title: Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd

text: Storm Thorgerson, who had done the majority of album covers for Pink Floyd, did the "Echoes" art which features recursive windows in an infinite regression as a nod to his own cover for 1969's "Ummagumma", and the objects on each landscape refer to the Pink Floyd discography. For instance, the man on fire from "Wish You Were Here", another wearing the "Delicate Sound of Thunder" lightbulb suit, dolls of the "Atom Heart Mother" cow and the "Animals" pig, a bike and both a brick wall and the hammers from "The Wall". Eventually Thorgerson opted to make two images, with another used for the back cover. To create the idea on a photograph, various walls—which had varied measurements and angles to ensure that "nothing seemed to fit other than by eye through the lens."—were built and put in a country landscape in Sussex. Actors, props and fittings were set in and between those walls. The original design was one of two sketches submitted for Dream Theater's 1997 album "Falling into Infinity", with the original being framed and hanging in the home of former Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy and is pointed out by Portnoy in his Hudson Music instructional drum DVD "In Constant Motion".


title: Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd

text: "Echoes" is Floyd's first album to include "When the Tigers Broke Free", from the film version of "The Wall" (the song reappeared on a 2004 rerelease of "The Final Cut" in a slightly remixed form). It was their first compilation to include songs from "The Final Cut", "A Momentary Lapse of Reason" and "The Division Bell" and is the only one to include "Echoes", from 1971's "Meddle".


title: Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd

text: With first-week sales of 215,000—beating their previous first-week peak of 198,000 for "Pulse"—the album hit number two on the "Billboard" 200, behind Britney Spears' "Britney" (746,000). In 2001 the album was the 16th best-selling album globally, selling 4.8 million copies.


title: Black and white cookie

text: Black-and-white cookies, half-and-half cookies, and half-moon cookies are similar round cookies iced or frosted in two colors, with one half vanilla and the other chocolate. They are found in the Northeastern United States and Florida. Black-and-white cookies are flat, have fondant or sometimes royal icing on a dense cake base, and are common in the New York metropolitan area. Half-moon cookies are slightly dome-shaped (convex), have frosting on a fluffy angel cake base, and are common in Central New York and Boston, Massachusetts.


title: Black and white cookie

text: Designs with contrasting light and dark parts were popular at the turn of the 19th century, including on baked goods and desserts. Cookies with cake bases also became popular at the time. Culinary historian Stephen Schmidt sees black-and-whites and half-moons as straightforward convergences of the two trends, and compares them to teacakes served in the Southern United States.


title: Black and white cookie

text: The black-and-white cookie is commonly traced to Glaser's Bake Shop in the Yorkville neighborhood of Manhattan, founded in 1902 by Bavarian immigrants. The black-and-white cookie was among the original recipes used by Glaser's Bake Shop.


title: Black and white cookie

text: By the post-war period, black-and-white cookies had become part of American Ashkenazi Jewish culinary repertoire, deeply rooted in the Jewish communities of New York City and elsewhere around the United States. The cookies are a fixture at many Metro New York Jewish bakeries, including Moishe's Bake Shop and William Greenberg's Desserts.


title: Black and white cookie

text: In Italian-American bakeries in New York City, a thin layer of apricot jam is sometimes present below the fondant.


title: Black and white cookie

text: Half-moon cookies can be traced to Hemstrought's Bakery in Utica, New York, who started baking half-moons around 1925.


title: Black and white cookie

text: Half moons are still very popular in Utica, and local media often debates which bakery makes the best half-moons.


title: Black and white cookie

text: Half-moons are often frosted higher on one side than the other. In Boston, sometimes the domed side is frosted rather than the flat side.


title: Black and white cookie

text: The "Amerikaner" is often decorated like the black and white cookie, but can be frosted entirely in vanilla instead. The origin and name of "Amerikaner" in Germany is unclear, as is their possible relationship to black-and-white cookies. It is sometimes claimed that the cookie was introduced or reintroduced by American GIs serving at US military bases in Germany during the 1950s. Another theory proposes a corruption of the word "Ammoniumhydrogencarbonat" (ammonium bicarbonate, a leavening agent): in the former East Germany, due to anti-Americanism, the name "Ammonplätzchen" (Ammonia cookies) was used.


title: Black and white cookie

text: In the 1994 "Seinfeld" episode "The Dinner Party", Jerry eats a black-and-white cookie while waiting in a New York City bakery with Elaine. He uses the cookie as a metaphor for racial harmony, saying the chocolate and vanilla represent black and white people living together. If the colors mix together well on a cookie, Jerry argues, so can different races in society, suggesting the answer to poor race relations is to "Look to the cookie!" While campaigning in the 2008 United States presidential election at a deli in Hollywood, Florida, Barack Obama bought two black-and-white cookies and said about them, "it's a unity cookie." In a 2015 op-ed in "Tablet" magazine, African-American Rabbi Shais Rishon argued that the cookie, with its cleanly separated black and white sides, better represented racial segregation.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a spectroscopic method that uses the near-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum (from 780 nm to 2500 nm). Typical applications include medical and physiological diagnostics and research including blood sugar, pulse oximetry, functional neuroimaging, sports medicine, elite sports training, ergonomics, rehabilitation, neonatal research, brain computer interface, urology (bladder contraction), and neurology (neurovascular coupling). There are also applications in other areas as well such as pharmaceutical, food and agrochemical quality control, atmospheric chemistry, combustion research and astronomy.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Near-infrared spectroscopy is based on molecular overtone and combination vibrations. Such transitions are forbidden by the selection rules of quantum mechanics. As a result, the molar absorptivity in the near-IR region is typically quite small. (NIR absorption bands are typically 10–100 times weaker than the corresponding fundamental mid-IR absorption band.) One advantage is that NIR can typically penetrate much further into a sample than mid infrared radiation. Near-infrared spectroscopy is, therefore, not a particularly sensitive technique, but it can be very useful in probing bulk material with little or no sample preparation.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: The molecular overtone and combination bands seen in the near-IR are typically very broad, leading to complex spectra; it can be difficult to assign specific features to specific chemical components. Multivariate (multiple variables) calibration techniques (e.g., principal components analysis, partial least squares, or artificial neural networks) are often employed to extract the desired chemical information. Careful development of a set of calibration samples and application of multivariate calibration techniques is essential for near-infrared analytical methods.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: The discovery of near-infrared energy is ascribed to William Herschel in the 19th century, but the first industrial application began in the 1950s. In the first applications, NIRS was used only as an add-on unit to other optical devices that used other wavelengths such as ultraviolet (UV), visible (Vis), or mid-infrared (MIR) spectrometers. In the 1980s, a single-unit, stand-alone NIRS system was made available.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: In the 1980s, Karl Norris (while working at the USDA Instrumentation Research Laboratory, Beltsville, USA) pioneered the use NIR spectroscopy for quality assessments of agricultural products. Since then, use has expanded from food and agricultural to chemical, polymer, and petroleum industries; pharmaceutical industry; biomedical sciences; and environmental analysis.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: With the introduction of light-fiber optics in the mid-1980s and the monochromator-detector developments in the early 1990s, NIRS became a more powerful tool for scientific research. The method has been used in a number of fields of science including physics, physiology, or medicine. It is only in the last few decades that NIRS began to be used as a medical tool for monitoring patients, with the first clinical application of so-called fNIRS in 1994.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Instrumentation for near-IR (NIR) spectroscopy is similar to instruments for the UV-visible and mid-IR ranges. There is a source, a detector, and a dispersive element (such as a prism, or, more commonly, a diffraction grating) to allow the intensity at different wavelengths to be recorded. Fourier transform NIR instruments using an interferometer are also common, especially for wavelengths above ~1000 nm. Depending on the sample, the spectrum can be measured in either reflection or transmission.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Common incandescent or quartz halogen light bulbs are most often used as broadband sources of near-infrared radiation for analytical applications. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can also be used. For high precision spectroscopy, wavelength-scanned lasers and frequency combs have recently become powerful sources, albeit with sometimes longer acquisition timescales. When lasers are used, a single detector without any dispersive elements might be sufficient.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: The type of detector used depends primarily on the range of wavelengths to be measured. Silicon-based CCDs are suitable for the shorter end of the NIR range, but are not sufficiently sensitive over most of the range (over 1000 nm). InGaAs and PbS devices are more suitable and have higher quantum efficiency for wavelengths above 1100 nm. It is possible to combine silicon-based and InGaAs detectors in the same instrument. Such instruments can record both UV-visible and NIR spectra 'simultaneously'.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Instruments intended for chemical imaging in the NIR may use a 2D array detector with an acousto-optic tunable filter. Multiple images may be recorded sequentially at different narrow wavelength bands.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Many commercial instruments for UV/vis spectroscopy are capable of recording spectra in the NIR range (to perhaps ~900 nm). In the same way, the range of some mid-IR instruments may extend into the NIR. In these instruments, the detector used for the NIR wavelengths is often the same detector used for the instrument's "main" range of interest.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: The use of NIR as an analytical technique did not come from extending the use of mid-IR into the near-IR range, but developed independently. A striking way this was exhibited is that, while mid-IR spectroscopists use wavenumbers ("cm") when displaying spectra, NIR spectroscopists used wavelength ("nm"), as is used in ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy. The early practitioners of IR spectroscopy, who depended on assignment of absorption bands to specific bond types, were frustrated by the complexity of the region. However, as a quantitative tool, the lower molar absorption levels in the region tended to keep absorption maxima "on-scale", enabling quantitative work with little sample preparation. The techniques applied to extract the quantitative information from these complex spectra where unfamiliar to analytical chemists, and the technique was viewed with suspicion in academia.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Generally, a quantitative NIR analysis is accomplished by selecting a group of calibration samples, for which the concentration of the analyte of interest has been determined by a reference method, and finding a correlation between various spectral features and those concentrations using a chemometric tool. The calibration is then validated by using it to predict the analyte values for samples in a validation set, whose values have been determined by the reference method but have not been included in the calibration. A validated calibration is then used to predict the values of samples. The complexity of the spectra are overcome by the use of multivariate calibration. The two tools most often used a multi-wavelength linear regression and partial least squares.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Typical applications of NIR spectroscopy include the analysis of food products, pharmaceuticals, combustion products, and a major branch of astronomical spectroscopy.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Near-infrared spectroscopy is used in astronomy for studying the atmospheres of cool stars where molecules can form. The vibrational and rotational signatures of molecules such as titanium oxide, cyanide, and carbon monoxide can be seen in this wavelength range and can give a clue towards the star's spectral type. It is also used for studying molecules in other astronomical contexts, such as in molecular clouds where new stars are formed. The astronomical phenomenon known as reddening means that near-infrared wavelengths are less affected by dust in the interstellar medium, such that regions inaccessible by optical spectroscopy can be studied in the near-infrared. Since dust and gas are strongly associated, these dusty regions are exactly those where infrared spectroscopy is most useful. The near-infrared spectra of very young stars provide important information about their ages and masses, which is important for understanding star formation in general. Astronomical spectrographs have also been developed for the detection of exoplanets using the Doppler shift of the parent star due to the radial velocity of the planet around the star.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Near-infrared spectroscopy is widely applied in agriculture for determining the quality of forages, grains, and grain products, oilseeds, coffee, tea, spices, fruits, vegetables, sugarcane, beverages, fats, and oils, dairy products, eggs, meat, and other agricultural products. It is widely used to quantify the composition of agricultural products because it meets the criteria of being accurate, reliable, rapid, non-destructive, and inexpensive. Abeni and Bergoglio 2001 apply NIRS to chicken breeding as the assay method for characteristics of fat composition.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Techniques have been developed for NIR spectroscopic imaging. Hyperspectral imaging has been applied for a wide range of uses, including the remote investigation of plants and soils. Data can be collected from instruments on airplanes or satellites to assess ground cover and soil chemistry.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Remote monitoring or remote sensing from the NIR spectroscopic region can also be used to study the atmosphere. For example, measurements of atmospheric gases are made from NIR spectra measured by the OCO-2, GOSAT, and the TCCON.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Techniques have been developed for NIR spectroscopy of microscopic sample areas for film thickness measurements, research into the optical characteristics of nanoparticles and optical coatings for the telecommunications industry.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: The application of NIRS in medicine centres on its ability to provide information about the oxygen saturation of haemoglobin within the microcirculation. Broadly speaking, it can be used to assess oxygenation and microvascular function in the brain (cerebral NIRS) or in the peripheral tissues (peripheral NIRS).


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: When a specific area of the brain is activated, the localized blood volume in that area changes quickly. Optical imaging can measure the location and activity of specific regions of the brain by continuously monitoring blood hemoglobin levels through the determination of optical absorption coefficients.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: NIRS can be used as a quick screening tool for possible intracranial bleeding cases by placing the scanner on four locations on the head. In non-injured patients the brain absorbs the NIR light evenly. When there is an internal bleeding from an injury, the blood may be concentrated in one location causing the NIR light to be absorbed more than other locations, which the scanner detects.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: So-called functional NIRS can be used for non-invasive assessment of brain function through the intact skull in human subjects by detecting changes in blood hemoglobin concentrations associated with neural activity, e.g., in branches of cognitive psychology as a partial replacement for fMRI techniques. NIRS can be used on infants, and NIRS is much more portable than fMRI machines, even wireless instrumentation is available, which enables investigations in freely moving subjects. However, NIRS cannot fully replace fMRI because it can only be used to scan cortical tissue, whereas fMRI can be used to measure activation throughout the brain. Special public domain statistical toolboxes for analysis of stand alone and combined NIRS/MRI measurement have been developed (NIRS-SPM).


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: The application in functional mapping of the human cortex is called functional NIRS (fNIRS) or diffuse optical tomography (DOT). The term diffuse optical tomography is used for three-dimensional NIRS. The terms NIRS, NIRI, and DOT are often used interchangeably, but they have some distinctions. The most important difference between NIRS and DOT/NIRI is that DOT/NIRI is used mainly to detect changes in optical properties of tissue simultaneously from multiple measurement points and display the results in the form of a map or image over a specific area, whereas NIRS provides quantitative data in absolute terms on up to a few specific points. The latter is also used to investigate other tissues such as, e.g., muscle, breast and tumors. NIRS can be used to quantify blood flow, blood volume, oxygen consumption, reoxygenation rates and muscle recovery time in muscle.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: By employing several wavelengths and time resolved (frequency or time domain) and/or spatially resolved methods blood flow, volume and absolute tissue saturation (formula_1 or Tissue Saturation Index (TSI)) can be quantified. Applications of oximetry by NIRS methods include neuroscience, ergonomics, rehabilitation, brain-computer interface, urology, the detection of illnesses that affect the blood circulation (e.g., peripheral vascular disease), the detection and assessment of breast tumors, and the optimization of training in sports medicine.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: The use of NIRS in conjunction with a bolus injection of indocyanine green (ICG) has been used to measure cerebral blood flow and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen consumption (CMRO2).


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: It has also been shown that CMRO2 can be calculated with combined NIRS/MRI measurements. Additionally metabolism can be interrogated by resolving an additional mitochondrial chromophore, cytochrome-c-oxidase, using broadband NIRS.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: NIRS is starting to be used in pediatric critical care, to help manage patients following cardiac surgery. Indeed, NIRS is able to measure venous oxygen saturation (SVO2), which is determined by the cardiac output, as well as other parameters (FiO2, hemoglobin, oxygen uptake). Therefore, examining the NIRS provides critical care physicians with an estimate of the cardiac output. NIRS is favoured by patients, because it is non-invasive, painless, and does not require ionizing radiation.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is another NIR medical imaging technique capable of 3D imaging with high resolution on par with low-power microscopy. Using optical coherence to measure photon pathlength allows OCT to build images of live tissue and clear examinations of tissue morphology. Due to technique differences OCT is limited to imaging 1–2 mm below tissue surfaces, but despite this limitation OCT has become an established medical imaging technique especially for imaging of the retina and anterior segments of the eye, as well as coronaries.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: A type of neurofeedback, hemoencephalography or HEG, uses NIR technology to measure brain activation, primarily of the frontal lobes, for the purpose of training cerebral activation of that region.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: The instrumental development of NIRS/NIRI/DOT/OCT has proceeded tremendously during the last years and, in particular, in terms of quantification, imaging and miniaturization.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: Peripheral microvascular function can be assessed using NIRS. The oxygen saturation of haemoglobin in the tissue (StO2) can provide information about tissue perfusion. A vascular occlusion test (VOT) can be employed to assess microvascular function. Common sites for peripheral NIRS monitoring include the thenar eminence, forearm and calf muscles.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: NIR is often used in particle sizing in a range of different fields, including studying pharmaceutical and agricultural powders.


title: Near-infrared spectroscopy

text: As opposed to NIRS used in optical topography, general NIRS used in chemical assays does not provide imaging by mapping. For example, a clinical carbon dioxide analyzer requires reference techniques and calibration routines to be able to get accurate CO content change. In this case, calibration is performed by adjusting the zero control of the sample being tested after purposefully supplying 0% CO or another known amount of CO in the sample. Normal compressed gas from distributors contains about 95% O and 5% CO, which can also be used to adjust %CO meter reading to be exactly 5% at initial calibration.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: This article describes minor characters from the "Sherlock Holmes" stories by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, and from non-canonical derived works. The list excludes the titular character as well as Dr. Watson, Professor Moriarty, Inspector Lestrade, Mycroft Holmes, Mrs. Hudson, Irene Adler, Colonel Moran, the Baker Street Irregulars, and characters not significant enough to mention.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Inspector Baynes of the Surrey force appears in the two-part story "The Adventure of Wisteria Lodge", subtitled (i) "The Singular Experience of Mr John Scott Eccles", and (ii) "The Tiger of San Pedro". He is the only official policeman in the books to have ever matched Sherlock Holmes in his investigative skills. He is described as a very heavy man with a "puffy" face, but very intelligent eyes. In this story, the reader finds that, despite working along different lines, Holmes and Baynes both arrive at the correct conclusion and solve the case at the same time. In fact, Baynes had misled Holmes, as he used a method similar to one that Holmes often used when he arrested the wrong man and provided inaccurate information to the press, to lull the true criminal into a false sense of security. Holmes congratulated Baynes, and believed that he would go far.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In the 1988 Granada Television adaptation of "The Adventure of Wisteria Lodge", Inspector Baynes is portrayed by Freddie Jones. A version of Inspector Baynes appears in the video game "The Testament of Sherlock Holmes" (2012), in which Baynes is employed by Scotland Yard. In the Japanese puppetry television series "Sherlock Holmes" (2014–2015), Baynes is a pupil of Beeton School as well as Holmes and has a strong sense of rivalry against him. Baynes speaks in a precocious manner and provokes Holmes to find the truth of the disappearance of two pupils, Garcia and Henderson. After that, he provokes Holmes again by posting a message using the stick figures of dancing men in the school. Yōsuke Asari voices him.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Inspector Bradstreet is a detective who appears in three short stories: "The Man with the Twisted Lip", "The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle" and "The Adventure of the Engineer's Thumb". Doyle described him as "a tall, stout official... in a peaked cap and frogged jacket". Sidney Paget's illustrations for the "Strand Magazine" depict him with a full beard. Beyond this little is revealed about him in the canon.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Bradstreet originally served in Scotland Yard's E Division which associates him with the Bow Street Runners, a forerunner of Scotland Yard. He claims to have been in the force since 1862 ("The Man with the Twisted Lip") but in June 1889 Dr Watson writes he is in B Division to oversee "The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle". According to Sherlockian author Jack Tracy, B Division was "one of the twenty-two administrative divisions of the Metropolitan Police Force. Its 5.17 square miles include parts of south Kensington and the south-western section of ".


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In "The Adventure of the Engineer's Thumb", he accompanied Holmes to Eyford, a village in Berkshire. According to Jack Tracy's "The Encyclopaedia Sherlockiana", he was "assigned most likely to the central headquarters staff." Bradstreet is not a martinet; in "The Man with the Twisted Lip" he could have prosecuted the false beggar, but chose to overlook this action to spare Neville St Clair the trauma of shaming his wife and children.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Herbert Rawlinson played Bradstreet in a radio adaptation of "The Man with the Twisted Lip" (1946) in "The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes". In the 1952–1969 series of Sherlock Holmes BBC radio adaptations, Bradstreet was played by Ronald Baddiley in the 1959 dramatisation of "The Man with the Twisted Lip". Bradstreet was portrayed by Victor Brooks in the 1965 television adaptation of the same story in the television series "Sherlock Holmes". Bradstreet appears four times in Granada Television's "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes": "The Blue Carbuncle", "The Man with the Twisted Lip", "The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans" (substituting for Inspector Lestrade, as Colin Jeavons was unavailable), and a cameo appearance in "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone". Initially he was played by Brian Miller as a blustering, pompous plodder, then later as much more competent by Denis Lill. In the 1989–1998 radio series of BBC Radio Sherlock Holmes adaptations, Bradstreet was played by David Goudge in two episodes in 1991.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Inspector Tobias Gregson, a Scotland Yard inspector, was first introduced in "A Study in Scarlet" (1887), and he subsequently appears in "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter" (1893), "The Adventure of Wisteria Lodge" (1908) and "The Adventure of the Red Circle" (1911). Holmes declares him to be "the smartest of the Scotland Yarders," but given Holmes' opinion of the Scotland Yard detectives, this is not sweeping praise. In one of the stories Watson specifically mentions the callous and cool way in which Gregson behaved.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Gregson first appears in "A Study in Scarlet" and is a polar opposite of another Yarder Doyle created, Inspector Lestrade. Lestrade and Gregson are such visual opposites, it indicates the barrier Doyle drew between them to emphasise their professional animosity. Gregson is tall, "tow-headed" (fair-haired) in contrast to the shorter Lestrade's dark "ferretlike" (narrow) features and has "fat, square hands".


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Of all the Yarders, Gregson comes the closest to meeting Sherlock Holmes on intellectual grounds, while acknowledging Holmes's abilities. He even admits to Holmes that he always feels more confident when he has Holmes' aid in a case. Regrettably, he is bound within the confines of the law he serves, and the delay in getting his assistance turns to tragedy in "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter". He also has some regrettable human flaws. During "A Study in Scarlet" he publicly laughs at Lestrade's incorrect assumptions, even though he is also on the wrong trail.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Unlike Lestrade, Gregson overlooks the little grey areas of the law, and in "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter" overlooks Holmes's breaking of a window in order to enter a premises. The life of Mycroft Holmes's fellow lodger is saved by this minor criminal act.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Gregson last appears in Doyle's "The Adventure of the Red Circle" in events that happen in 1902 but are not published by Dr Watson until 1911. In this story, Watson observes that:


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Our official detectives may blunder in the matter of intelligence, but never in that of courage. Gregson climbed the stair to arrest this desperate murderer with the same absolutely quiet and businesslike bearing with which he would have ascended the official staircase of Scotland Yard. The Pinkerton man had tried to push past him, but Gregson had firmly elbowed him back. London dangers were the privilege of the London force.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Inspector Gregson has appeared in multiple pastiches written by other authors, including several short stories by Adrian Conan Doyle published in the 1954 collection "The Exploits of Sherlock Holmes", and the novel "Dust and Shadow" (2009) by Lyndsay Faye.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Inspector Stanley Hopkins is a Scotland Yard detective and a student of Holmes's deductive methods, who attempts to apply them in his own investigations. Holmes, however, is very critical of Hopkins's ability to apply them well, Hopkins sometimes making such mistakes as arresting a man whose notebook was found at a crime scene despite it being physically impossible for the man in question to have killed the victim in the manner that he was discovered; after the real culprit was captured, he learns to be more open-minded in future cases. Hopkins refers several cases to Holmes, all within the South-East areas of England and London, including:


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Teddy Arundell played Inspector Hopkins in eleven 1922 short films in the "Sherlock Holmes" silent film series by Stoll Pictures. H. Wheeler played Hopkins in one 1922 short film. In the 1946 film "Dressed to Kill", Hopkins was portrayed by Carl Harbord. In the television series "Sherlock Holmes" (1965–1968), the character was played in two 1965 episodes by John Barcroft and one 1968 episode by James Kenney.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In the 1952–1969 series of Sherlock Holmes BBC radio adaptations, Inspector Hopkins was played by Michael Turner in the radio drama "Black Peter" (1961), Hugh Dickson in "The Golden Pince-Nez" and "The Abbey Grange" (both in 1962), and Arnold Peters in another radio version of "Black Peter" (1969). Hopkins was voiced by Geoffrey Collins in a 1970 LP record audio drama adaptation of "Black Peter".


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In the Granada Television series "Sherlock Holmes", Inspector Hopkins was played by Paul Williamson in "The Abbey Grange" (1986) and by Nigel Planer in "The Golden Pince-Nez" (1994). Hopkins was played by Andrew Wincott in three 1993 episodes of the 1989–1998 BBC Radio Sherlock Holmes series. In the first episode of Season Two of "Elementary", a "DCI Hopkins" calls Holmes to London from New York. A female Inspector named Stella Hopkins appears in the episode of "Sherlock" entitled "The Six Thatchers". While uncertain, it can be presumed that the character drew inspiration from Inspector Hopkins.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Inspector Athelney Jones is a Scotland Yard detective who appears in "The Sign of the Four". He arrests the entire household of Bartholomew Sholto, including his brother and servants, on suspicion of his murder, but is forced to release all but one of them, much to his own embarrassment.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: According to Leslie S. Klinger, several scholars have theorised that Athelney Jones and Peter Jones, the "official police agent" who appears in "The Red-Headed League", are the same person. Peter Jones is similar to Athelney Jones in character, and references the events of "The Sign of the Four", remarking of Holmes that "once or twice, as in that business of the Sholto murder and the Agra treasure, he has been more nearly correct than the official force."


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Athelney Jones was played by Emrys James in the 1987 Granada adaptation, whilst Siôn Probert portrayed him in the 1989 radio adaptation of "The Sign of the Four" in the 1989–1998 BBC Radio series. Siôn Probert also played Athelney Jones in two episodes of the BBC radio series "The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes", "The Singular Inheritance of Miss Gloria Wilson" (2002) and "The Thirteen Watches" (2009).


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In an episode of the American radio series "The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" titled "The Mystery of Edelweiss Lodge" (2011), Inspector Peter Jones introduces himself as Athelney Jones's brother.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Inspector Alec MacDonald is a Scotland Yard inspector who appears in the novel "The Valley of Fear". He is from Aberdeen, Scotland. Watson states that MacDonald is "a silent, precise man with a dour nature and a hard Aberdonian accent. Twice already in his career had Holmes helped him to attain success". MacDonald respects Holmes, and Holmes calls him "friend MacDonald" and frequently addresses him as "Mr. Mac".


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: According to Owen Dudley Edwards, Inspector MacDonald may have been inspired by Inspector Mackenzie, a fictional Scottish police detective in E. W. Hornung's A. J. Raffles stories, though the two inspectors are different in character.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Gordon Jackson played Inspector MacDonald in the television film "The Masks of Death" (1984). He was played by Mark Bonnar in the 1997 radio adaptation of "The Valley of Fear" in the 1989–1998 BBC Radio series. MacDonald is played by Dennis Bateman and David Natale in the American radio series "The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes", in which he is a recurring character.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Billy is Holmes's young page, appearing in the stories "The Valley of Fear", "The Problem of Thor Bridge" and "The Mazarin Stone". In the latter, he plays a significant role in helping to arrest the lead villain. He is a more significant character in all three of Doyle's plays featuring Sherlock Holmes, "Sherlock Holmes; A Drama in Four Acts", "The Stonor Case" and "The Crown Diamond", and in the spoof "The Painful Predicament of Sherlock Holmes" written by William Gillette. In 1903 Charlie Chaplin began his career by playing Billy on stage in both the four-act play and Gillette's spoof.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Billy has appeared in the films "Sherlock Holmes" (1916), "Sherlock Holmes" (1922), "Sherlock Holmes" (1932) and "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" (1939). In the episode of the TV series "Sherlock" entitled "The Abominable Bride", Billy makes an appearance played by Adam Greaves-Neal, who previously played an original character named Archie in "The Sign of Three" (though presumably Archie drew some inspiration from Billy).


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Shinwell "Porky" Johnson is a former criminal who acts as informant and occasional muscle for Sherlock Holmes. Watson notes that the nature of his association with Holmes means that Shinwell is only useful in cases that by their nature will not go to court, as he would compromise his connection to Holmes and thus render himself useless as a source if he ever had to testify as part of a case. He appears in "The Adventure of the Illustrious Client" where he protects Kitty from Baron Grüner's henchmen and provides Holmes with insight into how he might go about infiltrating Grüner's house to acquire a certain book.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: He appears in the "" video game series (1991–1993), in which he is a former criminal and innkeeper. He is referred to in the BBC radio adaptations of Sherlock Holmes, specifically in an episode of "The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes", "The Ferrers Documents" (2009), where he appears to carry on with intimidation business. He is played in the episode by Dan Starkey.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: The fifth season of the TV show "Elementary" introduced an updated version of the character (played by Nelsan Ellis) as both a former patient of Watson's and ex-convict now attempting to go straight. He became part of a complex sting operation to infiltrate and dismantle his old gang, but after Sherlock and Joan decided to trust him even after learning that he killed one of his old associates in the gang, he was killed before he could complete his assignment.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Mary Watson, née Morstan, is the wife of Dr. Watson. She is first introduced in "The Sign of the Four", where she and Watson tentatively become attracted to each other, but only when the case is resolved is he able to propose to her. She is described as a blonde with pale skin. At the time she hires Holmes she had been making a living as a governess. At the end of the story the main treasure is lost - rather to Watson's relief, since if she had been a rich heiress his proposing to her might have been considered the act of a fortune hunter. She does receive six pearls from a chaplet of the Agra Treasure.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Her father, Captain Arthur Morstan, was a senior captain of an Indian regiment and later stationed near the Andaman Islands. He disappeared in 1878 under mysterious circumstances that would later be proven to be related to the mystery, "The Sign of the Four". Her mother died sometime before 1878 and she had no other relatives in England, although she was educated there (in accordance with the received wisdom of the time about European children in British-ruled India) until the age of seventeen. Shortly afterward her father disappeared and she found work as a governess. Watson and Mary married in 1889.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Mary Morstan is mentioned in passing in "The Adventure of the Crooked Man" and "The Boscombe Valley Mystery", but by the time of "The Adventure of the Norwood Builder" (after Holmes's return) Mary Morstan has died and Watson has returned to his former lodgings in Baker Street. Her cause of death is never mentioned.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Leslie S. Klinger writes that there appear to be contradictions regarding Mary Morstan between the stories. According to Morstan in "The Sign of the Four", which likely takes place in the summer of 1888, her mother died many years ago and she has no relatives in England. However, in "The Five Orange Pips", which is explicitly dated by Watson in September 1887, Watson is already married, and is again in Baker Street because his wife was "on a visit to her mother's". These discrepancies may be errors, though Klinger suggests they indicate that Watson had a wife who preceded Mary Morstan and died before 1888.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Mary Morstan has been portrayed on film and television by several actresses. In many cases, her role is expanded in new stories.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Langdale Pike is a celebrated gossipmonger whose columns are published in numerous magazines and newspapers (referred to as the "garbage papers" by Watson). He's introduced in "The Adventure of the Three Gables" in which he helps Holmes learn the name of the woman who led Douglas Maberley to his demise, although he does not actually appear in the story itself and is only referred to by Watson who describes Pike as "strange" and "languid" and states that all of Pike's waking hours are spent "in the bow window of a St. James's Street club". His character has however been expanded on or fleshed out elsewhere.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In William S. Baring-Gould's biography of Sherlock Holmes, "Sherlock Holmes of Baker Street" (1962), it is claimed that Pike is a college acquaintance of Holmes who encourages a young Holmes to try his hand at acting. Here his real name is given as 'Lord Peter'. Langdale Pike also appears in the "" video game series (1991–1993).


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In Peter Ling's 1994 radio play of "The Three Gables" for the 1989–1998 BBC Radio series, Pike's real name is said to be Clarence Gable. Here he is also an old school-friend of Holmes's and is nervous of strangers and reluctant to leave his club for this reason. In both the 1994 BBC radio play and the 2007 "Imagination Theatre" radio adaptation of the story, "Langdale Pike" is said to be a pen name derived from the Langdale Pikes. The "Imagination Theatre" version implies his real name is Lord Peter, as in Baring-Gould's book.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In the Granada television adaptation starring Jeremy Brett as Holmes, Pike (played by Peter Wyngarde) is apparently an old university friend of Holmes's. Here he claims to be the benevolent counterpart of Charles Augustus Milverton (the eponymous blackmailer of "The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton"), who suppresses more information than he exposes. Though Watson is rather scathing about Pike, Holmes is more sympathetic towards him, suggesting that Pike is isolated, much like Holmes himself.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In the American television series "Elementary," Pike appears in the first episode of the second season as one of Holmes' sources in London; details are not seen as Pike moves quickly when delivering a package to Watson. "Langdale" is used as a British Intelligence codename in the first episode of the fourth series of "Sherlock", along with "Porlock," the name of another Holmes informer in the original stories. In the NHK puppetry television series "Sherlock Holmes" (2014–2015), Pike is a pupil of Beeton School and assists Holmes in his investigation. He also works as informant and is fast at his job but tight with money. Besides he sells photographs of girls to male pupils. Tomokazu Seki voices him.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: "Colonel Lysander Stark" is the alias of a tall gaunt German National [first name Fritz] who is the head of a counterfeiting gang in England; his two accomplices are a German woman named Elsie and a morose fat Englishman under the name of "Dr Beecher". Their base of operations was the town of Eyford near Reading, Berkshire, using a water powered hydraulic press to compress the metal into half-crowns. In 1889 Stark was compelled to hire a hydraulic engineer named Victor Hatherley when the press began to malfunction. When Hatherley realized that the press was not used to compress fuller's earth but metal, Stark locked him within the machine. The woman freed Hatherley; Stark attacked Hatherley with a cleaver, cutting off the engineers thumb when Hatherley was escaping from a second story window. Hatherley just managed to bind the wound before fainting from loss of blood; Elsie and "Beecher" carried the unconscious man to a rose hedge. "Stark" was prevented from killing Hatherley because Hatherley's lamp set the wooden walls of the press and their house on fire. Stark and his accomplices fled to Reading with several boxes of counterfeit coins; as both Sherlock Holmes and Scotland Yard cannot find them in England, presumably the gang has fled to Germany. Hatherley's story helps Holmes solve the disappearance of another hydraulic engineer in 1888. "The Adventure of the Engineer's Thumb"


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Toby is a dog who is used by Sherlock Holmes. He appears in "The Sign of the Four" and is described by Watson as an "ugly long haired, lop-eared creature, half spaniel and half lurcher, brown and white in colour, with a very clumsy waddling gait." Though used by Holmes, the dog belongs to Mr. Sherman who keeps a menagerie of creatures at No. 3 Pinchin Lane in Lambeth, in London. Toby lives at No. 7 within his house. Holmes states he would "rather have Toby's help than that of the whole detective force in London" and requests the dog by name. Holmes uses a different tracking dog while in Cambridge in "The Adventure of the Missing Three-Quarter".


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Toby also featured in the 1978 pastische novel "Sherlock Holmes vs Dracula; or, The Adventures of the Sanguinary Count" by Loren D. Estleman, when Watson and Holmes called on Toby to track Count Dracula after finding him in a meat-packing district – Dracula's carriage having rolled through blood and old entrails – allowing the two to track Dracula to Watson's house in time to learn that he has abducted Mary Watson.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In the Holmes-esque "The Great Mouse Detective" (1986), Toby is a Basset Hound and a permanent resident of 221b Baker Street. He is frequently used by Basil, the eponymous protagonist, as a means of transport and to pick up trails. Toby appears in the video game "" (1992) and its sequel "" (1996). In the video game "The Testament of Sherlock Holmes" (2012) and some of the other games in the "Sherlock Holmes" video game series, a Basset Hound version of Toby is briefly controlled by the player.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: In the NHK puppetry television series "Sherlock Holmes" (2014–2015), Toby is kept by Sherman in a shed in Beeton School and assists Holmes in his investigation. In the series, Sherman is a female pupil who loves animals and communicates with them, unlike Mr. Sherman in "The Sign of the Four". Though being a pupil of Baker House, she does not live in the house, but in the shed with animals. In the BBC series "Sherlock", in the first episode of the fourth season titled "The Six Thatchers", Sherlock Holmes requires the services of a bloodhound named Toby.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Wiggins is a street urchin in London and head of the Baker Street Irregulars. He has no first name in the stories. He appears in "A Study in Scarlet" (1887) and "The Sign of the Four" (1890).


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Wiggins was voiced on BBC radio by Paul Taylor in the 1959 serial "The Sign of Four". In the 1952–1969 radio series, Wiggins was played by David Valla in the 1962 dramatisation of "A Study in Scarlet", and by Glyn Dearman in "The Sign of the Four" (1963). In the 1965 musical "Baker Street", Wiggins was portrayed by Teddy Green. Wiggins was played by Tony McLaren in the 1968 episodes "The Study in Scarlet" and "The Sign of the Four" of the television series "Sherlock Holmes".


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: The film "The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes" (1970), directed by Billy Wilder, features a character called Wiggins (played by Graham Armitage) who is a footman at the Diogenes Club. He delivers a note to Mycroft Holmes (played by Christopher Lee) and receives instructions concerning various items. Wiggins was played by Jay Simpson in the 1983 television series "The Baker Street Boys". Courtney Roper-Knight portrayed Wiggins in the 1987 television film "The Sign of Four", part of the Granada Television series "Sherlock Holmes". In the 1988 film "Without a Clue", Wiggins was played by Matthew Savage. The 1989–1991 animated television series "Sherlock Holmes in the 22nd Century" features a version of the character also named Wiggins, voiced by Viv Leacock.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Wiggins appears in the video game "" (1992) and was played by Corey Miller in the version of the game released in 1994. Wiggins returns in the sequel "" (1996), voiced by Paul Vincent Black. The character, credited as "Bill Wiggins", also appears in the series three finale of "Sherlock" portrayed by Tom Brooke as a drug user who actually demonstrates the beginning of Sherlock's deductive skills, and later appoints himself a "pupil" of Sherlock's. In the video game "" (2014), Wiggins plays a significant role in the last case of the game.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Some fictional characters associated with Sherlock Holmes are not part of the Conan Doyle canon and were created by other writers.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Enola Holmes is the younger sister of Sherlock and Mycroft Holmes. She appears in the book series "The Enola Holmes Mysteries" by Nancy Springer as well as the American films "Enola Holmes" and "Enola Holmes 2" where she is portrayed by Millie Bobby Brown. Enola is an independent and rebellious girl who likes to wear trousers while riding her bike. She becomes a "perditorian," or finder of lost things, when her mother runs away and her brother Mycroft tries to send her to boarding school. Using her natural cunning which she and Sherlock inherited from their mother, she creates multiple disguises on her quest to be reunited with her mother and evade her brothers.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: It is hinted that there is a third Holmes sibling in the third-series episode "His Last Vow" of the BBC "Sherlock" series. In the second episode of the fourth series, "The Lying Detective", it is confirmed that Mycroft and Sherlock in fact have a sister named Eurus. She is extremely intelligent but unfeeling and is incarcerated in a maximum security psychiatric facility. She is the main antagonist in the last episode of the fourth series, "The Final Problem".


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Morland Holmes is the influential businessman and father of Sherlock and Mycroft, interpreted by John Noble in the TV adaptation "Elementary". According to Sherlock, Morland Holmes doesn't care about his sons, and only does what he does out of a sense of familial obligations. Sherlock says he is a serial absentee, and that he has been so since Sherlock was a boy. He sent Sherlock to boarding school when he was eight years old.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Raffles Holmes, the son of Sherlock Holmes, is a fictional character in the 1906 collection of short stories "Raffles Holmes and Company" by John Kendrick Bangs. He is described as the son of Sherlock Holmes by Marjorie Raffles, the daughter of gentleman thief A.J. Raffles.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Wold Newton family theorist Win Scott Eckert devised an explanation in his "Original Wold Newton Universe Crossover Chronology" to reconcile the existence of Raffles Holmes with canonical information about Sherlock Holmes and A.J. Raffles, which fellow Wold Newton speculator Brad Mengel incorporated into his essay "Watching the Detectives." According to the theory, Holmes married Marjorie in 1883, and she died giving birth to Raffles later that year. Since Raffles and Holmes are contemporaries, it has been suggested that Marjorie was actually Raffles' sister.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Eckert further proposed in his "Crossover Chronology" that (1) Raffles Holmes was the same character as the "lovely, lost son" of Sherlock Holmes referred to in Laurie R. King's Mary Russell novels, and (2) Raffles Holmes was the father of Creighton Holmes, who is featured in the collection of short stories "The Adventures of Creighton Holmes" by Ned Hubbell.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Mengel's online essay was revised for publication in the Eckert-edited "Myths for the Modern Age: Philip José Farmer's Wold Newton Universe" (MonkeyBrain Books, 2005), a collection of Wold Newton essays by Farmer and several other "post-Farmerian" contributors, authorised by Farmer as an extension of his Wold Newton mythos. He does not appear or is ever mentioned in any of the original stories of Sherlock Holmes and is not a creation of Doyle.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Sherrinford Holmes is a proposed elder brother of Sherlock Holmes and Mycroft Holmes. His name is taken from early notes as one of those considered by Arthur Conan Doyle for his detective hero before settling on "Sherlock Holmes". The name is used of Holmes by Stamford in the 1954 radio show 'Dr Watson Meets Sherlock Holmes' as he attempts to remember Holmes' first name.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: He was first proposed by William S. Baring-Gould who wrote in his fictional biography "Sherlock Holmes of Baker Street" (1962) that Sherrinford was the eldest brother of Sherlock Holmes. Holmes once stated that his family were country squires, which means that the eldest brother would have to stay to manage the estate. If Mycroft were the eldest, he could not play the role he does in four stories of the Sherlock Holmes canon, so Sherrinford frees them both. This position is strengthened by the fact that Mycroft's general position as a senior civil servant was a common choice among the younger sons of the gentry.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: The character (as "Sherringford") appears along with his brothers in the Virgin New Adventures Doctor Who novel "All-Consuming Fire" by Andy Lane, where he is revealed to be the member of a cult worshiping an alien telepathic slug that is mutating him and his followers into an insect-like form; the novel culminates with Holmes being forced to shoot his brother to save Watson.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: He also appears, accused of a murder that Sherlock must find him innocent of, in the Call of Cthulhu roleplaying game adventure "The Yorkshire Horrors". Sherrinford also appears in the Italian comic series "Storie da Altrove" (a spin-off of "Martin Mystère") as the eldest brother, born nine years before him, of Sherlock himself.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: The film "The Adventure of Sherlock Holmes' Smarter Brother" has as its protagonist Sigerson Holmes who Sherlock (a minor character) identifies as a brother of himself and Mycroft.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: The name "Sigerson" is an alias mentioned in passing in a Conan Doyle story as an alias Sherlock used while posing as an explorer.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Auguste Lupa is the son of Sherlock Holmes and Irene Adler. He appears in two pastiche novels by author John Lescroart, "Son of Holmes" (1986) and "Rasputin's Revenge" (1987). Lupa, a secret agent during the First World War, is strongly implied to be the younger version of fictional detective Nero Wolfe in the mystery series by Rex Stout.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Mary Russell is a fictional character in a book series by Laurie R. King, focusing on the adventures of Russell and her mentor and, later, husband, an aging Sherlock Holmes.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: The adventures of Amelia Watson, the second wife of Dr. John Watson, are chronicled in a series of short stories and novels by Michael Mallory. The character is based upon the enigmatic reference to Watson having left Holmes in 1902 for a wife, a reference that appears in the canonical story "The Adventure of the Blanched Soldier", although the woman in the story is never named or identified nor ever mentioned again in the canon.


title: Minor Sherlock Holmes characters

text: Joanna Blalock is a fictional character in a book series by Leonard Goldberg, in which Joanna is reputed (and later confirmed) to be the daughter of Sherlock Holmes. Irene Adler died giving birth to her in the early 1890s, and Holmes gave her up for adoption. By the outbreak of World War I she is a widowed nurse with a young son, but has the same gift for deductive reasoning as her father, and joins Dr. John Watson, Jr. in a series of mystery adventures, which Dr. Watson Sr. narrates. She and John Jr. marry at the end of the first story. Both she and her husband believe Holmes to be deceased at this time, though canon stories imply that he is working undercover for Britain's war efforts. It is not confirmed whether Dr. Watson, Sr. knows this.


title: Battle of Maritsa

text: The Battle of Maritsa or Battle of Chernomen (, in tr. "Second Battle of Maritsa") took place at the Maritsa River near the village of Chernomen (present-day Ormenio, Greece) on 26 September 1371 between Ottoman forces commanded by Lala Şahin Pasha and Evrenos, and Serbian forces commanded by King Vukašin Mrnjavčević and his brother Despot Jovan Uglješa.


title: Battle of Maritsa

text: In 1354, the Ottomans acquired Gallipoli. From there, they expanded into Thrace, taking the important city of Adrianople in 1369. They reached the borders of Uglješa's lands. Uglješa tried to create a coalition against them. He failed to secure support from the Byzantines and the Bulgarians. Most of the Serbian lords were occupied fighting each other and the only Serbian lord who supported Uglješa's ideas was his brother Vukašin.


title: Battle of Maritsa

text: In the summer of 1371, Vukašin marched to Zeta, to support his relative Đurađ Balšić in his war against Nikola Altomanović. His army was in Skadar, waiting for naval support from the Republic of Ragusa. Uglješa received information that the majority of Ottoman forces left Europe and marched to Anatolia. He decided it was a good time to execute his offensive plans and asked Vukašin for help. Vukašin left Skadar with his army and joined Uglješa. They marched against Adrianople.


title: Battle of Maritsa

text: The Serbian army numbered between 50,000 and 70,000 men. Despot Uglješa wanted to make a surprise attack on the Ottomans in their capital city, Edirne, while Murad I was in Asia Minor. The Ottoman army was much smaller, Byzantine Greek scholar Laonikos Chalkokondyles and different sources give the number of 800 up to 4,000 men, but due to superior tactics, by conducting a night raid on the Serbian camp, Şâhin Paşa was able to defeat the Serbian army and kill King Vukašin and despot Uglješa. Thousands of Serbs were killed, and thousands drowned in the Maritsa river when they tried to flee. After the battle, it was said, the Maritsa ran scarlet with blood.


title: Battle of Maritsa

text: South Serbia fell under Ottoman power after this battle. The battle was a part of the Ottoman campaign to conquer the Balkans and was preceded by the Ottoman capturing of Sozopol in modern Bulgaria and succeeded by the capture of the cities of Drama, Kavála, and Serrai in modern Greece. The battle preceded the later 1389 Battle of Kosovo, and was one of many in the Serbian–Turkish wars.


title: Data storage

text: Data storage is the recording (storing) of information (data) in a storage medium. Handwriting, phonographic recording, magnetic tape, and optical discs are all examples of storage media. Biological molecules such as RNA and DNA are considered by some as data storage. Recording may be accomplished with virtually any form of energy. Electronic data storage requires electrical power to store and retrieve data.


title: Data storage

text: Data storage in a digital, machine-readable medium is sometimes called "digital data". Computer data storage is one of the core functions of a general-purpose computer. Electronic documents can be stored in much less space than paper documents. Barcodes and magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) are two ways of recording machine-readable data on paper.


title: Data storage

text: A recording medium is a physical material that holds information. Newly created information is distributed and can be stored in four storage media–print, film, magnetic, and optical–and seen or heard in four information flows–telephone, radio and TV, and the Internet as well as being observed directly. Digital information is stored on electronic media in many different recording formats.


title: Data storage

text: With electronic media, the data and the recording media are sometimes referred to as "software" despite the more common use of the word to describe computer software. With (traditional art) static media, art materials such as crayons may be considered both equipment and medium as the wax, charcoal or chalk material from the equipment becomes part of the surface of the medium.


title: Data storage

text: Some recording media may be temporary either by design or by nature. Volatile organic compounds may be used to preserve the environment or to purposely make data expire over time. Data such as smoke signals or skywriting are temporary by nature. Depending on the volatility, a gas (e.g. atmosphere, smoke) or a liquid surface such as a lake would be considered a temporary recording medium if at all.


title: Data storage

text: A 2003 UC Berkeley report estimated that about five exabytes of new information were produced in 2002 and that 92% of this data was stored on hard disk drives. This was about twice the data produced in 2000. The amount of data transmitted over telecommunication systems in 2002 was nearly 18 exabytes—three and a half times more than was recorded on non-volatile storage. Telephone calls constituted 98% of the telecommunicated information in 2002. The researchers' highest estimate for the growth rate of newly stored information (uncompressed) was more than 30% per year.


title: Data storage

text: A 2011 Science (journal) article estimated that the year 2002 was the beginning of the digital age for information storage: an age in which more information is stored on digital storage devices than on analog storage devices. In 1986, approximately 1% of the world's capacity to store information was in digital format; this grew to 3% by 1993, to 25% by 2000, and to 97% by 2007. These figures correspond to less than three compressed exabytes in 1986, and 295 compressed exabytes in 2007. The quantity of digital storage doubled roughly every three years.


title: Data storage

text: In a more limited study, the International Data Corporation estimated that the total amount of digital data in 2007 was 281 exabytes, and that the total amount of digital data produced exceeded the global storage capacity for the first time.


title: Maher Zain

text: Maher Zain (; born 16 July 1981) is a Lebanese-Swedish R&B singer, songwriter and music producer. He released his debut album "Thank You Allah", an internationally successful album produced by Awakening Records, in 2009. He released his follow-up album "Forgive Me" in April 2012 under the same production company, and a third album "One" in 2016.


title: Maher Zain

text: Maher Zain's Lebanese family emigrated to Sweden when he was eight. He completed his schooling there, gaining a bachelor's degree in Aeronautical Engineering. After university, he entered the music industry in Sweden, and in 2005 linked up with the Moroccan-born Swedish producer RedOne. When RedOne moved to New York in 2006, Zain soon followed to continue his music industry career in the United States, producing for artists such as Kat DeLuna.


title: Maher Zain

text: On returning home to Sweden, he became engaged once more with his Islamic faith and decided to move away from a career as a music producer to become a singer/songwriter of contemporary R&B music with a strong Muslim religious influence.


title: Maher Zain

text: In January 2009, Maher Zain began working on an album with Awakening Records. His debut album, "Thank You Allah", with 13 songs and two bonus tracks, was released on 1 November 2009 with percussion versions and French versions of some tracks released shortly afterwards.


title: Maher Zain

text: Zain and Awakening Records successfully used social media such as Facebook, YouTube and iTunes to promote tracks from the album. In early 2010 his music very quickly gathered a huge online following in Arabic-speaking and Islamic countries as well as among young Muslims in western countries. By the end of 2010, he was the most Googled celebrity in Malaysia for that year. Malaysia and Indonesia have been the countries where he has had the most commercial success. The album "Thank You Allah" has been certified multiple platinum by Warner Music Malaysia and Sony Music Indonesia. It became the highest selling album of 2010 in Malaysia.


title: Maher Zain

text: Zain sings mainly in English but has released some of his most popular songs in other languages. The song "Insha Allah", for example, is now available in English, French, Arabic, Turkish, Malay and Indonesian versions. Another song, "Allahi Allah Kiya Karo" ("Continuously Saying Allah"), is sung in Urdu and features the Pakistan born Canadian singer Irfan Makki. Zain has performed concerts around the world, including in the UK, the United States, Malaysia, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and Egypt. He has fan clubs in several countries including Malaysia, Egypt, and Morocco. He took part in the judging committee of the Awakening Talent Contest to choose Awakening Records' new star in 2013.


title: Maher Zain

text: In January 2010, Maher Zain won Best Religious Song for 'Ya Nabi Salam Alayka', on Nogoum FM, a major Middle East mainstream music station, beating other prominent singers including Hussein Al-Jismi, Mohammed Mounir and Sami Yusuf.


title: Maher Zain

text: In March 2011, Maher Zain released "Freedom", a song inspired by the events and the actions of the people taking part in the Arab Spring.


title: Maher Zain

text: Maher Zain was chosen as a Muslim Star of 2011 in a competition organized by Onislam.net. In July 2011 he featured on the cover of the UK Muslim lifestyle magazine "Emel".


title: Maher Zain

text: Maher Zain has appeared in the 40-episode Indonesian TV drama "Insya-Allah". The show was aired on Malaysian satellite TV channel, Astro Oasis and Mustika HD, starting 17 July 2012, concurrent with the broadcasting of the show on Indonesia's SCTV.


title: Maher Zain

text: In 2013, he took part in the "Colors of Peace" project constituting songs based on works by Fethullah Gülen on the album "Rise Up" where Maher Zain performs the track "This Worldly Life".


title: Sam Bailey

text: Samantha Florence Bailey (born 29 June 1977) is an English pop singer who won the tenth series of "The X Factor" in 2013. Following her win, her debut single, a cover of Demi Lovato's "Skyscraper" was released on 15 December 2013, achieving the Christmas number one on 22 December 2013. She was the first "X Factor" winner in three years to gain the Christmas number one spot.


title: Sam Bailey

text: On 24 February 2014, Bailey supported Beyoncé on one of the dates of her UK leg of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour, as well as performing on "The X Factor" Live Tour. Her debut album, "The Power of Love", was released in March 2014 and debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart. The album was re-issued in December 2014 as "The Power of Love (The Gift Edition)". The re-issue featured five new tracks—including three Christmas covers and a reworking of original song "Treasure". In support of the album, Bailey went on her first headline tour in January and February 2015.


title: Sam Bailey

text: Bailey was born in Bexley, London, to Ronnie (1950–2008) and Jackie Bailey. She has two brothers, Charlie and Danny. Ronnie died from oral cancer in 2008.


title: Sam Bailey

text: Sam grew up in Sidcup, London, and attended Cleeve Park School and Bexley College. Before auditioning for "The X Factor", she worked as a prison officer at HMP Gartree. near Market Harborough, Leicestershire. In an interview on "Daybreak" the day after winning, Bailey said that she would quit her job at the Prison.


title: Sam Bailey

text: In 1996, then 18-year-old Bailey formed the ska duo Girls Next Door with her friend Julie Nunney and they recorded a song called "Too Late", which was produced by Right Said Fred bassist Clyde Ward. It was reported that Simon Cowell heard the song when he was shopping at his local Asda, but turned the duo down because they were not on television, but Bailey later said that this story was not true.


title: Sam Bailey

text: In 2013, Bailey auditioned for the tenth series of "The X Factor" in front of judges Gary Barlow Sharon Osbourne, Nicole Scherzinger and Louis Walsh, singing Beyoncé's "Listen" in her room audition. She received a standing ovation from all four judges afterwards, with Barlow calling her voice "incredible". She was given four "yeses" and progressed through to the arena auditions. She sang "Who's Lovin' You" and "Run To You" at the arena, gaining another standing ovation from the audience and bringing Scherzinger to tears. She received four yeses again. Bailey was placed in the "over 25s" category at "bootcamp" and was mentored by Osbourne. She successfully made it through to "judges' houses" and was later chosen by Osbourne for the live shows, along with Lorna Simpson and Shelley Smith.


title: Sam Bailey

text: Following the eliminations of Simpson in week 1 and Smith in week 2, Bailey became the last over 25 in the competition. On 8 December, she made it to the final along with Nicholas McDonald and Luke Friend. On 14 December, she duetted with Scherzinger on "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going". The following night, she sang her winner's single, a cover of "Skyscraper" by Demi Lovato. Later, having received more than 1 million votes over the course of the weekend, she was announced as the winner. When the voting statistics were announced on "The X Factor" afterwards, Bailey was revealed to have received the most public votes seven times out of ten. As the winner, she received a £1 million recording contract with Syco Music and the opportunity to support Beyoncé on the UK leg of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour in February 2014. Bailey was reportedly due to support Beyoncé at ten shows, but that figure was cut down to just one due to "The X Factor" Live Tour. Her sole show with Beyonce was in Birmingham on 24 February 2014.


title: Sam Bailey

text: A report by "The Sun" claimed that Bailey had "misled the public" by stating she had no previous singing experience, when in fact she had been performing on cruise ships, in clubs and at music festivals for several years. Bailey defended herself in an interview with the "Leicester Mercury", stating: "I have been totally honest that I have sang for 20 years but never made it. What's the problem with that?" An "X Factor" executive producer also revealed that Bailey had auditioned for the show's fourth series in 2007, but did not get past the first producers' round.


title: Sam Bailey

text: Bailey's winner's single "Skyscraper" was released via digital download on 16 December 2013, the day after she won the show. On 18 December 2013, the single received a physical release, which features three of Bailey's best "X Factor" performances – "The Power of Love", "Make You Feel My Love" and "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)". On "The Xtra Factor" after the final, Barlow said that he would like to write songs for Bailey. On 22 December, the song debuted atop the UK Singles Chart after selling 149,000 copies in its first week and became the Christmas number one.


title: Sam Bailey

text: In an interview with the Official Charts Company after "Skyscraper" topped the charts, Bailey said, "2014 is going to be a huge year for me. Basically, I'm in the studio pretty much straight away. We're hoping to get an album out for spring. On the album, I'm going to try and do things a little bit differently." On 21 January 2014, Bailey tweeted that her debut album would be called "The Power of Love", named after the Jennifer Rush song which Bailey covered for the album. It was later revealed that the album would be released on 24 March 2014, and contain both cover versions and original material. On 22 January, Bailey appeared at the 19th National Television Awards and sang "The Power of Love". She also performed a duet of "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" with Michael Bolton. This duet is also featured as one of the tracks on the album. Another duet on the album is "And I Am Telling You" with Scherzinger, which Bailey originally performed on the "X Factor" final.


title: Sam Bailey

text: On 18 February 2014, the song "Compass" received its debut airplay on BBC Radio 2. On 30 March, the album debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, making Bailey the first "X Factor" winner to have a number-one album since Alexandra Burke topped the chart with her debut album "Overcome" in October 2009. The album sold 72,644 copies in its first week, making it the fastest-selling album of 2014 in the UK at the time, overtaking Pharrell Williams' "Girl". In support of the album, Bailey will go on her first headline tour in January and February 2015. The tour will comprise fifteen shows and will begin at the De Montfort Hall in her hometown of Leicester.


title: Sam Bailey

text: The album was re-packaged and re-released on 1 December 2014. The re-issue featured five new tracks — including three Christmas tunes and a reworking of original song "Treasure". As well as the festive songs ("Silent Night", "Please Come Home for Christmas" and "O Holy Night"), the album also included "With You" from "Ghost the Musical".


title: Sam Bailey

text: In February 2015, it was announced via Bailey's Twitter account that she had parted ways with Syco Music.


title: Sam Bailey

text: In 2016 she was cast as Mamma Morton in the UK tour of the musical "Chicago" alongside John Partridge and Hayley Tamaddon.


title: Sam Bailey

text: Bailey announced on her social media that she had gone to the United States to record her upcoming album. She has been working, among others, with Steve Dorff, writing new songs for an album titled "Sing My Heart Out", released on 16 September. The album charted on the Top 40 in the UK on its first week. Sam is co-writer of most of the songs in this new album.


title: Sam Bailey

text: During the summer holidays in 2016 Bailey toured Butlins Holiday Resorts as part of the "Butlins Pop tour 2016".


title: Sam Bailey

text: Bailey took centre stage at De Montfort Hall as Queen of the Flower of Fairies in "Jack and the Beanstalk" at the 2016 Christmas pantomime, next to Jon Clegg.


title: Sam Bailey

text: In 2018, it was announced that Bailey would be stepping into the role of Betty Simpson in "Fat Friends – The Musical". Bailey then joined the charitable music project "Stronger Together" to support of LGBTI people living in fear in Chechnya.


title: Sam Bailey

text: Bailey then starred in the Vampires Rock Musical tour, and in July, Bailey released "Bleed Red". Her song "Wonderful" was later part of the original soundtrack of the film "High Strung: Free Dance".


title: Sam Bailey

text: In 2020 amid the COVID-19 crisis Sam joined a supergroup of celebrities called The Celebs, the group included Frank Bruno, Kellie Shirley and Toby Anstis to raise money for both Alzheimer's Society and Action for Children. They recorded a new rendition of Merry Christmas Everyone by Shakin' Stevens and it was released digitally on 11 December 2020, on independent record label Saga Entertainment. The music video debuted exclusively on Good Morning Britain the day before release. The song peaked at number two on the iTunes pop chart.


title: Sam Bailey

text: In 2021 Bailey penned a record deal with independent record label Saga Entertainment, she released her first single on the label on 6 August 2021, a cover of Alannah Myles hit single Black Velvet. The song peaked at number one on the Amazon best sellers chart and number 3 on the iTunes rock charts.


title: Sam Bailey

text: Bailey currently lives in Leicester with her husband Craig Pearson, their three children—Tommy, Brooke, and Miley, and their deaf Springer Spaniel, Molly. Bailey and Pearson met in 2002 and were married in Las Vegas on 29 January 2003.


title: Sam Bailey

text: On 6 March 2014, Bailey announced that she was 10 weeks pregnant with her third child. She tweeted her first ultrasound scan, alongside the caption "Hey everyone... Meet peanut!!!" At 10:50am on 10 September 2014, Bailey gave birth to daughter Miley Beau. Former mentor and friend Sharon Osbourne is Miley's godmother. In October 2014, Bailey announced via Twitter she is suffering Bell's palsy following Miley's birth.


title: Sam Bailey

text: In June 2014, Bailey announced that she had signed a deal to release her autobiography "Daring to Dream". It was released in November 2014.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Greenland is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland. The territory comprises the island of Greenland—the largest island in the world—and more than a hundred other smaller islands (see ). Greenland has a 1.2 kilometre (0.75 mi) long border with Canada on Hans Island. A sparse population is confined to small settlements along certain sectors of the coast. Greenland possesses the world's second-largest ice sheet.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Greenland sits atop the Greenland plate, a subplate of the North American plate. The Greenland craton is made up of some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth. The Isua greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland contains the oldest known rocks on Earth, dated at 3.7–3.8 billion years old.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: The vegetation is generally sparse, with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: The climate is arctic to subarctic, with cool summers and cold winters. The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast. The lowest elevation is sea level and the highest elevation is the summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld, the highest point in the Arctic at . The northernmost point of the island of Greenland is Cape Morris Jesup, discovered by Admiral Robert Peary in 1900. Natural resources include zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, gold, platinum, uranium, hydropower and fish.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: The total population comprises around 56,000 inhabitants, of whom approximately 18,000 live in the capital, Nuuk.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Protection of the Arctic environment, climate change, pollution of the food chain, excessive hunting of endangered species (walrus, polar bears, narwhal, beluga whale and several sea birds).


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Greenland's climate is a tundra climate on and near the coasts and an ice cap climate in inland areas. It typically has short, cool summers and long, moderately cold winters.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Due to Gulf Stream influences, Greenland's winter temperatures are very mild for its latitude. In Nuuk, the capital, average winter temperatures are only . In comparison, the average winter temperatures for Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada, are around . Conversely, summer temperatures are very low, with an average high around . This is too low to sustain trees, and the land is treeless tundra.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: On the Greenland ice sheet, the temperature is far below freezing throughout the year, and record high temperatures have peaked only slightly above freezing. The record high temperature at Summit Camp is .


title: Geography of Greenland

text: In the far south of Greenland, there is a very small forest in the Qinngua Valley, due to summer temperatures being barely high enough to sustain trees. There are mountains over high surrounding the valley, which protect it from cold, fast winds travelling across the ice sheet. It is the only natural forest in Greenland, but is only long.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: The Greenland ice sheet is thick and broad enough to blanket an area the size of Mexico. The ice is so massive that its weight presses the bedrock of Greenland below sea level and is so all-concealing that not until recently did scientists discover Greenland's Grand Canyon or the possibility that Greenland might actually be three islands.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: If the ice melted, the interior bedrock below sea level would be covered by water. It is not clear whether this water would be at sea level or a lake above sea level. If it would be at sea level it could connect to the sea at Ilulissat Icefjord, in Baffin Bay and near Nordostrundingen, creating three large islands. But it is most likely that it would be a lake with one drain.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: It is thought that before the last Ice Age, Greenland had mountainous edges and a lowland (and probably very dry) center which drained to the sea via one big river flowing out westwards, past where Disko Island is now.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: There is concern about sea level rise caused by ice loss (melt and glaciers falling into the sea) on Greenland. Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was , compared to about for 1993/4-1998/9. Half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by the movements of some glaciers exceeding the speeds needed to balance upstream snow accumulation. A complete loss of ice on Greenland would cause a sea level rise of as much as .


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Researchers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Kansas reported in February 2006 that the glaciers are melting twice as fast as they were five years ago. By 2005, Greenland was beginning to lose more ice volume than anyone expected – an annual loss of up to per year, according to more recent satellite gravity measurements released by JPL. The increased ice loss may be partially offset by increased snow accumulation due to increased precipitation.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Between 1991 and 2006, monitoring of the weather at one location (Swiss Camp) found that the average winter temperature had risen almost .


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Recently, Greenland's three largest outlet glaciers have started moving faster, satellite data show. These are the Jakobshavn Isbræ at Ilulissat on the western edge of Greenland, and the Kangerdlugssuaq and Helheim glaciers on the eastern edge of Greenland. The two latter accelerated greatly during the years 2004–2005, but returned to pre-2004 velocities in 2006. The accelerating ice flow has been accompanied by a dramatic increase in seismic activity. In March 2006, researchers at Harvard University and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University reported that the glaciers now generate swarms of earthquakes up to magnitude 5.0.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: The retreat of Greenland's ice is revealing islands that were thought to be part of the mainland. In September 2005 Dennis Schmitt discovered an island north of the Arctic Circle in eastern Greenland which he named Uunartoq Qeqertaq, Inuit for "warming island".


title: Geography of Greenland

text: In the Arctic, temperatures are rising faster than anywhere else in the world. Greenland is losing 200 billion tonnes of ice per year. Research suggests that this could increase the sea levels' rise by 30 centimeters by the end of the century. These projections have the possibility of changing as satellite data only dates back to 40 years ago. This means that researchers must view old photographs of glaciers and compare them to ones taken today to determine the future of Greenland's ice.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: The ice sheet covering Greenland varies significantly in elevation across the landmass, rising dramatically between the coastline at sea level and the East-Central interior, where elevations reach . The coastlines are rocky and predominantly barren with fjords. Numerous small islands spread from the Central to Southern coastlines.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Greenland's mountain ranges are partially or completely buried by ice. The highest mountains are in the Watkins Range, which runs along the eastern coast. Greenland's highest mountain is Gunnbjorn Fjeld with a height of .


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Scientists discovered an asteroid impact crater in the northwestern region of Greenland, buried underneath the ice sheet. At a size larger than Washington, D.C., it is the first impact crater found beneath one of Earth's ice sheets.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: This is a list of the extreme points of Greenland, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.


title: Geography of Greenland

text: Greenland has 17 towns – settlements with more than 500 inhabitants. Nuuk is the largest town – and the capital – with roughly one third of the country's urban population. Sisimiut with approximately 5,500 inhabitants is the second largest town, while Ilulissat is number three with around 5,000 inhabitants.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Rosa Bonheur (born Marie-Rosalie Bonheur; 16 March 1822 – 25 May 1899) was a French artist known best as a painter of animals (animalière). She also made sculpture in a realist style. Her paintings include "Ploughing in the Nivernais", first exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1848, and now in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, and "The Horse Fair" (in French: "Le marché aux chevaux"), which was exhibited at the Salon of 1853 (finished in 1855) and is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Bonheur was widely considered to be the most famous female painter of the nineteenth century.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Bonheur was openly lesbian. She lived with her partner Nathalie Micas for over 40 years until Micas's death, after which she began a relationship with American painter Anna Elizabeth Klumpke.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Bonheur was born on 16 March 1822 in Bordeaux, Gironde, the oldest child in a family of artists. Her mother was Sophie Bonheur (née Marquis), a piano teacher; she died when Rosa was eleven. Her father was Oscar-Raymond Bonheur, a landscape and portrait painter who encouraged his daughter's artistic talents. Though of Jewish origin, the Bonheur family adhered to Saint-Simonianism, a Christian-socialist sect that promoted the education of women alongside men. Bonheur's siblings included the animal painters Auguste Bonheur and Juliette Bonheur, as well as the animal sculptor Isidore Jules Bonheur. Francis Galton used the Bonheurs as an example of the eponymous "Hereditary Genius" in his 1869 essay.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Bonheur moved to Paris in 1828 at the age of six with her mother and siblings, after her father had gone ahead of them to establish a residence and income there. By family accounts, she had been an unruly child and had a difficult time learning to read, though she would sketch for hours at a time with pencil and paper before she learned to talk. Her mother taught her to read and write by asking her to choose and draw a different animal for each letter of the alphabet. The artist credited her love of drawing animals to these reading lessons with her mother.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: At school she was often disruptive, and was expelled numerous times. After a failed apprenticeship with a seamstress at the age of twelve, her father undertook her training as a painter. Her father allowed her to pursue her interest in painting animals by bringing live animals to the family's studio for studying.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Following the traditional art school curriculum of the period, Bonheur began her training by copying images from drawing books and by sketching plaster models. As her training progressed, she made studies of domesticated animals, including horses, sheep, cows, goats, rabbits and other animals in the pastures around the perimeter of Paris, the open fields of Villiers near Levallois-Perret, and the still-wild Bois de Boulogne. At fourteen, she began to copy paintings at the Louvre. Among her favorite painters were Nicolas Poussin and Peter Paul Rubens, though she also copied the paintings of Paulus Potter, Frans Pourbus the Younger, Louis Léopold Robert, Salvatore Rosa and Karel Dujardin.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: She studied animal anatomy and osteology in the abattoirs of Paris and dissected animals at the École nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort, the National Veterinary Institute in Paris. There she prepared detailed studies that she later used as references for her paintings and sculptures. During this period, she befriended the father-and-son comparative anatomists and zoologists, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: A French government commission led to Bonheur's first great success, "Ploughing in the Nivernais", exhibited in 1849 and now in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. Her most famous work, the monumental "The Horse Fair", was completed in 1855 and measured . It depicts the horse market held in Paris, on the tree-lined boulevard de l'Hôpital, near the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, which is visible in the painting's background. There is a reduced version in the National Gallery in London. This work led to international fame and recognition; that same year she traveled to Scotland and met Queen Victoria, who admired Bonheur's work"." In Scotland, she completed sketches for later works including "Highland Shepherd," completed in 1859, and "A Scottish Raid," completed in 1860. These pieces depicted a way of life in the Scottish highlands that had disappeared a century earlier, and they had enormous appeal to Victorian sensibilities.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Bonheur exhibited her work at the Palace of Fine Arts and The Woman's Building at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. In 1889 and 1890 she developed a friendship with American sculptor Cyrus Dallin who was studying in Paris. Together they sketched the animals and cast of Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Show. In 1890 Bonheur painted Cody on horseback. Dallin's work from this period "A Signal of Piece" would also be displayed in Chicago in 1893 and be the first major step in his career.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Though she was more popular in England than in her native France, she was decorated with the French Legion of Honour by the Empress Eugénie in 1865, and was promoted to Officer of the order in 1894. She was the first female artist to be given this award.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Bonheur was represented by the art dealer Ernest Gambart (1814–1902). In 1855 he brought Bonheur to the United Kingdom, and he purchased the reproduction rights to her work. Many engravings of Bonheur's work were created from reproductions by Charles George Lewis (1808–1880), one of the finest engravers of the day.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: In 1859 her success enabled her to move to the Château de By near Fontainebleau, not far from Paris, where she lived for the rest of her life. The house is now a museum dedicated to her.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Women were often only reluctantly educated as artists in Bonheur's day, and by becoming such a successful artist she helped to open doors to the women artists that followed her.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Bonheur was known for wearing men's clothing; she attributed her choice of trousers to their practicality for working with animals (see Rational dress).


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: She lived with her first partner, Nathalie Micas, for over 40 years until Micas' death, and later began a relationship with the American painter Anna Elizabeth Klumpke. At a time when lesbianism was regarded as animalistic and deranged by most French officials, Bonheur's outspokenness about her personal life was groundbreaking.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: In a world where gender expression was policed, Bonheur broke boundaries by deciding to wear trousers, shirts and ties, although not in her painted portraits or posed photographs. She did not do this because she wanted to be a man, though she occasionally referred to herself as a grandson or brother when talking about her family; rather, she identified with the power and freedom reserved for men. Wearing men's clothing gave Bonheur a sense of identity in that it allowed her to openly show that she refused to conform to societies' construction of the gender binary. It also broadcast her sexuality at a time where the lesbian stereotype consisted of women who cut their hair short, wore trousers, and chain-smoked. Rosa Bonheur did all three. Bonheur never explicitly said she was a lesbian, but her lifestyle and the way she talked about her female partners suggests this.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Until 2013 women in France were technically forbidden from wearing trousers by the “Decree concerning the cross-dressing of women” which was implemented on 17 November 1800. By at least World War II this was largely ignored, but in Bonheur's time was still an issue. In 1852, Bonheur had to ask permission from the police to wear trousers, as this was her preferred attire to go to the sheep and cattle markets to study the animals she painted.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Bonheur, while taking pleasure in activities usually reserved for men (such as hunting and smoking), viewed her womanhood as something far superior to anything a man could offer or experience. She viewed men as stupid and mentioned that the only males she had time or attention for were the bulls she painted.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Having chosen to never become an adjunct or appendage to a man in terms of painting, she decided she would be her own boss and that she would lean on herself and her female partners instead. She had her partners focus on the home life while she took on the role of breadwinner by concentrating on her painting. Bonheur's legacy paved the way for other lesbian artists who didn't favour the life society had laid out for them.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Bonheur died on 25 May 1899, at the age of 77, at Thomery (By), France. She was buried together with Nathalie Micas (1824 – 24 June 1889), her lifelong companion, at Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris. Klumpke was Bonheur's sole heir after her death, and later joined Micas and Bonheur in the same cemetery upon her death. Many of her paintings, which had not previously been shown publicly, were sold at auction in Paris in 1900.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Along with other realist painters of the 19th century, for much of the 20th century Bonheur fell from fashion, and in 1978 a critic described "Ploughing in the Nivernais" as "entirely forgotten and rarely dragged out from oblivion"; however, that same year it was part of a series of paintings sent to China by the French government for an exhibition titled "The French Landscape and Peasant, 1820–1905". Since then her reputation has been somewhat revived.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: Art historian Linda Nochlin’s 1971 essay "Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?", considered a pioneering essay for both feminist art history and feminist art theory, contains a section about and titled "Rosa Bonheur."


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: On 16 March 2022, Google honoured Bonheur with a Doodle to mark the bicentennial of her birth. The Doodle reached five countries: the United States, Ireland, France, Iceland and India.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: The first biography of Bonheur was published during her lifetime: a pamphlet written by Eugène de Mirecourt, "Les Contemporains: Rosa Bonheur," which appeared just after her Salon success with "The Horse Fair" in 1856. Bonheur later corrected and annotated this document.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: The second account was written by Anna Klumpke, Bonheur's companion in the last year of her life. Klumpke's biography, published in 1909 as "Rosa Bonheur: sa vie, son oeuvre," was translated in 1997 by Gretchen Van Slyke and published as "Rosa Bonheur: The Artist's (Auto)biography," so-named because Klumpke had used Bonheur's first-person voice.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: "Reminiscences of Rosa Bonheur", edited by Theodore Stanton (the son of Elizabeth Cady Stanton), was published in London and New York in 1910. It includes numerous correspondences between Bonheur and her family and friends, in which she describes her art-making practices.


title: Rosa Bonheur

text: The 1905 book "Women Painters of the World" (assembled and edited by Walter Shaw Sparrow) was subtitled "from the time of Caterina Vigri, 1413–1463, to Rosa Bonheur and the present day".


title: Catherine Dickens

text: Catherine Thomson "Kate" Dickens ("née" Hogarth; 19 May 1815 – 22 November 1879) was the wife of English novelist Charles Dickens, the mother of his ten children, and a writer of domestic management.


title: Catherine Dickens

text: She was the eldest daughter of ten children to George Hogarth. Her father was a journalist for the "Edinburgh Courant", and later became a writer and music critic for the "Morning Chronicle", where Dickens was a young journalist, and later the editor of the "Evening Chronicle". Dickens immediately took a liking to the attractive 19-year-old Catherine and invited her to his 23rd birthday party. Catherine and Dickens later became engaged in 1835 and were married on 2 April 1836 in St Luke's Church, Chelsea, going on their honeymoon in Chalk, near Chatham in Kent. They set up a home in Bloomsbury, and went on to have ten children. During that period, Charles wrote that even if he were to become rich and famous, he would never be as happy as he was in that small flat with Catherine.


title: Catherine Dickens

text: Catherine's sister, Mary Hogarth, entered Dickens's Doughty Street household to offer support to her newly married sister and brother-in-law. It was usual for an unwed sister of a wife to live with and help a newly married couple. Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837. She became a character in many of his books, and her death is fictionalised as the death of Little Nell.