title: Ford 335 engine

text: When the 351 Cleveland was discontinued after the 1974 model year, Ford needed another engine in that size range, since production of the 351 Windsor was not sufficient. Ford took the 400 engine's tall-deck block and installed the 351 Windsor crankshaft resulting in a shorter stroke crankshaft to produce a 351 cubic inch (5.8 L) engine. The 351 Windsor and 400 Cleveland shared the same main journal size and cylinder bore spacing, so the crankshafts were interchangeable. This crankshaft was not the same as a 351C, in that it used the larger main bearing journals of the 400 V8. To compensate for the shorter stroke the pistons for the 351M have a taller compression height, so that it could use the same connecting rods as the 400. The result of the 351M using the longer 400 connecting rod was a higher connecting rod-to-stroke ratio of 1.88:1 than the 351C and 400's of 1.65:1. Other than pistons and crankshaft the 351M shared all of its major components with the 400, and it also used the large 385 Series style bellhousing. The 351M was only ever equipped with a 2-barrel carburetor and open chamber small port 2V cylinder heads.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: 351M production began for the 1975 model year and blocks were cast in the Michigan Casting Center or the Cleveland Foundry. The 351M was the last pushrod V8 block designed by Ford until the introduction of the 7.3-liter "Godzilla" engine for the Super Duty trucks in model year 2020.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: For the 1977 model year, Ford replaced its FE big-block 360 and 390 engines in its light truck line with its new 351M and 400 engines. For light-truck use, a manual transmission could be ordered for the first time with these engines. As a result, the block was strengthened in the main bearing supports, in particular the #3 support to better handle the loads imparted by the clutch. The truck engines had unique parts including pistons for different compression ratios from the car engines, truck specific intake and exhaust manifolds, camshaft with more lift, and timing set that did not retard the camshaft timing. The strengthened engine block was introduced to the Ford cars for the 1978 model year.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 400 V8s for the model years 1971–72 were either cast in the Dearborn Iron Foundry or the Cleveland Foundry. Those built for model years 1973–79 were either cast in the Cleveland Foundry or the Michigan Casting Center. The 351M introduced in 1975 shared the same block as the 400. The 351M and 400 blocks cast at the Michigan Casting Center prior to March 2, 1977 experienced water jacket cracking problems above the lifter bores. The cracking was caused by an internal coring problem when the blocks were cast. The result was horizontal cracks approximately 1" above the lifter bore. After March 2, 1977, the blocks cast at Michigan Casting Center did not have problems with cracking.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: There exists debate as to what Ford meant by the "M" designation of the 351M. Some claim the "M" stands for “Modified” - being modified from a 400-V8 with a shortened stroke - though others claim that the "M" refers to the Michigan Casting Center, where the 351M began production. Some say that the "M" designation has no official meaning, and that it was just Ford's way of distinguishing the 351M from the 351C and 351W.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: Likewise, Ford's use of the 400 block in the creation of the 351M engine has resulted in the 400 mistakenly being referred to as the "400M" or "400 Modified." This is despite the 400 having been the design basis from which the "modified" 351M was derived and it was in production several years before Ford used the "M" designation. Further confusion arises from Ford printing "351M/400" on the emission stickers for the engine. The "351M/400" referenced the engine family, and some confused this with the engine name. This sticker also listed the engine displacement below the engine family. Ford's official name for the 400 V8 contains no additional designations - the proper nomenclature is simply "400."


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The 351M and 400 were last offered in a Ford passenger car in 1979. They remained available in Ford light-trucks until 1982. Reduced demand for larger engines due to tightening CAFE regulations led to the abandonment of the 351M/400 and the Cleveland production line. By 1980, mid-sized V8's had disappeared from the option list for almost all Ford cars. Only the full-size Panther platform Fords had anything larger than 302 ci available, and this need was filled with the 351W. With low demand for engines in the size range of the 351M/400, the 335-series V8's no longer had a need to be produced.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: In addition, there were difficulties adapting the M-block to the second generation of emissions controls. Unlike previous Ford engines, Thermactor and exhaust gas recirculation features had already been built into the 351M and 400 engine, rendering adaptation to electronic feedback fuel/air systems difficult. One requirement of the second-generation equipment was an oxygen (O) sensor in the exhaust, which had to be placed before the Thermactor air was added. Since Thermactor air was injected right into the block's exhaust ports in the M-block, there was nowhere for the O sensor to go.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: During the 1969 Model year, Ford of Australia imported approximately 17,000 302 Windsor and 351 Windsor V8's. However, the 351 Windsor was phased out for 1970 in favor of the newer 351 Cleveland. The 351 Cleveland engines continued to be imported from the US along with the 302 Windsor V8. Both the low-performance 351C-2V and the high performance 351C-4V were imported with the vast majority of the engines being the 351C-2V. Like the US engines, the 4V versions used the closed "quench" chambered heads and used the larger ports on the cylinder heads.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: In November 1971, Ford of Australia began to manufacture the 335-series V8 locally at the Geelong engine plant. They produced both the 351C-2V and 351C-4V engine along with a short stroke version displacing 302 cubic inches. These new locally built engines replaced the previously imported 302 Windsor and 351C from the USA. Initially, the cylinder blocks were imported from the USA, while the remaining parts were manufactured in Australia at the Geelong Ford Foundry. In 1973, Ford of Australia received word of the fact the Ford of USA was stopping production of the 351 Cleveland engine after the 1974 model year. As a result, Ford of Australia placed an order for approximately 60,000 engine blocks to act as a supply until Geelong could start producing its own engine blocks. In 1975 Geelong began production of its own engine blocks which it continued until December 1981. All engine blocks produced in Australia were the short deck 9.206" engine block. The last Australian Ford to receive a Cleveland V8 engine was a Ford XE Fairmont Ghia ESP sedan, Vehicle Identification Number JG32AR33633K built on 25 November 1982. Ford Australia continued to make remnant stock of the 351C available in Bronco and F-series vehicles until August 1985. Australian-built 351 engines were also used by De Tomaso in Italy for the Pantera, Longchamp, and Deauville cars after American supplies had come to an end. These engines were tuned in Switzerland and were available with a range of outputs up to .


title: Ford 335 engine

text: In November 1971, Ford of Australia began to manufacture the Cleveland engine at the Geelong engine plant alongside of the 351C. The engine remained in production until 1982 and was only produced in Australia. The 302C was considered an economy V8 and it is estimated that only ten percent of Australian Cleveland V8 production was the 302C. The 302C was created by using the 351C block with a crankshaft that had a stroke while it shared the 2.75" main journal size of the 351C. The 302C had a connecting rod to allow it to share the same piston as the 351C. This resulted in a connecting rod-to-stroke ratio of 2.01:1, the least desirable of any of the 335 series V8s. The 302C used a unique cylinder head compared to the Australian 351C to ensure an adequate compression ratio. The 302C had used the "quench" closed combustion chamber with a volume of 56.4–59.4 cc, the smallest of any 335 series engine cylinder head. This head used the small 2V ports and valves, making it the only 335 series head with the closed chambers and small 2V ports.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: The combination of the closed chamber heads with the small 2V ports has caused the 302C head to be a bolt-on-performance upgrade for other 335 series V8s. Having the smallest combustion chamber of the 335 series V8s, these cylinder heads will easily boost the static compression ratio of any other 335 series V8. In addition, the small ports used on these head are more efficient for a street performance engine, than the large port 4V heads that tend to favour performance only at higher engine speeds.


title: Ford 335 engine

text: Initially, the 351C was imported to Australia from the US. Both the 351-2V and 351-4V were imported and both were in all respects the same as the American market counterparts. In November 1971, Ford of Australia began producing its own 351C engines, ending the importation of American engines. At the outset, Australia only produced a 351-2V engine, but in March 1972 Ford of Australia began to offer a new 351-4V engine with a 4-barrel carburetor. Australia only produced one style of cylinder head for the 351 engines, a 2V head with small ports and open chamber cylinder heads. As a result, the Australian 351-4V engines used the 2V cylinder head. This required a unique 4V intake manifold with the smaller 2V ports, unlike the American 351-4V intake manifold which used the large ports. No 351C built in Australia used the large port cylinder heads or closed chamber combustion chambers like the US built 351C-4V engines.


title: Caledonians

text: The Caledonians (; or '; , "Kalēdōnes") or the Caledonian Confederacy were a Brittonic-speaking (Celtic) tribal confederacy in what is now Scotland during the Iron Age and Roman eras.


title: Caledonians

text: The Greek form of the tribal name gave rise to the name "Caledonia" for their territory. The Caledonians were considered to be a group of Britons, but later, after the Roman conquest of the southern half of Britain, the northern inhabitants were distinguished as Picts, thought to be a related people who would have also spoken a Brittonic language.


title: Caledonians

text: The Caledonian Britons were thus enemies of the Roman Empire, which was the state then administering most of Great Britain as the Roman province of "Britannia".


title: Caledonians

text: The Caledonians, like many Celtic tribes in Britain, were hillfort builders and farmers who defeated and were defeated by the Romans on several occasions. The Romans never fully occupied Caledonia, though several attempts were made. Nearly all of the information available about the Caledonians is based on predominantly Roman sources, which may be biased.


title: Caledonians

text: Peter Salway assumes that the Caledonians would have been Pictish tribes speaking a language closely related to Common Brittonic, or a branch of it augmented by fugitive Brythonic resistance fighters fleeing from "Britannia". The Caledonian tribe, after which the historical Caledonian Confederacy is named, may have been joined in conflict with Rome by tribes in northern central Scotland by this time, such as the Vacomagi, Taexali and Venicones recorded by Ptolemy. The Romans reached an accommodation with Brythonic tribes such as the Votadini as effective buffer states.


title: Caledonians

text: According to German linguist Stefan Zimmer, Caledonia is derived from the tribal name "Caledones" (a Latinization of a Brittonic nominative plural n-stem "Calīdones"), which he etymologises as "possessing hard feet" ("alluding to standfastness or endurance", from the Proto-Celtic roots" "*kal-" "hard" and "*φēdo-" "foot"). The singular form of the ethnic name is attested as "Caledo" (a Latinization of the Brittonic nominative singular n-stem "*Calidū") on a Romano-British inscription from Colchester.


title: Caledonians

text: In AD 83 or 84, led by Calgacus, the Caledonians' defeat at the hands of Gnaeus Julius Agricola at Mons Graupius is recorded by Tacitus. Tacitus avoids using terms such as king to describe Calgacus and it is uncertain as to whether the Caledonians had single leaders or whether they were more disparate and that Calgacus was an elected war leader only. Tacitus records the physical characteristics of the Caledonians as red hair and long limbs.


title: Caledonians

text: In 122 AD construction began on Hadrian's Wall, creating a physical boundary between Roman controlled territory, and the land the Romans deemed as Caledonia.


title: Caledonians

text: An effort by the Romans to invade and conquer Caledonia was likely made sometime during or shortly after 139 AD. In 142 AD, construction began on the Antonine Wall roughly 100 km North of Hadrian's Wall in order to aid in the Roman push into Caledonian territory and to consolidate their conquest of southern Caledonian territory. The Romans later abandoned this wall (around 158) to return to Hadrian's Wall to the south.


title: Caledonians

text: According to Malcolm Todd, the tribes of what is now Northern Britain and Scotland (probably including the Caledones) proved themselves to be ""... too warlike to be easily contained..."", leading to the extensive garrisons left by the Romans to contest the tribes. Fraser and Mason argue that the "Caledones" likely did not directly attack or harass the Romans during this time, but may have had minor conflicts with other tribes.


title: Caledonians

text: In AD 180 the Caledonians took part in an invasion of Britannia, breached Hadrian's Wall and were not brought under control for several years, eventually signing peace treaties with the governor Ulpius Marcellus. This suggests that they were capable of making formal agreements in unison despite supposedly having many different chieftains. However, Roman historians used the word "Caledonius" not only to refer to the "Caledones" themselves, but also to any of the other tribes (both Pictish or Brythonic) living north of Hadrian's Wall, and it is uncertain whether these later were limited to individual groups or wider unions of tribes. It is possible that this was the peoples of "Brigantia" rather than the "Calidones." By the latter half of the 2nd Century AD, the actual "Caledones" would have likely had the "Maeatae" peoples between themselves and the Antonine Wall. During the reign of Commodus, a series of regular payments appear to have been made to the Caledonians by the Romans, continuing into the first few years of Severus' reign, according to John Casey.


title: Caledonians

text: In 197 AD Dio Cassius records that the Caledonians aided in a further attack on the Roman frontier being led by the Maeatae and the Brigantes and probably inspired by the removal of garrisons on Hadrian's Wall by Clodius Albinus. He says the Caledonians broke the treaties they had made with Marcellus a few years earlier (Dio lxxvii, 12).


title: Caledonians

text: The governor who arrived to oversee the regaining of control over "Britannia" after Albinus' defeat, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from the Maeatae rather than fight them.


title: Caledonians

text: According to James Fraser and Roger Mason, by the end of the 2nd century, the majority of Northern tribes had been merged in the Roman consciousness into either the "Caledones" or the "Maeatae", leaving just those two tribes as the representatives of the region. The region itself had long been called Caledonia, and Malcolm Todd states that all residents were called Caledonians, regardless of tribal affiliations.


title: Caledonians

text: The Caledonians are next mentioned in 209, when they are said to have surrendered to the emperor Septimius Severus after he personally led a military expedition north of Hadrian's Wall, in search of a glorious military victory. Herodian and Dio wrote only in passing of the campaign but describe the Caledonians ceding territory to Rome as being the result. Cassius Dio records that the Caledonians inflicted 50,000 Roman casualties due to attrition and unconventional tactics such as guerrilla warfare. Dr. Colin Martin has suggested that the Severan campaigns did not seek a battle but instead sought to destroy the fertile agricultural land of eastern Scotland and thereby bring about genocide of the Caledonians through starvation.


title: Caledonians

text: By 210 however, the Caledonians had re-formed their alliance with the Maeatae and joined their fresh offensive. A punitive expedition led by Severus' son, Caracalla, was sent out with the purpose of slaughtering everyone it encountered from any of the northern tribes. David Shotter mentions Caracalla's dislike for the Caledonians and his wish to see them eradicated. Severus meanwhile prepared for total conquest but was already ill; he died at Eboracum (modern day York) in "Britannia" in 211. Caracalla attempted to take over command but when his troops refused to recognise him as emperor, he made peace with the Caledonians and retreated south of Hadrian's Wall to press his claim for the imperial title. Sheppard Frere suggests that Caracalla briefly continued the campaign after his father's death rather than immediately leaving, citing an apparent delay in his arrival in Rome and indirect numismatic and epigraphic factors that suggest he may instead have fully concluded the war but that Dio's hostility towards his subject led him to record the campaign as ending in a truce. Malcolm Todd however considers there to be no evidence to support this. Peter Salway considers that the pressures on Caracalla were too high, and security of the Romans' northern frontier were secure enough to allow their departure. Nonetheless the Caledonians did retake their territory and pushed the Romans back to Hadrian's Wall.


title: Caledonians

text: In any event, there is no further historical mention of the Caledonians for a century save for a c. AD 230 inscription from Colchester which records a dedication by a man calling himself the nephew (or grandson) of "Uepogenus, [a] Caledonian". This may be because Severus' campaigns were so successful that the Caledonians were wiped out; however this is highly unlikely.


title: Caledonians

text: In 305, Constantius Chlorus re-invaded the northern lands of Britain although the sources are vague over their claims of penetration into the far north and a great victory over the "Caledones and others" (Panegyrici Latini Vetares, VI (VII) vii 2). The event is notable in that it includes the first recorded use of the term 'Pict' to describe the tribes of the area.


title: Caledonians

text: Tacitus in his "Agricola", chapter XI (c. 98 AD) described the Caledonians as red haired and large limbed, which he considered features of Germanic origin: “The reddish ("rutilae") hair and large limbs of the Caledonians proclaim a German origin”. Jordanes in his "Getica" wrote something similar:


title: Caledonians

text: Eumenius, the panegyrist of Constantine Chlorus, wrote that both the Picts and Caledonians were red haired ("rutilantia"). Scholars such as William Forbes Skene noted that this description matches Tacitus' description of the Caledonians as red haired in his Agricola.


title: Caledonians

text: James E. Fraser argues that Tacitus and other Romans were aware of methods of Caledonians dyeing their hair in order to achieve the stereotypical red colour, and that it was likely misinterpreted as an ethnic identifier. Fraser also mentions that the pressure put on the Northern tribes, forcing them to move, may have led to the creation of identifiers specific to certain tribes, such as clothing or jewellery; some of the earliest examples of such identifiers include armlets, earrings, and button covers, as well as decorated weaponry.


title: Caledonians

text: There is little direct evidence of a Caledonian archaeological culture but it is possible to describe the settlements in their territory during their existence.


title: Caledonians

text: The majority of Caledonians north of the Firth of Forth would likely have lived in villages without fortifications in houses of timber or stone, while those living nearer to the Western coast would have more likely been using a form of dry stone. According to Malcolm Todd, "...'substantial houses' of the North may be over-represented in the archaeological record, by reason of their ability to more successfully survive as recognisable structures."


title: Caledonians

text: The hillforts that stretched from the North York Moors to the Scottish Highlands are evidence of a distinctive character emerging in northern Great Britain from the Middle Iron Age onwards. They were much smaller than the hillforts further south, often less than 10,000 square metres in area (one hectare, about 2.47 acres), and there is no evidence that they were extensively occupied or defended by the Caledonians, who appear to generally have had a dispersed settlement pattern.


title: Caledonians

text: By the time of the Roman invasion there had been a move towards less heavily fortified but better sheltered farmsteads surrounded by earthwork enclosures. Individual family groups likely inhabited these new fortified farmsteads, linked together with their neighbours through intermarriage.


title: Caledonians

text: The reason for this change from hilltop fortresses to farms amongst the Caledonians and their neighbours is unknown. Barry Cunliffe considers that the importance of demonstrating an impressive residence became less significant by the second century because of falling competition for resources due to advances in food production or a population decline. Alternatively, finds of Roman material may mean that social display became more of a matter of personal adornment with imported exotica rather than building an impressive dwelling.


title: Caledonians

text: Anne Robertson suggests that the Roman objects and materials (including relative finery and currency) found within many Caledonian structures indicates a trade network between the two cultures from as early as the first century CE, continuing until at least the fourth century AD.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Egan Arley Bernal Gómez (born 13 January 1997) is a Colombian cyclist who rides for UCI WorldTeam . In 2019 he won the Tour de France, becoming the first Latin American rider to do so, and the youngest winner since 1909. At the 2021 Giro d'Italia, Bernal took his second Grand Tour win.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal was born in Bogotá, Colombia, and raised in Zipaquirá. He is the oldest child of Germán, an employee at the Salt Cathedral, and Flor, a flower factory worker. His father had been a keen amateur cyclist, and he started riding on a second hand bicycle at age five. At nine, against his father's wishes, he entered and easily won a race in his home town, the prize for which included a training scholarship. He studied one semester at Universidad de la Sabana in Chia, Colombia.


title: Egan Bernal

text: He initially focused on and excelled at mountain biking, winning races in Brazil, Costa Rica, and the United States, and getting both silver (2014) and bronze (2015) in the UCI Mountain Bike World Championships junior cross country events.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Alongside mountain biking, Bernal had begun to gain success in junior road racing both in Colombia and Italy, winning the Clasica Juventudes Cajica and the Sognando Il Giro delle Fiandre in 2015.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal was signed by Gianni Savio to the team on a four year contract, partly on the evidence of a VO2 max reading of 88.8ml/kg/min provided by his agent, Paolo Alberati. He began racing among seniors right away, bypassing the usual U23 career route. In 2016, he obtained top 20 results in the La Méditerranéenne, the GP Industria & Artigianato, Settimana Internazionale Coppi e Bartali and Giro del Trentino, before winning the (then) lower level Tour of Bihor and coming fourth in both the Tour de Slovenie and the Tour de l'Avenir.


title: Egan Bernal

text: 2017 saw top ten finishes for Bernal in the Vuelta a San Juan and the Tour de Langkawi. He later finished third overall in the Settimana Internazionale Coppi e Bartali, second in the Giro dell'Appennino, and ninth in the Tour of the Alps. His first professional wins came in the Sibiu Cycling Tour, with two stage victories as well as the overall. He also won two stages and the overall title at the Tour de l'Avenir. Although he was still under contract to and a contract buyout payment reported to be €350,000 was necessary, Bernal signed a five year deal with from the 2018 season. He completed his time in Savio's team with fifth in the Giro della Toscana and top twenty places in Giro dell'Emilia, Milano–Torino and his first monument, Il Lombardia.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal made his debut for in the Tour Down Under as team co-leader, in which he won the young rider classification and finished sixth in the overall standings. In February 2018, Bernal won the Colombian National Time Trial Championships. He went on to win the first edition of the Tour Colombia (then called Colombia Oro y Paz), through an attack on the final climb on the last day.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal's next race was the Volta a Catalunya, in which he was second on general classification when he fell on a wet descent in the final stage, fracturing his clavicle and scapula.


title: Egan Bernal

text: The following month, Bernal competed in the Tour de Romandie, winning stage three of the race, an individual time trial and finishing second overall behind Primož Roglič. In May, Bernal achieved his first UCI World Tour win in the Tour of California, finishing over a minute ahead of Tejay van Garderen, and winning two stages.


title: Egan Bernal

text: In July, he rode the Tour de France as a domestique for team leaders Chris Froome and Geraint Thomas. He was the youngest participant in the race, and was still able to drop many contenders in the mountains.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal started his 2019 season in Colombia. He rode in the national championships and in his home stage race, the Tour Colombia. Bernal, however, was unable to defend his title in the race, finishing fourth overall. Bernal later went to Europe to compete in Paris–Nice. The Colombian impressed in the crosswinds, the individual time trial, and in the mountains, claiming the overall victory ahead of Nairo Quintana.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal next finished third in the Volta a Catalunya, and was scheduled to lead Team Ineos at the Giro d'Italia until he broke a collarbone in a training injury in Andorra. He returned to racing for the Tour de Suisse, in which he won the overall classification and the queen stage.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal was elevated to be co-leader of the team with defending champion Thomas for the Tour de France, because of the absence through injury of Froome. After the stage 2 team time trial he had a top ten position in the general classification, which he retained, despite an unimpressive individual time trial performance, into the three decisive alpine stages. An attack on the last climb of stage 18 saw him move into second place overall, ahead of Thomas, and he took the yellow jersey as race leader on stage 19 after an attack on the Col de l'Iseran. The stage was shortened because of landslides and a severe hail storm with 38 km remaining. Although the stage positions were considered null, times were taken at the top of the Iseran, putting Bernal in the lead with margins of forty five seconds over previous leader Julian Alaphilippe and one minute and eleven seconds over Thomas. He defended his lead on stage 20, another mountain stage, and confirmed his victory with the largely ceremonial ride onto the Champs-Élysées in Paris.


title: Egan Bernal

text: He thus became the first Colombian or South American rider, and second from the Americas, to win the Tour de France, and also won the best young rider competition. At the time he was the youngest General Classification winner since 1909 and the third youngest ever at 22 years, 196 days.


title: Egan Bernal

text: “It’s incredible, I don’t know what to say,” Bernal said. “I’ve won the Tour but I don’t manage to believe it. I need a couple of days to assimilate all this. It’s for my family and I just want to hug them. It’s a feeling of happiness that I don’t know how to describe it.”


title: Egan Bernal

text: In early 2020, Bernal finished fourth at the Tour Colombia. After the coronavirus break, he won the Route d'Occitanie, and finished second at the Tour de l'Ain. At the Colombian Road Race Championships, he claimed podiums in both the road race and time trial.


title: Egan Bernal

text: At the Tour de France, Bernal was in the top ten of the general classification from stage 2 to stage 14, and led the young rider classification for five stages, but having been 59 seconds behind the leader after stage 14 he lost considerable time on the next two days, after which he withdrew from the race with back pain.


title: Egan Bernal

text: After some early season stage races, including the Tour de la Provence where he took third place, he finished third in Strade Bianche, and in the Tirreno-Adriatico he managed one top five stage finish, and finished in fourth place, 4'13" behind winner Tadej Pogačar.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal entered the 2021 Giro d'Italia as one of the favourites for the race. On the sixth stage to San Giacomo, Bernal put time into his rivals by finishing second behind stage winner Gino Mäder and moving into third place in the overall standings, 16 seconds behind new leader Attila Valter. On the race's ninth stage , Bernal took the first Grand Tour stage win of his career as well as the pink jersey with an attack on the gravel section at the end of the final climb to Campo Felice, emerging with a 15 second lead in the general classification over Remco Evenepoel. Bernal extended his lead on the second stage of the race with gravel sectors, stage 11 to Montalcino, where several of his general classification rivals lost time, including Evenepoel, giving Bernal a 45 second lead over Aleksander Vlasov. He took more time out of his rivals on stage 14, latching onto an attack by Simon Yates on the final climb up Monte Zoncolan before overhauling him to finish the stage in fourth and take a lead of over one and a half minutes in the general classification over Yates, who moved into the runner-up position. Bernal took his second stage win of the race on the sixteenth stage to Cortina d'Ampezzo, which was shortened due to poor weather, crossing the finish line 27 seconds in front of Romain Bardet and Damiano Caruso and opening up a lead in the overall standings of almost two and a half minutes over the latter going into the second rest day.


title: Egan Bernal

text: On the race's final week Bernal maintained his lead over Caruso but lost time to Yates, with the latter and João Almeida distancing Bernal on stage 17's finishing climb to Sega di Ala, cutting the gap between Bernal and Yates by almost a minute, and Yates again attacking on stage 19's final ascent up Alpe di Mera with about six and a half kilometres to go, going on to win the stage with Bernal almost half a minute behind. On the final mountain stage, Caruso and his teammate Pello Bilbao distanced Bernal on the descent of the San Bernardino Pass 50 km from the finish in pursuit of a group of riders from including Bardet before working with riders from an earlier breakaway to extend their lead over Bernal to 50 seconds up the penultimate climb of the Splügen Pass. Bernal and his teammates were able to reduce the gap to less than half a minute by the time Caruso crossed the finish line on the Alpe Motta to win the stage, reducing Bernal's general classification lead to just under two minutes. Bernal secured the pink jersey on the final time trial in Milan, conceding another 30 seconds to Caruso to win by a one and a half minute margin. He became the fourth rider to win both the Tour and the Giro before reaching the age of 25, after Gino Bartali, Felice Gimondi and Eddy Merckx, and also the fourth rider to win both the overall and youth classifications in the same Giro, alongside Evgeni Berzin, countryman Nairo Quintana and teammate Tao Geoghegan Hart.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Bernal entered the 2021 Vuelta a España with a very strong team that also included Richard Carapaz and Adam Yates. By his own standards he rode poorly early in the race and was not happy with his own performance. Despite this his took over the young rider classification after stage 3 and was in a top 10 position among the general classification riders for most of the race. On stage 17 which included the climb to the Lagos de Covadonga he launched an attack with 61 kilometers to go. Primož Roglič was the only rider who could go with him and the two continuously built a gap over the other favorites. By the end of the stage he had fallen back and crossed the line with the surviving general classification riders still maintaining his lead over Gino Mäder in the young rider competition and rising to 6th place overall. On the penultimate climb of the race he got caught out in a split among the GC riders and lost the young rider jersey to Mäder, but retained his 6th place after the final ITT on stage 21.


title: Egan Bernal

text: On a training ride in Gachancipá with Ineos Grenadiers teammates on the 24 January, Bernal hit the back of a stopped passenger bus at a speed of about . Bernal was on his time-trial bike and had not been attentive to the stopped bus according to the transit police. Ineos team later released a statement stating Bernal had sustained "[...]a fractured vertebrae, a fractured right femur, a fractured right patella, chest trauma, a punctured lung and several rib fractures". Bernal was taken to Clinica Universidad de La Sabana in Bogotá for treatment. In total, doctors counted 20 separate fractures and initially warned there was a 95% chance Bernal would die or be paralyzed. He underwent two surgeries, both of which were successful in the immediate sense; the long term impacts are less certain. By 25 January he was stabilized, although still in intensive care as the doctors moved to treating less serious injuries.


title: Egan Bernal

text: Fortunately he began to recover quickly, and by early March was sharing his progress with friends, family and fans on social media. His coach, Xabier Artexte, did not rule out a return to cycling by the end of the 2022 season.


title: Egan Bernal

text: There was a rumor that Bernal would possibly make his return at the 2022 Vuelta a España, however Vuelta Director Javier Guillén stated this was not true. Instead Bernal is intending to ride in the 2022 edition of Vuelta a Burgos. The plan was changed again with his new return being the Danmark Rundt.


title: Power loom

text: A power loom is a mechanized loom, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. The first power loom was designed in 1786 by Edmund Cartwright and first built that same year. It was refined over the next 47 years until a design by the Howard and Bullough company made the operation completely automatic. This device was designed in 1834 by James Bullough and William Kenworthy, and was named the Lancashire loom.


title: Power loom

text: By the year 1850, there were a total of around 260,000 power loom operations in England. Two years later came the Northrop loom which replenished the shuttle when it was empty. This replaced the Lancashire loom.


title: Power loom

text: The main components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses, shuttle, reed, and takeup roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and taking-up operations.


title: Power loom

text: With each weaving operation, the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam. This process is called taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a filling stop motion which will brake the loom, if the weft thread breaks.


title: Power loom

text: Operation of weaving in a textile mill is undertaken by a specially trained operator known as a weaver. Weavers are expected to uphold high industry standards and are tasked with monitoring anywhere from ten to as many as thirty separate looms at any one time. During their operating shift, weavers will first utilize a wax pencil or crayon to sign their initials onto the cloth to mark a shift change, and then walk along the cloth side (front) of the looms they tend, gently touching the fabric as it comes from the reed. This is done to feel for any broken "picks" or filler thread. Should broken picks be detected, the weaver will disable the machine and undertake to correct the error, typically by replacing the bobbin of filler thread in as little time as possible. They are trained that, ideally, no machine should stop working for more than one minute, with faster turn around times being preferred.


title: Power loom

text: The first ideas for an automatic loom were developed in 1784 by M. de Gennes in Paris and by Vaucanson in 1745, but these designs were never developed and were forgotten. In 1785 Edmund Cartwright patented a power loom. which used water power to speed up the weaving process, the predecessor to the modern power loom. His ideas were licensed first by Grimshaw of Manchester who built a small steam-powered weaving factory in Manchester in 1790, but the factory burnt down. Cartwright's was not a commercially successful machine; his looms had to be stopped to dress the warp. Over the next decades, Cartwright's ideas were modified into a reliable automatic loom.


title: Power loom

text: These designs preceded John Kay's invention of the flying shuttle and they passed the shuttle through the shed using levers. With the increased speed of weaving, weavers were able to use more thread than spinners could produce.


title: Power loom

text: A series of inventors incrementally improved all aspects of the three principle processes and the ancillary processes.


title: Power loom

text: At this point the loom has become automatic except for refilling weft pirns. The Cartwight loom weaver could work one loom at 120-130 picks per minute- with a Kenworthy and Bullough's Lancashire Loom, a weaver can run four or more looms working at 220-260 picks per minute- thus giving eight (or more) times more throughput.


title: Power loom

text: The development of the power loom in and around Manchester was not a coincidence. Manchester had been a centre for Fustians by 1620 and acted as a hub for other Lancashire towns, so developing a communication network with them. It was an established point of export using the meandering River Mersey, and by 1800 it had a thriving canal network, with links to the Ashton Canal, Rochdale Canal the Peak Forest Canal and Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal. The fustian trade gave the towns a skilled workforce that was used to the complicated Dutch looms, and was perhaps accustomed to industrial discipline. While Manchester became a spinning town, the towns around were weaving towns producing cloth by the "putting out" system. The business was dominated by a few families, who had the capital needed to invest in new mills and to buy hundreds of looms. Mills were built along the new canals, so immediately had access to their markets. Spinning developed first and, until 1830, the handloom was still more important economically than the power loom when the roles reversed. Because of the economic growth of Manchester, a new industry of precision machine tool engineering was born and here were the skills needed to build the precision mechanisms of a loom.


title: Power loom

text: Draper' strategy was to standardize on a couple of Northrop Loom models which it mass-produced. The lighter E-model of 1909 was joined in the 1930 by the heavier X-model. Continuous fibre machines, say for rayon, which was more break-prone, needed a specialist loom. This was provided by the purchase of the Stafford Loom Co. in 1932, and using their patents a third loom the XD, was added to the range. Because of their mass production techniques they were reluctant and slow to retool for new technologies such as shuttleless looms.


title: Power loom

text: Originally, power looms used a shuttle to throw the weft across, but in 1927 the faster and more efficient shuttleless loom came into use. Sulzer Brothers, a Swiss company had the exclusive rights to shuttleless looms in 1942, and licensed the American production to Warner & Swasey. Draper licensed the slower rapier loom. Today, advances in technology have produced a variety of looms designed to maximise production for specific types of material. The most common of these are Sulzer shuttleless weaving machines, rapier looms, air-jet looms and water-jet looms.


title: Power loom

text: Power looms reduced demand for skilled handweavers, initially causing reduced wages and unemployment. Protests followed their introduction. For example, in 1816 two thousand rioting Calton weavers tried to destroy power loom mills and stoned the workers.


title: Power loom

text: In the longer term, by making cloth more affordable the power loom increased demand and stimulated exports, causing a growth in industrial employment, albeit low-paid.


title: Power loom

text: A darker side of the power loom's impact was the growth of employment of children in power loom mills.


title: Power loom

text: There are a number of inherent dangers in the machines, to which inattentive or poorly trained weavers can fall victim. The most obvious is the moving reed, the frames which hold the heddles and the "pinch" or "sand" roll utilized to keep the cloth tight as it passes over the front of the machine and onto the doff roll. The most common injury in weaving is pinched fingers from distracted or bored workers, though this is not the only such injury found. There are numerous accounts of weavers with long hair getting it tangled in the warp itself and having their scalp pulled away from the skull, or large chunks of hair pulled off. As a result of this, it has become industry standard for companies to require weavers to either keep hair up and tied, or to keep their hair short so as not to allow it to become tangled. Also, due to possible pinch points on the front of machines, loose, baggy clothing is prohibited. In addition, there is a risk of the shuttle flying out of the loom at a high-speed (200+ mph/322 kmh) and striking a worker if the moving reed encounters a thread/yarn or other mechanical jam/error. One complication for weavers, in the terms of safety, is the loud nature in which weave mills operate (115dB+). Because of this, it is nearly impossible to hear a person calling for help when entangled. This has led OSHA to outline specific guidelines for companies to mitigate the chances of such accidents occurring. However, even with such guidelines in place, injuries in textile production due to the machines themselves, are still commonplace.


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: Gigantosaurus is a CGI-animated preschool series created by Franck Salomé, Nicolas Sedel, Fernando Worcel and directed by Olivier Lelardoux based on the book by Jonny Duddle. The series is a co-production between the French animation studio Cyber Group Studios and Kaibou, with animation done by Canadian studio Blue Spirit Studio, with participation from Disney Channel and France Télévisions, and support from other Canadian companies.


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: The series premiered on January 18, 2019 on Disney Channel as part of the Disney Junior block, airing on its dedicated channel as well.


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: On December 11, 2019, the series was renewed for a second and third season. The second season premiered on January 4, 2021. The third and final season premiered on August 9, 2021.


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: Based on the bestselling book by Jonny Duddle and publisher Templar, four dinosaur friends interact with the viewer and explore their world and seek out and learn about the titular dinosaur from the book the series is based on, the biggest, fiercest dinosaur of all: Gigantosaurus (not to be confused with the real species of dinosaur, Giganotosaurus).


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: On May 4, 2017, the series was picked up by France Television and Super RTL. At that time, except for India and Taiwan, Disney Junior had agreed to carry the show starting in 2019. RAI (Italy), Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and Netflix procured the show by November 14, 2018. The show was premiered on the Disney Channel and DisneyNow in the United States as part of Disney Junior on January 18, 2019. The show premiered on Disney Junior in Canada on January 19, on Disney Junior in the United Kingdom and Ireland on April 29, on Trans TV in Indonesia, and for French Canada, the show premiered on ICI Radio-Canada Télé on September 19, 2020. It also airs on Tiny Pop in the UK.


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: In 2020, NCircle Entertainment signed a deal with Cyber Group Studios to secure the North American DVD rights to "Gigantosaurus". A single-disc DVD titled "The Biggest, Fiercest, Dinosaur of All!" was released on January 6, 2020, and contained 8 episodes. Another single-disc DVD titled "Dino Tales" was released on April 21, 2020, and contains 8 more episodes. A Volume set on the first season was released on September 1, 2020, and has the first 26 episodes of the first series. A new single-disc DVD titled "We're in This Together" is being released in November 2022. But the second and the third haven’t been announced on Volume set releases yet.


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: The show has merchandising agreements with Jakks Pacific to roll out Gigantosaurus toys in Autumn 2019.


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: A video game based on the show was announced in July 2019. It was developed by Wild Sphere and published by Outright Games for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, and PC in March 2020.


title: Gigantosaurus (TV series)

text: In September 2022, Outright Games announced another title - "Gigantosaurus: Dino Kart!", for release in 2023.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: The coastal region of what is today Libya was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1912. First, from 1551 to 1864, as the Eyalet of Tripolitania ( "Eyālet-i Trâblus Gârb") or "Bey and Subjects of Tripoli of Barbary", later, from 1864 to 1912, as the Vilayet of Tripolitania ( "Vilâyet-i Trâblus Gârb"). It was also known as the Kingdom of Tripoli, even though it was not technically a kingdom, but an Ottoman province ruled by pashas (governors). The Karamanli dynasty ruled the province as a "de facto" hereditary monarchy from 1711 to 1835, despite remaining under nominal Ottoman rule and suzerainty from Constantinople.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: Besides the core territory of Tripolitania, "Barca" was also considered part of the kingdom of Tripoli, because it was ruled by the Pasha of Tripoli, also the nominal Ottoman governor-general.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: Ottoman name of "Trablus Garb" literally means "Tripoli in the West" since the state already had another Tripoli in the east also called Trablus conquered by Selim I after the battle at Marj Dabiq. After Tripolitania was annexed, the names of the eyalets were changed to "Tripoli in Levant" (Trablus Şam) and "Tripoli in the West" which is Roman Tripolitania (Trablus Garb).


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: A remnant of the centuries of Turkish rule is the presence of a population of Turkish origin, and those of partial Turkish origin – the "Kouloughlis".


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: By the beginning of the 16th century the Libyan coast had minimal central authority and its harbours were havens for unchecked bands of pirates. The Spaniards occupied Tripoli in 1510, but the Spaniards were more concerned with controlling the port than with the inconveniences of administering a colony. In 1530 the city, along with Malta and Gozo, was ceded by Charles I of Spain to the Knights of St John as compensation for their recent expulsion from the island of Rhodes at the hands of the Ottoman Turks. Christian rule lasted then until 1551, when Tripoli was besieged and conquered by famed Ottoman admirals Sinan Pasha and Turgut Reis. Declared as Bey and later Pasha of Tripoli, Turgut Reis submitted the tribes of the interior and several cities like Misrata, Zuwara, Gharyan, and Gafsa in the next decade. These efforts contributed to cement the foundations of a statal structure in what is today Libya, but control from Constantinople remained loose at best, much like in the rest of the Barbary Coast of North Africa.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: Under the Ottomans, the Maghreb was divided into three provinces, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. After 1565, administrative authority in Tripoli was vested in a Pasha directly appointed by the Sultan in Constantinople. The sultan supported the pasha with a corps of janissaries who he was dependent upon, which was in turn divided into a number of companies under the command of a junior officer or "bey". The janissaries quickly became the dominant force in Ottoman Libya and also was in charge of collecting taxes, however Barbary corsairs were the ones who steadily provided income to Tripoli from privateering activities. As a self-governing military guild answerable only to their own laws and protected by a "divan" (a council of senior officers who advised the pasha), the janissaries soon reduced the pasha to a largely ceremonial role.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: In 1611, the local chiefs of the area conducted a coup d'etat and successfully appointed Suleiman Safar, their own leader, as "dey" (local chief). As a result, his successors continually held the title and even occasionally identified as pasha.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: In 1711, Ahmed Karamanli, an Ottoman cavalry officer and son of a Turkish officer and Libyan woman, seized power and founded the Karamanli dynasty, which would last 124 years. The 1790–95 Tripolitanian civil war occurred in those years.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: In May 1801, Pasha Yusuf Karamanli demanded from the United States an increase in the tribute ($83,000) which it had paid since 1796 for the protection of their commerce and enslavement of crews by barbary pirates when the Treaty of Tripoli was signed. The demand was refused by third American President Thomas Jefferson, an American naval force was sent and blockaded Tripoli, and the desultory First Barbary War dragged on from 1801 until 3 June 1805. The Regency of Tripoli was defeated by the newly revived United States Navy.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: The Second Barbary War (1815, also known as the Algerian War) was the second of the two wars fought between the United States and the Ottoman Turks' North African regencies of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis, known collectively as the Barbary States.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: On 5 September 1817, Yusuf Karamanli invited the leaders of the Libyan tribe of Al-Jawazi to his castle in Benghazi, following a dispute regarding tribute and an uprising against his rule. Consequently, the Pasha ordered the execution of all attendees, and chased down the other tribe members, which resulted in the massacre of at least 10,000 people, who eventually sought refuge in neighboring countries, especially Egypt. This was known as the Al-Jawazi massacre.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: In 1835 the government of Sultan Mahmud II took advantage of local disturbances to reassert their direct authority. As decentralized Ottoman power had resulted in the virtual independence of Egypt as well as Tripoli, the coast and desert lying between them relapsed to anarchy, even after direct Ottoman control was resumed in Tripoli. The indigenous Senussi Movement, led by Islamic cleric Sayyid Mohammed Ali as-Senussi, called on the countryside to resist Ottoman rule. The Grand Senussi established his headquarters in the oasis town of Jaghbub while his "ikhwan" (brothers) set up "zawiyas" (religious colleges or monasteries) across North Africa and brought some stability to regions not known for their submission to central authority. In line with the expressed instruction of the Grand Sanusi, these gains were made largely without any coercion.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: It was one of the first Ottoman provinces to become a vilayet after an administrative reform in 1865, and by 1867 it had been reformed into the Tripolitania Vilayet.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: The highpoint of the Sanusi influence came in the 1880s under the Grand Senussi's son, Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi, who was a skilled administrator and a charismatic orator. With 146 lodges spanning the entire Sahara, he moved the Senussi capital to Kufra. Harsh Ottoman rule only fuelled the appeal of the Senussi Movement's call to repel foreign occupation. Remarkably, Mohammed al-Mahdi succeeded where so many had failed before him, securing the enduring loyalty of the Amazigh tribes of Cyrenaica. Over a 75‑year period, the Ottoman Turks provided 33 governors and Libya remained part of the empire—although at times virtually autonomous—until Italy invaded for the second time in 1911, as the Ottoman Empire was collapsing.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: The Italo-Turkish War was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Italy from September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912.


title: Ottoman Tripolitania

text: As a result of this conflict, the Ottoman Turks ceded the provinces of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica to Italy. These provinces together formed what became known as Libya.


title: S.W.A.T.: Firefight

text: S.W.A.T.: Firefight is a 2011 American direct-to-DVD action crime film directed by Benny Boom. It is a sequel to the 2003 film "S.W.A.T.", based on the 1975 "S.W.A.T." television series. Despite its name, the film does not feature any of the original cast nor are there any mentions of the previous film.


title: S.W.A.T.: Firefight

text: Sgt. Paul Cutler (Gabriel Macht) is an ex-military Los Angeles Police Department S.W.A.T. officer and considered to be one of the best, even holding a record of having no civilian casualties for ten years straight. After successfully rescuing hostages with no casualties, Cutler is requested to train the Detroit S.W.A.T. with an updated training curriculum from the F.B.I.'s Hostage Rescue Team training program. Shortly after arriving in Detroit, Cutler immediately imposes his authority and has a rough time with the Captain (Giancarlo Esposito) of the department as well as one of the senior S.W.A.T. commanders Justin Kellogg (Nicholas Gonzalez). During the middle of a training exercise, the team responds to an emergency call wherein ex-government agent Walter Hatch (Robert Patrick) is holding his girlfriend (Kristanna Loken) hostage.


title: S.W.A.T.: Firefight

text: Although the girl is saved unharmed, she hijacks Hatch's handgun and pleads with Cutler to move so she can shoot Hatch. When Cutler refuses to and tries to calm her down, she puts the gun to her head and commits suicide. Cutler's 10-year record with no hostages lost is broken and it takes its toll on him. The rift between Cutler and Kellogg escalates at a local bar, where Cutler makes a bet for Kellogg to beat him in a higher score with an arcade machine in exchange for Cutler leaving the city. Kellogg loses the bet, and is instead reassigned to "Charlie Company". Due to low manpower, Cutler enlists military squadmate Lori Barton (Shannon Kane) to assist his training. As the training goes on, Hatch steals a binder which contains details of tactics and information on the members. Meanwhile, Cutler starts a passionate relationship with Kim Byers (Carly Pope), the Detroit PD's Psychiatrist. The phone calls from Hatch now increase and he kidnaps Kim after planting a bomb under Cutler's car and shooting a member of S.W.A.T. The Captain orders Cutler to return to Los Angeles, where Hatch would not be able to target him.


title: S.W.A.T.: Firefight

text: The team is then called to a derelict warehouse where things do not appear to be right as no officers are on the scene. In the van, communication from the station shows that the call was a hoax. One S.W.A.T. officer is killed by a bomb while Barton and Watters are kidnapped. Aware of the full situation, Kellogg gives Cutler access to the armory and a squad car to save the hostages at one of the training grounds. Cutler briefly rescues Watters, but Watters perishes due to gunshot wounds to the chest from one of Hatch's henchmen. Cutler manages to save Barton and pursues Hatch. Cutler engages Hatch in a hand-to-hand fight while Kim tries to cut free from a bomb vest. She manages to escape it after Lori breaks the chain holding her with a shot from her sniper rifle, and throws it towards Hatch just as Cutler kicks him back into the wall. Cutler fires a shot, hitting the vest and detonating it, while Hatch falls down from a window as the blast engulfs him. The rest of the S.W.A.T. team arrives, with Cutler graduating the surviving members. Cutler asks Kim if she wants to go back to Los Angeles with him and she silently nods as they hold each other.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The Gloster Javelin is a twin-engined T-tailed delta-wing subsonic night and all-weather interceptor aircraft that served with Britain's Royal Air Force from the mid-1950s until the late 1960s. The last aircraft design to bear the Gloster name, it was introduced in 1956 after a lengthy development period and received several upgrades during its lifetime to its engines, radar and weapons, which included the De Havilland Firestreak air-to-air missile.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The Javelin was succeeded in the interceptor role by the English Electric Lightning, a supersonic aircraft capable of flying at more than double the Javelin's top speed, which was introduced into the RAF only a few years later. The Javelin served for much of its life alongside the Lightning; the last Javelins were withdrawn from operational service in 1968 following the introduction of successively more capable versions of the Lightning.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: In the aftermath of the Second World War, Britain identified a threat posed by the jet-powered strategic bomber and atomic weaponry and thus placed a great emphasis on developing aerial supremacy through continuing to advance its fighter technology, even following the end of conflict. Gloster Aircraft, having developed and produced the only British jet aircraft to be operational during the war, the Gloster Meteor, sought to take advantage of its expertise and responded to a 1947 Air Ministry requirement for a high-performance night fighter under Air Ministry specification F.44/46. The specification called for a two-seat night fighter, that would intercept enemy aircraft at heights of up to at least 40,000 feet. It would also have to reach a maximum speed of 525 kn at this height, be able to perform rapid ascents and attain an altitude of 45,000 feet within ten minutes of engine ignition.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: Additional criteria given in the requirement included a minimum flight endurance of two hours, a takeoff distance of 1,500 yards, structural strength to support up to 4g manoeuvres at high speed and for the aircraft to incorporate airborne interception radar, multi-channel VHF radio and various navigational aids. The aircraft would also be required to be economical to produce, at a rate of ten per month for an estimated total of 150 aircraft.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: Gloster produced several design proposals in the hope of satisfying the requirement. P.228, drawn up in 1946, was essentially a two-seat Meteor with slightly swept wings. A similar design was also offered to the Royal Navy as the P.231. The later-issued P.234 and P.238 of early 1947 had adopted many of the features that would be distinctive of the Javelin, including the large delta wing and tailplane. The two differed primarily in role; P.234 was a single-seat day fighter with a V-tail, while P.238 was a two-seat night fighter with a mid-mounted delta tailplane.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The RAF requirements were subject to some changes, mainly in regards to radar equipment and armaments; Gloster also initiated some changes as further research was conducted into the aerodynamic properties of the new swept and delta wings, as well as use of the new Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire turbojet engine.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: On 13 April 1949, the Ministry of Supply issued instructions to two aircraft manufacturers, Gloster and de Havilland, to each construct four airworthy prototypes of their competing designs to meet the requirement, as well as one airframe each for structural testing. These prototype aircraft were the Gloster GA.5, designed by Richard Walker, and the de Havilland DH.110, the latter of which held the advantage of also being under consideration for the Royal Navy. Development was considerably delayed through political cost-cutting measures, the number of prototypes being trimmed down to an unworkable level of two each before the decision was entirely reversed; this led to the unusual situation where the first production Javelin was actually completed prior to the prototype order being fulfilled.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The first prototype was completed in 1951. An unusual feature of the prototypes was the opaque canopy over the rear cockpit. It had been believed that visibility outside the cockpit was unnecessary and a hindrance to the observer; the only external view available was through 2 small 'portholes'. Following a month of ground testing, on 26 November 1951, the first prototype conducted its first flight at Moreton Valence airfield. Bill Waterton, Gloster's Chief Test Pilot, would later describe the Javelin as being "as easy to fly as an Anson", although also expressing concern over its inadequate power controls. Disaster nearly struck during one test flight when aerodynamic flutter caused the elevators to detach in mid-flight; despite the lack of control surfaces, Bill Waterton was able to land the aircraft using tailplane trimming and engine thrust for pitch control. He was awarded the George Medal for his actions to retrieve flight data from the burning aircraft.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The second prototype (WD808) received a modified wing in 1953. After initial testing by Waterton, it was passed to another Gloster test pilot, Peter Lawrence for his opinion. On 11 June 1953, the aircraft crashed during testing. Lawrence had ejected from the aircraft, but too late (at about ), and was killed. The Javelin had experienced a "deep stall"; the wing acting like an airbrake had killed forward motion and at the same time degraded the airflow over the elevators, leaving them useless. Without elevator control, Lawrence was unable to regain control and the aircraft dropped from the sky. A stall warning device was later developed and implemented for the Javelin.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The third prototype ("WT827"), and the first to be fitted with operational equipment including radar, first flew on 7 March 1953. The fourth prototype ("WT830)" was passed to the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) for trials and the fifth prototype, "WT836", made its first flight in July 1954. On 4 July 1954, a prototype Javelin accidentally achieved supersonic speed during a test flight, the pilot having been distracted by an oxygen supply failure.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The official production order for the Javelin was issued in mid-1953; as the Gloster Meteor was still being actively produced by Gloster, considerable elements of the Javelin were subcontracted out to other aviation companies owned by the Hawker Siddeley Group, such as Armstrong Whitworth. While some delays were incurred, the Javelin's status as a "super priority" for production helped to minimise the time involved in producing each aircraft. On 22 July 1954, XA544, the first production aircraft, took flight at Hucclecote. Production was assisted by a large order placed by the United States Air Force, purchasing aircraft for the RAF as part of the Mutual Defense Aid Program at a price of £36.8 million.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: On 21 October 1954, a pilot attached to Gloster from RAE Farnborough was killed while flying Javelin "XA546" having entered what appeared to be an intentional spin. On 8 December 1955, a service test pilot S/L Dick was testing "XA561" for the A&AEE when the aircraft entered a flat spin at 40,000 ft during manoeuvres testing the buffet boundary, which the anti-spin parachute could not stop, and he chose to eject at 8,000 ft. Following this, a stall-warning device was developed for the Javelin.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: By the end of 1956, the Javelin was up to a FAW 7 variant, which was the first to meet the specifications of the original Air Ministry requirement, and which was to become the definitive version of the aircraft (most of which were later altered to the FAW 9 standard). The Javelin was evolving so quickly that deliveries of the FAW 8 began before FAW 7 production had ended. As a result, the final 80 FAW 7 aircraft went straight from the factory into storage, eventually flying after being re-manufactured as FAW 9s. A total of 427 Javelins were produced in all variants, plus seven prototypes. While there had been considerable interest from several NATO air forces, there were no export orders for the Javelin.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The Javelin was the RAF's first purpose-built all-weather interceptor aircraft. Aerodynamic features of the type included its adoption of the new delta wing and a large tailplane. Fuel and armaments were housed in the delta wing, and the engines and crew in the fuselage. The delta wing and tailplane combination had been deemed necessary by Gloster for effective manoeuvrability at high speed and for the aircraft to be controllable at low landing speeds. In one instance during testing, when both elevators had been torn off by elevator flutter, the Javelin remained controllable by using both the trimming capability of the large tailplane and thrust changes to control pitch. Changes from the prototypes included alterations to the rear fuselage and a central "pen nib" fairing extending beyond the engine nozzles, to eliminate buffeting of the rudder by the jet exhaust and increased sweepback of the wing's leading edge to improve high-speed handling.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The Javelin was reportedly easy to fly even on one engine. The flight controls were fully power-assisted and production aircraft adopted a hydraulic 'feel' system for the pilot. The Javelin featured an infinitely variable airbrake; the airbrake proved to be extremely responsive and effective, allowing pilots to conduct rapid descents and heavy braking manoeuvres, enabling equally rapid landings to be performed. The turnaround time between sorties was significantly shorter than with the preceding Gloster Meteor, due to improved ground accessibility and engine ignition sequence. Unlike the Meteor, the Javelin was fitted with ejector seats, at the introduction to service of the type. No other operational fighter of the West even to the present day had a bigger wing, in terms of area, than the Javelin, and in the USSR, only the Tu-128 had a larger (about 10m2) wing.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: In spite of the aircraft's unorthodox aerodynamic features, the Javelin had a fairly conventional structure and materials, being mainly composed of an aluminium alloy, with some use of steel edging. The fuselage was composed of four sections, the nose (containing the radar radome), the front fuselage, centre fuselage and rear fuselage; the nose and rear fuselage were removable for servicing and easy replacement. The engines were on either side of the centre fuselage, the internal space in the centre containing the service bay that housed much of the aircraft's electrical, hydraulic, and avionics subsystems. The engine air intakes were placed on the forward fuselage, running directly from beneath the cockpit rearwards into the delta wing. Electricity was provided by a pair of 6,000 watt, 24-volt generators driven by the auxiliary gearbox; inverters provided AC power for equipment such as some flight instruments and the radar.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The Javelin entered service with the RAF in 1956 with 46 Squadron based at RAF Odiham, England. The Javelins were immediately put to use in an intensive flying programme, to rapidly familiarise crews with the type. The introduction of the Javelin was eased by the establishment of a partial Operational Conversion Unit, a specialised team to assist the members of other squadrons in converting to the type. During RAF trials, the type proved readily capable of intercepting jet bombers such as the English Electric Canberra and modern jet fighters, over a hundred miles out to sea.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: A second squadron, 141, would be equipped with the Javelin in 1957, replacing the squadron's de Havilland Venom aircraft. The introduction of the Javelin allowed the RAF to expand its night-fighter activity considerably. By the end of July 1959, all remaining Meteor squadrons had been converted, many having been assigned to operate various models of the Javelin, including the newest FAW.7 variant.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The closest that the RAF's Javelins came to combat, was during the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation from September 1963 until August 1966. Javelins of 60 Squadron, later joined by 64 Squadron, operated out of RAF Tengah, Singapore flying combat patrols over the jungles of Malaysia. On 3 September 1964, an Indonesian Air Force C-130 Hercules crashed into the Straits of Malacca while trying to evade interception by a Javelin FAW.9 of No 60 Squadron.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: During June 1967, following the disbandment of 64 Squadron, 60 Squadron was deployed to RAF Kai Tak, Hong Kong because of unrest in the colony during China's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. No. 29 Squadron RAF of Javelins was also deployed to Ndola in Zambia during the early stages of Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence, to protect Zambia from any action by the Rhodesian Air Force. A single aircraft was written off when its undercarriage failed on landing on 2 June 1966.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: The last of the type was withdrawn from service in 1968, with the disbandment of 60 Squadron at RAF Tengah at the end of April 1968. One aircraft remained flying with the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment at Boscombe Down until 24 January 1975.


title: Gloster Javelin

text: A total of 435 aircraft were built by Gloster (302 built) and Armstrong-Whitworth (133 built); both companies at that time were part of the Hawker Siddeley group. Several were converted to different marks (sometimes repeatedly).


title: Gloster Javelin

text: Several variants were proposed and investigated but not produced, including aerial reconnaissance versions, a fighter bomber version with underwing panniers for bombs, and a supersonic variant with area-ruled fuselage, thinner wings, and a new tail. The "thin-wing Javelin" would have been capable of about Mach 1.6, with a higher ceiling than contemporary US designs. Initial work started with fitting a thinner-section wing to a Javelin fuselage but as the project developed the changes became so great that it would effectively have been a different aircraft albeit having an outward resemblance to the Javelin. The Gloster P.370 to F.153D for "Thin Wing Gloster All Weather Fighter, an update of the initial F.118 specification was ordered in 1954; a prototype "XG336" along with two pre-production aircraft. The final incarnation of the thin-wing Gloster (P.376) just before cancellation was a large aircraft carrying two Red Dean all-aspect missiles as a possible contender for Operational Requirement F.155. The aircraft, then under construction, and the missile were cancelled in 1957.


title: Jase Robertson

text: Jason Silas "Jase" Robertson (born August 16, 1969) is an American television personality, businessman, and professional duck hunter best known for his work on the A&E reality television show "Duck Dynasty". He is the COO of Duck Commander, and co-hosts the podcast "Unashamed with Phil and Al Robertson".


title: Jase Robertson

text: Jase Robertson was born to Phil and Marsha "Kay" Robertson in Bernice, Louisiana. His parents gave him the middle name of "Silas" in honor of his uncle Silas Robertson, Phil's brother. Jase also has three brothers: Alan, Willie, and Jeptha. Growing up with his father as the town's "Duck Commander", Jase wanted to spend as much time with him as possible, going on various hunting expeditions to strengthen their bond. Soon, Robertson developed the same passion for the sport that his dad has. From the age of eight, Robertson wanted to spend as much time in the rugged lifestyle in the woods as possible, even missing the maximum possible number of school days as allowed by Louisiana law.


title: Jase Robertson

text: With his brother Willie as the CEO of the business, Jase Robertson was previously the COO of Duck Commander. Robertson's job at Duck Commander was to fabricate the duck calls made by the company, fine-tune them, and to invent new ones. It takes him about two to three minutes to make one duck call. One of Jase's inventions is a duck call called the "Triple Threat", a duck call which utilizes three reeds instead of the usual two.


title: Jase Robertson

text: Jase Robertson is one of the stars of A&E's reality show "Duck Dynasty". He is portrayed as a foil for Willie Robertson, and often acts as a mischief maker. Jase said he thought that the show would never take off as a popular series. He stated in an interview with Fox News's Todd Starnes that:


title: Jase Robertson

text: I was one of the ones who said the reality show would never work...We were in the hunting world. I had this perception of reality shows that you had to have all this friction and fits of rage and four-letter words...We're pretty calm compared to that...We've got some crazy characters in our family — but I didn't think people would want to see that.


title: Jase Robertson

text: Jase Robertson lives in West Monroe, Louisiana with his wife Missy and their three children: Reed, Cole, and Mia. He is known for avoiding work in favor of hunting and fishing, speaking "duckinese", and for his self-proclaimed frog-hunting abilities. He calls himself "a frog's worst nightmare".


title: Richard Butler (singer)

text: Butler came to prominence in the early 1980s as lead vocalist of the rock band the Psychedelic Furs and went on to found the alternative rock band Love Spit Love in the early 1990s, during a hiatus of the Psychedelic Furs. Butler began his solo career in 2006, while still a member of the Psychedelic Furs, releasing the studio album "Richard Butler".


title: Richard Butler (singer)

text: Richard Lofthouse Butler was born on 5 June 1956 in Kingston upon Thames, southwest London. His father, George Butler, was a research chemist, a communist and an atheist. In the 1970s, George Butler was slated to become a scientific ambassador to the Soviet Union but a friend convinced him this would not be a good place for his family. Butler's mother was an artist. Butler started art school in London with the idea of becoming a painter. After graduation, he worked in a silk-screen print shop but got the idea to form a band.


title: Richard Butler (singer)

text: Butler formed the Psychedelic Furs in 1977 with his bassist brother Tim Butler. According to Butler, the Psychedelic Furs began rehearsing in the Butlers' front room, but were soon banished because of the noise. Joined by guitarist John Ashton, guitarist Roger Morris, drummer Vince Ely and saxophonist Duncan Kilburn, the band quickly gained commercial success.


title: Richard Butler (singer)

text: The Psychedelic Furs went on hiatus in the early 1990s and Butler became the founder and lead singer of Love Spit Love. By 2000 he stated that Love Spit Love had "gone into remission." His work with Love Spit Love can be heard on the hit syndicated television show "Charmed". A truncated version of LSL's cover version of the Smiths' hit song "How Soon Is Now?" – recorded for "The Craft" soundtrack – plays during the "Charmed" opening credits. He also sang backing vocals, on "I Am Anastasia" by the American band Sponge. Love Spit Love's "Am I Wrong" was the theme over the opening credits of the 1995 film "Angus."


title: Richard Butler (singer)

text: In 2001, the Psychedelic Furs reformed after a nine-year hiatus and have toured worldwide since then.


title: Richard Butler (singer)

text: In early 2006, Butler released the eponymous solo album titled "Richard Butler", a collection of songs dedicated to his late father, George Butler, and also Jon Carin's father, Arthur A. Carin (Carin was Richard Butler's collaborator on the release, co-authoring and arranging much of the music). In 2014, Butler covered Charles Aznavour's "She" for the "Gone Girl" teaser trailer.


title: Richard Butler (singer)

text: Richard Butler has one daughter, Maggie Mozart Butler (b. September 1997). In September 2020 Butler married model and actress Erika Anderson known from "A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child" and "Zandalee".


title: Richard Butler (singer)

text: In the early 2000s, Butler became interested in the art scene and began painting again. He has had gallery exhibitions in New York City, Miami (Waltman Ortega Fine Art), and Florence, Italy. One of his works, "Girl with a Map", has been used as a CD's cover art.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Cleveland Stadium, commonly known as Municipal Stadium, Lakefront Stadium or Cleveland Municipal Stadium, was a multi-purpose stadium located in Cleveland, Ohio. It was one of the early multi-purpose stadiums, built to accommodate both baseball and football. The stadium opened in 1931 and is best known as the long-time home of the Cleveland Indians (now the Guardians) of Major League Baseball, from 1932 to 1993 (including 1932–1946 when games were split between League Park and Cleveland Stadium), and the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League (NFL), from 1946 to 1995, in addition to hosting other teams, other sports, and concerts. The stadium was a four-time host of the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, one of the host venues of the 1948 and 1954 World Series, and the site of the original Dawg Pound, Red Right 88, and The Drive.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Through most of its tenure as a baseball facility, the stadium was the largest in Major League Baseball by seating capacity, seating over 78,000 initially and over 74,000 in its final years. It was superseded only by the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum from 1958 to 1961, while it was the temporary home of the Los Angeles Dodgers, and by Mile High Stadium in 1993, the temporary home of the expansion Colorado Rockies. For football, the stadium seated approximately 80,000 people, ranking as one of the larger seating capacities in the NFL.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Former Browns owner Art Modell took over control of the stadium from the city in the 1970s and while his organization made improvements to the facility, it continued to decline. The Indians played their final game at the stadium in October 1993 and moved to Jacobs Field the following season. Although plans were announced to renovate the stadium for use by the Browns, in 1995 Modell announced his intentions to move the team to Baltimore citing the state of Cleveland Stadium as a major factor. The Browns played their final game at the stadium in December 1995, after which they were renamed the Baltimore Ravens. As part of an agreement between Modell, the city of Cleveland, and the NFL, the Browns were officially deactivated for three seasons and the city was required to construct a new stadium on the Cleveland Stadium site. Cleveland Stadium was demolished in 1996 to make way for Cleveland Browns Stadium, which opened in 1999. Much of the debris from the demolition was placed in Lake Erie to create an artificial reef.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The impetus for Cleveland Stadium came from city manager William R. Hopkins, Cleveland Indians' president Ernest Barnard, real estate magnate and future Indians' president Alva Bradley, and the Van Sweringen brothers, who thought that the attraction of a stadium would benefit area commerce in general and their own commercial interests in downtown Cleveland in particular. However, some have incorrectly stated that it was built in a failed bid to attract the 1932 Summer Olympics, which had been awarded to Los Angeles in 1923, long before ground was broken on the stadium. Another common misconception is that Cleveland Stadium was a Works Progress Administration project; in fact, the WPA was not created until 1935, four years after the stadium was built.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: In November 1928, Cleveland voters passed by 112,448 to 76,975, a 59% passage rate, with 55% needed to pass, "a US$2.5 million levy for a fireproof stadium on the Lakefront." Actual construction costs overran that amount by $500,000.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Built during the administrations of city managers William R. Hopkins and Daniel E. Morgan, it was designed by the architectural firms of Walker and Weeks and by Osborn Engineering Company. It featured an early use of structural aluminum.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The stadium was dedicated on July 1, 1931. On July 3, 1931, it hosted a boxing match for the National Boxing Association World Heavyweight Championship between Max Schmeling and Young Stribling, with 37,000 fans in attendance. Schmeling retained his title by a technical knockout victory in the 15th round.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The Donald Gray Gardens were installed on the stadium's north side in 1936 as part of the Great Lakes Exposition. They remained until the construction of Cleveland Browns Stadium (now FirstEnergyStadium).


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The stadium was built for football as well as for the Cleveland Indians, who played their first game there on July 31, 1932, losing to the Philadelphia Athletics' great pitcher Lefty Grove 1–0 while attracting a then-major-league-record crowd of 80,184. The Indians played all of their games at the stadium from the middle of the 1932 season through 1933. However, the players and fans complained about the huge outfield, which reduced the number of home runs. Moreover, as the Great Depression worsened, attendance plummeted. The Indians returned to their smaller previous home, League Park, which was owned by the team, for all of the 1934 and 1935 seasons.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The Indians used the stadium to host the 1935 Major League Baseball All-Star Game and returned to the stadium in 1936 to host the New York Yankees on August 2 as part of the Great Lakes Exposition, drawing a crowd of 65,342. In 1937, the Indians began playing Sunday and holiday games at Cleveland Stadium during the summer, adding selected important games there in 1938. League Park lacked field lighting, so the emergence of night baseball in the 1930s led to the addition of night games to the schedule after lights were installed at the stadium in 1939. By 1940, the Indians played most of their home slate at the stadium, abandoning League Park entirely after the 1946 season. They remained at Cleveland Stadium until the end of the 1993 season, after which they moved to Jacobs Field.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The stadium foreshadowed problems that would emerge 40 years later when cookie-cutter stadiums were in vogue. Due to the fundamentally different sizes and shapes of baseball and football fields, the baseball sight lines generally left much to be desired. Many of the seats in the upper deck were too far from the field to be of any use during the regular season. The original baseball playing field was so large that an inner fence was constructed in 1947 to cut down the size of the spacious outfield. Even after the fence was installed, the distance markers on the bleacher walls remained visible for many years: from home plate to the bleachers in straightaway center field, to either corner of the bleachers, and to the far corners of the main stands in left-center and right-center. No player ever hit a home run into the center field bleachers.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: According to his autobiography, "Veeck – As in Wreck", Indians owner Bill Veeck would move the fence in or out, varying by as much as , depending on how it would favor the Indians, a practice that ended when the American League specifically legislated against moving fences during the course of a given season. But over the years, various ownerships tinkered with the position of the fence from time to time.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Like some other facilities built before warning tracks became standard, the stadium had an earthen berm in front of the center field wall. After the inner fence was installed, the berm was still visible during football season.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Jim Palmer was convinced that the pitcher's mound at the stadium was taller than most. "The mound was, despite whatever the rules claim, just a little lower than Mount Kilimanjaro."


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The facility, located just south of Lake Erie, was known for the biting cold winds that would blow into the stadium in winter, as well as during much of the spring and fall. Because of its proximity to the lake during hot summer nights, its lights attracted swarms of midges and mayflies. Game 2 of the 2007 American League Division Series at Jacobs Field on October 5, 2007, brought back memories of the old stadium, when swarms of midges (misidentified by the television announcers as mayflies) infested the field, particularly the pitcher's mound.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The Indians set three Major League attendance records during the 1948 season, when they won the American League pennant and World Series behind pitcher Bob Feller and shortstop/player-manager Lou Boudreau. That season, Cleveland had the highest single season attendance, 2,620,627, which was not eclipsed until 1962 by the Los Angeles Dodgers, largest regular season night game attendance of 72,434 for the first major league start of Satchel Paige, and biggest World Series game attendance of 86,288 for game 5 on October 10, 1948. However, during the Indians' lean years from the 1960s through the 1990s, they rarely attracted more than 30,000 people, and even crowds of 40,000 looked sparse in the cavernous environment. After the Indians were eliminated from the pennant race in 1949, as a black humor-themed stunt they held a mock funeral procession on the field and buried their 1948 pennant behind the center field fence. Due to the large size of the facility, the Indians began using a bullpen car in 1950.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: In addition to the 1935 MLB All-Star Game, Cleveland Stadium also hosted three additional all-star games: 1954, 1963, and 1981. Cleveland Stadium and Yankee Stadium are the only venues to host four MLB all-star games. On May 15, 1981, Len Barker threw a perfect game at the stadium, the second in franchise history and eighth in modern Major League history. The final Indians home game at Cleveland Stadium was held October 3, 1993, a 4–0 loss to the Chicago White Sox in front of 72,390 fans. During the game, fans, led by comedian Bob Hope, who grew up an Indians fan and was once a part-owner, sang a version of his signature song "Thanks for the Memory" with special lyrics for the occasion.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The Cleveland Browns, originally members of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), began playing at the facility in 1946, and played there through 1995. The stadium was the site of the AAFC Championship game in 1946, 1948 and 1949, all Browns wins. The Browns joined the NFL in 1950 and hosted the NFL Championship Game in 1950, 1952, 1954, 1964, and 1968, winning titles in 1950, 1954, and 1964.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The first Browns game at the stadium was also the first AAFC game, when the Browns hosted the Miami Seahawks on September 6, 1946. The Browns won the game 44–0 and drew 60,135 fans, what was then a record for a professional football crowd. During the 1980s, the center field bleachers at the east end of the stadium were home to many of the club's most avid fans and became known as the Dawg Pound after the barks that fans made to disrupt opposing teams' offensive plays. The fans were copying Browns players Hanford Dixon and Frank Minnifield, who frequently appeared to bark to each other and to the opposition. Some of the fans even wore dog masks and threw dog biscuits at opposing players. The Dawg Pound was included in the design of Cleveland Browns Stadium (now FirstEnergy Stadium), where the east end zone also has bleacher seating.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The stadium was also the site of two notable moments in Cleveland sports and Browns history. In a 1981 divisional playoff game on January 4, Browns quarterback Brian Sipe was intercepted in the end zone with less than a minute remaining in the game, resulting in a 14–12 loss to the Oakland Raiders. The game has since been referred to by the name of the pass play, Red Right 88. Six years later, during the 1987 AFC Championship game on January 11, John Elway led the Denver Broncos on what is referred to as The Drive, a 98-yard touchdown drive with 5:32 left that tied the game and sent it into overtime. The Broncos ultimately prevailed 23–20.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The final game in the stadium was held December 17, 1995, an emotional 26–10 win over the Cincinnati Bengals, the Browns' final game before the franchise was officially deactivated until 1999. At the end of that game, many fans cut and removed their seats.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Prior to the arrival of the Browns, the stadium was briefly the home field for two other NFL teams, the Cleveland Indians in 1931, and the Cleveland Rams from 1936 to 1937 and again from 1939 to 1941. The football Indians played two home games in their 1931 season, a 6–0 win over the Brooklyn Dodgers and a 14–0 loss to the Chicago Cardinals. The team drew a crowd of around only 2,000 spectators for the September 26th game against Brooklyn and 10,000 for the loss to the Cardinals on November 8.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The Rams were founded in 1936 as members of the second American Football League and joined the NFL in 1937. They played home games at the stadium their first two seasons, before moving to the smaller Shaw Stadium in 1938. The Rams returned to the stadium in 1939 and played home games there through the 1941 season before moving to League Park for the remainder of their time in Cleveland. The team returned to the stadium one last time to host the 1945 NFL Championship Game, a 15–14 win in what was the final Rams game in Cleveland before the team relocated to Los Angeles.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The stadium hosted the annual college football game between Notre Dame and Navy 11 times: in 1932, 1934, 1939, 1942, 1943, 1945, 1947, 1950, 1952, 1976 and 1978. The games were well attended, with an average attendance of 69,730 and a high of 84,090 fans for the 1947 game, which was won by Notre Dame 27–0.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Local college teams, including Western Reserve Red Cats, Case Tech Rough Riders, John Carroll Blue Streaks, and Baldwin Wallace Yellow Jackets often used the stadium for home games and local matchups, especially during the 1930s and 1940s when the city "Big Four Conference" was strong. Of the 60 all-time "Big Four" matchups, 22 were played at Cleveland Stadium, the most of any venue.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The Illinois Fighting Illini played the Penn State Nittany Lions there in 1959. The Ohio State Buckeyes played in the stadium four times, the first three as the home team during World War II. The first was in a 1942 win over Illinois before 68,656, the second a 1943 loss to Purdue, and the third a 1944 victory over Illinois. The final college football contest played there was on October 19, 1991, when the Northwestern Wildcats played a neutral site "home" game against the Buckeyes. While Northwestern received the home team's share of the gate receipts, Buckeye fans made up the vast majority of the crowd.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: In addition to sporting events, the stadium hosted a number of other events including concerts. The first concert held at the stadium, featuring the Beatles, took place in 1966. From 1974 to 1980, the World Series of Rock concerts were held each summer featuring acts such as the Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, the Beach Boys and Aerosmith. The Rolling Stones' July 1, 1978 concert of 82,238 attendees was reportedly the first concert to gross over $1 million.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, the stadium hosted concerts by the Jacksons, Bruce Springsteen, U2, Genesis, the Who and Paul McCartney, plus more concerts by Pink Floyd and the Rolling Stones.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: On September 2, 1995, the opening of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame was celebrated with an all-star concert which featured Chuck Berry, Bob Dylan, Aretha Franklin, Jerry Lee Lewis and others.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The stadium also hosted numerous religious services. Its most heavily attended event was the Roman Catholic Church's Seventh Eucharistic Congress, hosted by the Diocese of Cleveland in 1935, which attracted 75,000 to a midnight mass on September 24, 1935 and an estimated 125,000 to Eucharistic service the following day. One of the stadium's last events was a Billy Graham crusade, held in 1994.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Several scenes for the motion picture, "The Fortune Cookie", were filmed during the game between the Browns and the visiting Minnesota Vikings on October 31, 1965. Much of the 1949 movie "The Kid from Cleveland", in which Bob Feller, Lou Boudreau, Bill Veeck and Satchel Paige played themselves, was filmed there. Despite being set in the stadium, the 1989 motion picture "Major League" was not filmed in the stadium. While aerial distance shots of the stadium were used, Milwaukee County Stadium, whose grandstand interior looked similar to that of Municipal Stadium, was used for filming. Some scenes in the 1991 made-for-TV biopic "Babe Ruth", starring Stephen Lang as Ruth and with a cameo by Pete Rose as Ty Cobb, were filmed there.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: The stadium was an economic drain on the City of Cleveland, which owned it and originally operated it. In 1973, then-Browns owner Art Modell signed a 25-year lease to operate Cleveland Municipal Stadium. Modell's newly formed company, Stadium Corporation, assumed the expenses of operations from the city, freeing up tax dollars for other purposes. Also, Modell would pay an annual rent of $150,000 for the first five years and $200,000 afterwards to the city. In exchange, Modell would receive all revenue generated by the stadium. Stadium Corp invested in improvements, including new electronic scoreboards and luxury suites. However, the stadium's inadequacy was becoming apparent in any event; chunks of concrete were falling off and the pilings were starting to petrify.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Modell, mistakenly believing that his revenues were not endangered, refused to participate in the Gateway Project that built a new ballpark for the Indians and a new arena for the Cavaliers. Modell's assumptions proved incorrect, and Stadium Corp.'s suite revenues declined sharply when the Indians moved from the stadium to Jacobs Field in 1994. The following year, Modell announced plans to move the Browns to Baltimore after the 1995 season.


title: Cleveland Stadium

text: Modell's move of the Browns breached the team's lease, and the City of Cleveland sued. As part of the settlement, the city agreed to demolish Cleveland Stadium and build a new stadium on the same site. Modell agreed to leave the Browns' name, colors, and history in Cleveland, and the NFL agreed to have a resurrected Browns team by 1999, either by relocation or expansion. Demolition on Cleveland Stadium began in November 1996 and was completed in early 1997. of demolition debris was dumped into Lake Erie to create three artificial reefs for fishermen and divers, offshore of Cleveland and neighboring Lakewood. Construction on the new stadium began later in 1997 and it opened in August 1999 as Cleveland Browns Stadium.


title: Queen of the South F.C.

text: Queen of the South Football Club is a Scottish professional football club formed in 1919 in Dumfries. The club plays in Scottish League One, the third tier of Scottish football. They are traditionally nicknamed the "Doonhamers" but are more usually referred to as "Queens" or "QOS". Their home ground is Palmerston Park.


title: Queen of the South F.C.

text: The club won the Division B Championship in 1950–51, the Second Division Championship in 2001–02 and 2012–13, and the Scottish Challenge Cup in 2002–03 and 2012–13. Queens led Scotland's top division until New Year in the 1953–54 season: their highest finish in Scotland's top division was fourth in 1933–34. The club reached their first major cup final in 2008 when they reached the final of the Scottish Cup, where they were runners-up to Rangers. The club's management team are player-manager Willie Gibson and assistant manager Grant Murray.


title: Queen of the South F.C.

text: Palmerston Park is located on Terregles Street in Dumfries. The club has played there since 1919. South of Scotland League club Heston Rovers have shared Palmerston since 2013. The stadium has a capacity of of which 3,377 are seats.


title: Queen of the South F.C.

text: Robbie Neilson, the current manager of Hearts, said about Queens from his loan period at the club in 2002: "It's a well-run club and a real family club with a good spirit about the place."


title: Queen of the South F.C.

text: Marc Horne wrote in "The Scotsman" following Queens appearance in the 2008 Scottish Cup Final: "In the Palmerston Park club's songbook, it is clear there is no room for songs which feature religion, violent vendettas or centuries-old battles that took place in other lands."