title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Various Marvel writers, including Brian Michael Bendis, Mark Millar, Ed Brubaker and incoming "Amazing Spider-Man" writer Dan Slott had a hand in developing the story. During the course of the story's development, Quesada claims that he and Straczynski made plans to resurrect Gwen Stacy alongside Harry Osborn in the final chapter. This plot twist was discarded after numerous Marvel editors and writers lobbied for the character to remain dead. According to Quesada, Straczynski's original script for the storyline's fourth issue involved changes to continuity going as far back as 1971. Peter would have helped Harry Osborn get into rehab for his drug addiction immediately, which would have allowed a number of rewrites. Mary Jane would have remained in a relationship with Harry, Gwen would not have been killed and ultimately Peter's marriage to Mary Jane would not have taken place. Quesada realized that these changes would have far-reaching consequences for both historical and forthcoming storylines, so he made the decision to change Straczynski's story. While Peter and Mary Jane were to have remained a couple for the purposes of back-story, they were simply not a "married" couple. Quesada also described "One More Day" as an emotional climax of sorts and resolution for the relationship between Peter Parker and Tony Stark, who had developed a father-son-like bond during the "Civil War" storyline. However, Quesada hinted the paths of the two characters could cross again in the future due to planned storylines for "Iron Man".


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Quesada, answering questions for Comic Book Resources, said every story that happened in the Spider-Man canon still "counted", with the only change being that, due to the world's newly revised memories, Peter and Mary Jane did not marry due to some unknown incident and the official unmasking of his identity to the public during the 2007 "Civil War" mini-series has been forgotten. A "back and forth" developed between Quesada and J. Michael Straczynski in separate interviews and messages, with Straczynski outlining some of his original plans for the "retcon", and conversations he had with Quesada about the storyline. Quesada said "We're committed to preserving as much of these stories as is humanly possible," but he added the changing of certain elements is inevitable. For example, he sees the storyline in which Mary Jane was pregnant as never having happened. Also, Spider-Man lost the organic webshooters that he gained in the "Avengers Disassembled" storyline, and the other spider-like powers that he gained in the 2005–2006 storyline "." Quesada commented that in removing those powers and bringing back Spider-Man's mechanical webshooters, he was returning "an element that [he] felt needed to be brought back into Peter's world," and that the "mechanical webshooters demonstrate Peter's ingenuity and overall smarts."


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Quesada sees Peter's making a "deal with the Devil" as a villain (Mephisto) taking advantage of someone at his weakest moment. This, he feels, is a better resolution than Peter and Mary Jane getting divorced, which would indicate "they gave up on their love, that their life in love together was so awful, so stressful, so unfulfilling that they had to raise a red flag and walk away from it. They quit on their marriage and even more tragic, (they) quit on each other. Instead, we had them make a deal with the devil. 'Cause that isn't as bad." Quesada went on to say "Peter and MJ didn't quit on their love, they sacrificed it to save a life, that to me is a pretty heroic story."


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: The four issues that comprised "One More Day" were originally scheduled to ship weekly in August 2007. The story encountered delays due to Quesada's art duties conflicting with his job as editor-in-chief. "Sensational Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #41 was rescheduled for release in late October, and the concluding chapter of the story, "Amazing Spider-Man" #545, was rescheduled for November. The issues were again delayed in late October, with "Sensational Spider-Man" (vol. 2) #41 and "Amazing Spider-Man" #545 resolicited for release on November 28 and December 27, respectively.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: The events of "One More Day" began in "Amazing Spider-Man" #544, where Peter Parker's Aunt May is shown slowly dying from a gunshot wound sustained during the events of "Civil War" and " ". Peter is forced to ask Tony Stark for financial assistance, and then seeks counsel with Doctor Strange. The latter informs Peter that he can do nothing to grant Aunt May her life back. However, he helps Peter seek the aid of several others including Doctor Doom, the High Evolutionary, Reed Richards, and Doctor Octopus. Peter attempts to go back in time using a magic spell without Strange's approval, harming himself in the process. Strange heals his wounds and sends him on his way, encouraging him to be by his aunt's side at her death.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: On his way to the hospital, Peter is confronted by a little girl who says she holds the answer to his problem. He talks to the little girl, who runs off. While pursuing her, Peter encounters a group of men; a woman in red informs him these are alternate versions of himself, from alternate timelines where he never became Spider-Man. The woman in red transforms into the demon Mephisto, who tells Peter he can save Aunt May. As payment, Mephisto wants not Peter's soul, but his marriage to Mary Jane. Peter and Mary Jane are given until midnight the following night to decide their answer and, after several hours agonizing over the choice, they agree to the deal. Mary Jane also whispers to Mephisto another, unspecified offer. Finally, Mephisto reveals to the couple that his disguise as the little girl was in fact their future daughter, but she will never exist because of their decision.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Mephisto then changes history so that Peter and Mary Jane never married. Peter wakes up alone in bed, once again living with Aunt May. He attends a party being held for his best friend Harry Osborn (previously thought to have died in "Spectacular Spider-Man" #200), who introduces Lilly Hollister and Carlie Cooper. Peter glimpses Mary Jane sadly leaving the party. The guests all toast to a "Brand New Day."


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: "One More Day" was panned by fans and critics. IGN reviewer Jesse Schedeen described "Amazing Spider-Man" #545 as "undoubtedly the worst comic Marvel published in 2007" and a ""deus ex machina" of the highest order." He did admit that writer Straczynski "had a great handle on the Peter/Mary Jane dynamic," making their potentially final moments mean something, and that Quesada's artistic style made sense given the dark tone. However, he also dismissed the story as "infuriating and downright disrespectful to anyone who has come to love Spider-Man comics over the years." IGN published two "Additional Take" reviews for "Amazing Spider-Man" #545. Bryan Joel said that he had been a "vocal supporter" of "Brand New Day", but summarized the OMD story as "flip, weightless, and painfully brief." Richard George stated that "One More Day" "could prove to be the best example of editorial influence gone horribly, horribly wrong" and "in trying to preserve the appeal of Peter Parker, Joe Quesada has actually managed to fundamentally undermine the character." Both Joel and George agreed with their colleague in complimenting Quesada's artwork. Tim Marchman of "The Wall Street Journal" stated that having Spider-Man make a deal with the devil-like Mephisto is "the rough equivalent of having Z-movie director Uwe Boll film a studio-funded prequel to Martin Scorsese's "Taxi Driver"."


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Spider-Man co-creator Stan Lee praised the storyline and what he perceived as the courage its creators showed in so drastically changing a popular and well-established character. Lee said changes are needed to keep a series fresh and compared the criticism from fans to the backlash Marvel Comics received when Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson married in the first place. The Spider-Man newspaper strip adopted the "One More Day" retcon in its version of "Brand New Day" (along with "The Wedding!", one of just three stories to appear in both the Spider-Man comic book and newspaper strip), but reader reaction to the erasing of Peter and Mary Jane's marriage was so negative that Lee, who wrote the strip, opted to conclude the story by revealing that it was in fact a bad dream. As such, Peter remains married to Mary Jane in the newspaper strip continuity.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: In a roundtable review at Newsarama, J. Caleb Mozzocco agreed that Spider-Man was easier to relate to while young and single, but that retconning the marriage of Spider-Man was unnecessary due to the existence of titles such as "Ultimate Spider-Man" and "Marvel Adventures Spider-Man". He found the story confusing, wondering how this retcon made sense in the larger Marvel Universe, as Spider-Man played important roles in "New Avengers" and "Civil War". Kevin Huxford claimed, "you can feel editorial mandate dripping from this" and called the story "utterly ridiculous," while Lucas Siegel criticized Quesada's decision to have heroic Peter Parker make a "deal with the Devil" for selfish reasons. Richard Renteria felt that the story's conclusion was a missed opportunity "to add a new layer of guilt to Peter's already rocky life by allowing May to finally have the send off she deserves," while Troy Brownfield felt that the storyline damaged Marvel continuity and Spider-Man's decision was "selfish and childish," not to mention "a big middle finger to the idea of marriage in comics." He speculated preferable endings to the story before concluding, "As it stands, Peter, MJ, May ... and the readers ... all got a raw deal." A more positive view came from Brandon Thomas, who felt that "One More Day" was "an incredibly well-told story." He praised the writing, in particular the morally ambiguous decision Peter has to make and the way he and Mary Jane deal with it together, as well as Quesada's art, which he felt set the tone of "guilt, regret, and despair." In regards to the change made in Spider-Man canon, he said, "Peter Parker being married really isn't a vital component of the mythos" and that it allowed Marvel to make "big, sweeping changes to bring things slightly more into focus and back on message."


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: "Wizard" praised the artwork, specifically the way Quesada differentiated visually between the dark and light tones before and after the retcon. However, they felt "the entire set up and execution just doesn't make sense" and failed to empathize with the characters and their decisions. They criticized the use of magic in a largely science-based book, calling it "the biggest cheat since "Dallas"." They also felt that the concept of making "Spider-Man" more accessible was undermined by the new and unfamiliar characters.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: In their coverage of the storyline, UK Television's Channel 4 News also compared the reaction to "One More Day" to that of "Dallas", claiming, "This controversial issue of the comic has been flying off the shelves but reaction from readers has been venomous." Channel 4 speculated that the reason for the storyline was to make the comics more similar to the financially successful films and merchandise.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Comic book historian Peter Sanderson criticized the story for using a supernatural element to retcon the marriage and not maturely dealing with the issue of divorce, arguing the writers had forgotten stories where Spider-Man dealt with his causing the death of Uncle Ben, drugs and child abuse. He wrote, "I expect there are people who are professional comics writers and editors, and people who will someday become professional comics writers and editors, who are outraged that Marvel had Spider-Man make a deal with the devil. And these present and future writers and editors will be determined to undo it. We shall see whether it takes twenty years this time, or much less." He found the story better than the Clone Saga in the respect that it altered an aspect of canon, instead of erasing it entirely. He also criticized the idea of a hero making a deal with one as evil as Mephisto, effectively the devil.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: The direct sales estimates for the initial month of publication for the first issue of the storyline, "Amazing Spider-Man" #544, was 146,215, putting it in second place after "World War Hulk". This dropped to 110,405 with "Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man" #24, 100,300 (and seventh position in number of sales) for "The Sensational Spider-Man" #41 and the conclusion to the storyline, "The Amazing Spider-Man" #545, was ranked second with estimated sales of 124,481.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Marvel posted a sneak peek at the final pages of the first post-"One More Day" issue, "Amazing Spider-Man" #546, and a two-page spread penciled by John Romita Jr. entitled "Spider-Man: The New Status Quo!", which established the new continuity of "Spider-Man". The retcon brings back Harry Osborn from the dead (in this new continuity, instead of having been dead he had been living in Europe for many years), and explains that although Spider-Man unmasked himself during the events of the "Civil War" storyline, no one remembers who was behind the mask. Although Quesada would initially take the position that the changes to the timeline did not have to be explained since they were the result of magic, subsequent writers would, in short order, provide detailed, in-continuity explanations for the changes.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: In 2010, Quesada wrote a sequel storyline, "One Moment in Time". This story established that the only actual change Mephisto wrought upon the timeline was allowing a criminal to escape custody, causing a butterfly effect that prevented Peter and Mary Jane's marriage as Peter was delayed in reaching the wedding, prompting Peter and MJ to reconsider marriage. The storyline also established that May was saved by Doctor Strange, despite Strange saying during "One More Day" that it was beyond his power to save her, who also worked with Iron Man and Mister Fantastic to create a mass mind-wipe across the globe to protect Peter's identity, using the Extremis as a dispersal system to simultaneously erase Spider-Man's identity and establish a 'psychic blindspot' that prevents anyone from realizing that Peter Parker is Spider-Man, regardless of the evidence they might discover, unless Peter is unmasked in front of them. (However, this 'blindspot' was lost during the events of the "Spider-Island" storyline, in which Peter used his powers publicly. Peter explained this by saying that he was one of many people infected with a virus that gave them Spider-Man's powers, Strange noting that this loophole means that people can now deduce Peter's identity even if they won't remember Peter's prior unmasking.)


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: The 2015 miniseries "The Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows", which ties into the "Secret Wars" storyline, depicts Spider-Man and Mary Jane married with a daughter named Annie (who is developing Spider powers of her own). In the post-"Secret Wars" Marvel Universe, Mary-Jane and Peter appear to retain some memory of their "Renew Your Vows" counterparts even as the timeline continues, such as the two of them recognizing Regent.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Having been killed twice by Deadpool in "Spider-Man/Deadpool" #5, Peter Parker finds himself face-to-face with Mephisto. "I am the architect of your ultimate fall," the supernatural villain whispers in Peter's ear. "And I'm going to tell you a secret about your life... about why you'll never find true happiness..." "You will always be missing something," "Incomplete. Unfinished. And ultimately, no matter how hard you fight, which cause you choose, the battle will always end with your facing... emptiness."


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: In "Amazing Spider-Man" #795, when Loki offers Spider-Man the chance to bring back his deceased loved ones, Spider-Man argues, "Yeah, well, I can't shake the feeling that at some point I said yes to an offer like this from someone like you. And lost something... important... because of it." Mephisto appears behind Spider-Man when he states this.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: As part of the Fresh Start relaunch event, Peter's personal life took serious knocks in both his civilian and heroic life. However, he began reconnecting with Mary Jane, prompting Mary Jane to decide on a "fresh start" and resume her relationship with him. Recently, a being implied to be demonic had been stalking Spider-Man. His demonic nature is confirmed when he is seen threatening Kingpin to not harm Peter Parker. The Kingpin (who knows him) had to kneel before him. In his attempt to torment Spider-Man, he had coerced Mendel Stromm and Mysterio, and later killed the first in order to keep his existence secret. When Spider-Man was fighting Kraven the Hunter during "Hunted," Spider-Man saw visions of Mary Jane bloodied and possibly dead, though the visions proved to be false. In issue 29 of the volume, Mary Jane departs for Los Angeles to begin a two-month production for her new movie role. Peter intends to see her off, but is delayed helping his sister Teresa find her S.H.I.E.L.D. partner. Later, Peter and Mary Jane talk over video chat. Peter apologizes to her for missing saying goodbye and she assures him it's fine, but it's revealed to the audience that he had intended to propose to her again had he been there.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: The 2020 storyline "Last Remains" and its subsequent fallout furthered the One More Day connections in the storylines, as the mysterious demon, a.k.a. Kindred, shows his hand and uses his powers to revive the Sin Eater and possess several of Spider-Man's allies, turning them against him and all of New York City. Peter goes to Doctor Strange for assistance, but Strange discovers something is wrong with Peter's soul.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Peter ultimately travels to Kindred's lair, where his foe is revealed to be Harry Osborn. Harry tortures Peter, determined to force a confession out of him for some unknown sin, which Peter has no recollection of. Mary Jane, working in tandem with Norman Osborn, helps to capture Kindred. Despite Harry's capture, questions still remain as to precisely what he wanted. Mary Jane tells Peter they will face these problems together.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Meanwhile, Doctor Strange, determined to uncover what has tampered with Peter's soul, seeks answers from Mephisto himself. The conversation is followed up on during the events of the "Sinister War", where Strange argues that Peter would 'never' strike a bargain with the devil and demands he undo the deal. Mephisto states that his hands are presently tied, and then challenges Stephen to a game of chance, with potentially more information revealed if Stephen wins.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: The "Sinister War" story provided further revelation, connecting Mephisto to the backstories of the Osborn family. Norman at an early stage of his career was finding himself frequently in debt and losing money, Mephisto agrees to help Norman out in exchange for his son's soul. Norman gives Mephisto what he wants, and in doing so subjects Harry to a lifetime of mental instability that ultimately costs him his life, and, per Mephisto's claim, ultimately condemns him to hell.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: The conclusion of the overall "Kindred Saga" reveals Mephisto's true motivation for the events of "One More Day", the demon confesses that he is haunted by visions of his inevitable reign over the Earth being thwarted by the heroic efforts of either Peter Parker or his daughter, Spider-Girl. His deal with the Parkers was intended to prevent at least one version of this future from happening.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: Elements of "One More Day", alongside the 2014–15 "Spider-Verse" story arc, are adapted in the 2021 Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) feature film "", which features Peter Parker (Tom Holland) attempting to have Stephen Strange (Benedict Cumberbatch) wipe the world's collective knowledge of his secret identity from their minds using a spell, only to unleash various villains from the wider multiverse when he tries to alter it so his friends and family remember he is Spider-Man. Though Peter and MJ are not married in this version, the spell Peter has Strange use in the climax to instead have the world forget about him in general costs them their relationship. While Aunt May does die in the film, her death is not reversed from the spell since it didn't change history like Mephisto did in the comics.


title: Spider-Man: One More Day

text: The story has been collected into a single volume, "One More Day", with an afterword by Stan Lee. The 112-page volume collects "Amazing Spider-Man" #544–545, "Sensational Spider-Man" #41, "Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man" #24 and "Marvel Spotlight": "Spider-Man - One More Day/Brand New Day". The hardcover was published April 2008 (), and the softcover in August 2008. ().


title: Yugoslavs

text: Yugoslavs or Yugoslavians (Bosnian and Croatian: "Jugoslaveni", Serbian and Macedonian "Jugosloveni"/Југословени; ) is an identity that was originally designed to refer to a united South Slavic people. It has been used in two connotations, the first in a sense of common shared ethnic descent, i.e. panethnic or supraethnic connotation for ethnic South Slavs, and the second as a term for all citizens of former Yugoslavia regardless of ethnicity. Cultural and political advocates of Yugoslav identity have historically ascribed the identity to be applicable to all people of South Slav heritage, including those of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia. Although Bulgarians are a South Slavic group, attempts at uniting Bulgaria into Yugoslavia were unsuccessful, and therefore Bulgarians were not included in the panethnic identification.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Since the dissolution of Yugoslavia and the establishment of South Slavic nation states, the term "ethnic Yugoslavs" has been used to refer to those who exclusively view themselves as Yugoslavs with no other ethnic self-identification, many of these being of mixed ancestry.


title: Yugoslavs

text: In late 19th and early 20th century, influential public intellectuals Jovan Cvijić and Vladimir Dvorniković advocated that "Yugoslavs", as a supra-ethnic nation, had "many tribal ethnicities, such as Croats, Serbs, and others within it."


title: Yugoslavs

text: In the former Yugoslavia, the official designation for those who declared themselves simply as "Yugoslav" was with quotation marks, "Yugoslavs" (introduced in census 1971). The quotation marks were originally meant to distinguish Yugoslav ethnicity from Yugoslav citizenship, which was written without quotation marks. The majority of those who had once identified as ethnic "Yugoslavs" reverted to or adopted traditional ethnic and national identities. Some also decided to turn to sub-national regional identifications, especially in multi-ethnic historical regions like Istria, Vojvodina, or Bosnia (hence Bosnians). The Yugoslav designation, however, continues to be used by many, especially by the descendants of Yugoslav migrants in the United States, Canada, and Australia while the country still existed.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Since the late 18th century, when traditional European ethnic affiliations started to mature into modern ethnic identities, there have been numerous attempts to define a common South Slavic ethnic identity. The word "Yugoslav", meaning "South Slavic", was first used by Josip Juraj Strossmayer in 1849. The first modern iteration of Yugoslavism was the Illyrian movement in Habsburg Croatia. It identified South Slavs with ancient Illyrians and sought to construct a common language based on the Shtokavian dialect. The movement was led by Ljudevit Gaj, whose script became one of two official scripts used for the Serbo-Croatian language.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Among notable supporters of Yugoslavism and a Yugoslav identity active at the beginning of the 20th century were famous sculptor Ivan Meštrović (1883–1962), who called Serbian folk hero Prince Marko "our Yugoslav people with its gigantic and noble heart" and wrote poetry speaking of a "Yugoslav race"; Jovan Cvijić, in his article "The Bases of Yugoslav Civilization", developed the idea of a unified Yugoslav culture and stated that "New qualities that until now have been expressed but weakly will appear. An amalgamation of the most fertile qualities of our three tribes [Serbs, Croats, Slovenes] will come forth every more strongly, and thus will be constructed the type of single Yugoslav civilization-the final and most important goal of our country."


title: Yugoslavs

text: On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife, in Sarajevo. Princip was a member of Young Bosnia, a group whose aims included the unification of the Yugoslavs and independence from Austria-Hungary. The assassination in Sarajevo set into motion a series of fast-moving events that eventually escalated into full-scale war. After his capture, during his trial, he stated "I am a Yugoslav nationalist, aiming for the unification of all Yugoslavs, and I do not care what form of state, but it must be free from Austria."


title: Yugoslavs

text: In June–July 1917, the Yugoslav Committee met with the Serbian Government in Corfu and on 20 July the Corfu Declaration that laid the foundation for the post-war state was issued. The preamble stated that the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were "the same by blood, by language, by the feelings of their unity, by the continuity and integrity of the territory which they inhabit undivided, and by the common vital interests of their national survival and manifold development of their moral and material life." The state was created as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, a constitutional monarchy under the Karađorđević dynasty. The term "Yugoslavs" was used to refer to all of its inhabitants, but particularly to those of South Slavic ethnicity. Some Croatian nationalists viewed the Serb plurality and Serbian royal family as hegemonic. Eventually, a conflict of interest sparked among the Yugoslav peoples. In 1929, King Alexander sought to resolve a deep political crisis brought on by ethnic tensions by assuming dictatorial powers in the 6 January Dictatorship, renaming the country "Kingdom of Yugoslavia", and officially pronouncing that there is one single Yugoslav nation with three tribes. The Yugoslav ethnic designation was thus imposed for a period of time on all South Slavs in Yugoslavia. Changes in Yugoslav politics after King Alexander's death in 1934 brought an end to this policy, but the designation continued to be used by some people.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Philosopher Vladimir Dvorniković advocated the establishment of a Yugoslav ethnicity in his 1939 book entitled "The Characterology of the Yugoslavs". His views included eugenics and cultural blending to create one, strong Yugoslav nation.


title: Yugoslavs

text: There had on three occasions been efforts to make Bulgaria a part of Yugoslavia or part of an even larger federation: through Aleksandar Stamboliyski during and after World War I; through Zveno during the Bulgarian coup d'état of 1934, and through Georgi Dimitrov during and after World War II, but for various reasons, each attempt turned out to be unsuccessful.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Unitary policies implemented by the authorities of the early 20th century Kingdom of Yugoslavia aimed at creating a single Yugoslav ethnic identity that speaks one South Slavic language were met with heavy resistance by majorities of the country's citizens. Those policies and attempts at concentration of power within the ruling Serbian royal dynasty, the Karađorđevićs, were interpreted by opponents of Yugoslav unitarism and Serbian nationalism as gradual Serbianization of Yugoslavia's non-Serb population. The Communist Party of Yugoslavia was ideologically opposed to ethnic unitarism and royal hegemony, promoting ethnic diversity and social Yugoslavism within the notion of "brotherhood and unity". After the country's liberation from Axis Powers in 1945 by the Yugoslav Partisans, the new socialist Yugoslavia was instead organized as a federation; it officially recognized and acknowledged its ethnic diversity. Traditional ethnic identities again became the primary ethnic designations used by most inhabitants of Yugoslavia which remained the case until the country's dissolution in the early 1990s. However, many people still declared themselves as "Yugoslavs" because they wanted to express an identification with Yugoslavia as a whole, but not specifically with any of its peoples.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Josip Broz Tito expressed his desire for an undivided Yugoslav ethnicity to develop naturally when he stated, "I would like to live to see the day when Yugoslavia would become amalgamated into a firm community, when she would no longer be a formal community but a community of a single Yugoslav nation."


title: Yugoslavs

text: Yugoslav censuses reflected Tito's ideal, with "Yugoslav" being an available identification for both ethnicity and nationality. In general, the Yugoslav identity was more common in the multiethnic regions of the country, i.e. the more multiethnic the constituent republic, the higher the percentage; therefore the highest were in Croatia, Montenegro, Central Serbia, Vojvodina, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the lowest were in Slovenia, Macedonia, and Kosovo. The 1971 census recorded 273,077 Yugoslavs, or 1.33% of the total population. The 1981 census, a year after the death of Tito, recorded a record number of 1,216,463 or 5.4% Yugoslavs.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Just before and after the dissolution of Yugoslavia, most Yugoslavs reverted to their ethnic and regional identities. Nevertheless, the concept has survived in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina (where most towns have a tiny percentage), and Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2006), which kept the name "Yugoslavia" the longest, right up to February 2003.


title: Yugoslavs

text: The number of people identifying as Yugoslav fell drastically in all successor states since the beginning of the 21st century and the conclusion of all Yugoslav Wars and separation of Serbia and Montenegro (until 2003 called FR Yugoslavia). The country with the highest number of people and percentage of population identifying as Yugoslav is Serbia, while North Macedonia is the lowest on both. No official figures or reliable estimates are available for Kosovo.


title: Yugoslavs

text: The Yugoslavs of Croatia have several organizations. The "Alliance of Yugoslavs" ("Savez Jugoslavena"), established in 2010 in Zagreb, is an association aiming to unite the Yugoslavs of Croatia, regardless of religion, sex, political or other views. Its main goal is the official recognition of the Yugoslav nation in every Yugoslav successor state: Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Another pro-Yugoslav organization advocating the recognition of the Yugoslav nation is the "Our Yugoslavia" association ("Udruženje "Naša Jugoslavija""), which is an officially registered organization in Croatia. The seat of Our Yugoslavia is in the Istrian town of Pula, where it was founded on 30 July 2009. The association has most members in the towns of Rijeka, Zagreb and Pula. Its main aim is the stabilisation of relations among the Yugoslav successor states. It is also active in Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, its official registration as an association was denied by the Bosnian state authorities.


title: Yugoslavs

text: The probably best-known pro-Yugoslav organization in Montenegro is the "Consulate-general of the SFRY" with its headquarters in the coastal town of Tivat. Prior to the population census of 2011, Marko Perković, the president of this organization called on the Yugoslavs of Montenegro to freely declare their Yugoslav identity on the upcoming census.


title: Yugoslavs

text: The best known example of self-declared Yugoslavs is Marshal Josip Broz Tito who organized resistance against Nazi Germany in Yugoslavia, ended the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia with the help of the Red Army, co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement, and defied Joseph Stalin's Soviet pressure on Yugoslavia. Other people that declared as "Yugoslavs" include intellectuals, entertainers, singers, and athletes, such as:


title: Yugoslavs

text: The probably most frequently used symbol of the Yugoslavs to express their identity and to which they are most often associated with is the blue-white-red tricolor flag with a yellow-bordered red star in the flag's center, which also served as the national flag of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between 1945 and 1991.


title: Yugoslavs

text: Prior to World War II, the symbol of Yugoslavism was a plain tricolor flag of blue, white, and red, which was also the national flag of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Yugoslav state in the interwar period.


title: Jarasandha

text: Jarasandha was a powerful king of Magadha, a minor antagonist in Mahabharata. He was the son of king Brihadratha, the founder of the Barhadratha dynasty of Magadha. According to popular lore, the descendants of Brihadratha ruled Magadha for 2600 years followed by Pradyota Dynasty and the Haryanka dynasty. He is mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Vayu Purana. He is also mentioned as the ninth "pratinarayana" in the Jain text "Harivamsa Purana".


title: Jarasandha

text: The word "Jarasandha" has been explained as a combination of two Sanskrit words: "jara" (जरा) and "sandha" (सन्ध), "joining". A demoness Jara picked the two halves of Jarasandha together after finding them near a tree. When the two halves came together, a boy was formed and cried loudly. Jara carried the son and returned it to the King. In return for saving Brihadratha's son, he was named "Jarasandha" after her. The meaning of "Jarasandha" is "the one who is joined by Jara".


title: Jarasandha

text: Jarasandha's father, King Brihadratha, was married to the twin daughters of the king of Kashi. Brihadratha loved both his wives equally but had no sons. The sage Chandakaushika visited his kingdom and gave fruit to the king as a boon. The king divided the fruit equally between both of his wives. Soon, both wives became pregnant and gave birth to two halves of a human body. These two lifeless halves were very horrifying to view, so Brihadratha ordered to be thrown in the forest. A demoness named Jara found the two halves and picked up one with her right hand, one with her left, holding each piece in her palm. When she brought both of her palms together, the two pieces joined, becoming a living child. The child cried loudly, which caused Jara to panic. Not having the heart to eat a living child, Jara took the baby to the king and explained to him all that had happened. The father was overjoyed to see his son.


title: Jarasandha

text: Jarasandha's son Sahadeva (not to be confused with the youngest Pandava) was placed on the throne of Magadha and he agreed to be a vassal to the Pandavas. He was killed in the Kurukshetra war by Shakuni along with his cousin, Jayadeva.


title: Blake McIver Ewing

text: Blake McIver Ewing (born March 27, 1985), also known as Blake McIver and Blake Ewing, is an American singer-songwriter, actor, model and pianist. He was known for playing Michelle's friend, Derek, on the sitcom "Full House", a role he reenacted on "Fuller House". He played the role of Waldo in the 1994 feature film version of "The Little Rascals" and voiced Eugene on "Hey Arnold!" during its 5th season (replacing Benjamin Diskin, Jarrett Lennon and Christopher Castile). He is currently one of the hosts of the Bravo series "The People's Couch".


title: Blake McIver Ewing

text: Ewing co-wrote and performed the song "Along the River", the end credit song for the film "End of the Spear". He has contributed his work to the It Gets Better Project, citing his own experiences as a gay teenager as his motivation. His debut album, "The Time Manipulator", was released in May 2014. Throughout 2013 Ewing worked as a go-go dancer in Los Angeles. "The tips were good. In fact, I raised so much money, I was able to finish my record — mission accomplished."


title: Blake McIver Ewing

text: Ewing was nominated for an Ovation Award for his role as "The Little Boy" in the Los Angeles production of "Ragtime". He is a graduate of UCLA.


title: Blake McIver Ewing

text: Blake released his equality anthem "This Is Who We Are" on July 14, 2015 and works as a host for AfterBuzz TV.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: The 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season officially began on 21 February 2022, with the start of the Dubai Tennis Championships.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic received a COVID-19 vaccination exemption from Tennis Australia to enter into the Australian Open. The exemption was provided after a rigorous review process involving two separate independent panels of medical experts, including the Independent Medical Exemption Review Panel appointed by the Victoria Department of Health. The panels applied the guidelines set by the Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation. The basis for the exemption was that Djokovic had contracted COVID-19 in the past 6 months. Djokovic's participation in the Australian Open was cast into doubt after the Australian Border Force questioned the basis for the exemption. He was detained by the Australian Border Force on 5 January, and his visa was cancelled on the same day, with plans for his deportation being put in place. His lawyers challenged the decision. The Federal Circuit and Family Court ruled against the government on procedural grounds and ordered his release from detention and directed the federal government to pay his legal expenses.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: On 14 January 2022, Alex Hawke, the Australian Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs, exercised his ministerial powers under the "Migration Act 1958" to cancel Djokovic's visa, citing "health and good order grounds, on the basis that it was in the public interest to do so". Djokovic's application for judicial review in the Federal Court was unanimously dismissed by the full court with costs on 16 January. Djokovic said he was "extremely disappointed" with the decision but accepted the ruling, and flew out of Australia that night. "Lucky loser" Salvatore Caruso took his place in the Australian Open draw.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: In late January, doubts continued to mount over the validity of the date of his COVID test. Nevertheless, Djokovic entered into the 2022 Dubai Tennis Championships, an ATP 500 tournament where he has been seeded first. The tournament is due to be held in February; vaccination is not a requirement for entry into Dubai.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic played his first tournament of the season in Dubai after his deportation from Australia. He defeated Lorenzo Musetti and Karen Khachanov in straight sets. He then lost in the quarterfinals to Jiří Veselý in straight sets, thus losing his number 1 ranking to Daniil Medvedev.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic withdrew from the tournament due to COVID-19 vaccine mandate rules from entering the United States. Despite this, Djokovic regained the number 1 ranking after Gaël Monfils beat Daniil Medvedev in the third round.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: After getting a bye in the first round, Djokovic lost in the second round to eventual runner-up Alejandro Davidovich Fokina.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: In his first match he was down a set and a break to compatriot Laslo Đere, and 2 points from defeat in the second set tiebreak, but fought through to win in a final set tiebreak. In his quarterfinal match he came from a set and a break down to win for the second straight match against compatriot Miomir Kecmanović. In the semis he won a third straight match from a set down against Karen Khachanov to reach his first ATP final of 2022. In the finals he forced a third set from a set down for the 4th match in a row but ultimately ran out of gas and was bageled 0-6 in the final set. Rublev won the title, defeating Djokovic 6–2, 6–7, 6–0.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Defeating Gaël Monfils for a record 18th time, Djokovic was supposed to play Andy Murray in the round of 16 but Murray withdrew due to food poisoning. He beat Hubert Hurkacz in the quarterfinals. In the semifinals he faced Carlos Alcaraz, who beat Nadal the day before. In a very tightly contested battle which lasted over 3 and a half hours, eventual champion Alcaraz prevailed 7–5 in the third set tiebreak and won the match 6–7, 7–5, 7–6.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic defeated Aslan Karatsev, Stan Wawrinka, Félix Auger-Aliassime, Casper Ruud and Stefanos Tsitsipas, all in straight sets en route to winning the title, his first of 2022, 38th Masters 1000 title overall, and 6th in Rome.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic, the defending champion, cruised through the first 4 rounds against Nishioka, Molcan (coached by Marián Vajda, Djokovic's former coach), Bedene and Schwartzman without losing a set. He entered his quarterfinal match having won 22 sets in a row, where he faced Rafael Nadal. Nadal prevailed in a close four set battle that lasted over four hours, 6–2, 4–6, 6–2, 7–6, and went on to win his 14th French Open title (and 22nd overall Grand Slam) five days later, leaving Djokovic two behind the all time lead. Djokovic lost the number 1 ranking to Medvedev after failing to defend the title.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic entered the tournament as the three-time defending champion. In the first round he beat Soon-woo Kwon in 4 sets, cruised to the pre-quarterfinals with straight set wins against Thanasi Kokkinakis and compatriot Kecmanović, and defeated Tim Van Rijthoven in the fourth round in 4 sets. In the quarterfinals he would complete a 7th comeback from two sets down to prevail in five sets against Jannik Sinner. In the semis he beat the British #1 Cameron Norrie in 4 sets from a set down. Djokovic faced Nick Kyrgios in the final, the Australian playing his first ever major final. Kyrgios entered the match 2–0 against Djokovic, having never lost a match, a set, or any service games to Djokovic. In a tight 4 set final, Djokovic fought from a set down to prevail in 4 sets, 4–6, 6–3, 6–4, 7–6, for his 7th Wimbledon title, just one behind Roger Federer, and 21st grand slam title, overtaking Federer, and putting him within one of Nadal's total. For the first time in his career Djokovic won a slam event four straight times (2018, 2019, 2021 and 2022; 2020 was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic).


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic was forced to withdraw from the Canadian Open in Montreal, Western and Southern Open in Cincinnati, and the US Open. He was not eligible to enter both Canada and the United States due to being unvaccinated as both countries mandated foreigners to be vaccinated to cross the border at the time of these tournaments.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic won a doubles match alongside Matteo Berrettini, and a singles match against Frances Tiafoe. He lost to Auger-Aliassime in the second last singles match, and Team World went on to claim their first ever Laver Cup title, 13–8. This tournament even marked the retirement of Tennis legend and Djokovic's longtime rival Roger Federer, who played his last tournament.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic beat Pablo Andujar, Vasek Pospisil, Roman Safiullin and Marin Čilić to win the title without the loss of a set at the Tel Aviv Open.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic cruised past Cristian Garín, Botic van de Zandschulp and Karen Khachanov to reach the semis without losing a set. In the semis he faced Medvedev, who was two points from the win in the second set tiebreak which Djokovic won 8–6. Medvedev immediately retired from the match, telling Djokovic he sustained an adductor injury. Djokovic beat Tsitsipas in the final in straight sets for his 90th career title. With this win, he qualified for the 2022 ATP Finals, as he only needed to finish in the Top 20 of the Race to Turin, since he won a Grand Slam in 2022.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic started as 6th seed. In opening 3 rounds he beat Maxime Cressy, Karen Khachanov and Lorenzo Musetti comfortably. In semifinals, he beat Stefanos Tsitsipas in third set tiebreaker to extend the masters finals record to 56. In final, he faced 19 year old Holger Rune who was in his first masters 1000 final. Rune won in three set to win his first masters title. It was the first time Djokovic lost a Masters 1000 final after winning the first set.


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Djokovic was put in the red group along with Stefanos Tsitsipas, Daniil Medvedev and Andrey Rublev. In the opening round, he beat Tsitsipas in 2 sets. In second round, he beat Rublev to qualify for semifinal for 11th time. In the final dead rubber, Djokovic took on Medvedev in a match that lasted 3hr 11mins. Djokovic was the only player who hadn't lost a match while reaching semifinals. In the semis, he beat Taylor Fritz in tight 2 sets. Djokovic remained unbeaten in the final beating world no.3 Casper Ruud. For winning the title unbeaten, Djokovic won $4,740,300 which is the most prize money for a single tournament in tennis history. Djokovic equaled Roger Federer's record by winning the title for 6th time. Djokovic also became the oldest winner of ATP finals at 35 years 6 months; the record was previously held by Federer at 30 years and 4 months. Djokovic also won the most prize money for 2022, and tied for first with the most titles in 2022 (5).


title: 2022 Novak Djokovic tennis season

text: Novak Djokovic has a ATP match win–loss record in the 2022 season. His record against players who were part of the ATP rankings Top Ten at the time of their meetings is . Bold indicates player was ranked top 10 at the time of at least one meeting. The following list is ordered by number of wins:


title: Hazel Renee

text: Hazel gained notice as an actress in 2013 when she became a cast member for a webisode titled, “The Marriage Tour” by David Tinsley.


title: Hazel Renee

text: In Spring 2017, she landed her first big recurring role in Season 3 of the FOX TV Series "Empire" in the role of “Kennedy”. She first appeared in Episode 12, “Strange Bedfellows”, which was viewed by 6.35 million viewers. She then appeared again in Episode 13, “My Naked Villainy”, where she inspires Hakeem's song, “Special”.


title: Hazel Renee

text: This same year she was also connected to the Bravo reality show "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" during Season 9, as the musical friend of Kandi Burruss. She also is a part of the recurring cast of the VH1 reality series "Basketball Wives".


title: Hazel Renee

text: She was in a relationship with basketball player Jacob Pullen, and has one daughter, Olive, with him. In 2018, Hazel dated NBA player Draymond Green, who has one child prior to their relationship. Hazel and Green were engaged in 2019. Their daughter was born in 2020. They held their wedding ceremony on August 14, 2022 in Malibu.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: The , briefly known as the , was a domain ("han") of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan during the Edo period from 1602 to 1871.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: The Satsuma Domain was based at Kagoshima Castle in Satsuma Province, the core of the modern city of Kagoshima, located in the south of the island of Kyushu. The Satsuma Domain was ruled for its existence by the "Tozama" "daimyō" of the Shimazu clan, who had ruled the Kagoshima area since the 1200s, and covered territory in the provinces of Satsuma, Ōsumi and Hyūga. The Satsuma Domain was assessed under the "Kokudaka" system and its value peaked at 770,000 "koku", the second-highest domain in Japan after the Kaga Domain.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: The Satsuma Domain was one of the most powerful and prominent of Japan's domains during the Edo period, conquering the Ryukyu Kingdom as a vassal state after the invasion of Ryukyu in 1609, and clashing with the British during the bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 after the Namamugi Incident. The Satsuma Domain formed the Satchō Alliance with the rival Chōshū Domain during the Meiji Restoration and became instrumental in the establishment of the Empire of Japan. The Kagoshima-han was dissolved in the abolition of "han" and establishment of "ken" in 1871 by the Meiji government when Kagoshima-han became Kagoshima-ken, with some parts of the domain separated as part of Miyakonojō Prefecture (). The first prefectural governor of Kagoshima was Ōyama Tsunayoshi until 1877 when he was executed in the Satsuma Rebellion. Since the 1880s, the former territory of Kagoshima Domain is now part of Kagoshima and Miyazaki Prefecture which was ultimately split from Kagoshima in 1883.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: The Shimazu family controlled Satsuma province for roughly four centuries prior to the beginning of the Edo period. Despite being chastised by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in his 1587 Kyūshū campaign, and forced back to Satsuma, they remained one of the most powerful clans in the archipelago. During the decisive battle of Sekigahara in 1600, the Shimazu fought on the losing side. Satsuma was one of the most powerful feudal domains in Tokugawa Japan. It was controlled throughout the Edo period by the "tozama daimyō" of the Shimazu clan.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: Since the mid-15th century, Satsuma fought with the Ryukyu Kingdom for control of the Northern Ryukyu Islands, which lie southwest of Japan. In 1609, Shimazu Iehisa requested permission from the shogunate to invade Ryukyu. After a three-month war which met stiff resistance, Satsuma captured the Ryukyuan capital of Shuri and King Shō Nei. In the ensuing peace treaty, Satsuma annexed the Amami and Tokara Islands, demanded tribute, and forced the King and his descendants to pledge loyalty to Satsuma's "daimyō".


title: Satsuma Domain

text: For the remainder of the Edo period, Satsuma influenced their politics and dominated their trading policies to take advantage of Ryukyu's tributary status with China. As strict maritime prohibitions were imposed upon much of Japan beginning in the 1630s, Satsuma's ability to enjoy a trade in Chinese goods, and information, via Ryukyu, provided it a distinct and important, if not entirely unique, role in the overall economy and politics of the Tokugawa state. The degree of economic benefits enjoyed by Satsuma, and the degree of their influence in Ryukyu, are subjects debated by scholars, but the political prestige and influence gained through this relationship is not questioned. The Shimazu continually made efforts to emphasize their unique position as the only feudal domain to claim an entire foreign kingdom as its vassal, and engineered repeated increases to their own official Court rank, in the name of maintaining their power and prestige in the eyes of Ryukyu.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: In 1871, however, Emperor Meiji abolished the "han" system, and the following year informed King Shō Tai that he was designated "Domain Head of Ryukyu Domain", transferring Satsuma's authority over the country to Tokyo.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: Though not the wealthiest "han" in terms of "kokudaka" (the official measure of the wealth and therefore power of a "han", measured in "koku"), Satsuma remained among the wealthiest and most powerful domains throughout the Edo period. This derived not only from their connection to Ryukyu, but also from the size and productive wealth of Satsuma province itself, and from their extreme distance from Edo, and thus from the "shōgun"s armies.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: The Shimazu exercised their influence to exact from the shogunate a number of special exceptions. Satsuma was granted an exception to the shogunate's limit of one castle per domain, a policy which was meant to restrict the military strength of the domains; the Shimazu then formed sub-fiefs within their domain, and doled out castles to their vassals, administering the domain in a manner not unlike a mini-shogunate. They also received special exceptions from the shogunate in regard to the policy of "sankin-kōtai", another policy meant to restrict the wealth and power of the daimyō. Under this policy, every feudal lord was mandated to travel to Edo at least once a year, and to spend some portion of the year there, away from his domain and his power base. The Shimazu were granted permission to make this journey only once every two years. These exceptions thus allowed Satsuma to gain even more power and wealth relative to the majority of other domains.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: Though arguably opposed to the shogunate, Satsuma was perhaps one of the strictest domains in enforcing particular policies. Christian missionaries were seen as a serious threat to the power of the "daimyō", and the peace and order of the domain; the shogunal ban on Christianity was enforced more strictly and brutally in Satsuma, perhaps, than anywhere else in the archipelago. The ban on smuggling, perhaps unsurprisingly, was not so strictly enforced, as the domain gained significantly from trade performed along its shores, some ways away from Nagasaki, where the shogunate monopolized commerce. In the 1830s, Satsuma used its illegal Okinawa trade to rebuild its finances under Zusho Hirosato.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: The Satsuma "daimyō" of the 1850s, Shimazu Nariakira, was very interested in Western thought and technology, and sought to open the country. At the time, contacts with Westerners increased dramatically, particularly for Satsuma, as Western ships frequently landed in the Ryukyus and sought not only trade, but formal diplomatic relations. To increase his influence in the shogunate, Nariakira engineered a marriage between "Shōgun" Tokugawa Iesada and his adopted daughter, Atsu-hime (later Tenshō-in).


title: Satsuma Domain

text: In 1854, the first year of Iesada's reign, Commodore Perry landed in Japan and forced an end to the isolation policy of the shogunate. However, the treaties signed between Japan and the western powers, particularly the Harris Treaty of 1858, put Japan at a serious disadvantage. In the same year, both Iesada and Nariakira died. Nariakira named his nephew, Shimazu Tadayoshi, as his successor. As Tadayoshi was still a child, his father, Shimazu Hisamitsu, effectively held the power in Satsuma.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: Hisamitsu followed a policy of "Kōbu gattai", or "unity between the shogunate and the imperial court". The marriage between Tokugawa Iemochi, the next "shōgun", and imperial princess Kazunomiya was a major success for this faction. However, this put Satsuma at odds with the more radical "Sonnō jōi", or "revere the Emperor and repel the barbarians" faction, with Chōshū as the major supporter.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: In 1862, in the Namamugi Incident an Englishman was killed by retainers of Satsuma, leading to the bombardment of Kagoshima by the Royal Navy the following year. Even though Satsuma was able to withstand the attack, this event showed how necessary it was for Japan to import western technology and reform its military.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: Meanwhile, the focus of Japanese politics shifted to Kyoto, where the major struggles of the time occurred. The shogunate entrusted Satsuma and Aizu with the protection of the Imperial court, against attempts of the "Sonnō jōi" faction to take over, as in the Kinmon Incident of 1864. The shogunate decided to punish Chōshū for this event with the First Chōshū expedition, under the leadership of a Satsuma retainer, Saigō Takamori. Saigō, however, avoided a military conflict and allowed Chōshū to resolve the issue with the Seppuku of the three perpetrators behind the attack on the Imperial palace.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: When the shogunate decided to finally defeat Chōshū in a Second Chōshū expedition the next year, Satsuma, under the lead of Saigo Takamori and Ōkubo Toshimichi, decided to switch sides. The Satchō Alliance between Satsuma and Chōshū was brokered by Sakamoto Ryōma from Tosa.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: This second expedition ended in a disaster for the shogunate. It was defeated on the battlefield, and Shōgun Iemochi died of illness in Osaka Castle. The next "shōgun", Tokugawa Yoshinobu, brokered a cease fire.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: Despite attempts by the new shōgun to reform the government, he was unable to contain the growing movement to overthrow the shogunate led by Satsuma and Chōshū. Even after he stepped down as "shōgun" and agreed to return the power to the Imperial court, the two sides finally clashed in the Battle of Toba–Fushimi 1868. The shōgun, defeated, escaped to Edo. Saigo Takamori then led his troops to Edo, where Tenshō-in was instrumental in the bloodless surrender of Edo castle. The Boshin War continued until the last of the shogunate forces were defeated in 1869.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: The Meiji government, which was established in the aftermath of these events, was largely dominated by politicians from Satsuma and Chōshū. Though the samurai class, domain system, and much of the political and social structures surrounding these were abolished shortly afterwards, figures from these two areas dominated the Japanese government roughly until World War I.


title: Satsuma Domain

text: However, the beginning of the period was marked by growing discontent of the former samurai class, which erupted in the Satsuma Rebellion under Saigo Takamori in 1877.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Hot Pursuit is a 2015 American action comedy film directed by Anne Fletcher and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It was written by David Feeney and John Quaintance. Its story follows a police officer assigned to protect the widow of a drug boss from corrupt cops and criminals who want her dead as they race through Texas to avoid detection. It stars Reese Witherspoon and Sofía Vergara.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: The film was produced by New Line Cinema, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and Pacific Standard and was released on May 8, 2015. It grossed $13.9 million during its opening weekend and $51.4 million worldwide, against a budget of $35 million. It received negative reviews from critics, and has a 8% approval rating based on 179 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Rose Cooper is a San Antonio Police Department officer whose work ethic is too intense. Following an incident in which the mayor's son yells "Shotgun!", setting him on fire by tasing him while he carried an alcoholic drink, Cooper's ineptness in the field has her assigned to the evidence locker.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Cooper's commanding officer, Captain Emmett, gives her a secret assignment to join Deputy US Marshal Jackson, protecting Felipe Riva and his wife Daniella. Riva must testify against cartel leader Vicente Cortez. At the Riva home, a pair of masked assassins and a different pair of assassins kill Jackson and Felipe while Cooper and Daniella are upstairs. Daniella grabs one suitcase, containing many pairs of shoes, and the women flee in Riva's car. When Daniella later tries to run off, Cooper handcuffs herself to her.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: They are found by Cooper's fellow officers Dixon and Hauser. Cooper realizes the officers are one of the assassin teams when she sees the longhorn tatoo, so they escape and head for Dallas, where Daniella can testify against Cortez.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: The women learn Cooper is now labelled a fugitive fleeing with Daniella. A tractor trailer plows into the car, spraying hidden cocaine everywhere. Cooper gets the truck driver to drop them at a store, where Daniella and the very high Cooper change their clothes. When the assassins show up, they stow away in a horse trailer hooked to a pickup truck. When the truck stops Cooper tries to steal it, but the owner, Red, reappears with a gun. She and Daniella flee, find another pickup, and drive away.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: The ladies continue bonding, with Cooper admitting her rigid, by-the-books nature has made it difficult to meet a man. They are surprised to find a man named Randy sleeping in the back of the pickup. He is a felon with an ankle bracelet for viciously assaulting his sisters' abusive boyfriends. Cooper agrees to take off the bracelet in exchange for Randy's help. Daniella is pleased to see Randy flirting with Cooper.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Daniella explains her bag of shoes are covered with $4 million in real diamonds, revealing Cortez's money laundering method. When Dixon and Hauser appear and shoot at them, Randy attacks Hauser, allowing the women to run.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: The women hitch a ride on a tour bus, until Dixon and Hauser catch up to them on the road. Taking the wheel, they shoot back at the crooked cops, and end up running the men off the road. After they succeed, Daniella knocks out Cooper in a single punch.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Cooper wakes up and sees Daniela talking to the assassins who were also chasing them. We discover she is working with the assassins to murder Cortez as revenge for killing her brother. Additionally, she was not going to testify in Dallas, but instead hired the men to 'kidnap' her before she was escorted out of her house. She leaves Cooper, going with the men to take down Vincente Cortez.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Soon after, Cooper is cleared of any wrongdoing after explaining what happened. Captain Emmett advises her to let the FBI take care of Cortez, but she ignores him.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Sneaking into Cortez's daughter's Quinceañera as a man to get close to Daniella, she tries to get her to wear a wire to get Cortez' confession to her brother's murder. A woman walking into the bathroom mistakes Cooper for a pervert and throws her out. Getting back into the party, running into Emmett, she learns he is working for Cortez. He pulls a gun on her, but Cooper pours alcohol on him and tases him so he catches fire.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Daniella corners Cortez and reveals her intentions to kill him. Cooper arrives and stops her, but when he draws a gun Cooper shoots him dead.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Three months later, Daniella is released from prison, and Cooper picks her up and transports her out. She surprises Daniella with her old pairs of very valuable shoes. She also reveals that Randy is in the car with her, and Daniella likes Cooper's new "wild side", as they drive off together.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: The film was originally titled "Don't Mess with Texas". Principal photography began on May 12, 2014 in New Orleans, Louisiana, and was set to last for two months.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: "Hot Pursuit" released in theaters on May 8, 2015. It was then released on Digital Download on July 28, 2015, and the DVD and Blu-ray were released on August 11, 2015.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: "Hot Pursuit" grossed $34.6 million in the US and Canada, and $16.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $51.5 million.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed $13.9 million, finishing second at the box office behind "", which was in its second week ($77.7 million).


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Hot Pursuit" has an approval rating of 8% based on 179 reviews, with an average rating of 3.17/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Shrill and unfunny, "Hot Pursuit" bungles what should have been an easy opportunity to showcase Reese Witherspoon and Sofia Vergara's likable odd-couple chemistry." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 31 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" gave it 1 out of 4 stars and wrote: "It's all stupefyingly unfunny. Hot Pursuit is one hot mess."


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" called it "proof two females can make a bickering-opposites-action-comedy that’s just as lousy and sour as any clunker starring two guys."


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Stephanie Zacharek of "The Village Voice" gave the film a positive review, with particular praise for the editing: "Hot Pursuit is a quiet triumph of tone and timing. Nearly every scene is cut at just the right point, often topped off with a fantastic kicker of dialogue."


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Reese Witherspoon received two nominations, Choice Movie Actress: Comedy and Choice Movie: Hissy Fit.


title: Hot Pursuit (2015 film)

text: Reese Witherspoon and Sofía Vergara also received two nominations as a pair, for Choice Movie: Chemistry and Choice Movie: Liplock.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: From 1948 to 1975, the U.S. Army Chemical Corps conducted classified human subject research at the Edgewood Arsenal facility in Maryland. The purpose was to evaluate the impact of low-dose chemical warfare agents on military personnel and to test protective clothing, pharmaceuticals, and vaccines. A small portion of these studies were directed at psychochemical warfare and grouped under the prosaic title of the "Medical Research Volunteer Program" (1956–1975). The MRVP was also driven by intelligence requirements and the need for new and more effective interrogation techniques.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: Overall, about 7,000 soldiers took part in these experiments that involved exposures to more than 250 different chemicals, according to the Department of Defense (DoD). Some of the volunteers exhibited symptoms at the time of exposure to these agents but long-term follow-up was not planned as part of the DoD studies. The experiments were abruptly terminated by the Army in late 1975 amidst an atmosphere of scandal and recrimination as lawmakers accused researchers of questionable ethics. Many official government reports and civilian lawsuits followed in the wake of the controversy.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: After World War II, U.S. military researchers obtained formulas for the three nerve gases developed by the Nazis—tabun, soman, and sarin—and conducted studies on them at the US Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Center. These studies included a secret human subjects component at least as early as 1948, when "psychological reactions" were documented in Edgewood technicians. Initially, such studies focused solely on the lethality of the gases and its treatment and prevention. A classified report entitled "Psychochemical Warfare: A New Concept of War" was produced in 1949 by Luther Wilson Greene, Technical Director of the Chemical and Radiological Laboratories at Edgewood. Greene called for a search for novel psychoactive compounds that would create the same debilitating mental side effects as those produced by nerve gases, but without their lethal effect. In his words,Throughout recorded history, wars have been characterized by death, human misery, and the destruction of property; each major conflict being more catastrophic than the one preceding it ... I am convinced that it is possible, by means of the techniques of psychochemical warfare, to conquer an enemy without the wholesale killing of his people or the mass destruction of his property.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: In the late 1940s and early '50s, the U.S. Army worked with Harvard anesthesiologist Henry K. Beecher at its interrogation center at Camp King in Germany on the use of psychoactive compounds (mescaline, LSD), including human subject experiments and the debriefing of former Nazi physicians and scientists who had worked along similar lines before the end of the war. In the 1950s, some officials in the U.S. Department of Defense publicly asserted that many "forms of chemical and allied warfare as more 'humane' than existing weapons. For example, certain types of 'psychochemicals' would make it possible to paralyze temporarily entire population centers without damage to homes and other structures." Soviet advances in the same field were cited as a special incentive giving impetus to research efforts in this area, according to testimony by Maj. Gen. Marshall Stubbs, the Army's chief chemical officer.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: General William M. Creasy, former chief chemical officer, U.S. Army, testified to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1959 that "provided sufficient emphasis is put behind it, I think the future lies in the psychochemicals." This was alarming enough to a Harvard psychiatrist, E. James Lieberman, that he published an article entitled "Psychochemicals as Weapons" in "The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists" in 1962. Lieberman, while acknowledging that "most of the military data" on the research ongoing at the Army Chemical Center was "secret and unpublished", asserted that "There are moral imponderables, such as whether insanity, temporary or permanent, is a more 'humane' military threat than the usual afflictions of war."


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: The Edgewood Arsenal human experiments took place from approximately 1948 to 1975 at the Medical Research Laboratories—which is now known as the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense (USAMRICD)—at the Edgewood Area, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. The experiments involved at least 254 chemical substances, but focused mainly on midspectrum incapacitants, such as LSD, THC derivatives, benzodiazepines, and BZ. Around 7,000 US military personnel and 1,000 civilians were test subjects over almost three decades. A concrete result of these experiments was that BZ was weaponized, although never deployed.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: According to a DOD FAQ, the Edgewood Arsenal experiments involved the following "rough breakout of volunteer hours against various experimental categories":


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: An "Independent Study Course" for continuing medical education produced by the US Department of Veterans Affairs, "Health Effects from Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Weapons" (October 2003), presents the following summary of the Edgewood Arsenal experiments:


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: The "Independent Study Course" cites mainly a three-volume study by the Institute of Medicine (1982–1985) for its data and conclusions, "Possible Long-Term Health Effects of Short-Term Exposure to Chemical Agents". Some additional information in the section cited from the Course was based on a 1993 IOM study, "Veterans at Risk: Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite".


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: A significant omission from the Course summary above is the number of subjects on which BZ and related compounds were tested. According to the memoirs of James Ketchum, who also cites the IOM study for the data, "24 belladonnoid glycolates and related compounds" were "given to 1,800 subjects". The IOM study also concluded that "available data suggest that long-term toxic effects and/or delayed sequellae are unlikely" for this type of compound.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: In the mid-1970s, in the wake of many health claims made regarding exposure to the agents, the U.S. Congress began investigations of possible abuse in experiments and of inadequate informed consent given to the soldiers and civilians involved.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: In September 1975, the Medical Research Volunteer Program was discontinued and all resident volunteers were removed from the Edgewood installation. The founder and director of the program, Dr Van Murray Sim, was called before Congress and chastised by outraged lawmakers, who questioned the absence of follow-up care for the human volunteers. An Army investigation subsequently found no evidence of serious injuries or deaths associated with the MRVP, but deplored both the recruiting process and the informed consent approach, which they characterized as "suggest[ing] possible coercion".


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: The Institute of Medicine (IOM) published a three-volume report on the Edgewood research in 1982–1985, "Possible Long-Term Health Effects of Short-Term Exposure to Chemical Agents".


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: The National Academy of Sciences, which oversees the IOM, sent a questionnaire to all of the former volunteers that could be located, approximately 60% of the total. The lack of a detailed record hampered the investigation. The study could not rule out long-term health effects related to exposure to the nerve agents. It concluded that "Whether the subjects at Edgewood incurred these changes [depression, cognitive deficits, tendency to suicide] and to what extent they might now show these effects are not known". With regard specifically to BZ and related compounds, the IOM study concluded that "available data suggest that long-term toxic effects and/or delayed sequellae are unlikely".


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: A Government Accounting Office report of May 2004, "Chemical and Biological Defense: DOD Needs to Continue to Collect and Provide Information on Tests and Potentially Exposed Personnel" (pp. 1, 24), stated:


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: [In 1993 and 1994] we [...] reported that the Army Chemical Corps conducted a classified medical research program for developing incapacitating agents. This program involved testing nerve agents, nerve agent antidotes, psycho chemicals, and irritants. The chemicals were given to volunteer service members at Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland; Dugway Proving Ground, Utah; and Forts Benning, Bragg, and McClellan. In total, Army documents identified 7,120 Army and Air Force personnel who participated in these tests. Further, GAO concluded that precise information on the scope and the magnitude of tests involving human subjects was not available, and the exact number of human subjects might never be known.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: The official position of the Department of Defense, based on the three-volume set of studies by the Institute of Medicine mentioned above, is that they "did not detect any significant long-term health effects on the Edgewood Arsenal volunteers". The safety record of the Edgewood Arsenal experiments was also defended in the memoirs of psychiatrist and retired colonel James Ketchum, a key scientist:


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: As late as 2014 incomplete information due to the failure to declassify and release relevant classified documents prevented IOM from conducting adequate medical studies related to similar former US biowarfare programs.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: Even a book critical of the program, written by Lynn C. Klotz and Edward J. Sylvester, acknowledges that:


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: Unlike the CIA program, research subjects [at Edgewood] all signed informed consent forms, both a general one and another related to any experiment they were to participate in. Experiments were carried out with safety of subjects a principal focus. [...] At Edgewood, even at the highest doses it often took an hour or more for incapacitating effects to show, and the end-effects usually did not include full incapacitation, let alone unconsciousness. After all, the Edgewood experimenters were focused on disabling soldiers in combat, where there would be tactical value simply in disabling the enemy.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: The U.S. Army believed that legal liability could be avoided by concealing the experiments. However once the experiments were uncovered, the US Senate also concluded questionable legality of the experiments and strongly condemned them.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: In the 1990s, the law firm Morrison & Foerster agreed to take on a class-action lawsuit against the government related to the Edgewood volunteers. The plaintiffs collectively referred to themselves as the "Test Vets".


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: In 2009 a lawsuit was filed by veterans rights organizations Vietnam Veterans of America, and Swords to Plowshares, and eight Edgewood veterans or their families against CIA, the U.S. Army, and other agencies. The complaint asked the court to determine that defendants' actions were illegal and that the defendants have a duty to notify all victims and to provide them with health care. In the suit, "Vietnam Veterans of America, et al. v. Central Intelligence Agency, et al." Case No. CV-09-0037-CW, U.S.D.C. (N.D. Cal. 2009), the plaintiffs did not seek monetary damages. Instead, they sought only declaratory and injunctive relief and redress for what they claimed was several decades of neglect and the U.S. government's use of them as human guinea pigs in chemical and biological agent testing experiments.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: On July 24, 2013, United States District Court Judge Claudia Wilken issued an order granting in part and denying in part plaintiffs' motion for summary judgment and granting in part and denying in part defendants' motion for summary judgment. The court resolved all of the remaining claims in the case and vacated trial. The court granted the plaintiffs partial summary judgment concerning the notice claim: summarily adjudicating in plaintiffs' favor, finding that "the Army has an ongoing duty to warn" and ordering "the Army, through the DVA or otherwise, to provide test subjects with newly acquired information that may affect their well-being that it has learned since its original notification, now and in the future as it becomes available". The court granted the defendants' motion for summary judgment with respect to the other claims.


title: Edgewood Arsenal human experiments

text: On appeal in Vietnam Veterans of America v. Central Intelligence Agency, a panel majority held in July 2015 that Army Regulation 70-25 (AR 70-25) created an independent duty to provide ongoing medical care to veterans who participated in U.S. chemical and biological testing programs. The prior finding held that the Army has an ongoing duty to seek out and provide "notice" to former test participants of any new information that could potentially affect their health.


title: Hans Kammler

text: Hans Kammler (26 August 1901 – 1945 [assumed]) was an SS-Obergruppenführer responsible for Nazi civil engineering projects and its top secret weapons programmes. He oversaw the construction of various Nazi concentration camps before being put in charge of the V-2 rocket and jet programmes towards the end of World War II. Kammler disappeared in May 1945, during the final days of the war. There has been much conjecture regarding his fate.


title: Hans Kammler

text: Kammler was born in Stettin, German Empire (now Szczecin, Poland). In 1919, after volunteering for army service, he served in the Rossbach Freikorps. From 1919 to 1923, he studied civil engineering at the Technische Hochschule der Freien Stadt Danzig and Munich and was awarded his doctorate of engineering (Dr. Ing.) in November 1932, following some years of practical work in local building administration.


title: Hans Kammler

text: In 1931, Kammler joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP), where he held a variety of administrative positions after the Nazi government came to power in 1933. Initially he was head of the Aviation Ministry's building department. He joined the SS on 20 May 1933. In 1934, he was serving the Reich's Ministry as the leader of the "Reichsbund der Kleingärtner und Kleinsiedler" (Reich's federation of allotment gardeners and small home owners).


title: Hans Kammler

text: Committed to the Nazi cause, engineers like Kammler "saw no contradiction between notions of blood and soil and the methods of modern organization and technology." Historian Michael Thad Allen argues that Kammler wanted to place "the best means of modern organization" at the Nazis' disposal since he believed that National Socialism was a "necessary catalyst" for modern construction. For Kammler, the concepts of "modern technology, organization, and ideologies of German supremacy" were all interwoven.


title: Hans Kammler

text: Before joining Oswald Pohl's organization at the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office (WVHA), Kammler had already been advising the SS Race and Settlement Office as a consultant. In June 1941, he joined the Waffen-SS. Due to Himmler's desire to increase the pace and scale of SS construction activities Kammler was released as an adviser in the Reichskommissariat for the Reinforcement of Germandom, so his technical and managerial competencies could be exploited. In the person of Kammler, Allen writes, "technological competence and extreme Nazi fanaticism coexisted in the same man." Even Albert Speer—Hitler's chief architect—came to fear Kammler and placed him among "Himmler's most brutal and most ruthless henchmen." Kammler was known to scrutinize the education of his subordinates as well as their ideological commitment to National Socialism, which he factored into their duty assignments and promotions.


title: Hans Kammler

text: Immediately after being assigned to the WVHA, Kammler became Pohl's deputy, where he worked with SS-Gruppenführer Richard Glücks of Office D (Concentration Camps Inspectorate), and was also named Chief of Office C, which designed and constructed all the concentration and extermination camps. On 26 September 1941—just days after the announcement of the plan for Majdanek—Kammler ordered the construction of the largest of the camps at Auschwitz. On December 19, 1941, Kammler updated Himmler about the slow progress at both Auschwitz-Birkenau and Majdanek, remarking that construction was delayed due to the freezing weather, lack of materials, and insufficient manpower. By late March 1942, the systematic mass deportation of Jews to Auschwitz had begun.


title: Hans Kammler

text: Historian Nikolaus Wachsmann states that Kammler "was intimately involved in all the major building projects in Auschwitz." For instance, in his capacity within the WVHA, Kammler oversaw the installation of more efficient cremation facilities at Auschwitz-Birkenau, when the Nazis converted it into an extermination camp. Under Kammler's supervision, new crematoria were planned during August 1942 at Birkenau to facilitate burning up to one-hundred twenty thousand corpses per month.


title: Hans Kammler

text: After the RAF successfully bombed the rocket production facilities at Peenemünde during August 1943, Reich Ministry of Armaments and War Production Albert Speer recommended transferring the V-2 rocket production underground. Hitler immediately agreed with Speer, and the two decided that the SS, with its massive supply of slave labor, was best suited for this task. As the SS construction chief, Kammler was selected to oversee the project—along with representatives Gerhard Degenkolb and Karl Maria Hettlage from Speer's ministry—which began at a huge fuel storage facility in Thuringia under the Mittelwerke GmbH.


title: Hans Kammler

text: By the end of August 1943, Kammler had a sizable detachment of concentration camp inmates from Buchenwald working at the new underground installation, and before the year was out there were so many slave laborers that another facility (Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp) had to be established. The secret weapons projects for which Kammler was given responsibility included manufacturing both the Messerschmitt Me 262 and the V-2, which Kammler—in a construction effort of ruthless brutality and speed—had in production before the end of 1943. The tunnels and weapons were built in horrendous conditions by the slave laborers from Mittelbau-Dora. Research has found that of the 60,000 people that passed through Mittelbau-Dora camp, an estimated 10,000 died producing the V2 alone, which is double the roughly 5,000 killed by the weapon system in Britain and Belgium combined. More than 20,000 died at Mittelbau-Dora in total throughout the camp's existence. Kammler's attitude towards the prisoners was utter indifference, having once exclaimed, "Don't worry about the victims. The work must proceed ahead in the shortest time possible".


title: Hans Kammler

text: Speer made Kammler his representative for "special construction tasks", expecting that Kammler would commit himself to working in harmony with the ministry's main construction committee. But in March 1944 Kammler had Göring appoint him as his delegate for "special buildings" under the fighter aircraft programme, which made him one of the war economy's most important managers, and robbed Speer of much of his influence.


title: Hans Kammler

text: Kammler was also involved in an attempt to finish the Blockhaus d'Éperlecques near Saint-Omer, Pas-de-Calais in Northern France. The fortified bunker was to be used as a V-2 launch base but it was abandoned in September 1944 before it was finished.


title: Hans Kammler

text: In March 1944, Himmler convinced Adolf Hitler to put the V-2 project directly under SS control. On 8 August Kammler replaced Walter Dornberger as its director taking command and control of V-2 operations. The first rockets were launched from a site near The Hague against London on 8 September 1944. On 31 January 1945, Hitler named Kammler head of all missile projects, but by this time the lack of explosives was critical and the program was winding down.


title: Hans Kammler

text: In March 1945, Hitler stripped Göring of his powers over aircraft support, maintenance and supply, and transferred these duties to Kammler. This culminated, in the beginning of April, with Kammler being raised to "Fuehrer's general plenipotentiary for jet aircraft".


title: Hans Kammler

text: In late March 1945 Kammler ordered the (units that operated the V-2 rockets) to execute forced laborers and their families (200 men, women and children) after his car was held up on a crowded road in the Sauerland. Kammler was reported to have felt he was under some "vague threat" so "this riffraff ought to be eliminated". The killings coincided with the evacuation of V2 units due to the Allied advance into Germany.


title: Hans Kammler

text: On 1 April 1945, Kammler ordered the evacuation of 500 missile technicians to the Nazis' Alpine Fortress. Since the last V-2 on the western front had been launched in late March, on 5 April Kammler was charged by the "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht" to command the defence of the Nordhausen area. However, rather than defend the missile construction works, he immediately ordered the destruction of all the "special V-1 equipment" at the Syke storage site.


title: Hans Kammler

text: In the final weeks of the war in Europe, Kammler's movements became sketchy and contradictory. Wernher von Braun said Kammler was in Oberammergau, Bavaria in April 1945. The Nazi rocket scientist later reported having overheard a discussion between Kammler and his aide-de-camp in which Kammler said he planned to hide in nearby Ettal Abbey. Kammler and his followers then left town, according to von Braun. Further evidence of Kammler's activities is a telegraph from Kammler to Speer, Himmler and Göring on 16 April, informing them of the creation of a "message centre" at Munich and the appointment of a chief representative for the construction of the Messerschmitt Me 262. On 20 April, he reportedly arrived with a group of technicians at Himmler’s "Kommandostelle" near Salzburg. On 23 April, Kammler sent a radio message to his office manager at Berlin, ordering him to organize the immediate destruction of the "V-1 equipment near Berlin" and then to go to Munich.


title: Hans Kammler

text: A wartime diary, relating to the surrender of the mountain resort town Garmisch-Partenkirchen to Allied troops, mentions Kammler and his staff. It said that Kammler and his staff of some 600 personnel, with "good quality" cars and trucks arrived in Oberammergau (north of Garmisch-Partenkirchen) on 22 April 1945 but their arrival was badly received by the local authorities who had several arguments with Kammler himself. These conflicts are referenced in the entries for 23 and 25 April. The last reference, implicating only Kammler's "staff", comes on the night of 28 April – an Oberleutnant Burger reports that they had gone on the same night that American forces began entering Oberammergau.


title: Hans Kammler

text: In late April/early May, Kammler was reportedly at the "Villa Mendelssohn" at Ebensee, site of one of the projects assigned to him. On 4 May, he ordered the immediate transfer of the Ebensee office to Prague.


title: Hans Kammler

text: In a sworn statement on 16 October 1959, Kammler's driver, Kurt Preuk stated that Kammler's date of death was "about 10 May 1945", but that he did not know the cause of death. On 7 September 1965, Heinz Zeuner (a wartime aide of Kammler's), stated that Kammler had died on 7 May 1945 and that his corpse had been observed by Zeuner, Preuk and others. All the eyewitnesses consulted were certain that the cause of death was cyanide poisoning. In their accounts of Kammler's movements Preuk and Zeuner claimed that he left Linderhof near Oberammergau on 28 April 1945 for a tank conference at Salzburg and then went to Ebensee (where tank tracks were manufactured). According to Preuk and Zeuner he then travelled back from Ebensee to visit his wife in the Tyrol region, when he gave her two cyanide tablets. The next day, 5 May, at around 4 am, he is said to have departed Tyrol for Prague.


title: Hans Kammler

text: In a 1969 book "Wernher von Braun: Mein Leben für die Raumfahrt", author Bernd Ruland claimed Kammler arrived in Prague by aircraft on 4 May 1945, following which he and 21 SS men defended a bunker against an attack by more than 500 Czech resistance fighters on 9 May. During the attack, one of Kammler's aides-de-camp shot Kammler to prevent his capture. This version can reportedly be traced to Walter Dornberger, who in turn is said to have heard it from eyewitnesses.


title: Hans Kammler

text: On 9 July 1945, Kammler's wife petitioned to have him declared dead as of 9 May 1945. She provided a statement by Kammler's driver, Kurt Preuk, according to which Preuk had personally seen "the corpse of Kammler and been present at his burial" on 9 May 1945. The District Court of Berlin-Charlottenburg ruled on 7 September 1948 that his death was officially established as 9 May 1945.


title: Hans Kammler

text: Both Preuk and Zeuner maintained their version of events when interviewed in the 1990s. Some support for this version of events came from letters written by Ingeborg Alix Prinzessin zu Schaumburg-Lippe, a female member of the "SS-Helferinnenkorps" to Kammler’s wife in 1951 and 1955. In these, she affirmed that Kammler had said goodbye to her on 7 May 1945 in Prague, stating that the Americans were after him, had made him offers but that he had refused and that they would not "get him alive".


title: Hans Kammler

text: US occupation forces conducted various inquiries into Kammler’s whereabouts, beginning with the headquarters of 12th Army ordering a complete inventory of all personnel involved in missile production on 21 May 1945. This resulted in the creation of a file for Kammler, stating that he was possibly in Munich. The CIC noted that he had been seen shortly prior to the arrival of US troops in Oberjoch.


title: Hans Kammler

text: The Combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee (CIOS) in London ordered a search for him in early July 1945. Members of the 12th Army replied that he was last seen on 8 or 9 April in the Harz region. In August, Kammler's name made "List 13" of the UN for Nazi war criminals. Only in 1948 did the CIOS receive the information that Kammler reportedly fled to Prague and had committed suicide. Original blueprints of Kammler’s major projects were later found in the personal property of Samuel Goudsmit, the scientific leader of the Alsos Mission.


title: Hans Kammler

text: A CIC report from April 1946 listed Kammler among SS officers known to be outside Germany and considered to be of special interest to the CIC. In mid-July 1945, the head of the Gmunden CIC office, Major Morrisson interviewed an unnamed German on the issue of a numbered account associated with construction sites for plane and missile production formerly run by the SS. A report published years later, in late 1947 or early 1948, stated that only Kammler and two other persons had access to the account. The report also said that "shortly after the occupation, Hans Kammler appeared at CIC Gmunden and gave a statement on operations at Ebensee". The CIC notes on the interview give no name, but the interviewee must have been one of the three people with access to the account. Aside from Kammler, one was known to have left Austria in May 1945, the other was in a POW camp during July.


title: Hans Kammler

text: In 1949 a report written by one Oskar Packe on Kammler was filed by the US Denazification office in Hesse. The report stated that Kammler had been arrested by US troops on 9 May 1945 at the Messerschmitt works at Oberammergau. However, Kammler and some other senior SS personnel had managed to escape in the direction of Austria or Italy. Packe did not believe the reports about a suicide, as these were contradicted "by the detailed information from the CIC" about arrest and escape.


title: Hans Kammler

text: Donald W. Richardson (1917–1997) a former OSS special agent involved in the Alsos Mission, claimed to be "the man who brought Kammler to the US". Shortly before he died, Richardson reportedly told his sons about his experience during and after the war, including Operation Paperclip. According to them, Richardson claimed to have supervised Kammler until 1947. Kammler was supposedly "interned at a place of maximum security, with no hope, no mercy and without seeing the light of day until he hanged himself". In 2019, the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars published evidence that Kammler was indeed captured and interviewed by Americans during May 1945 in Germany; however, none of the evidence substantiated his stay and later suicide in the U.S., as Richardson claimed.


title: Rule against perpetuities

text: The rule against perpetuities is a legal rule in the American common law that prevents people from using legal instruments (usually a deed or a will) to exert control over the ownership of private property for a time long beyond the lives of people living at the time the instrument was written. Specifically, the rule forbids a person from creating future interests (traditionally contingent remainders and executory interests) in property that would vest beyond 21 years after the lifetimes of those living at the time of creation of the interest, often expressed as a “life in being plus twenty-one years”. In essence, the rule prevents a person from putting qualifications and criteria in a deed or a will that would continue to affect the ownership of property long after he or she has died, a concept often referred to as control by the "dead hand" or ""mortmain"".


title: Rule against perpetuities

text: The basic elements of the rule against perpetuities originated in England in the 17th century and were "crystallized" into a single rule in the 19th century. The rule's classic formulation was given in 1886 by the American legal scholar John Chipman Gray:


title: Rule against perpetuities

text: The rule against perpetuities serves a number of purposes. First, English courts have long recognized that allowing owners to attach long-lasting contingencies to their property harms the ability of future generations to freely buy and sell the property, since few people would be willing to buy property that had unresolved issues regarding its ownership hanging over it. Second, judges often had concerns about the dead being able to impose excessive limitations on the ownership and use of property by those still living. For this reason, the rule only allows testators (will-makers) to put contingencies on ownership upon the following generation plus 21 years. Lastly, the rule against perpetuities was sometimes used to prevent very large, possibly aristocratic estates from being kept in one family for more than one or two generations at a time.


title: Rule against perpetuities

text: The rule also applies to options to acquire property. Often, one of the objectives of delaying the time of vesting is to avoid or reduce taxation of some sort. For example, a bequest in a will may be to one’s grandchildren, often with a life interest to one’s surviving spouse and then to the children, to avoid the payment of multiple death duties or inheritance taxes on the testator’s estate. The rule against perpetuities was one of the devices developed to at least limit this tax avoidance strategy.


title: Rule against perpetuities

text: The rule has its origin in the "Duke of Norfolk's Case" of 1682. That case concerned Henry, 22nd Earl of Arundel, who had tried to create a shifting executory limitation so that some of his property would pass to his eldest son (who was mentally deficient) and then to his second son, and other property would pass to his second son, but then to his fourth son. The estate plan also included provisions for shifting property many generations later if certain conditions should occur.