text: This is the second season of "The Real World" whose entire cast has at one time or another competed in MTV's spin-off reality series "The Real World/Road Rules Challenge". The first is "".


title: Drinking straw

text: A drinking straw is a utensil that is intended to carry the contents of a beverage to one's mouth. Straws are commonly made from plastics but environmental concerns and new regulation have led to rise in reusable and biodegradable straws. These straws are often made of silicone, cardboard, or metal. A straw is used by placing one end in one's mouth and the other in a beverage. By employing suction, the air pressure in one's mouth drops causing atmospheric pressure to force the liquid through the straw and into the mouth. Drinking straws can be straight or have an angle-adjustable bellows segment. Drinking straws have historically been intended as a single-use product and several countries, regions, and municipalities have banned single-use plastic straws to reduce plastic pollution. Additionally, some companies have even voluntarily banned or reduced the number of plastic straws distributed from their premises.


title: Drinking straw

text: The first known straws were made by the Sumerians and were used for drinking beer, probably to avoid the solid byproducts of fermentation that sink to the bottom. The oldest drinking straw in existence, found in a Sumerian tomb dated 3,000 BCE, was a gold tube inlaid with the precious blue stone lapis lazuli. Other claim metal scepters discovered in Armenia in 1897 and date to the Maykop culture (3700 to 2900 BCE) as the oldest surviving straws. Argentines and their neighbors have, for several hundred years, used (for drinking mate tea) a similar metallic device called a bombilla, that acts as both a straw and a sieve.


title: Drinking straw

text: In the 1800s, the rye grass straw came into fashion because it was cheap and soft, but it had an unfortunate tendency to turn to mush when put in liquid.


title: Drinking straw

text: American Marvin C. Stone patented the modern drinking straw, 8 1/2 inches long and made of paper, in 1888, to address the shortcomings of the rye grass straw. He came upon the idea while drinking a mint julep on a hot day in Washington, D.C.; the taste of the rye grass straw was mixing with the drink and giving it a grassy taste, which he found unsatisfactory. He wound paper around a pencil to make a thin tube, slid out the pencil from one end, and applied glue between the strips. He later refined it by building a machine that would coat the outside of the paper with wax to hold it together, so the glue would not dissolve in bourbon.


title: Drinking straw

text: Early paper straws had a narrow bore, to prevent seeds from clogging them. It was common to use two of them, to reduce the effort needed to take each sip.


title: Drinking straw

text: Plastic straws became widespread following World War II. The materials used in their manufacture were inexpensive, and the types of restaurant fare that they accompanied had become more affordable and popular.


title: Drinking straw

text: In 1930, Otto W. Dieffenbach (Sr.) developed and produced a cellophane drinking straw in Baltimore MD. His company known as Glassips Inc. produced straws for restaurants and other products. One patent dates to 1954. The Sr. Mr. Dieffenbach served as chairman until 1972 and the business, then based in Towson MD. was sold in 1979.


title: Drinking straw

text: One of the first mass-produced twisted straw was Sip-N-See invented by Milton Dinhofer who later came up with the idea and designs for the chimp in the iconic game, Barrel of Monkeys. Dinhofer originally patented his straw in the shape of a scissor with two loops on top, but Macy's would not carry the straw unless it had a character on it. They suggested Dinhofer make three straws (eventually patented in 1950): a cowboy, a clown and an animal for which he made an elephant. Each of his characters was attached to a looping soft polyethylene straw, and users were to sip from another detachable, small, straight, straw of acetate. Rexor Corp. copyrighted the straw the same year, but Macy's decided not to carry them. Dinhofer was told the selling price was too low. Dinhofer then turned to Woolworth and convinced the chain to let him deliver some to several of their stores near his home. After one weekend of sales, Woolworth's placed an order for all of its stores and Sip-N-See went national. The straws were sold in individual boxes, and more characters were eventually added. Other buyers began to carry it, too, and it was marketed as an "action drinking toy." Sip-N-See went on to sell approximately 6 million units, and, a decade later, the s-shape of the arms on the cowboy straw would inspire Dinhofer's monkey design for Barrel of Monkeys.


title: Drinking straw

text: The most common form of drinking straw is made of the thermoplastic polymer Polypropylene. This plastic is known for its durability, lightness, and ability to be manufactured at a low cost. Other plastic polymers that exhibit these traits include polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).


title: Drinking straw

text: These attributes are what have made the traditional plastic straw ubiquitous in fast food establishments and take-out orders around the world. Additionally, other advantages of plastic straws include their ability to be molded into different shapes and sizes while also being able to withstand a wide range of temperatures without deforming. This is important because straws must be temperature resistant and thermally insulated because they can be used in both hot and cold beverages.


title: Drinking straw

text: One interesting variation of the plastic straw is the "bendy straw", commonly referred to in the industry as an "articulated straw". This straw has a concertina-type hinge near its top to allow for improved maneuverability of the straw when drinking a beverage, especially from a low angle. The articulated straw was invented by Joseph Friedman in 1937. He quickly developed the straw after he saw his daughter struggling to use a normal straight straw.


title: Drinking straw

text: Another variation of the plastic straw, the “spoon straw”, has a spoon-like tip at the bottom, and is often used with iced slush beverages.


title: Drinking straw

text: "Stir straws" with a relatively short length and quite a narrow bore are often given along with disposable cups for preparing coffee or tea and serve the primary function of being able to stir in sugar, sweetener, cream, or non-dairy creamer, as well as allowing for sipping a hot beverage. Additionally, boba tea plastic straws with wider openings are commonly used to drink bubble tea, to better accommodate its characteristic tapioca pearls. The tip of these straws is often cut at an angle creating a point which allows one to use the straw to puncture the plastic cover of bubble tea drinks.


title: Drinking straw

text: Plastic straws can also be embellished with some forms marketed as "crazy straws", having a number of twists and turns at the top. These straws are often marketed and can be entertaining for young children. The crazy straw was invented by Arthur Philip Gildersleeve and patented in 1936.


title: Drinking straw

text: Environmental concerns, stemming from the impact plastic waste has had on the ocean, have led to a rise in reusable straws. Reusable straws are primarily being manufactured out of Polylactic acid (PLA), silicone, and metal. Polylactic acid and silicone straws are the most similar in texture and feel to their plastic counterparts, however, they fit into the category of biodegradable polymers. These types of straws have some benefits over other more ecologically conscious straws because they are resistant to disintegrating in one's drink and provide adequate insulation for hot and cold drinks. One manufacturer of silicon straws even claims that their straws can be burned into biodegradable ash.


title: Drinking straw

text: Metal straws are another reusable alternative. However, they are highly conductive of heat and thus ill-suited for hot beverages.


title: Drinking straw

text: Bamboo straws are making headway into the reusable straw industry with their sustainability, inexpensive cost, and relative ease of cleaning.


title: Drinking straw

text: Single-use biodegradable straws are also being used in place of plastic straws and are being manufactured in many alternative materials.


title: Drinking straw

text: Some companies such as Starbucks have moved away from plastic straws. Bamboo straws are sometimes made from the moso bamboo tree ("Phyllostachys edulis").


title: Drinking straw

text: Some companies such as McDonald's have switched to paper and paperboard straws. There are some innovation companies that try to introduce the alternative to plastic straws such as Green Straws that are made out of wheat, grass and sugarcane.


title: Drinking straw

text: Edible straws have been made out of materials like rice, seaweed, rye, and confectioneries (such as candy).


title: Drinking straw

text: Flavor straws are a form of drinking straw with a flavoring included, designed to make drinking milk more pleasant for children. They first marketed in the United States in 1956 as Flav-R-Straws. Newer variations of the original idea have been resurrected in forms such as Sipahhs, and Magic Milk Straws that contain hundreds of flavored pellets encased within a stiff plastic straw.


title: Drinking straw

text: Plastic drinking straw production contributes a small amount to petroleum consumption, and the used straws become a small part of global plastic pollution when discarded, most after a single use.


title: Drinking straw

text: The image of a plastic straw lodged into the nostril of a sea turtle, filmed by marine biologist Christine Figgener, quickly spread across all forms of media and spurred the elevation of awareness regarding the potential danger of plastic straws for marine life. The scientist who uploaded the video remarks that it is the emotional pull of the imagery, rather than the significance of the plastic straw itself in the plastic debacle, that garnered such high viewership.


title: Drinking straw

text: One anti-straw advocacy group has estimated that about 500 million straws are used daily in the United States alone – an average 1.6 straws per capita per day. This statistic has been criticized as inaccurate, because it was approximated by Milo Cress, who was nine years old at the time, after surveying straw manufacturers to ask their estimates of the total, which he then averaged. (Further details are unavailable as "being 9, he had not thought to document the process closely.") This figure has been widely cited by major news organizations. Market research firm Freedonia Group estimated the number to be 390 million. Another market research firm Technomic estimated the number to be 170 million, although this number excludes some types of straws.


title: Drinking straw

text: Plastic straws amounted to 5–7.5% of all waste collected from beaches during the 2017 International Cleanup Event, conducted by Ocean Conservancy, making it a minor contamination source, yet considered easy to avoid. In total, they are less than 0.022% of plastic waste emitted to oceans.


title: Drinking straw

text: Microplastics pollution is a concern if plastic waste is improperly dumped. If plastic straws are improperly disposed of, they can be transported via water into soil ecosystems, and others, where they break down into smaller, more hazardous pieces than the original plastic straw.


title: Drinking straw

text: Water can break down plastic waste into microplastic and nanoplastic particles. These particles are capable of transmitting harmful substances or can themselves prove dangerous, as they have been shown to negatively affect the surrounding environment.


title: Drinking straw

text: Alternatives to plastic straws, some reusable, exist, although they are not always readily available, or deemed to be of sufficient quality for all users (including, in particular, those with a disability). Paper straws have proliferated as a popular alternative, although they are prone to losing their rigidity when soaked inside a beverage, and in some cases are not durable enough for thicker beverages such as milkshakes. Metal straws are more durable, but they are incapable of being bent, can damage teeth or lacerate children or kill adults during falls, and some restaurants have reported them as a target of theft.


title: Drinking straw

text: Some critics have argued that paper and metal alternatives are no more environmentally-friendly than plastic, citing the environmental impacts of paper and mining, and that paper straws would likely end up in landfills and not be composted. In August 2019, after deploying paper straws in the United Kingdom, McDonald's stated that its straws could not actually be recycled at present, since their thickness "makes it difficult for them to be processed by our waste solution providers". The chain stated that they went towards energy production, and not to landfills.


title: Drinking straw

text: Polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable plastic, requires 69% fewer fossil fuel resources to produce than plastic, but it requires very specific conditions to break down fully. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), derived from plant oil, is marine biodegradable. In 2021, the manufacturing company Wincup was distributing a PHA product branded as "the Phade straw."


title: Drinking straw

text: As of 2021 several eco-friendly alternative materials have been tried. Among them are hay straws, bamboo straws, seaweed straws, and straws made from naturally dried fallen coconut leaves.


title: Drinking straw

text: Not all attempts to be more environmentally friendly are in earnest, though. In an attempt to artificially boost sales, some groups have been guilty of "greenwashing," or falsely marketing their products as a viable environmentally friendly alternative, when it is actually just as harmful to the environment, or worse. These marketing tactics draw in well-meaning consumers who believe they are helping the environment (often by paying more for a product), when they are instead encouraging these misleading strategies.


title: Drinking straw

text: To combat this scheme, TerraChoice, an America-based advertising company, crafted a rubric to calculate the amount of greenwashing prevalent in a product. They determined that 95% of products they surveyed at American and Canadian stores are guilty of at least one act of greenwashing.


title: Drinking straw

text: In the late-2010s, a movement towards laws banning or otherwise restricting the use of plastic straws and other single-use plastics emerged. Environmental groups have encouraged consumers to object to "forced" inclusion of plastic straws with food service. The movement followed the discovery of plastic particles in oceanic garbage patches and larger plastic waste-reduction efforts that focused on banning plastic bags in some jurisdictions. It has been intensified by viral videos, including one of a plastic straw being removed from a sea turtle's nostril by biologist Nathan J. Robinson and filmed by marine biologist and activist Christine Figgener.


title: Drinking straw

text: A single-use plastic ban was introduced in the state of South Australia in 2020. Fast food chain McDonald's promised to phase out plastic straws throughout Australia by 2020.


title: Drinking straw

text: On 5 July 2018, the city of Rio de Janeiro became the first state capital of Brazil to forbid the distribution of plastic straws, "forcing restaurants, coffee shops, bars and the like, beach huts and hawkers of the municipality to use and provide to its customers only biodegradable and/or recyclable paper straws individually".


title: Drinking straw

text: In May 2018, the Vancouver city council voted in favor of adopting a "Single Use Reduction Strategy", targeting single-use styrofoam containers and plastic straws. The council approved the first phase of the regulations in November 2019, expected to be in place by April 2020, barring the distribution of single-use straws unless requested (with straws on hand required to be bendable for accessibility reasons). Bubble tea shops will be given a one-year exemption.


title: Drinking straw

text: In March 2019, Starbucks announced that they would be debuting strawless lids for cold drinks across Toronto as a part of their global environmental aspirations.


title: Drinking straw

text: In June 2019, in the lead-up to the federal election, prime minister Justin Trudeau announced his intent to enact legislation restricting the use of petroleum-based single-used plastics as early as 2021.


title: Drinking straw

text: In May 2018, the European Union proposed a directive banning a number of single-use plastic items including straws, cotton buds, cutlery, balloon sticks and drink stirrers, in addition to limiting the use other single-use plastics and extending producer responsibility. The EU estimated the plan would avoid 3.4 million tons of carbon emissions, save consumers €6.5 billion, and prevent environmental damage that would cost the equivalent of €22 billion by the year 2030. In October 2018, the European Parliament voted to pass the directive with 571 votes for and 53 votes against, and the directive came into effect on July 2, 2021.


title: Drinking straw

text: Single-use plastic straws banned in government facilities, schools, department stores, shopping malls and fast food restaurants from 1 July 2019.


title: Drinking straw

text: The UK government committed at most £4 million to “Plastics innovation: towards zero waste” in the summer of 2017 in an attempt to mitigate the circulation of unnecessary plastic. In this endeavor, eleven projects secured the full amount in government support. These projects each invented new ways to recycle used plastic products and prevent them from reaching landfills. In 2018, Queen Elizabeth II banned all single-use plastic items from her palaces.


title: Drinking straw

text: On 19 April 2018, ahead of Earth Day, a proposal to phase out single-use plastics was announced during the meeting of the Commonwealth Heads of Government. It is estimated that as of 2018, about 23 million straws are used and discarded daily in the UK. In May 2019, England announced that it would ban single-use plastic straws, stirring sticks and cotton buds in April 2020: only registered pharmacies will be allowed to sell straws to the public, and restaurants may only offer them by request of customers. The ban was delayed due to the coronavirus pandemic and came into effect on October 1, 2020.


title: Drinking straw

text: On 7 November 2017, the city of Santa Cruz, California implemented a ban on all non-recyclable to-go containers, straws, and lids but allowed for 6 months for all businesses to come into compliance before enforcement would occur. On 1 January 2018, the city of Alameda, California citing the Santa Cruz effort, implemented an immediate ban on all straws, except if requested by a customer, and gave business until 1 July 2018 when it would be required that all straws to be of compostable paper and that all other to-go containers be recyclable.


title: Drinking straw

text: A statewide California law restricting the providing of single-use plastic straws went into effect on 1 January 2019. Under the law, restaurants are only allowed to provide single-use plastic straws upon request. The law applies to sit-down restaurants but exempts fast-food restaurants, delis, coffee shops, and restaurants that do takeout only. The law does not apply to-go cups and takeaway drinks. A restaurant will receive warnings for its first two violations, then a $25 per day fine for each subsequent violation, up to a maximum of $300 in a year. In a statement released upon his signing the legislation into law, then-Governor Jerry Brown said "It is a very small step to make a customer who wants a plastic straw ask for it. And it might make them pause and think again about an alternative. But one thing is clear, we must find ways to reduce and eventually eliminate single-use plastic products."


title: Drinking straw

text: A ban on single-use straws has been instituted in Montgomery County, Maryland, going into full effect on December 21, 2021.


title: Drinking straw

text: In 2015, Williamstown, Massachusetts banned straws that are not recyclable or compostable as part of its Article 42 polystyrene regulations.


title: Drinking straw

text: In the first half of 2018, three towns in Massachusetts banned petrochemical plastic straws directly in the case of Provincetown, and as part of broader sustainable food packaging laws in Andover and Brookline.


title: Drinking straw

text: A drinking straw ban has been proposed in New York City since May 2018. Businesses are fined if a straw is provided (unless requested) and also fined if no plastic straws are available and also fined for other reasons regarding straws.


title: Drinking straw

text: After consideration of a ban in the UK, in 2018, after a two-month trial of paper straws at a number of outlets in the UK, McDonald's announced they would be switching to paper straws for all locations in the United Kingdom and Ireland. and testing the switch in U.S. locations in June 2018.


title: Drinking straw

text: A month after the Vancouver ban passed (but before it took effect) Canada's second-largest fast food chain, A&W announced they would have plastic straws fully phased out by January 2019 in all of their locations.


title: Drinking straw

text: Starbucks announced conversion by 2020 to no-straw lids for all cold drinks except for frappucinos, which will be served with straws made from paper or other sustainable materials.


title: Drinking straw

text: Hyatt Hotels announced straws would be provided by request only, starting 1 September 2018. Royal Caribbean plans to offer only paper straws on request by 2019, and IKEA said it would eliminate all single-use plastic items by 2020. Other conversions include Waitrose, London City Airport, and Burger King UK stores starting September 2018. A few other cruise lines, air lines, beverage companies, and hotels, have also made partial or complete reductions, but most companies in those industries have not, as of May 2018.


title: Drinking straw

text: Since plastic straws account only for a tiny portion (0.022%) of plastic waste emitted in the oceans each year, some pro-environment critics have argued that plastic straw bans are insufficient to address the issue of plastic waste, and are mostly symbolic.


title: Drinking straw

text: Full bans on single-use plastic straws have faced opposition from disability rights advocates, as they feel that alternative materials are not well-suited for use by those with impaired mobility (caused by conditions such as cerebral palsy and spinal muscular atrophy). Some with neuromuscular disabilities may rely on a plastic straw for its heat resistance and due to an inability to lift a cup. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) has required public places to provide plastic straws in order to ensure that those who need them will be able to access them. In particular, not all people with disabilities may be capable of washing reusable straws, straws made from inflexible materials are not capable of being repositioned, paper straws lose their firmness over time when soaked in a beverage, and straws made from hard materials such as metal can cause injuries. Advocates have preferred laws that still allow plastic straws to be offered upon request.


title: Drinking straw

text: The American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) — a U.S. conservative lobbying group against "excessive" regulation — has promoted model state bills which contain carve-outs for fast food and fast casual restaurants from straw bans (in effect only restricting "sit-down" restaurants), and restrict municipalities from preempting the rule with a stricter regulation (with the draft law text stating that the latter leads to "confusing and varying regulations that could lead to unnecessary increased costs for retail and food establishments to comply with such regulations"). In 2019, the re-election campaign of U.S., Republican Party president Donald Trump marketed packages of reusable plastic straws branded with Trump's name and colored in the signature red associated with the "Make America Great Again" slogan, as a fundraising stunt. The campaign website promoted them as an alternative to "liberal paper straws".


title: Drinking straw

text: Nicholson Baker's novel, "The Mezzanine" (1988), includes a detailed discussion of various types of drinking straws experienced by the narrator and their relative merits.


title: Carly Rae Jepsen discography

text: Canadian singer and songwriter Carly Rae Jepsen has released six studio albums, two remix albums, four EPs, 28 singles, 10 promotional singles, and 24 music videos. In 2007, Jepsen finished third in the fifth season of the talent series "Canadian Idol". She subsequently signed a recording contract with Fontana and MapleMusic.


title: Carly Rae Jepsen discography

text: "Tug of War", her debut album, was released in September 2008. The album spawned two Canadian Hot 100 top 40 singles, "Tug of War" and "Bucket", both of which were accredited gold certifications by Music Canada (MC). Her second album, "Kiss", was released in September 2012. "Call Me Maybe", also the lead single from her 2012 EP "Curiosity", attained international success, reaching number one in Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, among others. "Curiosity" went on peak at number six on the Canadian Albums Chart. Its title track was released as its second single, peaking at number 18 in Canada. The same year, she and Owl City released single "Good Time". It topped the charts in Canada and New Zealand and reached the top ten in several other countries, including Australia, Ireland, United Kingdom and the United States.


title: Carly Rae Jepsen discography

text: Jepsen's third album, "Emotion", was released in 2015 and is influenced by songs from the 1980s. Its lead single "I Really Like You", peaked at number 14 in Canada and attained top five positions in Japan and the UK. The album produced two further singles: "Run Away with Me" and "Your Type". In August 2016, Jepsen released "", an EP containing eight cut tracks from "Emotion". The EP received critical acclaim from "Rolling Stone" and "Pitchfork". In May 2017, Jepsen released the single "Cut to the Feeling" which appeared on a Japanese deluxe version of the Side B EP.


title: Carly Rae Jepsen discography

text: Her fourth album, "Dedicated", was released in 2019 and included the singles "Party for One", "Now That I Found You", "No Drug Like Me", "Julien" and "Too Much". A companion album "Dedicated Side B" was released the following year, containing twelve additional unreleased tracks from "Dedicated". During the global Covid pandemic, Jepsen's sixth studio album "The Loneliest Time" was written and later released in 2022. It includes the singles "Western Wind", "Beach House", "Talking to Yourself" and the title track featuring fellow Canadian musician Rufus Wainwright.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The Xbox 360 controller is the primary game controller for Microsoft's Xbox 360 home video game console that was introduced at E3 2005. The Xbox 360 controller comes in both wired and wireless versions. The Xbox controller is not compatible with the Xbox 360. The wired and wireless versions are also compatible with Microsoft PC operating systems, such as Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The wireless controllers run on either AA batteries or a rechargeable battery pack. The wired controllers may be connected to any of the USB ports on the console, or to an attached USB hub.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The Xbox 360 controller has the same basic familiar button layout as the Controller S except that a few of the auxiliary buttons have been moved. The "back" and "start" buttons have been moved to a more central position on the face of the controller, and the "white" and "black" buttons have been removed and replaced with two new bumpers that are positioned over the analog triggers on the back of the controller. The controller has a 2.5 mm TRS connector on the front, allowing users to connect a headset for voice communication. It also features a proprietary serial connector (which is split into 2 parts on either side of the headset connector) for use with additional accessories, such as the chatpad.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: On August 31, 2010, Microsoft's Larry Hryb (a.k.a. Major Nelson) revealed a new design of the Xbox 360 controller set to replace the Wireless controller bundled with the Play & Charge Kit. Among small changes such as the shape of the analog stick tops and grey-colored face buttons, the new controller features an adjustable directional pad which can be changed between a disc type D-pad or a plus shaped D-pad. The control pad was released in North America exclusively with Play & Charge Kits on November 9, 2010, and was released in Europe during February 2011.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The Xbox 360 controller provides a standard USB Human interface device software interface, but is designed for the Microsoft XInput interface library. Although many PC video games support the XInput library, some games might not work with this controller.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: A standard Xbox 360 controller features eleven digital buttons, two analog triggers, two analog sticks and a digital D-pad. The right face of the controller features four digital action buttons: a green button, red button, blue button, and yellow button. The lower right houses the right analog stick, in lower left is a digital D-pad and on the left face is the left analog stick. Both analog sticks can also be clicked in to activate a digital button beneath. In the center of the controller face are digital "Start", "Back" and "Guide" buttons. The "Guide" button is labelled with the Xbox logo, and is used to turn on the console/controller and to access the guide menu. It is also surrounded by the "ring of light", which indicates the controller number, as well as flashing when connecting and to provide notifications. The left and right "shoulders" each feature a digital shoulder button, or "bumper", and an analog trigger.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: Wireless controllers also feature an additional "connect" button located between the "bumpers" to facilitate syncing with the console.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: Wired controllers are available in white (sold separately and bundled with the Core consoles) and black (Xbox 360 S color scheme) along with the limited edition TRON controllers. However, wireless controllers are available in numerous different colors including:


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The Xbox 360 controller has a guide button in the center of its face that provides a new functionality. This button is surrounded by a ring of lights divided into four quadrants that provide gamers with different types of information during game play. For instance, during a split screen multiplayer match, a particular quadrant will light up to indicate to a player which part of the screen they are playing on at that time. In this case, when the user pushes the button, they access the Xbox guide; a menu which provides access to features like messaging friends, downloading content, voice chat and customizing soundtracks, while staying in the game. The Guide button also allows users to turn off the controller or the console by holding the button for a few seconds (rather than simply pressing it).


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The Rechargeable Battery Pack is a nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery pack, which provides up to 24 hours of continuous gaming for the wireless controller. It is an alternative to disposable AA batteries, which differ slightly in voltage and have higher disposal costs (financial and environmental). It ships as part of, and can be charged by, the Play & Charge Kit and the Quick Charge Kit. To fully charge the battery pack takes approximately 2 hours with the Quick Charge Kit; the Play & Charge Kit takes longer (and depends on whether the controller is being used). An upgraded, 35-hour version is included with improved Play & Charge Kits and "transforming D-pad" controllers, while a 40-hour version is included with the improved Quick Charge Kit.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The Wireless Gaming Receiver (sold as "Crossfire Wireless Gaming Receiver" in the UK) allows wireless Xbox 360 accessories, such as wireless gamepads, racing wheels and headsets, to be used on a Windows-based PC. The device acts in a similar manner to an Xbox 360, allowing up to 4 controllers and 4 headsets at a time to be connected to the receiver. The device has a 30-foot (10 meter) range and a six-foot (2 meter) USB cable. It is specifically designed to work with games bearing the "Games for Windows" logo, but will function with most games that permit a standard PC gamepad. The official Xbox website noted that the adapter will work with "all future wireless devices".


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The Messenger Kit consists of a wired Xbox 360 headset and a small keyboard known as the "Chatpad". The Chatpad connects to the front of the controller and may be used for any standard text input on the console. It is not currently compatible with the wireless gaming receiver.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The United States Navy has announced that it plans to use Xbox 360 controllers to control periscopes on new "Virginia"-class submarines, for both cost and familiarity reasons.


title: Xbox 360 controller

text: The Xbox 360 controller received positive reviews when it was released. Before then, as IGN stated, the original Xbox controller was "huge, ugly, cheap, and uncomfortable" and concluded to be an "abomination". Many of these problems were corrected with Microsoft's releases of the Xbox controller S and then the Xbox 360 controller. IGN credited the Xbox 360 controller for its being one of "the most ergonomically comfortable console controllers around". It was also praised for its improved button placement, its functioning logo as a button, and Microsoft's choice of bottom-mounting headset ports as opposed to top-mounting them so as to minimize snagged wire problems.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: Psychoactive drugs, such as caffeine, amphetamine, mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), marijuana, chloral hydrate, theophylline, IBMX and others, can have strong effects on certain animals. It is believed that plants developed caffeine as a chemical defense against insects.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: In 1948, Swiss pharmacologist Peter N. Witt started his research on the effect of drugs on spiders. The initial motivation for the study was a request from his colleague, zoologist H. M. Peters, to shift the time when garden spiders build their webs between 2 a.m. and 5 a.m., which apparently annoyed Peters, to earlier hours. Witt tested spiders with a range of psychoactive drugs, including amphetamine, mescaline, strychnine, LSD, and caffeine, and found that the drugs affect the size and shape of the web rather than the time when it is built. At small doses of caffeine (10 µg/spider), the webs were smaller; the radii were uneven, but the regularity of the circles was unaffected. At higher doses (100 µg/spider), the shape changed more, and the web design became irregular. All the drugs tested reduced web regularity except for small doses (0.1–0.3 µg) of LSD, which increased web regularity.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: The drugs were administered by dissolving them in sugar water, and a drop of solution was touched to the spider's mouth. In some later studies, spiders were fed with drugged flies. For qualitative studies, a well-defined volume of solution was administered through a fine syringe. The webs were photographed for the same spider before and after drugging.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: Witt's research was discontinued, but it became reinvigorated in 1984 after a paper by J.A. Nathanson in the journal "Science", which is discussed below. In 1995, a NASA research group repeated Witt's experiments on the effect of caffeine, benzedrine, marijuana and chloral hydrate on European garden spiders. NASA's results were qualitatively similar to those of Witt, but the novelty was that the pattern of the spider web was quantitatively analyzed with modern statistical tools, and proposed as a sensitive method of drug detection.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: In 1984, Nathanson reported an effect of methylxanthines on larvae of the tobacco hornworm. He administered solutions of finely powdered tea leaves or coffee beans to the larvae and observed, at concentrations between 0.3 and 10% for coffee and 0.1 to 3% for tea, inhibition of feeding, associated with hyperactivity and tremor. At higher concentrations, larvae were killed within 24 hours. He repeated the experiments with purified caffeine and concluded that the drug was responsible for the effect, and the concentration differences between coffee beans and tea leaves originated from 2–3 times higher caffeine content in the latter. Similar action was observed for IBMX on mosquito larvae, mealworm larvae, butterfly larvae and milkweed bug nymphs, that is, inhibition of feeding and death at higher doses. Flour beetles were unaffected by IBMX up to 3% concentrations, but long-term experiments revealed suppression of reproductive activity.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: Further, Nathanson fed tobacco hornworm larvae with leaves sprayed with such psychoactive drugs as caffeine, formamidine pesticide didemethylchlordimeform (DDCDM), IBMX or theophylline. He observed a similar effect, namely inhibition of feeding followed by death. Nathanson concluded that caffeine and related methylxanthines could be natural pesticides developed by plants as protection against worms: Caffeine is found in many plant species, with high levels in seedlings that are still developing foliage, but are lacking mechanical protection; caffeine paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding upon the plant. High caffeine levels have also been found in the soil surrounding coffee bean seedlings. It is therefore understood that caffeine has a natural function, both as a natural pesticide and as an inhibitor of seed germination of other nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving it a better chance of survival.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: Coffee berry borers seem to be unaffected by caffeine, in that their feeding rate did not change when they were given leaves sprayed with caffeine solution. It was concluded that those beetles have adapted to caffeine. This study was further developed by changing the solvent for caffeine. Although aqueous caffeine solutions had indeed no effect on the beetles, oleate emulsions of caffeine "did" inhibit their feeding, suggesting that even if certain insects have adjusted to some caffeine forms, they can be tricked by changing minor details, such as the drug solvent.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: These results and conclusions were confirmed by a similar study on slugs and snails. Cabbage leaves were sprayed with caffeine solutions and fed to "Veronicella cubensis" slugs and "Zonitoides arboreus" snails. Cabbage consumption reduced over time, followed by the death of the molluscs. Inhibition of feeding by caffeine was also observed for caterpillars.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: "Tusko" was the name of a male Indian elephant at the Oklahoma City Zoo. On August 3, 1962, researchers from the University of Oklahoma injected (human use involves oral ingestion) 297 mg of LSD to him, which is nearly three thousand times the human recreational dose. Within five minutes he collapsed to the ground and one hour and forty minutes later he died. It is believed that the LSD was the cause of his death, although some speculate that the drugs the researchers used in an attempt to revive him may have contributed to his death.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: In 1984 psychologist Ronald K. Siegel repeated the experiment with two elephants, using LSD only. Both survived.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: Bottlenose dolphins were administered LSD in the 1960s as part of NASA-funded experiments by John C. Lilly to study human–animal communication. The drug caused the animals to become more vocal, but did not enable meaningful communication.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: Macaque monkeys administered with the antipsychotics haloperidol and olanzapine over a 17–27 month period showed reduced brain volume. These results have not been observed in humans who also take the drug, due to the lack of available data.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: Zebrafish have long acted as a model for humans to test the effects of various psychoactive substances. One study conducted by the Research Society on Alcoholism concluded that when given a moderate dose of ethanol, zebrafish became more active and swam faster. When the dose of alcohol increased, the zebrafish became sluggish. Another study by the same institute found that when a "drunk" (blood alcohol concentration of over 0.1) zebrafish is introduced to a group of sober ones, the sober fish will follow the drunk individual as their leader.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: In a study testing the effects of THC on memory in zebrafish, researchers found that THC impairs spatial memory but has no effect on associative memory. Zebrafish were able to remember color patterns associated with them getting fed after being put under the influence of THC, but were unable to remember the spatial pattern associated with them getting fed after being put under the influence of THC.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: Zebrafish have also been used to test the medicinal benefits of certain psychoactive drugs, particularly how they can be used to treat mental health problems. A study looking into the antidepressant properties of ketamine using zebrafish as subjects found that when exposed to small amounts of ketamine (2 mg/L), zebrafish displayed more aggressive behavior. However, when the zebrafish were exposed to higher doses of ketamine (20 mg/L & 40 mg/L), their aggressive behavior subsided. Moreover, the highest dose of ketamine increased locomotion and circling behavior. In another study testing the behavioral effects of LSD on zebrafish found that zebrafish that were exposed to the substance demonstrated increased inter-fish distance when shoaling, and had increased cortisol levels. These could show possible side effects of LSD if used as a therapeutic drug.


title: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals

text: A study conducted by the Aquaculture Institute looked into the effects of cannabis oil on the metabolism and immune system of the Nile tilapia ("Oreochromis niloticus"). They found that cannabis has no measurable effect on the white blood cell count or plasma protein concentration, and therefore has no effect on the immune system of the Nile tilapia. However, the tilapia that were fed food pellets laced with THC demonstrated a higher food conversion rate. This higher food conversion rate lead researchers to believe that THC increases the metabolic rate of Nile tilapia.


title: Locality of reference

text: In computer science, locality of reference, also known as the principle of locality, is the tendency of a processor to access the same set of memory locations repetitively over a short period of time. There are two basic types of reference locality temporal and spatial locality. Temporal locality refers to the reuse of specific data and/or resources within a relatively small time duration. Spatial locality (also termed "data locality") refers to the use of data elements within relatively close storage locations. Sequential locality, a special case of spatial locality, occurs when data elements are arranged and accessed linearly, such as traversing the elements in a one-dimensional array.


title: Locality of reference

text: Locality is a type of predictable behavior that occurs in computer systems. Systems that exhibit strong "locality of reference" are great candidates for performance optimization through the use of techniques such as the caching, prefetching for memory and advanced branch predictors at the pipelining stage of a processor core.


title: Locality of reference

text: In order to benefit from temporal and spatial locality, which occur frequently, most of the information storage systems are hierarchical. Equidistant locality is usually supported by a processor's diverse nontrivial increment instructions. For branch locality, the contemporary processors have sophisticated branch predictors, and on the basis of this prediction the memory manager of the processor tries to collect and preprocess the data of plausible alternatives.


title: Locality of reference

text: There are several reasons for locality. These reasons are either goals to achieve or circumstances to accept, depending on the aspect. The reasons below are not disjoint; in fact, the list below goes from the most general case to special cases:


title: Locality of reference

text: If most of the time the substantial portion of the references aggregate into clusters, and if the shape of this system of clusters can be well predicted, then it can be used for performance optimization. There are several ways to benefit from locality using optimization techniques. Common techniques are:


title: Locality of reference

text: Hierarchical memory is a hardware optimization that takes the benefits of spatial and temporal locality and can be used on several levels of the memory hierarchy. Paging obviously benefits from temporal and spatial locality. A cache is a simple example of exploiting temporal locality, because it is a specially designed, faster but smaller memory area, generally used to keep recently referenced data and data near recently referenced data, which can lead to potential performance increases.


title: Locality of reference

text: Data elements in a cache do not necessarily correspond to data elements that are spatially close in the main memory; however, data elements are brought into cache one cache line at a time. This means that spatial locality is again important: if one element is referenced, a few neighboring elements will also be brought into cache. Finally, temporal locality plays a role on the lowest level, since results that are referenced very closely together can be kept in the machine registers. Some programming languages (such as C) allow the programmer to suggest that certain variables be kept in registers.


title: Locality of reference

text: Data locality is a typical memory reference feature of regular programs (though many irregular memory access patterns exist). It makes the hierarchical memory layout profitable. In computers, memory is divided into a hierarchy in order to speed up data accesses. The lower levels of the memory hierarchy tend to be slower, but larger. Thus, a program will achieve greater performance if it uses memory while it is cached in the upper levels of the memory hierarchy and avoids bringing other data into the upper levels of the hierarchy that will displace data that will be used shortly in the future. This is an ideal, and sometimes cannot be achieved.


title: Locality of reference

text: Typical memory hierarchy (access times and cache sizes are approximations of typical values used for the purpose of discussion; actual values and actual numbers of levels in the hierarchy vary):


title: Locality of reference

text: Modern machines tend to read blocks of lower memory into the next level of the memory hierarchy. If this displaces used memory, the operating system tries to predict which data will be accessed least (or latest) and move it down the memory hierarchy. Prediction algorithms tend to be simple to reduce hardware complexity, though they are becoming somewhat more complicated.


title: Locality of reference

text: By switching the looping order for codice_1 and codice_2, the speedup in large matrix multiplications becomes dramatic, at least for languages that put contiguous array elements in the last dimension. This will not change the mathematical result, but it improves efficiency. In this case, "large" means, approximately, more than 100,000 elements in each matrix, or enough addressable memory such that the matrices will not fit in L1 and L2 caches.


title: Locality of reference

text: The reason for this speedup is that in the first case, the reads of codice_3 are in cache (since the codice_2 index is the contiguous, last dimension), but codice_5 is not, so there is a cache miss penalty on codice_5. codice_7 is irrelevant, because it can be hoisted out of the inner loop -- the loop variable there is codice_2.


title: Locality of reference

text: In the second case, the reads and writes of codice_7 are both in cache, the reads of codice_5 are in cache, and the read of codice_3 can be hoisted out of the inner loop.


title: Locality of reference

text: Thus, the second example has no cache miss penalty in the inner loop while the first example has a cache penalty.


title: Locality of reference

text: On a year 2014 processor, the second case is approximately five times faster than the first case, when written in C and compiled with codice_12. (A careful examination of the disassembled code shows that in the first case, GCC uses SIMD instructions and in the second case it does not, but the cache penalty is much worse than the SIMD gain.)


title: Locality of reference

text: Temporal locality can also be improved in the above example by using a technique called blocking. The larger matrix can be divided into evenly sized sub-matrices, so that the smaller blocks can be referenced (multiplied) several times while in memory. Note that this example works for square matrices of dimensions SIZE x SIZE, but it can easily be extended for arbitrary matrices by substituting SIZE_I, SIZE_J and SIZE_K where appropriate.


title: Locality of reference

text: The temporal locality of the above solution is provided because a block can be used several times before moving on, so that it is moved in and out of memory less often. Spatial locality is improved because elements with consecutive memory addresses tend to be pulled up the memory hierarchy together.


title: Mazda CX-50

text: The Mazda CX-50 is a compact crossover SUV produced by the Japanese automobile manufacturer Mazda since 2022 for the North American and Chinese market. Based on the same transverse, front-wheel-drive platform as the fourth-generation Mazda3 and the CX-30, the vehicle is sold alongside the slightly smaller CX-5 and will be positioned below the larger, rear-wheel-drive based CX-70.


title: Mazda CX-50

text: The CX-50 was officially revealed on November 15, 2021. Compared to the smaller CX-5, the vehicle is designed with emphasize in "active and outdoor lifestyles", by introducing squarer styling and larger body cladding. A more rugged off-road-styled variant named the Meridian Edition is also available. Mazda's i-Activ all-wheel drive technology and Mazda Intelligent Drive Select (Mi-Drive) are standard in the CX-50.


title: Mazda CX-50

text: Compared to the CX-5, Mazda designed a lower roof for the CX-50 to grant easier access to the roof racks, despite the increased ground clearance. It is also the first Mazda ever to feature a panoramic sunroof as an option.


title: Mazda CX-50

text: It began production at the Mazda Toyota Manufacturing USA plant in Huntsville, Alabama, United States alongside the unrelated Toyota Corolla Cross on January 26, 2022, marking Mazda's return to production in the United States after 10 years when American assembly of the Mazda6 sedan ceased in 2012. It is also produced in China by Changan Mazda.


title: Mazda CX-50

text: The CX-50 is powered by the 2.5-liter Skyactiv-G inline-four engine offered in its standard naturally-aspirated ("PY-VPS") form, which produces and of torque, and a turbocharged ("PY-VPTS") variant that outputs (with 87 AKI octane fuel) or (with 93 AKI octane fuel) and of torque. Additionally, CX-50 will eventually be offered with hybrid options sourced from Toyota.


title: Mazda CX-50

text: The CX-50 in the United States is available in Base, Select, Preferred, Preferred Plus, Premium, and Premium Plus trims. The turbocharged engine option is reserved for Base (Turbo), Premium, and Premium Plus trims. In addition, Mazda also offers a more rugged "Meridian Edition" trim for the turbocharged model, which adds 18-inch wheels with all-terrain tires, side rocker garnish, model-specific front hood graphics, and other outdoor-oriented accessories.


title: Mazda CX-50

text: The 2023 CX-50 was awarded the "Top Safety Pick +" by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. It received overall Good and Superior ratings on all categories except the non-turbo models, which received an Acceptable rating on headlights, as only the turbo models are offered with adaptive headlights.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Linda Fairstein (born May 5, 1947) is an American author, attorney, and former New York City prosecutor focusing on crimes of violence against women and children. She was the head of the sex crimes unit of the Manhattan District Attorney's office from 1976 until 2002.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: During that time, she oversaw the prosecution of the Central Park Five case, wherein five teenagers, four African-American and one Hispanic, were wrongfully convicted for the 1989 rape and assault in Central Park of a white female jogger. All five convictions were vacated in 2002 after Matias Reyes, a convicted serial rapist and murderer, confessed to having been the sole perpetrator of the crime, and DNA testing showed he was the sole contributor of the DNA of the semen on the victim. After Reyes' confession in 2002, Fairstein still maintained that the wrongfully convicted teenage boys were guilty and she lauded the police investigation as "brilliant". In 2018, she insisted that the teenagers' confessions had not been coerced.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: After she left the DA's office in 2002, Fairstein began to publish mystery novels featuring Manhattan prosecutor Alexandra Cooper. Several have been bestsellers. In June 2019, after the release of the Netflix series "When They See Us" about the Central Park Five, Fairstein's publisher, Dutton, dropped her.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein graduated with honors from Vassar College in 1969, with a degree in English literature. She graduated from the University of Virginia School of Law in 1972, where she was one of a dozen women in her class.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein joined the Manhattan District Attorney's office in 1972 as an Assistant District Attorney. In 1976 she was promoted to the head of the sex crimes unit, where she worked to support victims of crime. During her tenure, she prosecuted controversial and highly publicized cases, such as the "Preppy Murder case" against Robert Chambers in 1986, and the 1998 "People v. Jovanovic" cases.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein, as Head of Sex Crimes, oversaw the prosecution of five juvenile defendants known as the "Central Park Five" in the 1989 "Central Park Jogger" case. The case was prosecuted by ADAs Elizabeth Lederer and Arthur Clements, with trials held in 1990. The convictions in the case were vacated in 2002 following a confession by the perpetrator, a convicted serial rapist and murderer, and confirmation by a DNA match to evidence at the scene.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein left the District Attorney's office in 2002, and has continued to consult, write, lecture and serve as a sex crimes expert for a wide variety of print and television media outlets, including CNN, MSNBC and Larry King, among others. She has consulted for a number of media outlets during a number of high-profile prosecutions, including Michael Jackson's molestation charges in 2004, Kobe Bryant's sexual assault charges, and Scott Peterson's trial.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: She was also reportedly involved with a defense of Harvey Weinstein, helping to silence one of the sexual harassment complaints against him.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein founded the Domestic Violence Committee of the New York Women's Agenda. She is a frequent speaker on issues related to domestic abuse.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein's office supervised the prosecution in 1989 and 1990 of the Central Park Jogger case, which ended in the conviction of five teenagers whose convictions were later vacated. In a civil rights lawsuit filed in 2003, the five who were convicted claimed that Fairstein, with the assistance of the detectives at the 20th Precinct, coerced false confessions from them following up to thirty straight hours of interrogation and intimidation, of both the youths and their supporting adults. When Assistant US attorney David Nocenti, a "Big Brother" mentor to Yusef Salaam, one of the defendants, appeared at the precinct while the defendant was being grilled, plaintiffs claimed, Fairstein verbally abused him, demanded he leave immediately, and called her husband to demand the home number of Nocenti's boss, Brooklyn US Attorney Andrew Maloney, so she could get the young attorney fired.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein said "Nobody under sixteen was talked to until a parent or guardian arrived... Three of the five went home and had a night's sleep before they were ever taken into custody. For most of them, the substance of their admissions came out within about an hour of the time they came in... I think Reyes ran with that pack of kids. He stayed longer when the others moved on. He completed the assault. I don't think there is a question in the minds of anyone present during the interrogation process that these five men were participants, not only in the other attacks that night but in the attack on the jogger. I watched more than thirty detectives—black, white, Hispanic guys who'd never met each other before—conduct a brilliant investigation." Lawyers for the five defendants contested almost every element of Fairstein's statement.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: All five accused teenagers later claimed their confessions were coerced during interrogation through lies and intimidation. In 1990 each of the "Central Park Five" were convicted of various assault and sexual battery charges, based in part on the allegedly false confessions obtained from them in 1989. Antron McCray, Kevin Richardson, Raymond Santana and Korey Wise had signed written confessions, while Yousef Salaam made a verbal confession but refused to sign.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Their convictions were upheld on appeal. Appellate court judge Vito Titone specifically named Fairstein in his dissenting opinion on the Salaam appeal. He said in an interview, "I was concerned about a criminal justice system that would tolerate the conduct of the prosecutor, Linda Fairstein, who deliberately engineered the 15-year-old's confession. ... Fairstein wanted to make a name. She didn't care. She wasn't a human."


title: Linda Fairstein

text: All five convictions were vacated in 2002 after convicted rapist Matias Reyes confessed to the crime. Reyes confessed after he "found religion." The police had recovered DNA of only one man at the site of the crime, and none of the Central Park Five matched. The semen found on the victim contained DNA matching that of Reyes, confirming that he was the sole contributor, to a certainty of six billion to one.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: In 2003, Kevin Richardson, Raymond Santana Jr., and Antron McCray sued the city of New York for malicious prosecution, racial discrimination and emotional distress. It wasn't until Mayor De Blasio took office 11 years later that a settlement in the case was reached on June 19, 2014, for $41 million.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Ken Burns and his daughter Sarah and her husband made a documentary film about the case, which he compared to the Scottsboro Boys case. The film, "The Central Park Five", premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2012 and was released on November 23, 2012. A Pulitzer Prize winning opera, "The Central Park Five," was also written about the case.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: In May 2019, Netflix released a four-part drama series, "When They See Us", about the case, directed by Ava DuVernay. In it, actress Felicity Huffman portrays Fairstein. Soon after the release, Fairstein's publisher, E.P. Dutton, released her as a client. Fairstein was also forced to resign from various non-profit board roles, including Safe Horizon. Fairstein also resigned from the Board of Trustees of Vassar College, her alma mater, after considerable pressure from the student body and members of the administration.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: On June 10, 2019, the "Wall Street Journal" published an op-ed by Fairstein, "Netflix’s False Story of the Central Park Five," in which she says that five were not "totally innocent" (citing the other crimes they were convicted for, for which, she asserts, there is still substantial evidence) and that DuVernay had defamed her. In March 2020, Fairstein filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Florida against Netflix, DuVernay, and series writer Attica Locke for defamation based on her portrayal in the series.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: In 2004 Oliver Jovanovic sued Fairstein, alleging that she engaged in "false arrest, malicious prosecution, malicious abuse of process and denial of his right to a fair trial". This lawsuit stemmed from Fairstein's successful prosecution of Jovanovic in the case "People v. Jovanovic", which was subsequently overturned on appeal. The case was later dismissed with prejudice by a new trial judge. The dismissal was requested "in the interest of justice" by the office of the Manhattan district attorney, Robert M. Morgenthau. There was no physical evidence linking Jovanovic to the crime. While his accuser claimed she had been brutally attacked and left bleeding, she was found to have only a few fading bruises. "If she [Fairstein] couldn't tell this was a false report, well, I am just shocked," said former New York City sex crimes detective John Baeza, who worked in defense of Jovanovic after leaving the force.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: The $10 million lawsuit against Fairstein and two co-defendants, former Manhattan Assistant District Attorney Gail Heatherly, who now teaches at the Columbia Law School, and New York City Police Detective Milton Bonilla, was dismissed on summary judgment in September 2010.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein assisted District Attorney Vance in his decision not to prosecute Dominique Strauss-Kahn for sexual assault in 2012. Fairstein's writing skills came into play in writing up the decision not to charge.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Among the awards Fairstein has received are the Federal Bar Council's Emory Buckner Award for Public Service, "Glamour Magazine"'s Woman of the Year Award, and the Nero Wolfe Award for Excellence in Crime Writing.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: In 2018, the Mystery Writers of America announced that it would honor Fairstein with one of its "Grand Master" awards for literary achievement. But two days after renewed controversy erupted in connection with her role in the case, the organization withdrew the honor. In 2019, shortly after the release of the Netflix series "When They See Us" about the Central Park Five case, "Glamour Magazine" said that the 1993 Woman of the Year Award to Fairstein was a mistake and that it was given to her before the full facts of the case were known.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein has written several crime novels featuring Manhattan prosecutor Alexandra Cooper. The novels draw on Fairstein's legal expertise and several have become international best sellers.


title: Linda Fairstein

text: Fairstein grew up in Mount Vernon, New York. Her father's family were Russian Jews who immigrated in the early 1900s. Her mother is of Northern Irish, Finnish and Swedish descent. She was married to lawyer Justin Feldman from 1987 until his death in 2011 at the age of 92. In September 2014 she married lawyer Michael Goldberg, a long-time friend and classmate at the University of Virginia School of Law, at their home in Martha's Vineyard. Fairstein and Goldberg reside in the Upper East Side in New York.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Humayun Ahmed (; 13 November 1948 – 19 July 2012) was a Bangladeshi novelist, dramatist, screenwriter, filmmaker, songwriter, scholar, and professor. His breakthrough was his debut novel "Nondito Noroke" published in 1972. He wrote over 200 fiction and non-fiction books, many of which were bestsellers in Bangladesh. His books were the top sellers at the Ekushey Book Fair during the 1990s and 2000s.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: He won the Bangla Academy Literary Award in 1981 and the Ekushey Padak in 1994 for his contribution to Bengali literature.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: In the early 1990s, Ahmed emerged as a filmmaker. He went on to make a total of eight films - each based on his own novels. He received six Bangladesh National Film Awards in different categories for the films "Daruchini Dip", "Aguner Poroshmoni" and "Ghetuputra Komola". He has his own production company named Nuhash Chalachitra.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Considered as one of the cornerstones in modern Bengali literature, his works are characterized by non-violence, realistic storyline, family drama and humor styles. His works such as Kothao Keu Nei, Aaj Robibar, Srabon Megher Din are still regarded as masterpieces by the critics. He was one of the most influential writers in Bangladesh history for 15 (1990-2005) years where most popular soap operas where written by him. Many Bangladeshi film makers are still inspired from his works. His films "Shyamol Chhaya" and "Ghetuputra Komola" were gradually submitted for the 78th Academy Awards and 85th Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed was born on 13 November 1948 in Kutubpur village in the then Netrokona Mahakuma under Mymensingh District, East Bengal, Dominion of Pakistan (now in Kendua Upazila, Netrokona District, Bangladesh). His mother, Ayesha Foyez () (1930–2014), was a homemaker. His father, Foyzur Rahman Ahmed (1921–1971), was a sub-divisional police officer in Pirojpur District and was killed in 1971 during the Bangladesh Liberation War. In 2011, politician Delwar Hossain Sayeedi was put on trial for the killing but was acquitted of the charge in 2013 due to a lack of evidence. Humayun's brother, Muhammad Zafar Iqbal, is a writer and academician. Another brother, Ahsan Habib, is a cartoonist. He had three sisters – Sufia Haider, Momtaz Shahid and Rukhsana Ahmed.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: During his childhood, Ahmed lived in Sylhet, Comilla, Chittagong, Bogra, Dinajpur and where his father was on official assignment.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed studied in Chittagong Collegiate School. He passed the SSC examination from Bogra Zilla School in 1965. He then passed HSC from Dhaka College. Humayun Ahmed earned his bachelor's and master's degrees in chemistry from the University of Dhaka. He joined as a faculty member of the same university. Later he earned his PhD in polymer chemistry from North Dakota State University. He returned to Bangladesh and taught in the department of chemistry in University of Dhaka for several more years


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed wrote his debut novel "Nondito Noroke" "(In Blissful Hell)" during the 1971 Bangladesh independence war while he was a university student. The novel was published in 1972 by the initiative of writer Ahmed Sofa under Khan Brother's Publishers. From his very first novel, his themes included the aspirations of average middle-class urban families and portrayed quintessential moments of their lives. His second novel was "Shonkhonil Karagar".


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed wrote fictional series featuring recurring characters such as Himu (21 novels), Misir Ali (19 novels and 11 short stories), Shuvro (6 novels) Other important non-rucurring characters are Baker Bhai, Tuni and more. He wrote several novels based on the Bangladesh Liberation War – "Aguner Poroshmoni", "Matal Hawa", "Paap", "1971", "Jochona O Jononir Golpo"., and "Deyal". He also wrote many romantic novels including "Srabon Megher Din", "Badol Diner Prothom Kodom Phool", "Noboni", "Krishnopoksho", "Aj Dupure Tomar Nimontran", and "Tumi Amai Dekechhile Chhutir Nimontrane". His novel "Gouripur Junction" was translated in nine languages.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed wrote autobiographies - "Amar Chelebela", "Ballpoint", "Fountain Pen", "Hiji-biji", "Hotel Graver Inn", "May Flower", "Kath Pencil", "Lilabotir Mrityu", "New York-er Nil Akashe Jhokjhoke Rod" and "Rong Pencil".


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed's first television drama was "Prothom Prohor" (1983), directed by Nawazish Ali Khan. His first drama serial was "Ei Shob Din Ratri" (1985). This was followed by the comedy series "Bohubrihi" (1988), the historical drama series "Ayomoy" (1988), the urban drama series "Kothao Keu Nei" (1990), "Nokkhotrer Raat" (1996), and "Aaj Robibar" (1999). In addition, he made single episode dramas, most notably "Nimful" (1997) and Badol Diner Prothom Kodom Ful. Recurring characters in dramas directed and screenplayed by him are Tara Tin Jon and Alauddiner Cherager Doitto.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed directed films based on his own stories. His first film, "Aguner Poroshmoni" (1994), based on the Bangladesh Liberation War, won the 19th Bangladesh National Film Awards in a total of eight categories, including the awards for the Best Film and the Best Director. Another film "Shyamal Chhaya" (2005) was also based on the same war. His last directed film, "Ghetuputra Kamola" (2012), the story of a teenage boy, was set in the British colonial period.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: "Shyamol Chhaya" and "Ghetuputra Kamola" were selected as the Bangladeshi entries for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 2006 and 2012 respectively, but were not nominated.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: In 2009, Ahmed appeared as one of two judges for the reality television music competition show Khude Gaanraj.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Actor Affan Mitul debuted with his drama "Nuruddin Swarna Padak". It was produced and directed by Humayun Ahmed himself.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed composed around 40 songs which he used in his films and television dramas. The songs were based on the folk music of the north-eastern part of Bangladesh. His notable singles include "Ekta Chhilo Shonar Konya", ""Pubali Batashey"", ""O Amar Ural Ponkhi Rey"", ""Jodi Mon Kadey"", ""Ke Porailo Amar Chokh-e Kolonko Kajol"", ""Chadni Poshor Raite Ke Anay Shoron Kore"", ""Ami Aaj Bhejabo Chokh Somudrer Joley"", ""Cholona Brishtitey Bhiji"", ""Channi Poshor Raite Jeno Amar Moron Hoy"", ""Hablonger Bajarey Giya", "Boroshar Prothom Dine", Thikana Amar Notebook E Ache", "Baje Bongshi", "Aaj Jorir Biye", "Cholo Na Jai", "Chika Maro"" and ""Konya Nachilo Rey" etc." The songs were rendered by Subir Nandi, Selim Chowdhury, S I Tutul, Meher Afroz Shaon, Sabina Yasmin, Agun, Kuddus Boyati and others. In his most films and TV dramas, the music composer was Maksud Jamil Mintu.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Nobel laureate economist Muhammad Yunus assessed Ahmed's overall impact saying: "Humayun's works are the most profound and most fruitful that literature has experienced since the time of Tagore and Nazrul." Similarly, according to poet Al Mahmud, "one golden age of Bengali literature ended with Tagore and Nazrul and another began" with Ahmed. Writer Imdadul Haq Milan considered him to be "the almighty lord of Bengali literature, controlling all their actions and thoughts". "Dawn", Pakistan's oldest and most widely read English-language newspaper, referred to him as the cultural legend of Bangladesh. "Times of India" credited Humayun as "the person who single-handedly shifted the capital of Bengali literature from Kolkata to Dhaka". Sunil Gangopadhyay described him as the most popular writer in the Bengali language for a century and according to him, Ahmed was even more popular than Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. However, during his lifetime author Shahriar Kabir dismissed him for "always speaking for the establishment." Literary critic Azfar Hussain said: "I am not surprised he talks like a pro-establishment writer. I find him ignorant."


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: On 11 May 2012, two chapters of Ahmed's future novel "Deyal" were published in the daily "Prothom Alo". 3 days later, Attorney General of Bangladesh Mahbubey Alam drew attention of the High Court on a discrepancy about a detail of the historical event of killing Sheikh Russel in Ahmed's writing. The court later issued a suo moto rule and asked the authorities to provide Ahmed copies of relevant documents and judgements of the killing case, so that Ahmed could rectify the writing.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed married Gultekin Khan in 1973. Together they had three daughters: Nova Ahmed, Sheila Ahmed, Bipasha Ahmed and one son, Nuhash Humayun. Sheila Ahmed went on to become a television and film actress and Nuhash became a writer, film director and producer. 700 Taka, Pizza Bhai were directed by him. He was one of the directors of "Iti, Tomari Dhaka". Bipasha also acted in a supporting role in "Nokkhotrer Raat" and starred in "Mayaboti". In 2003, Ahmed divorced Gultekin. He then married actress Meher Afroz Shaon in 2004. He had two sons from the second marriage, Nishad Humayun and Ninith Humayun.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Ahmed had open-heart surgery at Mount Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore. A few years later, during a routine checkup, doctors found a cancerous tumor in his colon. On 14 September 2011, he was flown to Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center in New York City for treatment. During his stay there, he wrote the novel, "Deyal", based on the life of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and Ziaur Rahman after the period of Bangladesh Liberation War. In January 2012, he was appointed as a senior special adviser of the Bangladesh Mission to the United Nations.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: On 12 May 2012, Ahmed returned to Bangladesh for two weeks. He died on 19 July 2012 at 11:20 PM BST at Bellevue Hospital in New York City. There was some tension in the family over the selection of his burial site, but eventually his estate, Nuhash Palli was selected.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: In 1987, Ahmed founded an estate, "Nuhash Palli", named after his son Nuhash, near Pirujali village, 25 km from Gazipur City, in Gazipur District, which grew to cover 40 bigha (approximately 14 acres). He would spend much of his time at the estate when he was in Bangladesh. He formed a collection of statues there by local artist Asaduzzaman Khan and another of plants from around the world, particularly medicinal and fruit-bearing trees.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Exim Bank, a commercial bank and Anyadin, an entertainment magazine jointly introduced an award program, "Humayun Ahmed Sahitya Puruskar", which would be conferred to two writers every year on Ahmed's birth anniversary – 12 November.


title: Humayun Ahmed

text: Several cinematographic adaptations of Ahmed's stories are made after his death. "Anil Bagchir Ekdin" (2015), directed by Morshedul Islam, won six Bangladesh National Film Awards. "Krishnopokkho" (2016) was directed by Meher Afroz Shaon. In October 2016, she announced the production of her next film based on "Nokkhotrer Raat". "Debi" (2018) is produced by a grant from the Government of Bangladesh.


title: Historic Pact for Colombia

text: The Historic Pact for Colombia (; PHxC) is a political and electoral coalition in Colombia composed of political parties and social movements with ideologies ranging from the centre-left, left-wing, and far-left. It is the current Government Coalition in Colombia after the 2022 presidential elections.


title: Historic Pact for Colombia

text: This was launched on 11 February 2021 through a press conference where political leaders of the country participated, including Gustavo Petro, Alexander López, Iván Cepeda, María José Pizarro, Roy Barreras, Clara López, Aída Avella, Armando Benedetti, Jorge Rojas Rodríguez, Iván Guarín, and Martha Peralta. In September 2021 Agmeth Escaf, Luis Fernando Velasco, and Piedad Córdoba were added to the coalition. The coalition's presidential nominee, Gustavo Petro, advanced to the second round and defeated Rodolfo Hernández Suárez.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Maxime Weygand (; 21 January 1867 – 28 January 1965) was a French military commander in World War I and World War II.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Born in Belgium, Weygand was raised in France and educated at the Saint-Cyr military academy in Paris. After graduating in 1887, he went on to become an instructor at the Cavalry School at Saumur. During World War I, Weygand served as a staff officer to General (later Marshal) Ferdinand Foch. He then served as an advisor to Poland in the Polish–Soviet War and later High Commissioner of the Levant. In 1931, Weygand was appointed Chief of Staff of the French Army, a position he served until his retirement in 1935 at the age of 68.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: In May 1940, Weygand was recalled for active duty and assumed command of the French Army during the German invasion. Following a series of military setbacks, Weygand advised armistice and France subsequently capitulated. He joined Philippe Pétain's Vichy regime as Minister for Defence and served until September 1940, when he was appointed Delegate-General in French North Africa. Weygand favoured only limited collaboration with Germany and was dismissed from his post in November 1941 on Hitler's demand. Following the Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942, Weygand was arrested by the Germans and imprisoned at Itter Castle in Austria until May 1945. After returning to France, he was held as a collaborator at the Val-de-Grâce but was released in 1946 and cleared of charges in 1948. He died in January 1965 in Paris at the age of 98.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand was born in Brussels of unknown parents. He was long suspected of being the illegitimate son of either Empress Carlota of Mexico and General Alfred Van der Smissen; or of her brother Leopold II, King of the Belgians, and Leopold's Polish mistress. Van der Smissen always seemed a likely candidate for Weygand's father because of the striking resemblance between the two men. In 2003, the French journalist Dominique Paoli claimed to have found evidence that Weygand's father was indeed van der Smissen, but the mother was Mélanie Zichy-Metternich, lady-in-waiting to Carlota (and daughter of Prince Klemens von Metternich, Austrian Chancellor). Paoli further claimed that Weygand had been born in mid-1865, not January 1867 as is generally claimed.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Regardless, throughout his life, Weygand maintained he did not know his true parentage. While an infant he was sent to Marseille to be raised by a widow named Virginie Saget, whom he originally took to be his mother. At age 6 he was transferred to the household of David Cohen de Léon, a financier of Sephardic origins who was a friend of Leopold II. Upon reaching adulthood, Weygand was legally acknowledged as a son by Francois-Joseph Weygand, an accountant in the employ of M. Cohen de Léon, thereby granting him French citizenship.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: He says little about his youth in his memoirs, devoting to it only 4 pages out of 651. He mentions the "gouvernante" and the "aumônier" of his college, who instilled in him a strong Roman Catholic faith. His memoirs essentially begin with his entry into the preparatory class of Saint-Cyr Military School in Paris.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand was admitted to the École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr, under the name of "Maxime de Nimal" as a foreign cadet (Belgian). Graduating in 1887, he was posted to a cavalry regiment. After changing his name to Weygand and receiving French nationality, he became an instructor at Saumur.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: During the Dreyfus affair, Weygand was one of the most anti-Dreyfusard officers of his regiment, supporting the widow of Colonel Hubert-Joseph Henry, who had committed suicide after the discovery of the falsification of the charges against Captain Alfred Dreyfus.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Once promoted to captain, Weygand chose not to attempt the difficult preparation to the "École Supérieure de Guerre" (the French staff college) because of his desire, he said, to keep contact with the troops. This did not prevent him from later becoming an instructor at the Cavalry School at Saumur. He was one of the few to attend the "Centre des Hautes Etudes Militaires" (a school to give more strategic instruction), set up in the spring of 1909, despite not having been ""breveté"" (passed staff college).


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Along with Joffre and Foch, Weygand attended the Imperial Russian Army manoeuvres in 1910; his account mentions a great deal of pomp and many gala dinners, but also records Russian reluctance to discuss military details. As a lieutenant colonel Weygand attended the last prewar French grand manoeuvres, in 1913, and commented that it had revealed "intolerable insufficiencies" such as two divisions becoming mixed up.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand passed World War I as a staff officer. At the outbreak, he satisfied his taste for contact with the troops by spending 26 days with the 5ème Hussars. On 28 August, he joined the staff of General Ferdinand Foch, under whom he was to serve for much of the rest of the war.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand was promoted to général de brigade in 1916. He later wrote of the Anglo-French Somme Offensive in 1916, at which Foch commanded French Army Group North, that it had seen "constant mix-ups with an ally [i.e. the British] learning how to run a large operation and whose doctrines and methods were not yet in accordance with ours".


title: Maxime Weygand

text: British prime minister David Lloyd George pushed for the creation of a Supreme War Council, which was formally established on 7 November 1917. Keen to sideline the British chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Sir William Robertson, he insisted that, as French Army chief of the General Staff, Foch could not also be French permanent military representative (PMR) on the SWC. Paul Painlevé, French prime minister until 13 November, believed that Lloyd George was already pushing for Foch to be Supreme Allied Commander so wanted him as PMR not French Chief of Staff.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: The new prime minister, Georges Clemenceau, wanted Foch as PMR to increase French control over the Western Front, but was persuaded to appoint Weygand, seen very much as Foch's sidekick, instead. Clemenceau told US President Woodrow Wilson's envoy, Colonel Edward M. House that he would put in a "second- or third-rate man" as PMR and "let the thing drift where it will".


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand was the most junior of the PMRs (the others being the Italian Luigi Cadorna, the American Tasker H. Bliss, and the British Henry Wilson, later replaced by Henry Rawlinson). He was promoted général de division (equivalent to the Anglophone rank of major general) in 1918. This promotion was specifically because of his appointment as a PMR.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: However, Clemenceau only agreed to set up an Allied General Reserve if Foch rather than Weygand were earmarked to command it. The Reserve was shelved for the time being at a SWC Meeting in London (14–15 March 1918) as the national commanders in chief, Philippe Pétain and Sir Douglas Haig, were reluctant to release divisions.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand was in charge of Foch's staff when his patron was appointed Supreme Allied Commander in the spring of 1918, and was Foch's right-hand man throughout his victories in the late summer and until the end of the war.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand initially headed a small staff of 25–30 officers, with Brigadier General Pierre Desticker as his deputy. There was a separate head for each of the departments, e.g. Operations, Intelligence, Q (Quartermaster). From June 1918 onwards, under British pressure, Foch and Weygand poached staff officers from the French Commander-in-Chief Philippe Pétain (Lloyd George's tentative suggestion of a multinational Allied staff was vetoed by President Wilson). By early August Colonel Payot (responsible for supply and transport) had moved to Foch's HQ, as had the Military Missions from the other Allied HQs; in Greenhalgh's words this "put real as opposed to nominal power into Foch's hands". From early July onwards, British military and political leaders came to regret Foch's increased power, but Weygand later recorded that they had only themselves to blame as they had pushed for the change.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Like Foch and most French leaders of his era (Clemenceau, who had lived in the US as a young man, was a rare exception), Weygand could not speak enough English to "sustain a conversation" (German, not English, was the most common second language in which French officers were qualified). Competent interpreters were therefore vital.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand drew up the memorandum for the meeting of Foch with the national commanders-in-chief (Haig, Pétain and John J. Pershing) on 24 July 1918, the only such meeting before the autumn, in which Foch urged (successfully) the liberation of the Marne salient captured by the Germans in May (this offensive would become the Second Battle of the Marne, for which Foch was promoted Marshal of France), along with further offensives by the British and by the Americans at St Mihiel. Weygand personally delivered the directive for the Amiens attack to Haig. Foch and Weygand were shown around the liberated St. Mihiel sector by Pershing on 20 September.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand later (in 1922) questioned whether Pétain's planned offensive by twenty-five divisions in Lorraine in November 1918 could have been supplied through a "zone of destruction" through which the Germans were retreating; his own and Foch's doubts about the feasibility of the plans were another factor in the seeking of an armistice. In 1918 Weygand served on the armistice negotiations, and it was Weygand who read out the armistice conditions to the Germans at Compiègne, in the railway carriage. He can be spotted in photographs of the armistice delegates, and also standing behind Foch's shoulder at Pétain's investiture as Marshal of France at the end of 1918.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: During the Polish–Soviet War, Weygand was a member of the Interallied Mission to Poland of July and August 1920, supporting the infant Second Polish Republic against the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. (He had not been on the 1919 French Military Mission to Poland headed by General Paul Prosper Henrys.) The Interallied Mission, which also included French diplomat Jean Jules Jusserand and the British diplomat Lord Edgar Vincent D'Abernon, achieved little: its report was submitted after the Polish Armed Forces had won the crucial Battle of Warsaw. Nonetheless, the presence of the Allied missions in Poland gave rise to a myth that the timely arrival of Allied forces saved Poland.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand travelled to Warsaw expecting to assume command of the Polish army, yet those expectations were quickly dashed. He had no good reply for Józef Piłsudski, who on 24 July during their first meeting asked "How many divisions do you bring?" Weygand had none to offer. From 27 July Weygand was an adviser to the Polish Chief of Staff, Tadeusz Jordan-Rozwadowski. It was a difficult position; most Polish officers regarded him as an interloper, and spoke only Polish, which he did not understand. At the end of July he proposed that the Poles hold the length of the Bug River; a week later he proposed a purely defensive posture along the Vistula River; both plans were rejected, as were most of his other suggestions. One of his few lasting contributions was to insist on replacing the existing system of spoken orders by written documents. Norman Davies writes: "on the whole he was quite out of his element, a man trained to give orders yet placed among people without the inclination to obey, a proponent of defence in the company of enthusiasts for the attack." During another meeting with Piłsudski on 18 August, Weygand became offended and threatened to leave, depressed by his failure and dismayed by Poland's disregard for the Allied powers. At the station at Warsaw on 25 August he was consoled by the award of the Virtuti Militari, 2nd class; at Paris on the 28th he was cheered by crowds lining the platform of the Gare de l'Est, kissed on both cheeks by the Premier Alexandre Millerand and presented with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. He could not understand what had happened and has admitted in his memoirs what he said to a French journalist already on 21 August 1920: that "the victory was Polish, the plan was Polish, the army was Polish". As Norman Davies notes: "He was the first uncomprehending victim, as well as the chief beneficiary, of a legend already in circulation that he, Weygand, was the victor of Warsaw. This legend persisted for more than forty years even in academic circles."


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand was unemployed for a time after the military mission to Poland, but in 1923 he was made commander-in-chief Levant, the French mandate in Lebanon and Syria. He was then appointed High Commissioner of Syria the next year, a position he also only kept for a year.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand returned to France in 1925, when he became director of the Center for Higher Military Studies, a position he had for five years. In 1931 he was appointed Chief of Staff of the French Army, vice president of the Supreme War Council and Inspector of the Army, and was elected a member of the Académie française (seat #35). He remained in the positions, except Inspector of the Army, until his retirement in 1935 at 68.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand was recalled for active service in August 1939 by Prime Minister Édouard Daladier and appointed commander-in-chief for the Orient Theatre of Operation.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: By late May 1940 the military disaster in France after the German invasion was such that the Supreme Commander—and political neutral—Maurice Gamelin, was dismissed, and Weygand—a figurehead of the right—recalled from Syria to replace him.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand arrived on 17 May and started by cancelling the flank counter-offensive ordered by Gamelin, to cut off the enemy armoured columns which had punched through the French front at the Ardennes. Thus he lost two crucial days before finally adopting the solution, however obvious, of his predecessor. But it was by then a failed manoeuvre, because during the 48 lost hours, the German Army infantry had caught up behind their tanks in the breakthrough and had consolidated their gains.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand then oversaw the creation of the Weygand Line, an early application of the Hedgehog tactic; however, by this point the situation was untenable, with most of the Allied forces trapped in Belgium. Weygand complained that he had been summoned two weeks too late to halt the invasion.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: On 5 June the German second offensive ("Fall Rot") began. On 8 June Weygand was visited by Charles de Gaulle, newly appointed to the government as Under-Secretary for War. According to de Gaulle's memoirs Weygand believed it was "the end" and gave a "despairing laugh" when de Gaulle suggested fighting on. He believed that after France was defeated Britain would also soon sue for peace, and hoped that after an armistice the Germans would allow him to retain enough of a French Army to "maintain order" in France. Weygand later disputed the accuracy of de Gaulle's account of this conversation, and remarked on its similarity to a dialogue by Pierre Corneille. De Gaulle's biographer Jean Lacouture suggests that de Gaulle's account is consistent with other evidence of Weygand's beliefs at the time and is therefore, allowing perhaps for a little literary embellishment, broadly plausible.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Fascist Italy entered the war and invaded France on 10 June. That day Weygand barged into the office of Prime Minister Paul Reynaud and demanded an armistice. Weygand was present at the Anglo-French Conference at the Chateau du Muguet at Briare on 11 June, at which the option was discussed of continuing the French war effort from Brittany or French North Africa. The transcript shows Weygand to have been somewhat less defeatist than de Gaulle's memoirs would suggest. At the Cabinet meeting on the evening of 13 June, after another Anglo-French conference at Tours, Marshal Pétain, Deputy Prime Minister, strongly supported Weygand's demand for an armistice. On June 14 Weygand warned the high-ranking British officer Alan Brooke that the French Army was collapsing and incapable of fighting further, leading him to evacuate the final British Expeditionary Force contingents remaining on the Western Front.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: The French government moved to Bordeaux on 14 June. At Cabinet on 15 June Reynaud urged that they should follow the Dutch example, that the Army should lay down its arms so that the fight could be continued from abroad. Pétain was sympathetic, but he was sent to speak to Weygand (who was waiting outside, as he was not a member of the Cabinet). After no more than fifteen minutes Weygand persuaded him that this would be a shameful surrender. Chautemps then proposed a compromise proposal, that the Germans be approached about possible armistice terms. The Cabinet voted 13–6 for the Chautemps proposal.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: After Reynaud's resignation as Prime Minister on 16 June, President Albert Lebrun felt he had little choice but to appoint Pétain, who already had a ministerial team ready, as prime minister. Weygand joined the new government as Minister for Defence, and was briefly able to veto the appointment of Pierre Laval as minister of foreign affairs.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: The Vichy regime was set up in July 1940. Weygand continued to serve in Pétain's cabinet as Minister for National Defence until September 1940. He was then appointed Delegate-General in French North Africa.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: In North Africa, he persuaded young officers, tempted to join the French Resistance against the German occupation, to go along with the armistice for the present, by letting them hope for a later resumption of combat. With the complicity of Admiral Jean-Marie Charles Abrial, he deported opponents of Vichy to concentration camps in Southern Algeria and Morocco. Those imprisoned included Gaullists, Freemasons, and Jews, and also Communists, despite their obedience at the time to the Soviet Union's orders not to support the resistance. He also arrested the foreign volunteers of the "Légion Etrangère", foreign refugees who were in France legally but were without employment, and others. He applied Vichy anti-Jewish legislation very harshly. With the complicity of the "Recteur" (University chancellor) , Weygand instituted, on his own authority, by a mere ""note de service"" (n°343QJ of 30 September 1941), a school "numerus clausus" (quota). This drove out most Jewish students from the colleges and the primary schools, including children aged 5 to 11. Weygand did this without any order from Pétain, "by analogy," he said, "to the law about Higher Education."


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand acquired a reputation as an opponent of collaboration when he protested in Vichy against the Paris Protocols of 28 May 1941, signed by Admiral François Darlan. These agreements authorized the Axis powers to establish bases in French colonies: at Aleppo, Syria; Bizerte, Tunisia; and Dakar, Senegal. The Protocols also envisaged extensive French military collaboration with Axis forces in the event of Allied attacks against such bases. Weygand remained outspoken in his criticism of Germany.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: Weygand opposed Wehrmacht bases in French territory not to help the Allies or even to keep France neutral, but rather to preserve the integrity of the French Empire and maintain prestige in the eyes of the natives. Weygand apparently favoured limited collaboration with Germany. The Weygand General Delegation (4th Office) delivered military equipment to the Panzer Armee Afrika:


title: Maxime Weygand

text: 1,200 French trucks and other Armistice Army vehicles (Dankworth contract of 1941), and also heavy artillery with 1,000 shells per gun. However, Adolf Hitler demanded full unconditional collaboration and pressured the Vichy government to dismiss Weygand in November 1941 and recall him from North Africa. A year later, in November 1942, following the Allied invasion of North Africa, the Germans arrested Weygand. He remained in custody in Germany and then in the Itter Castle in North Tyrol with General Gamelin and a few other French Third Republic personalities until May 1945. He was liberated by United States Army troops after the Battle for Castle Itter.


title: Maxime Weygand

text: After returning to France, Weygand was held as a collaborator at the Val-de-Grâce but was released in May 1946 and cleared in 1948. He died on 28 January 1965 in Paris at the age of 98. He had married Marie-Renée, the daughter of Brigadier General Viscount de Forsanz, of Brittany. They had two sons, Édouard and Jacques.


title: Billy Tipton

text: Billy Tipton (December 29, 1914 – January 21, 1989) was an American jazz musician, bandleader, and talent broker. Tipton lived and identified as a man for most of his adult life; after his death, friends and family were surprised to learn that he was transgender.


title: Billy Tipton

text: Tipton's music career began in the mid-1930s when he led a band for radio broadcasts. He played in various dance bands in the 1940s and recorded two trio albums for a small record label in the mid-1950s. Thereafter, he worked as a talent broker. Tipton stopped performing in the late 1970s due to arthritis.