title: Public choice

text: Modern public-choice theory, and especially election theory, has been dated from the work of Duncan Black, sometimes called "the founding father of public choice". In a series of papers from 1948, which culminated in "The Theory of Committees and Elections" (1958), and later, Black outlined a program of unification toward a more general "Theory of Economic and Political Choices" based on common formal methods, developed underlying concepts of what would become median voter theory, and rediscovered earlier works on voting theory. Black's work also included the possibility of entirely random outcomes in a voting structure, where the only governance over the outcome is the where a particular motion falls in the sequence presented.


title: Public choice

text: Kenneth J. Arrow's "Social Choice and Individual Values" (1951) influenced formulation of the theory of public choice and election theory. Building on Black's theory, Arrow concluded that in a non-dictatorial setting, there was no predictable outcome or preference order that can be discerned for a set of possible distributions. Among other important works are Anthony Downs (1957) "An Economic Theory of Democracy" and Mancur Olson (1965) "The Logic of Collective Action". "The Logic of Collective Action" was fundamental in beginning the study of special interests. In it, Olson began to open questions about the nature of groups, including their lack of incentive to act with a lack of organization and free-rider problems of these larger groups upon specialized group's actions. Due to the incentive for concentrated groups (such as farmers) to act for their own interest, paired with a lack of organization of large groups (such as the public as a whole), legislation implemented as a result benefits a small group rather than the public at large.


title: Public choice

text: James M. Buchanan and Gordon Tullock coauthored "" (1962), considered one of the landmarks in public choice and constitutional economics. In particular, the preface describes the book as "about the "political organization"" of a free society. But its methodology, conceptual apparatus, and analytics "are derived, essentially, from the discipline that has as its subject the "economic" organization of such a society" (1962, p. v). Buchanan and Tullock build out a framework within "Calculus" of constitutional decision making and structures. This framework differentiates decisions that are made into two categories: Constitutional decisions and political decisions. Constitutional decisions establish long standing rules that rarely change and govern the political structure itself. Political decisions are those that take place within and are governed by the structure. The book also focuses on positive-economic analysis as to the development of constitutional democracy but in an ethical context of consent. The consent takes the form of a compensation principle like Pareto efficiency for making a policy change and unanimity or at least no opposition as a point of departure for social choice.


title: Public choice

text: Somewhat later, the probabilistic voting theory started to displace the median voter theory in showing how to find Nash equilibria in multidimensional space. The theory was later formalized further by Peter Coughlin.


title: Public choice

text: Constitutional economics is a research program in economics and constitutionalism that has been described as extending beyond the definition of "the economic analysis of constitutional law" in explaining the choice "of alternative sets of legal-institutional-constitutional rules that constrain the choices and activities of economic and political agents." This is distinct from explaining the choices of economic and political agents within those rules, a subject of "orthodox" economics.


title: Public choice

text: Constitutional economics studies the "compatibility of effective economic decisions with the existing constitutional framework and the limitations or the favorable conditions created by that framework," It has been characterized as a practical approach to apply of the tools of economics to constitutional matters. For example, a major concern of every nation is the proper allocation of available national economic and financial resources. The legal solution to this problem falls within the scope of constitutional economics.


title: Public choice

text: Constitutional economics takes into account the significant impacts of political economic decisions as opposed to limiting analysis to economic relationships as functions of the dynamics of distribution of "marketable" goods and services. "The political economist who seeks to offer normative advice, must, of necessity, concentrate on the process or structure within which political decisions are observed to be made. Existing constitutions, or structures or rules, are the subject of critical scrutiny. "


title: Public choice

text: One way to organize the subject matter studied by public choice theorists is to begin with the foundations of the state itself. According to this procedure, the most fundamental subject is the origin of government. Although some work has been done on anarchy, autocracy, revolution, and even war, the bulk of the study in this area has concerned the fundamental problem of collectively choosing constitutional rules. Much of this study on constitutional rules is based on work by James M. Buchanan. This work assumes a group of individuals who aim to form a government, then it focuses on the problem of hiring the agents required to carry out government functions agreed upon by the members.


title: Public choice

text: Another major sub-field is the study of bureaucracy. The usual model depicts the top bureaucrats as being chosen by the chief executive and legislature, depending on whether the democratic system is presidential or parliamentary. The typical image of a bureau chief is a person on a fixed salary who is concerned with pleasing those who appointed him or her. The latter has the power to hire and fire him or her more or less at will. The bulk of the bureaucrats, however, are civil servants whose jobs and pay are protected by a civil service system against major changes by their appointed bureau chiefs. This image is often compared with that of a business owner whose profit varies with the success of production and sales, who aims to maximize profit, and who can in an ideal system hire and fire employees at will. William Niskanen is generally considered the founder of public choice literature on the bureaucracy.


title: Public choice

text: Geoffrey Brennan and Loren Lomasky claim that democratic policy is biased to favor "expressive interests" and neglect practical and utilitarian considerations. Brennan and Lomasky differentiate between instrumental interests (any kind of practical benefit, both monetary and non-monetary) and expressive interests (forms of expression like applause). According to Brennan and Lomasky, the paradox of voting can be resolved by differentiating between expressive and instrumental interests.


title: Public choice

text: This argument has led some public choice scholars to claim that politics is plagued by irrationality. In articles published in the "Econ Journal Watch", economist Bryan Caplan contended that voter choices and government economic decisions are inherently irrational. Caplan's ideas are more fully developed in his book "The Myth of the Rational Voter" (Princeton University Press 2007). Countering Donald Wittman's arguments in "The Myth of Democratic Failure", Caplan claims that politics is biased in favor of irrational beliefs.


title: Public choice

text: According to Caplan, democracy effectively subsidizes irrational beliefs. Anyone who derives utility from potentially irrational policies like protectionism can receive private benefits while imposing the costs of such beliefs on the general public. Were people to bear the full costs of their "irrational beliefs", they would lobby for them optimally, taking into account both their instrumental consequences and their expressive appeal. Instead, democracy oversupplies policies based on irrational beliefs. Caplan defines rationality mainly in terms of mainstream price theory, pointing out that mainstream economists tend to oppose protectionism and government regulation more than the general population, and that more educated people are closer to economists on this score, even after controlling for confounding factors such as income, wealth or political affiliation. One criticism is that many economists do not share Caplan's views on the nature of public choice. However, Caplan does have data to support his position. Economists have, in fact, often been frustrated by public opposition to economic reasoning. As Sam Peltzman puts it: Economists know what steps would improve the efficiency of HSE [health, safety, and environmental] regulation, and they have not been bashful advocates of them. These steps include substituting markets in property rights, such as emission rights, for command and control ... The real problem lies deeper than any lack of reform proposals or failure to press them. It is our inability to understand their lack of political appeal.Public choice's application to government regulation was developed by George Stigler (1971) and Sam Peltzman (1976).


title: Public choice

text: Public choice theory is often used to explain how political decision-making results in outcomes that conflict with the preferences of the general public. For example, many advocacy group and pork barrel projects are not the desire of the overall democracy. However, it makes sense for politicians to support these projects. It may make them feel powerful and important. It can also benefit them financially by opening the door to future wealth as lobbyists. The project may be of interest to the politician's local constituency, increasing district votes or campaign contributions. The politician pays little or no cost to gain these benefits, as he is spending public money. Special-interest lobbyists are also behaving rationally. They can gain government favors worth millions or billions for relatively small investments. They face a risk of losing out to their competitors if they don't seek these favors. The taxpayer is also behaving rationally. The cost of defeating any one government give-away is very high, while the benefits to the individual taxpayer are very small. Each citizen pays only a few pennies or a few dollars for any given government favor, while the costs of ending that favor would be many times higher.


title: Public choice

text: Everyone involved has rational incentives to do exactly what they are doing, even though the desire of the general constituency is opposite. Costs are diffused, while benefits are concentrated. The voices of vocal minorities with much to gain are heard over those of indifferent majorities with little to individually lose. However the notion that groups with concentrated interests will dominate politics is incomplete because it is only one half of political equilibrium. Something must incite those preyed upon to resist even the best organized concentrated interests. In his article on interest groups Gary Becker identified this countervailing force as being the deadweight loss from predation. His views capped what has come to be known as the Chicago school of political economy and it has come in sharp conflict with the so-called Virginia faction of public choice due to the former's assertion that politics will tend towards efficiency due to nonlinear deadweight losses and due to its claim that political efficiency renders policy advice irrelevant.


title: Public choice

text: While good government tends to be a pure public good for the mass of voters, there may be many advocacy groups that have strong incentives for lobbying the government to implement specific policies that would benefit them, potentially at the expense of the general public. For example, lobbying by the sugar manufacturers might result in an inefficient subsidy for the production of sugar, either directly or by protectionist measures. The costs of such inefficient policies are dispersed over all citizens, and therefore unnoticeable to each individual. On the other hand, the benefits are shared by a small special-interest group with a strong incentive to perpetuate the policy by further lobbying. Due to rational ignorance, the vast majority of voters will be unaware of the effort; in fact, although voters may be aware of special-interest lobbying efforts, this may merely select for policies which are even harder to evaluate by the general public, rather than improving their overall efficiency. Even if the public were able to evaluate policy proposals effectively, they would find it infeasible to engage in collective action in order to defend their diffuse interest. Therefore, theorists expect that numerous special interests will be able to successfully lobby for various inefficient policies. In public choice theory, such scenarios of inefficient government policies are referred to as "government failure" – a term akin to "market failure" from earlier theoretical welfare economics.


title: Public choice

text: A field that is closely related to public choice is the study of rent-seeking. This field combines the study of a market economy with that of government. Thus, one might regard it as a new political economy. Its basic thesis is that when both a market economy and government are present, government agents may rent or sell their influence (i.e. a vote) to those who are seeking input into the lawmaking process. The government agent stands to benefit from support from the party seeking influence, while the party seeks to gain benefit through having public policy implemented that benefits them. This essentially results in a capture and reallocation of benefit, wasting the benefit and any resources used from being put to a productive use in society. This is due to the fact that the party attempting to acquire the benefit will spend up to or more than the benefit accrued, resulting in a zero-sum gain, or a negative sum gain. The real gain is the gain over the competition. This political action will then be used to keep competition out of the market due to a lack of real or political capital.


title: Public choice

text: Rent-seeking is broader than public choice in that it applies to autocracies as well as democracies and, therefore, is not directly concerned with collective decision making. However, the obvious pressures it exerts on legislators, executives, bureaucrats, and even judges are factors that public choice theory must account for in its analysis of collective decision-making rules and institutions. Moreover, the members of a collective who are planning a government would be wise to take prospective rent-seeking into account.


title: Public choice

text: Another major claim is that much of political activity is a form of rent-seeking which wastes resources. Gordon Tullock, Jagdish Bhagwati, and Anne Osborn Krueger have argued that rent-seeking has caused considerable waste.


title: Public choice

text: From such results it is sometimes asserted that public choice theory has an anti-state tilt. But there is ideological diversity among public choice theorists. Mancur Olson for example was an advocate of a strong state and instead opposed political interest group lobbying. More generally, James Buchanan has suggested that public choice theory be interpreted as "politics without romance", a critical approach to a pervasive earlier notion of idealized politics set against market failure.


title: Public choice

text: The British journalist, Alistair Cooke, commenting on the Nobel Memorial Prize awarded to James M. Buchanan in 1986, reportedly summarized the public choice view of politicians by saying, "Public choice embodies the homely but important truth that politicians are, after all, no less selfish than the rest of us."


title: Public choice

text: Several notable public choice scholars have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics, including Kenneth Arrow (1972), James M. Buchanan (1986), George Stigler (1982), Gary Becker (1992), Amartya Sen (1998), Vernon Smith (2002) and Elinor Ostrom (2009). In addition, James Buchanan, Vernon Smith, and Elinor Ostrom were former presidents of the Public Choice Society.


title: Public choice

text: Buchanan and Tullock themselves outline methodological qualifications of the approach developed in their work "The Calculus of Consent" (1962), p. 30:


title: Public choice

text: Further, Steven Pressman (economist) offers a critique of the public choice approach, arguing that public choice actually fails to explain political behavior in a number of central areas including politicians’ behavior as well as voting behavior. In the case of politicians' behavior, the public choice assumption that a politician's utility function is driven by greater political and economic power cannot account for various political phenomena. These include: why politicians vote against their constituents' interests, why they would advocate for higher taxation, fewer benefits, and smaller government, or why wealthy individuals would seek office.


title: Public choice

text: As for critiques concerning voter behavior, it is argued that public choice is unable to explain why people vote due to limitations in rational choice theory. For example, from the viewpoint of rational choice theory, the expected gains of voting depend on (1) the benefit to the individual if their candidate wins, and (2) the probability that the individual's vote will determine the election's outcome. However, even in a tight election the probability that an individual's vote makes the difference is estimated to be effectively zero. This would suggest that even if an individual expects gains from their candidate's success, the expected gains from voting would also logically be near zero. When this is considered in combination with the multiple recognized costs of voting such as the opportunity cost of foregone wages, transportation costs, and more, the self-interested individual is, therefore, unlikely to vote at all (at least theoretically). Pressman is not alone in his critique, other prominent public choice economists also recognize that theorizing voting behavior is a major issue for the public choice approach. This includes critiques by Anthony Downs in An Economic Theory of Democracy, Morris P. Fiorina, and Gordon Tullock.


title: Sick!

text: Sick! (stylized in all caps) is the fourth studio album by American rapper Earl Sweatshirt. It was released on January 14, 2022, through Tan Cressida and Warner Records. The album features collaborations with Armand Hammer and Zelooperz, along with additional vocals by Na-Kel Smith. Production was handled by the Alchemist, Black Noi$e, Navy Blue (under the alias Ancestors), Samiyam, Alexander Spit, Theravada, Rob Chambers, and some co-production by Earl himself. It was preceded by the singles "2010", "Tabula Rasa" featuring Armand Hammer, and "Titanic".


title: Sick!

text: Earl Sweatshirt called the album his "humble offering of 10 songs recorded in the wake of the worldwide coronavirus pandemic and its subsequent lockdowns", as he "leaned into the chaos" of the world's growing "anger and restlessness". The album was announced on December 10, 2021.


title: Sick!

text: The album cover depicts a framed mold of Earl Sweatshirt wearing a mask surrounded by two pills, African photos, a clove of garlic, and some sage.


title: Sick!

text: "Sick" was met with widespread critical acclaim from critics upon its release. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 86, based on 16 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 7.9 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Sick!

text: Tom Breihan of "Stereogum" named "Sick!" "Album of the Week", stating, ""SICK!" is the first Earl Sweatshirt album that doesn't sound more freaked-out and withdrawn than the one that came before. It's a dense, rich, contemplative piece of work... [it's] a strange and insular rap record, but it's a rap record nonetheless, and it's a great one". Concluding the review for AllMusic, Fred Thomas felt that while " Sick! is brief, with just ten songs clocking in at around 24 minutes, but every move is placed with intention and forethought. Sharp, direct, and fluid in a way that's almost supernatural, Sick! perfectly conveys the duality of frustration and drive to persevere that arises from living through exceptionally difficult times." Reviewing the album for "Pitchfork", Dylan Green compared the album to its predecessor; "Sick! doesn’t recontextualize the genre in the same way "Some Rap Songs" did, but it’s an act of self-revolution. It magnifies a newly assured Earl Sweatshirt, skin shed and free to ascend."


title: Viracocha

text: Viracocha is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. Full name and some spelling alternatives are Wiracocha, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, and Con-Tici (also spelled Kon-Tiki, the source of the name of Thor Heyerdahl's raft). Viracocha was one of the most important deities in the Inca pantheon and seen as the creator of all things, or the substance from which all things are created, and intimately associated with the sea.


title: Viracocha

text: Viracocha created the universe, sun, moon, and stars, time (by commanding the sun to move over the sky) and civilization itself. Viracocha was worshipped as god of the sun and of storms. He was represented as wearing the sun for a crown, with thunderbolts in his hands, and tears descending from his eyes as rain. In accord with the Inca cosmogony, Viracocha may be assimilated to Saturn, the "old god", the maker of time or "deus faber" (god maker), corresponding to the visible planet with the longest revolution around the sun.


title: Viracocha

text: According to a myth recorded by Juan de Betanzos, Viracocha rose from Lake Titicaca (or sometimes the cave of Paqariq Tampu) during the time of darkness to bring forth light. He made the sun, moon, and the stars. He made mankind by breathing into stones, but his first creation were brainless giants that displeased him. So, he destroyed them with a flood and made humans, beings who were better than the giants, from smaller stones. After creating them, they were scattered all over the world.


title: Viracocha

text: Viracocha eventually disappeared across the Pacific Ocean (by walking on the water), and never returned. He wandered the earth disguised as a beggar, teaching his new creations the basics of civilization, as well as working numerous miracles. Many, however, refused to follow his teachings, devolving into warfare and delinquency; Viracocha wept when he saw the plight of the creatures he had created. It was thought that Viracocha would re-appear in times of trouble. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa wrote that Viracocha was described as "a man of medium height, white and dressed in a white robe like an alb secured round the waist and that he carried a staff and a book in his hands."


title: Viracocha

text: In one legend he had one son, Inti, and two daughters, Mama Killa and Pachamama. In this legend, he destroyed the people around Lake Titicaca with a Great Flood called "Unu Pachakuti", lasting 60 days and 60 nights, saving two to bring civilization to the rest of the world. These two beings are Manco Cápac, the son of Inti (sometimes taken as the son of Viracocha), which name means "splendid foundation", and Mama Uqllu, which means "mother fertility". These two founded the Inca civilization carrying a golden staff, called 'tapac-yauri'. In another legend, he fathered the first eight civilized human beings. In some stories, he has a wife called Mama Qucha.


title: Viracocha

text: In another legend, Viracocha had two sons, Imahmana Viracocha and Tocapo Viracocha. After the Great Flood and the Creation, Viracocha sent his sons to visit the tribes to the northeast and northwest to determine if they still obeyed his commandments. Viracocha traveled North. During their journey, Imaymana and Tocapo gave names to all the trees, flowers, fruits, and herbs. They also taught the tribes which of these were edible, which had medicinal properties, and which were poisonous. Eventually, Viracocha, Tocapo and Imahmana arrived at Cusco (in modern-day Peru) and the Pacific seacoast, where they walked away across the water until they disappeared. The word "Viracocha" literally means "Sea Foam."


title: Viracocha

text: "Tiqsi Huiracocha" (spanisch "Ticsi Viracocha") may have several meanings. In the Quechuan languages, "tiqsi" means "origin" or "beginning", "wira" means fat, and "qucha" means lake, sea, or reservoir.


title: Viracocha

text: Some people state that "Wiraqucha" could mean ""Fat (or foam) of the sea"". According to German archeologist Max Uhle, "foam lake" is an incomprehensible name. He points out that "Vira" ("Huira") can also be derived from the Quechua word "huyra" ("the end of all things"), and that "Ticsi Viracocha" therefore could have the meaning "lake of origin and of the end of all things".


title: Viracocha

text: Some think that linguistic, historical and archaeological evidence suggest that the name could be a borrowing of Aymara "Wila Quta" ("wila" "blood"; "quta" "lake"), due to the sacrifices of camelids that were celebrated at Lake Titiqaqa by pre-Incan Andean cultures that spoke Aymara. Viracocha is often referred to a lord "Tunuupa", which in both Quechua and Aymara have a clear provenance from "Tunu"= mill or central support pillar of a roundhouse and "upa"= the bearer, the one who carries. Thus, "Tunuupa" or "Tunupa" may be read as the "bearer of the mill", while in the Old World the mill or millstone symbolizes time and the making of time, or "the works that make civilization". This epithet of Viracocha is thus well in line with the assimilation of Viracocha as Saturn, in agreement with Inca cosmogony (see, chapter 4).


title: Viracocha

text: The first Spanish chroniclers from the 16th century made no mention of any identification with Viracocha. The first to do so was Pedro Cieza de León in 1553. Similar accounts by Spanish chroniclers (e.g. Juan de Betanzos) describe Viracocha as a "white god", often with a beard. The whiteness of Viracocha is however not mentioned in the native authentic legends of the Incas and most modern scholars therefore had considered the "white god" story to be a post-conquest Spanish invention.


title: Viracocha

text: Similarly to the Incan god Viracocha, the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl and several other deities from Central and South American pantheons, like the Muisca god Bochica are described in legends as being bearded. The beard, once believed to be a mark of a prehistoric European influence and quickly fueled and embellished by spirits of the colonial era, had its single significance in the continentally insular culture of Mesoamerica. The "Anales de Cuauhtitlan" is a very important early source which is particularly valuable for having been originally written in Nahuatl. The "Anales de Cuauhtitlan" describes the attire of Quetzalcoatl at Tula:


title: Viracocha

text: In this quote the beard is represented as a dressing of feathers, fitting comfortably with academic impressions of Mesoamerican art. The story, however, does not mention whether Quetzalcoatl had facial hair or not with the point of outfitting him with a mask and symbolic feathered beard being to cover his unsightly appearance because as Quetzalcoatl said "If ever my subjects were to see me, they would run away!"


title: Viracocha

text: While descriptions of Viracocha's physical appearance are open to interpretation, men with beards were frequently depicted by the Peruvian Moche culture in its famous pottery, long before the arrival of the Spanish. Modern advocates of theories such as a pre-Columbian European migration to Peru cite these bearded ceramics and Viracocha's beard as being evidence for an early presence of non-Amerindians in Peru. Although most Indians do not have heavy beards, there are groups reported to have included bearded individuals, such as the Aché people of Paraguay, who also have light skin but who are not known to have any admixture with Europeans and Africans. When the Southern Paiute were first contacted by Europeans in 1776, the report by fathers Silvestre Vélez de Escalante and Francisco Atanasio Domínguez noted that "Some of the men had thick beards and were thought to look more in appearance like Spanish men than native Americans".


title: Viracocha

text: A representation of the messenger of Viracocha named Wiracochan or Tunupa is shown in the small village of Ollantaytambo, southern Peru. Ollantaytambo located in the Cusco Region makes up a chain of small villages along the Urubamba Valley. Known as the Sacred Valley, it was an important stronghold of the Inca Empire. Facing the ancient Inca ruins of Ollantaytambo in the rock face of "Cerro Pinkuylluna" is the 140-metre-high figure of Wiracochan. The angry-looking formation of his face is made up of indentations that form the eyes and mouth, whilst a protruding carved rock denotes the nose. Inca ruins built on top of the face are also considered to represent a crown on his head. Artists' impressions of the rock face also include a heavy beard and a large sack upon his shoulders.


title: Viracocha

text: The effigy of Viracocha/Tunupa at Ollantaytambo has been highlighted among others by Fernando and Edgar Elorrieta Salazar. Wiracochan, the pilgrim preacher of knowledge, the master of time, is described as a person with superhuman power, a bearded tall man dressed as priest or astronomer.


title: Viracocha

text: Other authors such as Garcilaso de la Vega, Betanzos, and Pedro de Quiroga hold that Viracocha wasn't the original name of "God" for the Incas. According to Garcilaso, the name of God in the language of the Incas was "Pachamama", not Viracocha. Nevertheless, Spanish interpreters generally attributed the identity of supreme creator to Viracocha during the initial years of colonization.


title: Viracocha

text: According to Antoinette Molinié Fioravanti, Spanish clergymen began to equate the "God of creation" with Viracocha in an attempt to combat the polytheistic worship of the Incas, which in their view was idolatrous. The existence of a "supreme God" in the Incan view was used by the clergy to demonstrate that the revelation of a single, universal God was "natural" for the human condition.


title: Viracocha

text: Christian scholars such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas held that philosophers of all nations had learned of the existence of a supreme God. Nevertheless, medieval European philosophy believed that without the aid of revelation, no one could fully understand such great truths such as the nature of "The Trinity".


title: Viracocha

text: The decision to use the term "God" in place of "Viracocha" is seen as the first step in the evangelization of the Incas. The reasoning behind this strategy includes the fact that it was likely difficult to explain the Christian idea of "God" to the Incas, who failed to understand the concept. In addition, replacing reference to Viracocha with "God" facilitated the substitution of the local concept of divinity with Christian theology.


title: Guard dog

text: A guard dog or watchdog (not to be confused with an attack dog) is a dog used to watch for and guard property against unwanted or unexpected human or animal intruders.


title: Guard dog

text: The use of dogs as guardians is well known since ancient times. The Romans used to put mosaics ("Cave canem" mosaics) at the entrance of the houses to warn visitors and intruders of the presence of dangerous dogs at the property.


title: Guard dog

text: One of the first dog types used as guardians were the ancestral Mastiff-type landraces of the group known as Livestock guardian dogs which protected livestock against large predators such as wolves, bears and leopards. Orthrus is a famous example of a livestock guardian dog from the Greek mythology known for guarding Geryon's red cattle.


title: Guard dog

text: Some ancient guard dogs in more urban areas, such as the extinct bandogges, were chained during the day and released at night to protect properties, camps and villages.


title: Guard dog

text: Both guard dogs and watchdogs bark loudly to alert their owners of an intruder's presence and to scare away the intruder. The watchdog's function ends here; a guard dog is then capable of attacking and/or restraining the intruder.


title: Guard dog

text: Livestock guardian dogs are often large enough (100-200 lbs.) and strong enough to attack and drive away livestock predators. Some smaller breeds (such as Keeshonden and Tibetan Terriers) are excellent watchdogs, but not guard dogs, because they bark loudly to alert their masters of intruders, but are physically small and not given to assertive behavior. Guard dogs will bark to alert their master and to warn off an approaching animal or human threat prior to their interception of the trespasser. They are different from the smaller watchdogs in that they do not continue barking; they take action. Specifically, livestock guardian dogs such as the Kangal use loud alarm barks as a first line of defense against presumed threats; if these do not deter a perceived foe (either human or animal predators), other displays such as bluffing and charging are employed. For livestock guardians, proactive forms of defense such as bites are only used if all other forms of deterrence fail.


title: Guard dog

text: If the risk is from human intruders, a suitable dog can be simply trained to be aggressive towards unrecognized humans and then tethered


title: Guard dog

text: or enclosed unsupervised in an area that the owner wishes to protect when he is not around (such as at night); the stereotypical "junkyard dog" is a common example of this. If the purpose of the dog is to protect against human intruders after nightfall, a large, dark-colored dog in a dark house (lights off) would give the dog an advantage over the burglar.


title: Guard dog

text: It is claimed that female dogs tend to make better personal guardians than males, due to maternal instincts, but males are considered better for guarding property because of their greater territorial instinct. That may be true in general, but all dogs are individuals.


title: Guard dog

text: Many currently prominent guard dogs started as general purpose farm dogs, but gradually developed into guard breeds. Some dog breeds such as the Dobermann and the Dogue Brasileiro were specifically bred to guard.


title: Guard dog

text: Guard dogs are not restricted to mastiffs. Other dogs, like some shepherd dogs, Spitz dogs, cattle dogs and some catch dogs are also great guard dogs as well as being useful as multifunctional dogs, acting as attack dogs, personal protection dogs, police dogs, sport dogs such as schutzhund dogs, etc.


title: Guard dog

text: Guard dog breeds tend to be territorial, averse to strangers, dominant, and protective and loyal with family. The Fila Brasileiro for example has a reputation for being very intolerant of strangers and guests to the home and property. Other fierce guard dogs include breeds and landraces of the Ovtcharka type and other farm guard dogs such as the Boerboel.


title: Guard dog

text: Some breeds who make excellent guards are more commonly having breed specific legislation passed against them, banning them from some communities and whole countries.


title: Guard dog

text: The laws regarding ownership and usage of guard dogs vary from country to country. In England the main legislation relating to the use of guard dogs on commercial premises are contained within the 1975 Guard Dogs Act. The act specifies the requirements of kennels and the need to display guard dog warning signs at the entrance to sites.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: The Belovezh Accords (, , ) are accords forming the agreement declaring that the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) had effectively ceased to exist and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place as a successor entity. The documentation was signed at the state dacha near Viskuli in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (Belarus) on 8 December 1991, by leaders of three of the four republics which had signed the 1922 Treaty on the Creation of the USSR:


title: Belovezh Accords

text: The name is variously translated as Belavezh Accords, Belovezh Accords, Belovezha Accords, Belavezha Agreement, the Belovezhskaya Accord, and the Belaya Vezha Accord. The reason of the discrepancy is the difference between Russian and Belarusian transliteration of the eponymous forest's name on the Belarus-Polish border that was once General Secretary Brezhnev’s hunting lodge.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: The text of the Belovezh Accords contains an introduction and 14 Articles. The original text is available in official translation on the Council of Europe website.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: The main obligations of the parties to the Agreement, ratified by all former Soviet republics except Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, includes the following:


title: Belovezh Accords

text: The preamble of the document stated that "the USSR, as a subject of international law and a geopolitical reality, is ceasing its existence". It also invited other republics to join the three founding members. While there was some dispute over the authority of the leaders of three of the 12 republics to dissolve the entire Union, individual union republics had the right to secede freely from the Union according to Article 72 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution; since 1990, the procedure for the withdrawal of republics from the Union was regulated by a special law.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: On 10 December, the agreement was ratified by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine and the Supreme Council of Belarus. On 12 December, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR formally ratified the Belovezh Accords, denounced (that is, withdrew from) the 1922 Treaty on the Creation of the Soviet Union, and recalled the Russian deputies from the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Some members of the Russian parliament disputed the legality of this ratification, since according to the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1978, consideration of this document was in the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: What remained of the Soviet federal government also argued that the purported dissolution was illegal and ineffective. Gorbachev described the moves thusly:


title: Belovezh Accords

text: The fate of the multinational state cannot be determined by the will of the leaders of three republics. The question should be decided only by constitutional means with the participation of all sovereign states and taking into account the will of all their citizens. The statement that Unionwide legal norms would cease to be in effect is also illegal and dangerous; it can only worsen the chaos and anarchy in society. The hastiness with which the document appeared is also of serious concern. It was not discussed by the populations nor by the Supreme Soviets of the republics in whose name it was signed. Even worse, it appeared at the moment when the draft treaty for a Union of Sovereign States, drafted by the USSR State Council, was being discussed by the parliaments of the republics.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: The question as to whether the Belovezh Accords were enough in and of themselves to dissolve the Soviet Union with the agreement of only three republics (albeit three of the largest and most powerful republics) was resolved on 21 December 1991, when the representatives of 11 of the 12 remaining Soviet republics—all except Georgia—signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which reiterated both the end of the Soviet Union and the establishment of the CIS. Given that 11 of the republics now agreed that the Soviet Union no longer existed, the plurality of member-republics required for its effective continuance as a federal state was no longer in place. The Alma-Ata signatories also provisionally accepted Gorbachev's resignation as president of the Soviet Union and agreed on several other practical measures consequential to the extinction of the Union. Gorbachev stated that he would resign as soon as he knew the CIS was a reality. Three days later, in a secret meeting with Yeltsin, he accepted the "fait accompli" of the Soviet Union's dissolution.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: Although Gorbachev had long since lost the ability to influence events outside Moscow, a rump Soviet federal government continued to exist for four more days, and Gorbachev continued to hold control over the Kremlin. This ended in the early hours of 25 December 1991 when Gorbachev resigned and turned control of the Kremlin and the remaining powers of his office over to the office of the president of Russia, Yeltsin. Soon afterward, the flag of the Soviet Union was lowered from the Kremlin Senate for the final time, and the flag of Russia was hoisted in its place.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: Later that day, President of the United States George H. W. Bush gave a short speech on national television in the United States to mark the end of the Cold War and to recognize the independence of the former states of the Soviet Union.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: Also on 25 December 1991, the Russian SFSR, now no longer a sub-national entity of the Soviet Union but a sovereign nation in its own right, adopted a law renaming itself the "Russian Federation" or "Russia" (both being equally official with the ratification of the Russian constitution in 1993).


title: Belovezh Accords

text: Gorbachev's speech, as well as the replacement of the Soviet flag with the Russian flag, were all seen around the world, and marked the "de facto" end of the Soviet Union. However, the final legal step in the dissolution came a day later, when the Soviet of Republics, the upper house of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, recognized the collapse of the Union and voted both itself and the Union out of existence. The lower house, the Soviet of the Union, had not met since 12 December when Russia recalled its deputies from both chambers, leaving it without a quorum.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: The Summit of Alma-Ata also issued a statement on 21 December 1991, supporting Russia's claim to be recognized as the successor state of the Soviet Union for the purposes of membership of the United Nations. On 25 December 1991, Russian President Yeltsin informed UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar that the Soviet Union had been dissolved and that Russia would, as its successor state, continue the Soviet Union's membership in the United Nations. The document confirmed the credentials of the representatives of the Soviet Union as representatives of Russia and requested that the name "Soviet Union" be changed to "Russian Federation" in all records and entries. This was a move designed to allow Russia to retain the Soviet Union's permanent Security Council seat, which would not have been possible if the former republics were all reckoned as equal successors of the Soviet Union, or if the Soviet Union was regarded as having no successor state for the purpose of continuing the same UN membership (see Russia and the United Nations). The Secretary-General circulated the request, and there being no objection from any Member State, the Russian Federation took the Soviet Union's UN seat. On 31 January 1992, Russian Federation President Yeltsin personally took part in a Security Council meeting as representative of Russia, the first Security Council meeting in which Russia occupied the permanent Security Council seat originally granted to the Soviet Union by the UN Charter.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: According to some Russian politicians, one of the reasons for the political crisis of 1993 was the repeated refusal of the Congress of People's Deputies of Russia to ratify the Belovezhskaya Agreement and to exclude the mention of the Constitution and laws of the USSR from the text of the Constitution of the RSFSR.


title: Belovezh Accords

text: Stanislav Shushkevich, the former leader of Belarus, was told by the country's foreign ministry that the original accords have gone missing as of 7 February 2013. He tried to obtain the original copy to assist in writing his memoirs.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin is an American alternative rock band formed in Winter Haven, Florida in 2002. Since the beginning of 2007, the band consists of lead vocalist Stephen Christian, guitarists Joseph Milligan and Christian McAlhaney, bassist Deon Rexroat, and drummer Nathan Young.


title: Anberlin

text: Members of Anberlin originally formed a band under the name SaGoh 24/7 in 1998, releasing two studio albums before disbanding, with the members having a change in musical direction and name. Anberlin was formed in 2002; within a year of forming, they had signed with semi-independent record label Tooth & Nail Records and released their debut album, "Blueprints for the Black Market". In 2005, the band released their second album, "Never Take Friendship Personal". The band's third album, "Cities", was released in 2007, and became their first album to reach the top 20 of the "Billboard" 200, selling 34,000 copies in its debut week.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin signed with major label Universal Republic in 2007 and in 2008 released "New Surrender", which peaked at No. 13 on the Billboard 200, with the first single, "Feel Good Drag", claiming No. 1 on the Alternative Songs chart, after 29 weeks in the chart. Prior to the release of their fifth studio album, "Dark Is the Way, Light Is a Place", Anberlin had sold over 1,000,000 albums. Their sixth studio album "Vital" was released October 16, 2012, and rereleased on Big3 Records under the title "Devotion" a year later, October 15, 2013.


title: Anberlin

text: On January 16, 2014, it was announced that Anberlin would be disbanding in 2014 after recording their seventh and then-final studio album, "Lowborn", on their original label, Tooth & Nail Records, and touring one last time. After performing concerts in late 2018, the group reunited to tour through 2019. In May 2020, Christian mentioned they were working on new material. Anberlin released their new EP "Silverline" on July 29, 2022.


title: Anberlin

text: Lead singer Stephen Christian met bassist Deon Rexroat while they were both in high school, and they formed a punk band called SaGoh 24/7. Drummer Sean Hutson and guitarist Joseph Milligan joined the group as well. The band released two albums, "Servants After God's Own Heart" (1999), and "Then I Corrupt Youth" (2001), both under Rescue Records. After the albums sold only 1,300 units, Hutson left the band to start a family, and Nathan Young was brought in as a replacement.


title: Anberlin

text: Christian, Milligan and Rexroat began working on a side project, marking the beginning of the end for SaGoh 24/7. The side project's sound transformed after a suggestion from Milligan to develop more of a rock sound for Anberlin. They used money left over from shows SaGoh had performed and teamed up with producer Matt Goldman to record five demos. The demos that were then posted on PureVolume (which was mp3.com at the time). On the advice of friends, including Chad Johnson, and Timmy McTague from Underoath, the band signed with Tooth & Nail Records.


title: Anberlin

text: Out of the five demos Anberlin recorded with Matt Goldman, three were eventually chosen to be reworked for the band's debut album, the lead single "Readyfuels", "Driving" (later renamed "Autobahn") and "Foreign Language". Another song, "Embrace the Dead", was also recorded as a demo track and is often mistaken as an Anberlin song, however, the song didn't make it onto the band's debut album as it didn't constitute the stylistic direction the band wanted to head in.


title: Anberlin

text: After hearing demos from the band Acceptance, Anberlin chose to record their debut album with the same producer, Aaron Sprinkle, creating a relationship that would last the entire duration of their time with Tooth & Nail Records. Barely a year after their formation, their first album as a new band was entitled "Blueprints for the Black Market" (2003). It failed to chart, but spurred on by their debut single, "Readyfuels", the album sold over 60,000 units. They toured steadily with other bands in their label.


title: Anberlin

text: Rhythm guitarist Joey Bruce was eventually ejected from the band. According to Christian, he was "all about sex, drugs and rock & roll", and was going in a different direction than the rest of the band. After several failed replacements, Nathan Strayer from The Mosaic took over rhythm guitar duties.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin released their follow-up to "Blueprints", "Never Take Friendship Personal", in early 2005, again produced by Aaron Sprinkle. Charting at No. 144 on the "Billboard" 200, the album brought the band closer to the mainstream. "NTFP" was generally more well received by critics than "Blueprints for the Black Market." Before its release, the band promoted the album by releasing a track per week on their PureVolume and MySpace website accounts, as well as on their own website. Two singles were released from the album: "A Day Late" and "Paperthin Hymn". Both were reasonably successful on alternative rock radio, with the latter peaking at the No. 38 position on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin participated in a number of compilations during this time, recording covers of Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone", Depeche Mode's "Enjoy the Silence," and the song "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)".


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin's third album produced by Aaron Sprinkle was released in early 2007 under the title "Cities". It sold 34,000 copies in its first week of release, debuted at No. 19 on the Billboard 200 chart, and, like their previous album, received fairly positive reviews from critics. Before the release of "Cities", the band released "Godspeed EP" exclusively through the iTunes Store in late 2006 to give a preview to the new album. In support of the album, Anberlin held their first headlining tour, supported by Bayside, Meg & Dia and Jonezetta.


title: Anberlin

text: In an interview about the album, Christian commented that the lyrics throughout the band's discography are progressively becoming more mature. "The first CD ("Blueprints for the Black Market") was childish in the manner that it was Man vs. World in the lyrics. The second ("Never Take Friendship Personal") was Man Vs. Man. "Cities" is more adult in the manner that it's Man Vs. Self. "Cities" was the most anticipated album on Jesus Freak Hideout's Most Anticipated Albums of 2007.


title: Anberlin

text: Three to four weeks before the release of "Cities", it was announced that guitarist Nathan Strayer amicably left the band to go back to the Mosaic and that Christian McAlhaney, formerly of the band Acceptance, would take over as the new guitarist.


title: Anberlin

text: A compilation album of unreleased material, called "Lost Songs", was released on November 20, 2007. It features B-sides, demos, covers, and acoustic versions of their previous songs as well as other tracks recorded at Sessions@AOL.


title: Anberlin

text: The band signed to Universal Republic on August 16, 2007, and soon after began to write material for their major-label debut, entitled "New Surrender", which was released on September 30, 2008. This was the band's first album to not be distributed through Tooth & Nail Records or produced by Aaron Sprinkle. The first song to be heard from the new album was tentatively titled "Bittersweet Memory" during its initial live performances; it was later renamed to "Breaking", with an acoustic remix of the song included on USB wristbands sold exclusively during the 2008 Warped Tour. On July 11, 2008, the band showcased a second new song called "Disappear" on their MySpace profile. The first actual single from the album was the re-recorded "Feel Good Drag" which was set to go to radio on August 18 - eventually being released on August 26.


title: Anberlin

text: The band booked eight weeks of recording sessions with noted producer Neal Avron (New Found Glory, Yellowcard, Fall Out Boy) in early February 2008. Stephen Christian stated in an interview, "We're very excited about working with Neal; I think our fans are going to be pleased when they hear the final result." Christian also discussed the difficulties in writing this record. "When you try to write 29 songs lyrically you find yourself topically working in circles; I only go through so much in one year, but needlessly I have dedicated myself to begin searching books, art, and friends for new directions." During the recording process, the band set up a live webcam in the studio so fans could watch them record the album via the band's MySpace profile. "New Surrender" was placed at the No. 2 spot on Jesus Freak Hideout's 25 Most Anticipated Albums of 2008.


title: Anberlin

text: In the week of its release, the album sold 36,000 units, entering the "Billboard" 200 chart at No. 13. It also placed at No. 5 on the Top Current Rock chart, according to a Universal Republic press release. In support of the album, the band embarked on a fall headlining U.S. tour alongside Scary Kids Scaring Kids, Straylight Run, and There For Tomorrow. Kyle Flynn, formerly of the band Acceptance, joined the band while on tour doing keys, loops, acoustic guitar, and background vocals. The band then traveled to the United Kingdom where they supported Elliot Minor and played a handful of headlining shows with Furthest Drive Home and Data.Select.Party.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin went into the studio to record several tracks, including a cover of the New Order song "True Faith", which was made available online. The band also recorded a cover of the Danzig song "Mother", which they performed during an interview with "Billboard". After supporting Taking Back Sunday throughout May and June 2009, the band planned to start writing the follow-up to "New Surrender" in the summer, but the release date was undetermined, as the band needed to give the new material the proper time and effort. They also undertook an Australian tour in August, alongside The Academy Is... A b-side from "New Surrender", "A Perfect Tourniquet", was released on the soundtrack for the TV show "90210". The cover of New Order's "True Faith" was released to radio airplay on November 17, the same day as the Tooth & Nail released "Blueprints for City Friendships: The Anberlin Anthology", which is a 33-song, three-album set including all the songs from their Tooth & Nail studio albums.


title: Anberlin

text: In an interview with the "South Florida Sun-Sentinel" in December 2009, it was revealed by lead singer Stephen Christian that the band were tentatively due to enter the studio in the beginning of 2010, with a release probable later in the year. He said "it looks like we are going to go to the studio in January, February or March, right around that time". Drummer Nathan Young stated that the album would be "less poppy" and "darker". Christian posted on his Twitter account in December 2009, that his choice for an album name was "a go" but did not reveal the name.


title: Anberlin

text: The band entered Blackbird Studios, Nashville, to begin recording the album in March 2010. It was announced on March 3 that the band would be working with Grammy Award-winning producer, Brendan O'Brien. The tracking of the album was completed on April 9, with mixing commencing on April 13, 2010. In an April 2010 interview with MyMag, Christian stated that the album's release date is "looking like late July or early August" 2010. However, in a May 2010 interview with Spin Magazine, McAlhaney stated that the album would be released in September 2010.


title: Anberlin

text: In early June 2010, the album's release date was confirmed to be September 21, 2010. The band also began exposing their new music, with videos of live performances of the album's songs appearing online. A press release revealed on June 17 that Anberlin's fifth studio album would be titled "Dark Is the Way, Light Is a Place", taking its title from a line in Dylan Thomas’ "Poem on His Birthday". Along with the disclosure of a track listing, the press release also announced the album's lead single, "Impossible", which went to radio play on July 12, 2010.


title: Anberlin

text: When asked about the possible impact of the new album, Stephen replied 'I feel like we're on the brink of something... either world domination or destruction, but either way we're on the brink'.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin supported Thirty Seconds to Mars on their Closer to the Edge Tour with CB7 during April and May 2011.


title: Anberlin

text: In an interview with "Common Revolt", Stephen Christian stated that the band had begun work on their next album. A few songs had been written, including one with the working title "Control" (later renamed Orpheum), and a song influenced by the events in Egypt (later confirmed to be "Someone Anyone").


title: Anberlin

text: The band announced via Facebook and e-mail in February 2012 that they would be returning to Aaron Sprinkle to record their upcoming album. The band recorded their first three albums with Sprinkle; not only is he a good friend of the band but also a fan favorite. The band will begin recording around the start of March, and are not expected to be finished until May. In a recent interview, Stephen Christian announced their new album is finally done. On June 11, during the Nashville show of their acoustic tour, Stephen Christian announced that the title of the new record would be "Vital", calling the record "their most aggressive to date" and also announced a fall release date. On July 31, the band announced on their official website that "Vital" was to be released on October 16.


title: Anberlin

text: The new album's opening track, "Self-Starter",' was streamed on Billboard.com for free listening on August 17., and the album's second single, "Someone Anyone" was released on August 22.


title: Anberlin

text: "Infectious" Magazine reported on October 26, 2012 that the band had already "made a lot of headway writing for the next record".


title: Anberlin

text: The band released "City Electric" on September 20, 2013. It is the first of three new and previously unreleased tracks from their rework of "Vital", "Devotion" which was released on October 15, 2013.


title: Anberlin

text: On the January 16, 2014, the band posted a video in which the band confirmed that this year would be their last and that they would release their seventh, and final, studio album in mid-2014 on their original label, Tooth & Nail Records. They also stated that they would do their last set of tours this year to celebrate what the band has become. On May 6, 2014, Anberlin revealed the title of the album, "Lowborn", as well as the album artwork. The band played their final show on November 26, 2014, at the House of Blues in Orlando, Florida.


title: Anberlin

text: On December 15, 2017, it was announced that the band's former rhythm guitarist Nathan Strayer had died. He was 34.


title: Anberlin

text: On October 18, 2018, the band announced that they would reunite for one show on December 14 at the Yuengling Center in Tampa, Florida, as part of Underoath's Erase Me Tour. However, in March 2019, it was announced that the band would perform a series of headlining shows across Australia in May 2019. This expanded to an announcement of a 22-stop U.S. tour the following month. Young stated the band had no plans for a full comeback after the reunion shows. However, Christian revealed in May 2020 that they had reversed course and were in the process of recording new music.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin released an EP, "Silverline", on July 29, 2022 via Equal Vision Records, with whom they signed earlier in the month.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin lead vocalist Stephen Christian has stated different origins of the band's name in various interviews, prevalent among which was his claim that he had long intended to name his first daughter Anberlin. Struggling to find a name for the band, Stephen suggested it; "We were all sitting around trying to come up with a name. None of us were married or had kids, but one day I was going to name my daughter Anberlin, so I figured we could name the band that until we thought of something better. So we chose Anberlin and no one has thought of anything better." He stated he was no longer going to use Anberlin to name his first daughter, however he said, "If I ever have a daughter and name her Anberlin, she'll think she was named after the band instead of the other way around." Christian had also stated in another interview that the band's name was created when he was thinking about cities in Europe he wanted to visit. In his mind he listed "London, Paris, Rome, and Berlin." Christian thought that "and Berlin" would be an appropriate name for a band, and so when the band was looking for a name Christian suggested "And Berlin," which was then modified to "Anberlin."


title: Anberlin

text: Christian has since retracted those comments admitting that when the band first started, in interviews they "would take turn making stories about how it came to be" as a joke, as he believed the actual origin of the band name wasn't interesting enough. Christian said there was a story about how his grandfather had "saved a little girl from a World War II bombing... her name was Anberlin" and that they had hit a dog, which had the name Anberlin, with the stories getting more diverse, it was decided they reveal the true origin. He has said the "real" name came from the Radiohead song "Everything in Its Right Place", stating that "There are several stories that have circulated on the internet, but the actual story is when I was in college my favorite band was Radiohead; on one of their songs off the record "Kid A" there is a background noise on the song "Everything in Its Right Place" (about 2 minutes 31 seconds into the song). While Thom (Yorke) is singing "try to say" I always thought the background noise sounded like "Anberlin", I always thought that Anberlin would have been a great band name and well...it was/is."


title: Anberlin

text: Over the years, many fans, critics, and other members of the media have consistently characterized Anberlin as a Christian band. However, Stephen Christian stated in an interview that their faith is more complicated than a simple label: "I think we're categorized like that a lot because we're on Tooth & Nail Records, which, years ago, was known as a Christian label and never lost that reputation. I don't care who listens to our records. If it helps people in whatever circumstances they're in, that's amazing, but I definitely don't classify us as a Christian band." Elsewhere, Christian has remarked, "[My faith] affects every single aspect of my life, but I'm not a preacher, I'm an entertainer."


title: Anberlin

text: Despite these statements and others of the like, multiple sources list the band as part of the Christian rock genre, and some Anberlin song lyrics do contain Christian references. Furthermore, the band appears at Christian music festivals such as Parachute Music Festival and Cornerstone Festival, and their songs have been included on Christian rock compilation CDs and DVDs. They are also played on the Gospel Music Channel.


title: Anberlin

text: Anberlin has also been repeatedly featured in Christian rock magazine "HM" ("Hard Music", which was originally the fanzine "Heaven's Metal"). Christian submitted a letter to the magazine, criticizing the more overtly religious Christian punk band the Knights of the New Crusade for a promotional image that represented a "black mark on the face of Christianity".


title: Anberlin

text: Christian has also said in an interview with Lightforce radio how the band tries to "step out of the bubble" and referred to themselves as being part of Christian music. He discussed in detail what Christians should do in their lives: love and embrace others as Jesus would as well as show God's grace to others. He mentioned as well how the band Fall Out Boy said in an interview that they did not really know much about Jesus until Anberlin toured with them.


title: Anberlin

text: In an interview with Smartpunk, drummer Nathan Young commented, "The thing is, some bands that are trying to get out of the Christian market, they get bummed out by questions about it. I don’t really mind it, because I’m a Christian, and I’m okay talking about it. With the whole term 'Christian Band,' I don’t understand how a band can be Christian. We get the question, 'Is Anberlin a Christian band?' and it’s like, yeah, Anberlin is — as humans".


title: Anberlin

text: Stephen Christian formed an acoustic side project, Anchor & Braille. The project was originally a joint venture with Aaron Marsh of the band Copeland; however, Marsh did not feature on the project's debut album, entitled "Felt", although he did produce it. The project first yielded a 7" vinyl, and "Felt" was released on August 4, 2009. On July 31, 2012, Anchor & Braille's second album, "The Quiet Life", was released. Later, in 2016, after the break-up of Anberlin, Anchor & Braille's third studio album, "Songs for the Late Night Drive Home", was released.


title: Anberlin

text: Nathan Young formed a side project with his brother-in-law Tim McTague of Underoath and Reed Murray in July 2011. Carrollhood released their first three-song EP, "Afraid", on August 23, 2012. The EP included "Afraid", "Remission" and "Mr. Tampa". The second three-song EP, "Violence", was released February 11, 2013. It included "Two Minutes Hate", "Violence", "MDSFWL".


title: Anberlin

text: Deon Rexroat and Christian McAlhaney started a band called Loose Talk. Former drummer Nathan Young provided the drums for the band's first EP.


title: Cape Air

text: Hyannis Air Service Inc., operating as Cape Air, is an airline headquartered at Barnstable Municipal Airport in Hyannis, Massachusetts, United States. It operates scheduled passenger services in the Northeast, the Caribbean, Midwest, and Eastern Montana. Flights between Hyannis and Nantucket, Massachusetts, are operated under the Nantucket Airlines brand, also operated by Hyannis Air Service, Inc. The company slogan is "We're your wings."


title: Cape Air

text: The airline was co-founded in 1988 by company pilots Craig Stewart and Dan Wolf, and investor Grant Wilson. Initially, Cape Air flew between Provincetown and Boston in Massachusetts, but throughout the early 1990s new routes were added to destinations across southeastern New England. In 1994, Cape Air and Nantucket Airlines merged and now offer hourly flights between Nantucket and Hyannis. Services in Florida and the Caribbean were added in the late 1990s.


title: Cape Air

text: 2004 marked the launch year of FAR Part 121 certification and a new hub of operations in Guam. This included a new fleet type consisting of three ATR 42 Turboprop aircraft. The startup team, led by Pacific Administrator, Captain Russell Price, launched scheduled service in July 2004 with the three ATR aircraft and two of the C402. Service was as a Continental Connection Carrier, flying from Guam to the Northern Mariana Islands of Saipan and Rota. Due to the International Dateline and the midnight connecting service to/from Japan, it was sometimes referred to as "America's First Flight" i.e.: the first departure daily of any airline flight in the United States.


title: Cape Air

text: In late 2007, the airline began a new round of expansion in the Northeast and Midwest. On 1 November 2007, the airline began service between Boston and Rutland, Vermont, with three daily round trips. The route is operated under contract with the U.S. government Essential Air Service (EAS) program. With the help of an intrastate minimum revenue guarantee, Cape Air expanded into Indiana on 13 November 2007, offering flights from Indianapolis to Evansville and South Bend. Passenger revenue did not grow quickly enough to make the operation economically sustainable once the revenue guarantee ended, so the last Cape Air flight in Indiana was on 31 August 2008.


title: Cape Air

text: The airline expanded into upstate New York in early 2008, following the sudden demise of Delta Connection carrier, Big Sky Airlines. Cape Air began flying three daily round-trips on Essential Air Service routes from Boston to the Adirondack cities of Plattsburgh and Saranac Lake on February 12, 2008. The airline continued its expansion into New York when they started to fly the EAS routes out of Albany to Watertown, Ogdensburg, and Massena, and Rutland Airport. Cape Air commenced service from Rockland, Maine, and Lebanon, New Hampshire, to Boston on November 1, 2008. The company purchased four additional Cessna 402s to assist with the major growth.


title: Cape Air

text: Cape Air was also looking to offer services on the west coast. Cape Air submitted bids to offer service between Newport and Portland in the state of Oregon. The airline was hoping to be selected by the Newport city council to receive a financial grant to jump-start the service. Ultimately they lost out to SeaPort Airlines, which was able to start service sooner than Cape Air. However, in September 2013, the DOT selected Cape Air to provide EAS service between Billings and five communities in Eastern Montana, including, Sidney, Glendive, Glasgow, Havre and Wolf Point. Service in Montana started on December 10, 2013. The airline also expanded operations in the mid-Atlantic region. Cape Air provided scheduled flights from both the Hagerstown Regional Airport and the Lancaster Airport to the Baltimore-Washington International Airport ("BWI"). Service out of Baltimore ended in October 2012.


title: Cape Air

text: Cape Air carried 750,000 passengers in 2014 and offered up to 550 daily flights, achieving revenues of $120M.


title: Cape Air

text: Cape Air is the largest independent regional airline in the United States, with new routes driving steady increases over time.


title: Cape Air

text: In 2016, Cape Air started flying from Fort Lauderdale, Florida to Bimini, Bahamas. On April 16, 2018, United Airlines announced the end of its partnership with Cape Air. Services ended on May 31, 2018, which marked the end of United Express operations in Guam, along with the retirement of the last turboprop aircraft in the United Express fleet.


title: Cape Air

text: In early 2016 the company had canceled flights citing a shortage of pilots. The Air Line Pilots Association disputed the existence of a pilot shortage instead citing low wages as the reason for the lack of pilots. Cape Air takes on pilots as co-pilots after 500-750h in entry-level roles like instructing.


title: Cape Air

text: They are promoted to captain after 1,500h as first officers and they can join partners JetBlue or Spirit Airlines after 1,500h again in around two years.


title: Cape Air

text: Cape Air also recruits pilots over 65, the mandatory retirement age for FAR Part 121 airlines, so long as they maintain a first-class medical.


title: Cape Air

text: In 1994 Cape Air merged with Nantucket Airlines. Since then, Nantucket Airlines has operated as a sister airline to Cape Air focusing on flights between Nantucket Memorial Airport and Barnstable Municipal Airport. Nantucket Airlines utilizes a small sub-fleet of Cessna 402C Businessliners/Utililiners painted in Nantucket Airlines livery.


title: Cape Air

text: Since February 2007, Cape Air and JetBlue Airways have had an interline agreement. The agreement allows Cape Air to carry JetBlue Airways passengers from Boston's Logan Airport and San Juan to Cape Air's destinations throughout the Northeast, Florida and the Caribbean. The agreement allows customers on both airlines to purchase seats on both airlines under one reservation. Customers also get their baggage transferred and Cape Air and JetBlue Airways are located in the same terminal in Boston and San Juan which allows for an easy connection.


title: Cape Air

text: Cape Air and American Airlines (AA) announced a code sharing agreement for the Caribbean in February 2013. The cities served by the AA codeshare are Anguilla, Nevis, Tortola, Vieques and Mayaguez. In the Midwest, Cape Air and American have had a code sharing agreement since 2010, which allows passengers from Marion, IL, Owensboro, KY, and Kirksville, MO to connect in St. Louis, MO.


title: Cape Air

text: Cape Air has been a longtime partner with United Airlines (UA) and offers a code sharing agreement for many destinations. Passengers traveling through the Caribbean on select codeshare flights can enjoy special through-fares, advanced boarding passes and the ability to earn miles on a Cape Air flight.


title: Cape Air

text: Cape Air partners with the following airlines to provide interline flow-through ticketing and baggage transfers:


title: Cape Air

text: In November 2010, Cape Air announced that it was considering new aircraft types to replace the Cessna 402. In April 2011, Italian aircraft producer Tecnam announced it will be producing the Tecnam P2012 Traveller. The aircraft made its first flight in July 2016. The first aircraft was delivered to Cape Air in March 2019. Cape Air formerly utilized the ATR 42 for United Express operations in Guam. However, when United retired its propeller fleet, the partnership ended between the two airlines. At the 2019 Paris Air Show, Eviation Aircraft announced that Cape Air would add the electric Eviation Alice aircraft to their fleet.


title: Coburg

text: Coburg () is a town located on the Itz river in the Upper Franconia region of Bavaria, Germany. Long part of one of the Thuringian states of the Wettin line, it joined Bavaria by popular vote only in 1920. Until the revolution of 1918, it was one of the capitals of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. Through successful dynastic policies, the ruling princely family married into several of the royal families of Europe, most notably in the person of Prince Albert, who married Queen Victoria in 1840. As a result of these close links with the royal houses of Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Coburg was frequently visited by the crowned heads of Europe and their families.


title: Coburg

text: Coburg is also the location of Veste Coburg, one of Germany's largest castles. In 1530, Martin Luther lived there for six months while translating the Bible into German (the Luther Bible).


title: Coburg

text: Today, Coburg's population is close to 41,500. Since it was little damaged in World War II, Coburg retains many historic buildings, making it a popular tourist destination.


title: Coburg

text: Coburg lies about south of Erfurt and about north of Nuremberg on the river Itz. It is an urban district and is surrounded by the "Landkreis Coburg". Coburg lies at the foot of the Thuringian Highland. Coburg, Bavaria was part of West Germany until reunification in 1990, but on three sides it borders Thuringia which was East Germany. The border between Bavaria and Thuringia was also the inner German border.


title: Coburg

text: Coburg was first mentioned in a monastic document dated 1056, which marked the transfer of ownership to the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne, although there was a settlement at the site that predates it called "Trufalistat". The origin of the name "Coburg" is unclear; the first element may be "kuh", which would give a literal meaning of "cow borough".


title: Coburg

text: "Coburg" initially referred to a property centred on the hill where Veste Coburg was later built. Its oldest remains date to the 12th or 13th century. In 1248, the castle came into possession of the House of Henneberg and in 1353 it passed to the House of Wettin with the marriage of Frederick III with Catherine of Henneberg and was initially regarded by them as a Saxon outpost within Franconia.


title: Coburg

text: During the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 reformer Martin Luther spent six months at the castle (located at the southernmost point of the Saxon duchy) while his liege lord, John, Elector of Saxony, attended the Diet. Luther was forbidden to attend by the Elector, who feared that he would be imprisoned and burned as a heretic. While quartered at the castle Luther continued with his translation of the Bible into German.


title: Coburg

text: In 1547, the princely residence was moved from the Veste to a former monastery, rebuilt as a Renaissance palace, the Ehrenburg.


title: Coburg

text: In 1596, Coburg was raised to the status of capital of one of the dynasty's splintered Saxon-Thuringian territories, the newly created Duchy of Saxe-Coburg under the leadership of Duke John Casimir (ruled 1596–1633). From 1699 to 1826, it was one of the two capitals of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and from 1826 to 1918 it was a capital of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.


title: Coburg

text: Ernest Frederick, the fourth Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, moved his capital from Saalfeld to Coburg in 1764. Coburg then became capital of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and later of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.


title: Coburg

text: In the early 19th century, the town's medieval fortifications were demolished and replaced by parks. The duke also started the collection of copperplate engravings that is today part of the Veste Coburg museum. Under his son, Ernest, the "" with what is today the "Landestheater Coburg" was created. He also rebuilt the Ehrenburg in Gothic revival style.


title: Coburg

text: In the mid-19th century, Duke Ernest II supported national and liberal ideas and Coburg hosted the first meeting of the German National Association, the founding of the ' and the first ' (national sports festival).


title: Coburg

text: During the 19th century, dynastic marriages created ties with the royal families of Belgium, Bulgaria, Portugal and Britain. This turned the ducal family from the rulers of a fairly obscure backwater duchy into one playing an influential role in European politics. The era of political influence peaked with Leopold Frederick; born Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, becoming the King of Belgium in 1831 and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, born in Schloss Rosenau, marrying his first cousin, Queen Victoria in 1840. The marriage between Albert and Victoria established the present British royal house, which renamed itself Windsor during World War I. This marriage in turn led to a union with Germany's ruling dynasty, the Hohenzollerns, when the couple's eldest child, Victoria, married the future Kaiser Friedrich III.


title: Coburg

text: Due to the royal connections among the royal houses of Europe, Coburg was the site of many royal Ducal weddings and visits. Britain's Queen Victoria made six visits to Coburg during her 63-year reign. In 1894 the wedding of Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse and Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha brought together Queen Victoria, her son Edward (future Edward VII), her second son Alfred (Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha), her daughter the German Dowager Empress Friedrich (Victoria), and many of her grandchildren, such as future Tsar Nicholas and Alexandra of Russia (Alix of Hesse), Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, and the future King George V of the United Kingdom.


title: Coburg

text: In November 1918, the last Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Charles Edward, abdicated. The "Freistaat Coburg" which now came into being had to decide whether to become part of Thuringia or Bavaria. In a November 1919 referendum, the locals voted to join Bavaria with an 88% majority. On 1 July 1920, Coburg joined Bavaria.


title: Coburg

text: In 1929, Coburg was the first German town in which the Nazi Party won the absolute majority of the popular vote during municipal elections. In 1932, Coburg was the first German town to make Adolf Hitler an honorary citizen.


title: Coburg

text: Coburg had Jewish citizens as early as the 14th century. In the 1870s they were granted permission to lease permanently the Church of St. Nicholas for conversion into a synagogue. In 1931 an unofficial boycott was imposed against Jewish businesses. In 1932 the municipal council abrogated the lease of St. Nicholas Church, and a year later the synagogue was closed down (it still remains standing). On 25 March 1933, 40 Jews in Coburg were arrested and tortured. They were not released until the affair became internationally known. On 9 November 1938 (Kristallnacht), all Jewish men were interned and Jewish homes, shops, and the school were destroyed. Coburg's Jewish community numbered 68 in 1869, 210 (1.3% of the total population) in 1880, 316 (1.3%) in 1925, and 233 (0.9%) in 1933. Around 150 managed to leave by 1942, either emigrating from Germany or moving to other German cities. The rest were deported to Riga, Izbica, and Theresienstadt in three transports between November 1941 and September 1942. The memorial book of the German Federal Archives for the victims of the Nazi persecution of Jews in Germany lists in particular 63 Jewish inhabitants of Coburg, who were deported and mostly murdered. Coburg's Jewish community was not reestablished after the war.


title: Coburg

text: After World War II, which Coburg survived largely undamaged, the town faced the challenge of integrating over 15,000 refugees. In addition, whilst the other Saxon-Thuringian principalities were incorporated into the German Democratic Republic, Bavarian Coburg became part of West Germany. As a result, the town spent the Cold War years lying right next to the Iron Curtain, surrounded by East German territory on three sides and cut off from much of its natural back country.


title: Coburg

text: In 1946, Polish ambassador Oskar R. Lange alleged that Coburg was a base for the Western Allies to organize a Polish armed insurgency led by Władysław Anders against the Soviet-backed communists in Poland.


title: Coburg

text: Over two-thirds of Coburg's population live in the core town of Coburg rather than in one of the "Stadtteile" merged with it in the 20th century. Some of those retain a largely rural character.


title: Coburg

text: Most residents of Coburg are members of the Evangelical Church (Lutheran). Other Christian communities are Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, the ICF Movement, Jehovah's Witnesses, Catholics, Old Catholics and the New Apostolic Church, as well as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. There are also three communities of Muslims. Coburg had a large Jewish community until the 1940s. Jews had lived there since the 14th century. The old synagogue was a former church. Today it is used by Old Catholics. Coburg became Protestant after the Reformation. All Catholics were persecuted. A new Catholic community was founded in the 19th century.


title: Coburg

text: In 1919 and Ernst Jüngling established the metal works "Max Brose & Co." to manufacture car parts. The company is still in operation today, as "Brose Fahrzeugteile".


title: Coburg

text: In 1950, the "Haftpflicht-Unterstützungs-Kasse kraftfahrender Beamter Deutschlands a. G." (today ) relocated from Erfurt to Coburg. HUK is today the largest employer and largest payer of "" (local corporate tax) in Coburg.


title: Coburg

text: "Kapp Werkzeugmaschinen" has been a manufacturer of gear-milling machines since 1953, after taking over the production assets of COMAG (Coburger Maschinenbau GmbH).


title: Coburg

text: Waldrich-Coburg, founded in 1920, manufactures CNC-milling machines in a range of sizes, the largest of which can handle an object of size 50 x 14 x 10 metres.


title: Coburg

text: Coburg has an above-average share of goods-producing employees. In 2013, out of 32,962 employees 10,421 worked in the manufacturing or construction sectors (31% vs. a national average of 24%), 4,853 in trade, transport and tourism, 10,381 in professional services and 7,230 in public and private services.


title: Coburg

text: Hotels in Coburg counted over 61,000 overnight visitors in 2014 (of which around 53,000 were from Germany). They stayed for a total of almost 120,000 nights, or close to two nights per stay on average.


title: Coburg

text: In 2017, the GDP per inhabitant was €91,506 in Coburg, placing it 5th among the 96 urban and rural districts (Bavarian average: €46,698).


title: Coburg

text: Coburg's coat of arms, honouring the town's German patron Saint Maurice, was granted in 1493. In 1934, the Nazi government forbade any glorification of the African race, and they replaced the coat of arms with one depicting a vertical sword with a Nazi swastika on the pommel. The original coat of arms was restored in 1945 at the end of World War II. Today, the silhouette of the patron saint of the city of Coburg can be found mainly on manhole covers and the city coat of arms.


title: Coburg

text: Coburg has the typical features of a former capital of a German princely state. There are numerous houses from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The most important landmarks include:


title: Coburg

text: Coburg is home to two major festivals: "" and "Johann Strauss Musiktage". Coburg is referred to as "Europe's Capital of Samba."


title: Coburg

text: As a result of the large presence of the US Army prior to German re-unification, Americans and American culture are still present in Coburg and the surrounding area. This influence ranges from American-style pubs and restaurants to two sports clubs sponsoring baseball teams.


title: Coburg

text: The National Hot Dog and Sausage Council asserts that Frankfurt is traditionally credited with originating the frankfurter. According to the council, this claim is disputed and the hot dog was created in the late 17th century by Johann Georghehner, a butcher, living in Coburg.


title: Coburg

text: A popular local delicacy is the Coburger bratwurst, a sausage (the official measure of which is denoted by the marshall's staff held by the statue of the town's patron, Sankt Mauritius, located on the town hall and overlooking the square) roasted over a pine cone fire. The sausage is served in a semmel (a small bread bun, a third the size of the sausage itself), and is highly popular with locals and tourists alike. According to rumours, the Coburger bratwurst was first produced in 1530 on the occasion of a stay and boarding of Martin Luther and the Electoral Train.


title: Coburg

text: Coburg Peak on Trinity Peninsula in Graham Land, Antarctica, is named after the town, in connection with the Bulgarian royal house of Coburg (Saxe-Coburg-Gotha).


title: Coburg

text: Coburg can be reached by car via B 303 Schweinfurt-Coburg-Schirnding, B 4 Hamburg-Coburg-Nuremberg or motorway A 73 Suhl-Coburg-Nuremberg.


title: Coburg

text: From the main station one can go to Lichtenfels, Bamberg, Forchheim, Erlangen, Fürth and Nuremberg, to Neustadt bei Coburg, Sonneberg, to Bad Rodach and to Kulmbach, Neuenmarkt-Wirsberg.


title: Coburg

text: Since December 2017, the Coburg station is served by Intercity Express high speed trains of the Munich-Nuremberg-Coburg-Erfurt-Berlin(-Hamburg) line (Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway).


title: Coburg

text: The public transport system in Coburg is operated by SÜC ("Stadt- und Überlandwerke Coburg") with 9 bus lines. The OVF ("Omnibus Verkehr Franken") covers Coburg's surrounding countryside with an additional 11 bus lines.


title: Vingroup

text: Vingroup Joint Stock Company (), is the largest conglomerate of Vietnam, focusing on technology, industry, real estate development, retail, and services ranging from healthcare to hospitality. The company was founded by property developer and entrepreneur Phạm Nhật Vượng.


title: Vingroup

text: Vingroup was founded in Ukraine on August 8, 1993 as Technocom, originally producing dried foods, such as instant noodles, mainly under the "Mivina" brand by Phạm Nhật Vượng.


title: Vingroup

text: In October 2014, Vingroup bought the supermarket chain OceanMart in a move to gain market share in the retail industry, and renamed it VinMart.


title: Vingroup

text: In September 2015, Vingroup launched a major animal conservation program on Phú Quốc, Vietnam's largest island.


title: Vingroup

text: In 2016, Vingroup began operating their Vinmec healthcare and Vinschool education subsidiaries as non-profits.


title: Vingroup

text: In May 2018, 10% of Vinhomes was made public on the Ho Chi Minh City Stock Exchange. The 25 year anniversary of Vingroup was celebrated by the opening of the Vingroup owned Landmark 81 tower in Ho Chi Minh City, the tallest completed building in Southeast Asia at the time.


title: Vingroup

text: In October 2018, Vingroup announced that VinFast, its car division, would become the first domestic car manufacturer, with an annual production capacity of 250,000 cars. $3.5 billion was invested in the development of this project.


title: Vingroup

text: In December 2018, Vingroup entered the smartphone market with the launch of VSmart phones, running on Android. The smartphones are produced by the VinSmart unit.


title: Vingroup

text: In November 2018, the city of Hanoi announced that the city would be hosting a Formula 1 Grand Prix starting in April 2020, with Vingroup as the promoter of the project. The race was later cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Vingroup

text: On February 9, 2022, Nikkei reported that Vingroup lost approximately $1.05 billion in 2021 "at its manufacturing segment last year due to sluggish sales of gasoline-powered cars at home and growing investments in the emerging electric vehicle business."


title: Vingroup

text: <ref name="https://congviensanhophuquoc.com/kham-pha-vinwonders-phu-quoc-cong-vien-chu-de-lon-nhat-viet-nam/"></ref>


title: Tern

text: Terns are seabirds in the family Laridae that have a worldwide distribution and are normally found near the sea, rivers, or wetlands. Terns are treated as a subgroup of the family Laridae which includes gulls and skimmers and consists of eleven genera. They are slender, lightly built birds with long, forked tails, narrow wings, long bills, and relatively short legs. Most species are pale grey above and white below, with a contrasting black cap to the head, but the marsh terns, the Inca tern, and some noddies have dark plumage for at least part of the year. The sexes are identical in appearance, but young birds are readily distinguishable from adults. Terns have a non-breeding plumage, which usually involves a white forehead and much-reduced black cap.


title: Tern

text: Terns are long-lived birds and are relatively free from natural predators and parasites; most species are declining in numbers due directly or indirectly to human activities, including habitat loss, pollution, disturbance, and predation by introduced mammals. The Chinese crested tern is in a critical situation and three other species are classed as endangered. International agreements provide a measure of protection, but adults and eggs of some species are still used for food in the tropics. The eggs of two species are eaten in the West Indies because they are believed to have aphrodisiac properties.


title: Tern

text: Terns range in size from the least tern, at in length and weighing , to the Caspian tern at , . They are longer-billed, lighter-bodied, and more streamlined than gulls, and their long tails and long narrow wings give them an elegance in flight. Male and female plumages are identical, although the male can be 2–5% larger than the female and often has a relatively larger bill. Sea terns have deeply forked tails, and at least a shallow "V" is shown by all other species. The noddies (genera "Anous", "Procelsterna" and "Gygis") have unusual notched-wedge shaped tails, the longest tail feathers being the middle-outer, rather than the central or outermost. Although their legs are short, terns can run well. They rarely swim, despite having webbed feet, usually landing on water only to bathe.


title: Tern

text: The majority of sea terns have light grey or white body plumage as adults, with a black cap to the head. The legs and bill are various combinations of red, orange, yellow, or black depending on species. The pale plumage is conspicuous from a distance at sea, and may attract other birds to a good feeding area for these fish-eating species. When seen against the sky, the white underparts also help to hide the hunting bird from its intended prey. The Inca tern has mainly dark plumage, and three species that mainly eat insects, the black tern, white-winged tern, and black-bellied tern, have black underparts in the breeding season. The "Anous" noddies have dark plumage with a pale head cap. The reason for their dark plumage is unknown, but it has been suggested that in tropical areas, where food resources are scarce, the less conspicuous colouration makes it harder for other noddies to detect a feeding bird. Plumage type, especially the head pattern, is linked to the phylogeny of the terns, and the pale-capped, dark-bodied noddies are believed to have diverged earlier than the other genera from an ancestral white-headed gull, followed by the partially black-headed "Onychoprion" and "Sternula" groupings.


title: Tern

text: Juvenile terns typically have brown- or yellow-tinged upperparts, and the feathers have dark edges that give the plumage a scaly appearance. They have dark bands on the wings and short tails. In most species, the subsequent moult does not start until after migration, the plumage then becoming more like the adult, but with some retained juvenile feathers and a white forehead with only a partial dark cap. By the second summer, the appearance is very like the adult, and full mature plumage is usually attained by the third year. After breeding, terns moult into a winter plumage, typically showing a white forehead. Heavily worn or aberrant plumages such as melanism and albinism are much rarer in terns than in gulls.


title: Tern

text: Terns have a wide repertoire of vocalisations. For example, the common tern has a distinctive alarm, "kee-yah", also used as a warning to intruders, and a shorter "kyar", given as an individual takes flight in response to a more serious threat; this quietens the usually noisy colony while its residents assess the danger. Other calls include a down-slurred "keeur" given when an adult is approaching the nest with a fish, and a "kip" uttered during social contact. Parents and chicks can locate one another by call, and siblings also recognise each other's vocalisations from about the twelfth day after hatching, which helps to keep the brood together.


title: Tern

text: Vocal differences reinforce species separation between closely related birds such as the least and little terns, and can help humans distinguish similar species, such as common and Arctic terns, since flight calls are unique to each species.


title: Tern

text: The bird order Charadriiformes contains 18 coastal seabird and wader families. Within the order, the terns form a lineage with the gulls, and, less closely, with the skimmers, skuas, and auks. Early authors such as Conrad Gessner, Francis Willughby, and William Turner did not clearly separate terns from gulls, but Linnaeus recognised the distinction in his 1758 "Systema Naturae", placing the gulls in the genus " Larus" and the terns in "Sterna". He gave "Sterna" the description "rostrum subulatum", "awl-shaped bill", referring to the long, pointed bills typical of this group of birds, a feature that distinguishes them from the thicker-billed gulls. Behaviour and morphology suggest that the terns are more closely related to the gulls than to the skimmers or skuas, and although Charles Lucien Bonaparte created the family Sternidae for the terns in 1838, for many years they were considered to be a subfamily, Sterninae, of the gull family, Laridae. Relationships between various tern species, and between the terns and the other Charadriiformes, were formerly difficult to resolve because of a poor fossil record and the misidentification of some finds.


title: Tern

text: Following genetic research in the early twenty-first century, the terns were historically treated as a separate family: Sternidae. Most terns were formerly treated as belonging to one large genus, "Sterna", with just a few dark species placed in other genera; in 1959, only the noddies and the Inca tern were excluded from "Sterna". A recent analysis of DNA sequences supported the splitting of "Sterna" into several smaller genera. One study of part of the cytochrome b gene sequence found a close relationship between terns and a group of waders in the suborder Thinocori. These results are in disagreement with other molecular and morphological studies, and have been interpreted as showing either a large degree of molecular convergent evolution between the terns and these waders, or the retention of an ancient genotype.


title: Tern

text: The word "stearn" was used for these birds in Old English as early as the eighth century, and appears in the poem "The Seafarer", written in the ninth century or earlier. Variants such as "tearn" occurred by the eleventh century, although the older form lingered on in Norfolk dialect for several centuries. As now, the term was used for the inland black tern as well as the marine species. Some authorities consider "tearn" and similar forms to be variants of "stearn", while others derive the English words from Scandinavian equivalents such as Danish and Norwegian "terne" or Swedish "tärna", and ultimately from Old Norse "þerna". Linnaeus adopted "stearn" or "sterna" (which the naturalist William Turner had used in 1544 as a Latinisation of an English word, presumably "stern", for the black tern) or a North Germanic equivalent for his genus name "Sterna".


title: Tern

text: The cladogram shows the relationships between the tern genera, and the currently recognised species, based on mitochondrial DNA studies, are listed below:


title: Tern

text: In addition to extant species, the fossil record includes a Miocene palaeospecies, "Sterna milne-edwardsii".


title: Tern

text: The genera "Anous", "Procelsterna" and "Gygis" are collectively known as noddies, the "Chlidonias" species are the marsh terns, and all other species comprise the sea terns.