot. The band also toured the US, supporting their longtime friends Cannibal Corpse. With "Diabolis Interium", the Swedish radio station Rocket 95.3 FM nominated Dark Funeral in the category “Best Swedish Hard Rock Band”. Other bands nominated at the same time and in the same category were Breach, Entombed, and Arise.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In October 2002, the band embarked on their first tour in the Far East, which included shows in Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore. The band was the first Western extreme metal band to play Taiwan and Singapore. On 29 November 2002, the band and MNW/No Fashion Records announced that they were no longer contractually-bound to Necropolis Records, who had licensed the band's 2001 release "Diabolis Interium" for North America. Official termination of contract papers had already been delivered to Necropolis Records, putting an official end to Dark Funeral's tenure with said record label. This was a result of Necropolis' alleged breach of contract with the band and label.


title: Dark Funeral

text: After the Asian tour, guitarist Dominion felt it was in the best interests of both the band and himself to resign his position, due to commitment to studies. Dominion officially resigned upon the band's completion of their Asian tour. He would later explore other musical options. After this the band begin auditioning guitarists to replace the departed Dominion. A new guitarist was found in the form of Chaq Mol, who had a long history in different local metal acts. He is also in the two-man doom/black metal project Mordichrist. He made his official debut with the band at Wacken Open Air 2003.


title: Dark Funeral

text: After a successful gig at the Wacken Open Air Festival in Germany, the band headed down to South America for a tour through Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. This tour became one of the most successful ever undertaken by the band. During the tour, the band recorded a couple of the shows with plans to release a live album. After sifting through the recorded material with their live sound engineer (Erik Lidbom, Hitfire Productions), "De Profundis Clamavi Ad Te Domine" was born.


title: Dark Funeral

text: Dark Funeral officially announced their split from MNW/No Fashion Records, after the band did not receive royalties for their back-catalogue. A series of legal battles began, where Ahriman and Caligula sought the rights to Dark Funeral's back-catalogue. Shortly after, the band signed a license deal with Regain Records for their live album "De Profundis Clamavi Ad Te Domine", which was licensed to several other countries. On 31 May 2005, the album was released in the US through Candlelight Records.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In January 2004, the band partnered with Goatwhore and Zyklon in Japan on the Extreme the Dojo Volume 9. Shortly after, the band continued to tour with a spate of Mexican dates. The band made appearances at festivals including Spanish Piorno Rock (with Sepultura, Saxon, Destruction, Lacuna Coil, among others), Finnish Tuska Open Air Metal Festival, and X-Mass Festivals. The band appeared as the headlining act at Germany's Party San, Swedish Nordic Rage, and LA's Gathering of the Bestial Legions Festival. The band also played in Italy together with Defleshed for a short, but extremely successful burst of dates. In December 2004, Dark Funeral resumed touring by first playing Israel, and then hitting Russia and Ukraine for the Black Winter Days Tour, together with Horned NecroCannibals and Icewind Blast.


title: Dark Funeral

text: On 20 January 2005, they signed a new record deal with Regain Records. The band concentrated on writing material for a new full-length album, yet still managed to perform at the Metal Mind Festival in Poland, before finally joining the No Mercy Tour with Six Feet Under, Nile and Dying Fetus, among others.


title: Dark Funeral

text: On 18 August, Dark Funeral's next album, "Attera Totus Sanctus", was completed. It entered the Swedish top 40 at number 35. In November, Dark Funeral began working with Dragon Production, a division of A.S.S. Concert & Promotion GmbH. Dragon Production were entrusted with handling the band's tour bookings.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In 2006, Dark Funeral performed on a tour in South America. On 8 October 2006, at a concert in Lima, Peru, they were forced to perform without their vocalist and bassist, Caligula, due to illness. Many angry fans started a riot and vandalized the properties near the venue. Following the riot, all the band's instruments were confiscated by Peruvian police. After a week, the band announced they had to postpone their upcoming concerts in Latvia and Lithuania because of this unfortunate situation.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In early 2007, Dark Funeral toured North America with Enslaved. In April 2007, the band had planned an Eastern European tour to Russia, Ukraine and the Baltic states. It was around this time that Matte Modin had allegedly concocted false stories in order to avoid playing with the band. He first alleged that he had an infection in his arm, and could not participate on the Eastern European tour. However, it emerged that he had chosen to tour with the punk band Raised Fist instead. After returning from the Metalferry show in Sweden in between, Matte announced to the rest of the band that he could not go to the Baltic states, as it was his son's birthday. Dark Funeral soon realised Matte Modin's motives. Consequently, the upcoming tour was cancelled, and Matte Modin was ejected from the band. In June 2007, the band announced Nils Fjellström, alias Dominator (also in Aeon and Sanctification, among others), as their new drummer. The band had a special appearance playing live on the pornographic film "Club Satan: The Witches Sabbath", which they also contributed their song "King Antichrist" off "Attera Totus Sanctus" for the film.


title: Dark Funeral

text: The band toured North America again in 2007, and re-issued their first three albums, each with a bonus disc of material. In 2007 and 2008, the band released "Attera Orbis Terrarum - Part I" and "Attera Orbis Terrarum - Part II", respectively.


title: Dark Funeral

text: On 24 October 2008, it was announced that the Supreme Court of Sweden had ruled in favour of Dark Funeral in the dispute with MNW/No Fashion Records.


title: Dark Funeral

text: After several shows promoting the album, Dark Funeral released their fifth studio album in 2009, "Angelus Exuro pro Eternus". They also shot a controversial music video for "My Funeral".


title: Dark Funeral

text: The latter half of 2010 saw the band consisting of only Ahriman and Chaq Mol on guitars, following the departure of Emperor Magus Caligula in July 2010, and B-Force and Dominator in the coming months. Caligula's was arguably the most significant: after being in Dark Funeral for fifteen years as vocalist and lyricist, he had spent the longest time in the band, aside from Ahriman. It was announced Caligula was to be married and that he sought to settle down in his new life. B-Force left the band of his own volition. Ahriman used this time to work on new material, in the absence of a full line-up for live performances and studio recording.


title: Dark Funeral

text: On 30 June 2011, Dark Funeral announced that Nachtgarm of Negator is the new vocalist. A week prior it had also been announced that Dominator returned to the band. On 27 July 2011, Zornheym was revealed to be the band's new bassist, completing the lineup.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In late 2012, Dark Funeral parted ways with Nachtgarm, who returned to Negator. Zornheym exited the band in 2014.


title: Dark Funeral

text: On 16 December 2014, Dark Funeral released a new track and music video entitled "Nail Them to the Cross". The video revealed a new vocalist, Heljarmadr (Gra, Domgård, Cursed 13) and bassist Natt (Angrepp, Withershin) to the group's ranks, although by the time the band started recording in February 2016 for their sixth album "Where Shadows Forever Reign", which was released on 3 June by Century Media, Natt was no longer in the group, having Lord Ahriman record the bass for the album. In 2016, Gustaf Hielm, who played session bass on Attera Totus Sanctus, enrolled again as a session bass player, this time for live concerts. In November 2017, it was announced that drummer Dominator has left the band and was replaced by Jalomaah.


title: Dark Funeral

text: In May 2021, the band reported they were entering the studio to record their seventh studio album. The band completed recording the album in September 2021. In a Facebook post from November 2021, the band stated their seventh studio album will be entitled "We Are the Apocalypse" and is scheduled to be released on 18 March 2022.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: Andrew Ralph Adamson (born 1 December 1966) is a New Zealand film director, producer, and screenwriter based in Los Angeles, where he directed the Academy Award-winning animated films "Shrek" and "Shrek 2". He was director, executive producer, and scriptwriter for the 2005 production of "". He also worked on the movies "Batman Forever" and "Batman & Robin" as a visual effects supervisor.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: He was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to film, in the 2006 Queen's Birthday Honours.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: Adamson's parents were a homemaker and a computer engineer. Born in New Zealand, Adamson moved to Papua New Guinea with his parents aged eleven, and he returned to Auckland aged eighteen. When 24, he moved to San Francisco, and divided time between there and Los Angeles. Since making the "Narnia" films, he has settled back in New Zealand. Adamson has two children.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: Adamson wanted to be an architect, but missed a university enrollment deadline because of a car accident. He was recruited by Pacific Data Images to work in the USA. The company opened an office in Los Angeles. There he served as a technical director in the following movies: "Toys" (1992), starring Robin Williams, and "Angels in the Outfield" (1994), starring Danny Glover. Previously, Adamson specialised in ads but preferred the idea of telling a story in longer format. He served as visual effects supervisor in the 1995 film "Batman Forever", "A Time to Kill" (1996), and "Batman & Robin" (1997).


title: Andrew Adamson

text: Adamson directed "Shrek" (the first installment in the series), based on the 1990 picture book written by William Steig with a modest budget of US$60 million in 2001. However, the film became a worldwide success, taking in nearly $500 million in the box office, including more than $40 million in its opening week-end. The film featured the lead voices of Mike Myers, Eddie Murphy, Cameron Diaz and John Lithgow.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: The next film in the series "Shrek 2" (2004) had a big Hollywood budget of around $150 million, and was even a bigger success than the first film, taking in more than $900 million worldwide. The film opened to over $100 million, one of the highest openings ever at the time. Adamson directed this film and also wrote the story.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: However, he did not direct the next film in the series, "Shrek the Third", as he had been contracted by Walden Media to work on "". Instead, the film was directed by Chris Miller and Raman Hui while Adamson served as executive producer. The script of the film was written by J. David Stem and Joe Stillman. The third film was financially successful, taking in more than $795 million worldwide with a budget of no more than $160 million, but received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: Adamson achieved commercial success and worldwide attention with "", which he co-produced, co-wrote and directed. The film is based on the book of the same name by C.S. Lewis, and won various awards, gained critical praise and was a box office success, becoming the third highest-grossing film worldwide of 2005 according to Box Office Mojo. The film opened in the US and Canada with totals of higher than $65 million and the film ended up with a worldwide gross of $744,783,957 with a budget of $180 million according to Box Office Mojo.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: He returned as director to the next Narnia film: "" which had a worldwide release in May 2008 and grossed over $419 million at the box office. Adamson returned as producer of "" released in Australia on 9 December 2010, and in the United States and UK on 10 December the same year. At the moment though, 20th Century Fox and Walden Media still hold the rights to the series, and they currently retain the option to make "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair" in the future. However, 20th Century Fox and Walden Media decided to produce "The Magician's Nephew" as the next Narnia film instead of "The Silver Chair". But, in October 2011, Douglas Gresham confirmed that Walden Media's contract with the C. S. Lewis estate had expired, and any production of a future film was on hold indefinitely.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: Experimental hip hop group Death Grips worked with Adamson on their 2018 album "Year of the Snitch". He appears on the track "Dilemma," delivering a spoken word introduction to the song.


title: Andrew Adamson

text: Adamson has directed films which have received several accolades. "Shrek" won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, and the National Board of Review Award for Best Animated Film. "Shrek 2" won the People's Choice Awards for Favorite Movie Comedy, Favorite Sequel, and Favorite Animated Movie. "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe" won the Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling, the BAFTA Award for Best Makeup and Hair, the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Family Film, and the Saturn Awards for Best Make-up and Best Special Effects.


title: Water splitting

text: Efficient and economical water splitting would be a technological breakthrough that could underpin a hydrogen economy, based on green hydrogen. A version of water splitting occurs in photosynthesis, but hydrogen is not produced. The reverse of water splitting is the basis of the hydrogen fuel cell.


title: Water splitting

text: Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water (HO) into oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) due to an electric current being passed through the water.


title: Water splitting

text: In power-to-gas production schemes, the excess power or off peak power created by wind generators or solar arrays is used for load balancing of the energy grid by storing and later injecting the hydrogen into the natural gas grid.


title: Water splitting

text: Production of hydrogen from water is energy intensive. Potential electrical energy supplies include hydropower, wind turbines, or photovoltaic cells. Usually, the electricity consumed is more valuable than the hydrogen produced so this method has not been widely used. In contrast with low-temperature electrolysis, high-temperature electrolysis (HTE) of water converts more of the initial heat energy into chemical energy (hydrogen), potentially doubling efficiency to about 50%. Because some of the energy in HTE is supplied in the form of heat, less of the energy must be converted twice (from heat to electricity, and then to chemical form), and so the process is more efficient.


title: Water splitting

text: A version of water splitting occurs in photosynthesis, but the electrons are shunted, not to protons, but to the electron transport chain in photosystem II. The electrons are used to convert carbon dioxide into sugars.


title: Water splitting

text: When photosystem I gets photo-excited, electron transfer reactions get initiated, which results in reduction of a series of electron acceptors, eventually reducing NADP to NADPH and PS I is oxidized. The oxidized photosystem I captures electrons from photosystem II through a series of steps involving agents like plastoquinone, cytochromes and plastocyanine. The photosystem II then brings about water oxidation resulting in evolution of oxygen, the reaction being catalyzed by CaMnO clusters embedded in complex protein environment; the complex is known as oxygen evolving complex (OEC).


title: Water splitting

text: In biological hydrogen production, the electrons produced by the photosystem are shunted not to a chemical synthesis apparatus but to hydrogenases, resulting in formation of H. This biohydrogen is produced in a bioreactor.


title: Water splitting

text: Using electricity produced by photovoltaic systems potentially offers the cleanest way to produce hydrogen, other than nuclear, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric. Again, water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis, but the electrical energy is obtained by a photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) process. The system is also named artificial photosynthesis.


title: Water splitting

text: The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by means of water splitting process is a way to achieve clean and renewable energy. This process can be more efficient if it is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water rather than a photovoltaic or an electrolytic system, so that the reaction takes place in one step.


title: Water splitting

text: Nuclear radiation routinely breaks water bonds, in the Mponeng gold mine, South Africa, researchers found in a naturally high radiation zone, a community dominated by a new phylotype of "Desulfotomaculum", feeding on primarily radiolytically produced H. Spent nuclear fuel is also being investigated as a potential source of hydrogen.


title: Water splitting

text: An aluminum alloy powder invented by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory in 2017 was shown to be capable of producing hydrogen gas upon contact with water or any liquid containing water due to its unique nanoscale galvanic microstructure. It reportedly generates hydrogen at 100 percent of the theoretical yield without the need for any catalysts, chemicals, or externally supplied power.


title: Water splitting

text: In thermolysis, water molecules split into their atomic components hydrogen and oxygen. For example, at 2200 °C about three percent of all HO are dissociated into various combinations of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, mostly H, H, O, O, and OH. Other reaction products like HO or HO remain minor. At the very high temperature of 3000 °C more than half of the water molecules are decomposed, but at ambient temperatures only one molecule in 100 trillion dissociates by the effect of heat. The high temperatures and material constraints have limited the applications of this approach.


title: Water splitting

text: One side benefit of a nuclear reactor that produces both electricity and hydrogen is that it can shift production between the two. For instance, the plant might produce electricity during the day and hydrogen at night, matching its electrical generation profile to the daily variation in demand. If the hydrogen can be produced economically, this scheme would compete favorably with existing grid energy storage schemes. What is more, there is sufficient hydrogen demand in the United States that all daily peak generation could be handled by such plants.


title: Water splitting

text: The hybrid thermoelectric Copper-chlorine cycle is a cogeneration system using the waste heat from nuclear reactors, specifically the CANDU supercritical water reactor.


title: Water splitting

text: The high temperatures necessary to split water can be achieved through the use of concentrating solar power. Hydrosol-2 is a 100-kilowatt pilot plant at the Plataforma Solar de Almería in Spain which uses sunlight to obtain the required 800 to 1,200 °C to split water. Hydrosol II has been in operation since 2008. The design of this 100-kilowatt pilot plant is based on a modular concept. As a result, it may be possible that this technology could be readily scaled up to megawatt range by multiplying the available reactor units and by connecting the plant to heliostat fields (fields of sun-tracking mirrors) of a suitable size.


title: Water splitting

text: Material constraints due to the required high temperatures are reduced by the design of a membrane reactor with simultaneous extraction of hydrogen and oxygen that exploits a defined thermal gradient and the fast diffusion of hydrogen. With concentrated sunlight as heat source and only water in the reaction chamber, the produced gases are very clean with the only possible contaminant being water. A "Solar Water Cracker" with a concentrator of about 100 m² can produce almost one kilogram of hydrogen per sunshine hour.


title: Water splitting

text: Research is being conducted over photocatalysis, the acceleration of a photoreaction in the presence of a catalyst. Its comprehension has been made possible ever since the discovery of water electrolysis by means of the titanium dioxide. Artificial photosynthesis is a research field that attempts to replicate the natural process of photosynthesis, converting sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen. Recently, this has been successful in splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using an artificial compound called Nafion.


title: Water splitting

text: High-temperature electrolysis (also HTE or steam electrolysis) is a method currently being investigated for the production of hydrogen from water with oxygen as a by-product. Other research includes thermolysis on defective carbon substrates, thus making hydrogen production possible at temperatures just under 1000 °C.


title: Water splitting

text: The iron oxide cycle is a series of thermochemical processes used to produce hydrogen. The iron oxide cycle consists of two chemical reactions whose net reactant is water and whose net products are hydrogen and oxygen. All other chemicals are recycled. The iron oxide process requires an efficient source of heat.


title: Water splitting

text: The sulfur-iodine cycle (S-I cycle) is a series of thermochemical processes used to produce hydrogen. The S-I cycle consists of three chemical reactions whose net reactant is water and whose net products are hydrogen and oxygen. All other chemicals are recycled. The S-I process requires an efficient source of heat.


title: Water splitting

text: More than 352 thermochemical cycles have been described for water splitting or thermolysis., These cycles promise to produce hydrogen oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. Since all the input energy for such processes is heat, they can be more efficient than high-temperature electrolysis. This is because the efficiency of electricity production is inherently limited. Thermochemical production of hydrogen using chemical energy from coal or natural gas is generally not considered, because the direct chemical path is more efficient.


title: Water splitting

text: All other reagents are recycled. None of the thermochemical hydrogen production processes have been demonstrated at production levels, although several have been demonstrated in laboratories.


title: Water splitting

text: There is also research into the viability of nanoparticles and catalysts to lower the temperature at which water splits.


title: Water splitting

text: Recently Metal-Organic Framework (MOF)-based materials have been shown to be a highly promising candidate for water splitting with cheap, first row transition metals.


title: University of Oslo

text: The University of Oslo (; ) is a public research university located in Oslo, Norway. It is the highest ranked and oldest university in Norway. It is consistently ranked among the top universities in the world and as one of the leading universities of Northern Europe; the Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked it the 58th best university in the world and the third best in the Nordic countries. In 2016, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings listed the university at 63rd, making it the highest ranked Norwegian university.


title: University of Oslo

text: Originally named the Royal Frederick University, the university was established in 1811 as the de facto Norwegian continuation of Denmark-Norway's common university, the University of Copenhagen, with which it shares many traditions. It was named for King Frederick VI of Denmark and Norway, and received its current name in 1939. The university was commonly nicknamed "The Royal Frederick's" ("Det Kgl. Frederiks") before the name change, and informally also referred to simply as "Universitetet" ("the university"). It has remained Norway's preeminent institution of higher education and the country's only university until 1946. The university has approximately 27,700 students and employs around 6,000 people. Its faculties include (Lutheran) theology (with the Lutheran Church of Norway having been Norway's state church since 1536), law, medicine, humanities, mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences, dentistry, and education. The university's original neoclassical campus is located in the centre of Oslo; it is currently occupied by the Faculty of Law. Most of the university's other faculties are located at the newer Blindern campus in the suburban West End. The Faculty of Medicine is split between several university hospitals in the Oslo area. The university also includes some formally independent, affiliated institutes such as the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research (CICERO), NKVTS and the Frisch Centre.


title: University of Oslo

text: The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in the university's Atrium, from 1947 to 1989 and in 2020. Since 2003, the Abel Prize is awarded in the Atrium. Five researchers affiliated with the university have been Nobel laureates and three have been Turing Award winners.


title: University of Oslo

text: In 1811, a decision was made to establish the first university in the Dano-Norwegian Union, after an agreement was reached with King Frederik VI, who had earlier believed that such an institution might encourage political separatist tendencies. In 1813, The Royal Frederik's University was founded in Christiania (later renamed Oslo), a small city at that time. Circumstances then changed dramatically one year into the commencement of the university, as Norway proclaimed independence. However, independence was somewhat restricted, as Norway was obliged to enter into a legislative union with Sweden based on the outcome of the War of 1814. Norway retained its own constitution and independent state institutions, although royal power and foreign affairs were shared with Sweden. At a time when Norwegians feared political domination by the Swedes, the new university became a key institution that contributed to Norwegian political and cultural independence.


title: University of Oslo

text: The main initial function of The Royal Frederick University was to educate a new class of upper-echelon civil servants, as well as parliamentary representatives and government ministers. The university also became the centre for a survey of the country—a survey of culture, language, history and folk traditions. The staff of the university strove to undertake a wide range of tasks necessary for developing a modern society. Throughout the 1800s, the university's academic disciplines gradually became more specialised.