title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: As time ticks down, Darren disables more bombs, but is severely slowed by confrontations with Foss' men. At one point, Darren, dressed as the Pittsburgh goalie to escape the thugs, enters the game and successfully defends a shot on goal. As the third period runs down, Luc Robitaille scores the game-tying goal for Pittsburgh in the last second, prompting sudden death overtime and prolonging the game. Deciding that there's no time left to find the remaining bombs, Darren climbs to the roof of the arena. He fights off two of Foss' henchmen; one of them falls onto the score display, blowing it up. As the arena erupts into chaos, Darren advances upon the owner's box from above and forces his way in, rescuing Emily, the Vice President and the remaining hostages. Darren and Emily reunite with Tyler and set out to leave the arena.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: Foss manages to escape and blend in with the panicking crowd. He sets off one of the bombs, flooding part of the arena, and recaptures Emily when she recognizes him. They head towards the top of the arena, where a helicopter is waiting to lift Foss away. Darren intervenes and saves his daughter before Foss could shoot her. As Foss attempts to flee, Darren shoots the pilot, causing the chopper to stall and fall into the arena, sending a screaming Foss to his death as the chopper explodes on impact with the ice.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: Darren is led to an awaiting Pittsburgh Bureau of EMS medic unit while his children tell the paramedics of his heroism. As a contented Darren is loaded into the ambulance, it is presumed that he was restored back to his position.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: Howard Baldwin, chairman of the Pittsburgh Penguins, was one of the film's backers. He had a two-year deal with Universal. Baldwin wanted to use footage from the October 1 game opener between Pittsburgh and Chicago, but the game was delayed due to a lockout. He arranged an exhibition game, but the players from Pittsburgh and Chicago apparently did not display the correct intensity. So they arranged another game involving players from the Johnstown Chiefs and Wheeling Thunderbirds of the East Coast Hockey League (now ECHL). Crowd shots were done over one night using between 2,000 and 3,000 extras, plus cardboard cut outs to make the stadium seem like 17,000.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: "Sudden Death" was filmed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where it is set, and Middletown, New York, in 98 days between August 29 and December 7, 1994. Parts were filmed at the then-unopened and now closed Veterans Hospital in Aspinwall, Pennsylvania.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: The final helicopter crash was filmed with a 400 ft crane that could pick up and lower the helicopter into the arena. Nine cameras recorded the event, which was filmed several times, and hundreds of emergency vehicles were on standby in case of an accident.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: "Sudden Death" opened in the United States on the weekend of December 22, 1995, in eighth place, making $4,782,445 at 1681 theaters, with a poor $2,845 per screen average, and a $20,350,171 final tally. Internationally it fared better, with a worldwide gross of nearly $64 million. In other countries, it made close to 50 million in profit with video sales.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 50% based on 36 reviews, with an average rating of 5.11/10. The website's consensus states ""Sudden Death" may not be a classic, but exciting set pieces and strong work from Jean-Claude Van Damme help this action thriller pay off part of its "Die Hard" debt." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film two and half stars out of four and stated that, ""Sudden Death" isn't about common sense. It's about the manipulation of action and special-effects sequences to create a thriller effect, and at that it's pretty good."


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" called it "A treat for Jean-Claude Van Damme fans, a superior action thriller loaded with jaw-dropping stunts and special effects, and strong in production values."


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: XTV Guide gave it 2 out of 4 calling it "Good clean fun, with just the right ratio of explosions to dialogue."


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: Bruce Fretts of "Entertainment Weekly" said the film wants to be a "comical "Die Hard" knockoff" but criticizes the director for the "inept editing and a plodding pace". He gave it a D− grade.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: In 2022, Lloyd Farley from Collider included "Sudden Death" in a list of the best movies of Van Damme.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: The novelization of the film was written by American writer Stephen Mertz. The audio book is read by Powers Boothe.


title: Sudden Death (1995 film)

text: On August 20, 2019, it was reported that a sequel-remake titled "Welcome to Sudden Death" was in production from both Universal 1440 and Netflix, originally set for a June 2020 release date. The film stars Michael Jai White and Gary Owen in a more comedic take on the material. It was released on September 29, 2020, to mostly negative reviews.


title: Anthelmintic

text: Anthelmintics or antihelminthics are a group of antiparasitic drugs that expel parasitic worms (helminths) and other internal parasites from the body by either stunning or killing them and without causing significant damage to the host. They may also be called vermifuges (those that stun) or vermicides (those that kill). Anthelmintics are used to treat people who are infected by helminths, a condition called helminthiasis. These drugs are also used to treat infected animals.


title: Anthelmintic

text: Pills containing anthelmintics are used in mass deworming campaigns of school-aged children in many developing countries. The drugs of choice for soil-transmitted helminths are mebendazole and albendazole; for schistosomiasis and tapeworms it is praziquantel.


title: Anthelmintic

text: Anthelmintic resistance in parasites is now widespread. It is a major threat to the sustainability of modern ruminant livestock production, resulting in reduced productivity, compromised animal health and welfare, and increased greenhouse gas emissions through increased parasitism and farm inputs. A database of published and unpublished European AR research on gastrointestinal nematodes was collated in 2020. A total of 197 publications were available for analysis, representing 535 studies in 22 countries and spanning the period 1980–2020. Results in sheep and goats since 2010 reveal an average prevalence of resistance to benzimidazoles of 86%, macrocyclic lactones except moxidectin 52%, levamisole 48%, and moxidectin 21%. All major gastrointestinal nematodes genera survived treatment in various studies. In cattle, prevalence of anthelminthic resistance varied between anthelmintic classes from 0–100% (benzimidazoles and macrocyclic lactones), 0–17% (levamisole) and 0–73% (moxidectin), and both "Cooperia" and "Ostertagia" survived treatment.


title: Anthelmintic

text: The ability of parasites to survive treatments that are generally effective at the recommended doses is a major threat to the future control of worm parasites in small ruminants and horses. This is especially true of nematodes, and has helped spur development of aminoacetonitrile derivatives for treatment against drug-resistant nematodes, as well as exploration of doxycycline to kill their endosymbiotic "Wolbachia" bacteria.


title: Anthelmintic

text: The resistance is measured by the "fecal egg count reduction" value which varies for different types of helminths.


title: Anthelmintic

text: Treatment with an antihelminthic drug kills worms whose phenotype renders them susceptible to the drug, but resistant parasites survive and pass on their "resistance" genes. Resistant varieties accumulate, and treatment failure finally occurs.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: Geraldine Brooks (born 14 September 1955) is an Australian-American journalist and novelist whose 2005 novel "March" won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: A native of Sydney, Geraldine Brooks grew up in its inner-west suburb of Ashfield. Her father, Lawrie Brooks, was an American big-band singer who was stranded in Adelaide on a tour of Australia when his manager absconded with the band's pay; he decided to remain in Australia, and became a newspaper sub-editor. Her mother Gloria, from Boorowa, was a public relations officer with radio station 2GB in Sydney. She attended Bethlehem College, a secondary school for girls, and the University of Sydney. Following graduation, she was a rookie reporter for "The Sydney Morning Herald" and, after winning a Greg Shackleton Memorial Scholarship, moved to the United States, completing a master's degree at New York City's Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism in 1983. The following year, in the Southern France artisan village of Tourrettes-sur-Loup, she married American journalist Tony Horwitz and converted to Judaism.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: As a foreign correspondent for "The Wall Street Journal", she covered crises in Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. The stories from the Persian Gulf that she and her husband reported in 1990 received the Overseas Press Club's Hal Boyle Award for "Best Newspaper or Wire Service Reporting from Abroad". In 2006, she was awarded a fellowship at Harvard University's Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: Brooks's first book, "Nine Parts of Desire" (1994), based on her experiences among Muslim women in the Middle East, was an international bestseller, translated into 17 languages. "Foreign Correspondence" (1997), which won the Nita Kibble Literary Award for women's writing, was a memoir and travel adventure about a childhood enriched by penpals from around the world, and her adult quest to find them.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: Her first novel, "Year of Wonders", published in 2001, became an international bestseller. Set in 1666, the story depicts a young woman's battle to save fellow villagers as well as her own soul when the bubonic plague suddenly strikes her small Derbyshire village of Eyam.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: Her next novel, "March" (2005), was inspired by her fondness for Louisa May Alcott's "Little Women," which her mother had given her. To connect that memorable reading experience to her new status in 2002 as an American citizen, she researched the Civil War historical setting of "Little Women" and decided to create a chronicle of wartime service for the "absent father" of the March girls. Some aspects of this chronicle were informed by the life and philosophical writings of the Alcott family patriarch, Amos Bronson Alcott, whom she profiled under the title "Orpheus at the Plough", in the 10 January 2005 issue of "The New Yorker", a month before "March" was published. The parallel novel received a mixed reaction from critics, but was nonetheless selected in December 2005 by the "Washington Post" as one of the five best fiction works published that year, and in April 2006, it won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. She was eligible for the prize by virtue of her American citizenship, and was the first Australian to win the prize.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: In her next novel, "People of the Book" (2008), Brooks explored a fictionalized history of the Sarajevo Haggadah. This novel was inspired by her reporting (for "The New Yorker") of human interest stories emerging in the aftermath of the 1991–95 breakup of Yugoslavia. The novel won both the Australian Book of the Year Award and the Australian Literary Fiction Award in 2008.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: Her 2011 novel "Caleb's Crossing" is inspired by the life of Caleb Cheeshahteaumauk, a Wampanoag convert to Christianity who was the first Native American to graduate from Harvard College, in the seventeenth century.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: Brooks, at the invitation of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, delivered the 2011 series of the prestigious Boyer Lectures. These have been published as "The Idea of Home", and reveal her passionate humanist values.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: "The Secret Chord" (2015) is a historical novel based on the life of the biblical King David in the Second Iron Age.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: In 2016, Brooks visited Israel, as part of a project by the "Breaking the Silence" organization, to write an article for a book on the Israeli occupation, to mark the 50th anniversary of the Six-Day War. The book was edited by Michael Chabon and Ayelet Waldman, and was published under the title "Kingdom of Olives and Ash: Writers Confront the Occupation", in June 2017.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: "Horse" (2022) is a historical novel based upon the racing horse Lexington. It quickly became a New York Times Best Seller.


title: Geraldine Brooks (writer)

text: She has two sons with her husband Tony Horwitz, Nathaniel and Bizu. Tony died suddenly in 2019 while away on a book tour.


title: Jehangir Wadia

text: Jehangir Nusli Wadia (born 6 July 1973), also known as Jeh Wadia, is an Indian businessman, who was the Managing Director of Go First, Bombay Dyeing and Bombay Realty. He was also a Director on the Boards of Britannia Industries, The Bombay Burmah Trading Corp. Ltd, Wadia Techno – Engineering Services Limited & others.


title: Jehangir Wadia

text: Jehangir (also known as Jeh) was born in Mumbai to businessman Nusli Wadia and former air hostess Maureen Wadia. He has one brother, Ness Wadia, who is a businessman. His father is the son of Neville Wadia and Dina Wadia. His great-grandfather, Sir Ness Wadia, played an important role in turning the city of Bombay into one of the worlds largest cotton gin trading centers during the late 19th century. His grandmother was the daughter of Muhammad Ali Jinnah the founder of Pakistan. Jehangir did his initial schooling at the Lawrence School in Sanawar and moved to a boarding school in England to complete his graduation. Jehangir earned a master's degree in science from the Warwick University in England.


title: Jehangir Wadia

text: The Bombay High Court in 1999 stopped Wadia from holding a New Year's Eve rave party in Goa, for which he had illegally occupied government-owned land.


title: Jehangir Wadia

text: Wadia is married to Celina since 2003 who is from Australia, they met in London and have two children together, Jr. Jahangir and Ella. Celina runs her own fashion line under the brand name C Femme.


title: Jehangir Wadia

text: Wadia is the managing director of GoAir (founded in 2005). The World Economic Forum elected him as a Young Global Leader in the year 2008. Wadia was the Managing Director of Go First, Bombay Dyeing and its real estate division Bombay Realty. He is also a Director on the Boards of Britania Britannia Industries, The Bombay Burmah Trading Corp, Wadia Techno – Engineering Services Limited & others.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: Yusof bin Ishak (12 August 191023 November 1970) was a Singaporean politician and journalist who served as the first president of Singapore between 1965 and 1970.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: Prior to becoming head of state, Yusof was a well-known journalist who co-founded "Utusan Melayu", a daily newspaper that was in circulation until 9 October 2019. He started journalism after graduating from Raffles Institution in 1929, and joined "Warta Malaya", a well-known Malay newspaper company, in 1932. He left the company in 1938 and co-founded "Utusan Melayu".


title: Yusof Ishak

text: Yusof held many appointments within the Singapore Government. He served on the Film Appeal Committee between 1948 and 1950, and was a member of both the Nature Reserves Committee and Malayanisation Commission for a year. In July 1959, he was appointed Chairman of the Public Service Commission (PSC). He was sworn in on 3 December that year as Yang di-Pertuan Negara of Singapore after the People's Action Party (PAP) won the first election to be held after Singapore's move to self-governance. Yusof later became the first president of Singapore after the country gained independence on 9 August 1965.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: After serving three terms in office, Yusof died on 23 November 1970 due to heart failure. His portrait appears on the Singapore Portrait Series currency notes introduced in 1999.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: Born on 12 August 1910 in Kampung Padang Gajah, Terong, Taiping, Perak Darul Ridzuan, which was then part of the Federated Malay States (now Malaysia), Yusof was the eldest son in the family of nine. He was of Minangkabau descent from his paternal side while his mother was a Malay from the Langkat region in Indonesia. His father, Ishak bin Ahmad, was a civil servant and held the post of Acting Director of Fisheries, Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States. His brother, Aziz Ishak, was a Malayan journalist and freedom fighter.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: Yusof received his early education in a Malay school located in Kuala Kurau, Perak and began his English studies in 1921 at King Edward VII School in Taiping. He attended Victoria Bridge School in 1923 when his father was posted to Singapore.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: In 1924, he enrolled into Raffles Institution for his secondary education. During his time in Raffles Institution, he played various sports such as swimming, weight lifting, water polo, boxing, hockey and cricket, and had also represented the school in various sporting events.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: He was also part of the National Cadet Corps and was commissioned as the first ever cadet officer in the Corps due to his outstanding performance. Yusof received his Cambridge School Certificate with distinction in 1927 and was awarded the Queen's Scholarship but decided to prolong his studies at Raffles Institution until 1929.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: After graduating from Raffles Institution in 1929, Yusof started his career as a journalist and went into partnership with two other friends to publish, "Sportsman", a sports magazine devoted entirely to sports. In 1932, Yusof joined "Warta Malaya", a well-known newspaper during that time. "Warta Malaya" was heavily influenced by developments in the Middle East and Yusof wanted a newspaper dedicated to Malay issues. He fulfilled his vision by establishing "Utusan Melayu" with several Malay leaders in Singapore in May 1939.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: During the Japanese occupation of Singapore, "Utusan Melayu" had to stop circulation as machinery used to print the paper were requisitioned to publish the Japanese paper, "Berita Malai". Yusof then moved back to Taiping and with the remaining money he had, he opened a provision shop and lived there until the war ended in 1945 and "Utusan Melayu" resumed publication. In 1957, Yusof moved to Kuala Lumpur and in February 1958, the headquarters of "Utusan Melayu" was also relocated to the city.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: During the post-war period, many Malays wanted independence of Malaya from the British and Yusof, fanned this fervour through his publications which resulted in the formation of the United Malay National Organisation (UMNO) in 1946. However, his democratic ideals were different from UMNO's vision of re-establishing the monarchy of Malaya. This resulted in rising tensions within the "Utusan Melayu" and in 1959, Yusof had sold his shares he had in the company and resigned as UMNO had bought over almost all of the shares of "Utusan Melayu".


title: Yusof Ishak

text: Yusof held several appointments within the Singapore Government and had served on the Film Appeal Committee between 1948 and 1950 and was also a member of both the Nature Reserves Committee and Malayanisation Commission for a year. After his resignation from "Utusan Melayu", Yusof took the position of Chairman of the Public Service Commission (PSC) at the invitation of Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: After People's Action Party's victory from the 1959 general election, Yusof was appointed Yang di-Pertuan Negara and was sworn on 3 December 1959. During his time as Yang di-Pertuan Negara, Singapore was divided by racial conflicts. Yusof actively promoted multiculturalism and reached out to people of all races to help restore trust and confidence after the 1964 racial riots.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: On 9 August 1965, Singapore was expelled from Malaysia and became an independent nation. The position of Yang di-Pertuan Negara was abolished and Yusof then became the first President of Singapore. As president, Yusof reached out to the people to reassure citizens astonished by Singapore's expulsion and continued to promote multiculturalism and a national identity within the country by visiting constituencies and reached out to different racial and religious groups.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: Yusof is survived by his wife of 21 years, Puan Noor Aishah, and their three children, Orkid Kamariah, Imran, and Zuriana. Puan Noor Aishah continued her husband's legacy of public service and was the first Asian to become president of the Singapore Girl Guides Association. She and her now adult children were interviewed for the Channel NewsAsia documentary "Daughters of Singapore", which screened in August 2015 as part of the SG50 celebrations and commemorated the spouses of Yusof Ishak and David Marshall, two pioneer leaders of Singapore.


title: Yusof Ishak

text: Yusof participated in several sports in his youth. He won the Aw Boon Par Cup for boxing in 1932, and was the national lightweight champion in weightlifting in 1933. One of Yusof's hobbies was photography, and a collection of his photographs was donated to the National Archives of Singapore by his widow, Noor Aishah. He also cultivated orchids, and had the tennis courts at his residence on the Istana grounds, Sri Melati, converted into an orchid garden. He performed the pilgrimage to Mecca in 1963.


title: 2023 ICC Women's T20 World Cup

text: The 2023 ICC Women's T20 World Cup is scheduled to be the eighth edition of ICC Women's T20 World Cup tournament. It is scheduled to be held in South Africa, from 10 to 26 February 2023. Australia are the defending champions. In November 2020, the International Cricket Council (ICC) announced that the tournament had been moved from its original slot at the end of 2022 to February 2023 due to the 2022 FIFA World Cup. On 3 October 2022, the ICC confirmed the fixtures for the tournament.


title: 2023 ICC Women's T20 World Cup

text: In December 2020 the ICC confirmed the qualification process for the tournament. South Africa automatically qualified for the tournament as the hosts. They were joined by the seven highest ranked teams in the ICC Women's T20I Rankings, as of 30 November 2021, who competed at the 2020 ICC Women's T20 World Cup in Australia. The remaining two teams were Ireland and Bangladesh, the finalists of the qualifying tournament.


title: 2023 ICC Women's T20 World Cup

text: Each team selected a squad of 15 players before the tournament, and were also able to replace any injured players. Pakistan were the first to name their squad on 14 December 2022.


title: 2023 ICC Women's T20 World Cup

text: In August 2022, the ICC announced that 3 venues in three cities would host matches.The venues were hosted at the Newlands Cricket Ground, St George's Park Cricket Ground and Boland Park.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: St Paul's School is a selective independent day and boarding school for boys aged 13–18, founded in 1509 by John Colet and located on a 43-acre site by the Thames in London.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: St Paul's is one of the nine original English public schools investigated by the Clarendon Commission, which subsequently became known as the Clarendon schools. However, the school successfully argued that it was a private school and consequently was omitted from the Public Schools Act 1868, as was Merchant Taylors', the other day school within the scope of Lord Clarendon's terms of reference. Since 1881, St Paul's has had its own preparatory school, St Paul's Juniors (formerly Colet Court), which since 1968 has been located on the same site.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: St Paul's has been ranked the leading boys' school in the country academically, maintaining high average GCSE and A-Level results, and one of the highest Oxbridge acceptance rates of any secondary school or college.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The school is currently being rebuilt and expanded as part of an extensive project beginning in 2011, and set to last thirty years.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: St Paul's School takes its name from St Paul's Cathedral in London. A cathedral school had existed since around 1103. By the 16th century however, it had declined, and in 1509, a new school was founded by John Colet, Dean of St Paul's Cathedral, on a plot of land to the north of the Cathedral.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The eldest son of Sir Henry Colet (a member of the Mercers' Company and twice Lord Mayor of the City of London), John Colet inherited a substantial fortune and used a great part of it for the endowment of his school, having no family of his own; his 21 brothers and sisters all died in childhood and he was a celibate priest. He described himself in the statutes of the school as "desyring nothing more thanne Educacion and bringing upp chyldren in good Maners and litterature."


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Originally, the school provided education for 153 children of "all nacions and countries indifferently", primarily in literature and etiquette. The number 153 has long been associated with the miraculous draught of fishes recorded in St John's Gospel, and for several generations Foundation Scholars have been given the option of wearing an emblem of a silver fish. St Paul's was the largest school in England at its foundation, and its High Master had a salary of 13 shillings and sixpence weekly, which was double that of the contemporary Head Master of Eton College. The scholars were not required to make any payment, although they were required to be literate and had to pay for their own wax candles, which at that time were an expensive commodity.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Colet was an outspoken critic of the powerful and worldly Church of his day, and a friend of both Erasmus and Sir Thomas More. Erasmus wrote textbooks for the school and St Paul's was the first English school to teach Greek, reflecting the humanist interests of the founder. Colet distrusted the Church as a managing body for his school, declaring that he "found the least corruption" in married laymen. For this reason, Colet assigned the management of the School and its revenues to the Mercers' Company, the premier livery company in the City of London, with which his father had been associated. In 1876 the company was legally established as trustee of the Colet estate, and the management of the school was assigned to a Board of Governors consisting of the Master, Wardens and nine members of the company, together with three representatives from each of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London. The Mercers' Company still forms the major part of the School's governing body, and it continues to administer Colet's trust.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: One of St Paul's early headmasters was Richard Mulcaster, famous for writing two influential treatises on education (Positions, in 1581, and Elementarie in 1582). His description in Positions of "footeball" as a refereed team sport is the earliest reference to organised modern football. For this description and his enthusiasm for the sport he is considered the father of modern football.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Between 1861 and 1864, the Clarendon Commission (a Royal Commission) investigated the public school system in England and its report formed the basis of the Public Schools Act 1868. St Paul's was one of only nine schools considered by the Clarendon Commission, and one of only two schools which was not predominantly attended by boarders (the other day school was Merchant Taylors').


title: St Paul's School, London

text: By comparison, in 2016 the "Daily Telegraph" reported that families earning up to £120,000 were being offered bursaries after the headmaster declared that the school had become "unaffordable".


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Between 1886 and 1895, St Paul's boys won 173 entrance awards at Oxford and Cambridge, which was 26 more than any other school. Over many years its record of Open Awards at Oxford and Cambridge in all subjects has been equal, or superior, to that of any other school of comparable size.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Like many ancient educational foundations, St Paul's School traditionally used the arms of its founder, John Colet. His arms were "Sable on a chevron Argent between three Hinds trippant Argent three Annulets Sable", and they were originally used by his great-grandfather, Richard Colet. As Dean of St Paul's, he was entitled to impale them with the arms of the Deanery, and the school has often used them in this form also. In 2002, the school obtained its own grant of arms from the College of Arms consisting of the arms of Dean Colet surrounded by a gold bordure, upon which the crossed swords of the Dean of St Paul's are repeated.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Apposition is a traditional ceremony at St Paul's and was originally a way of allowing the Mercers’ Company to assess teaching staff and the High Master, with the option of dismissing or reappointing them. The assessment takes the form of a third-party "apposer", often a leading academic, judging the quality of teaching through scrutinising lectures given by boys in their final year. Today it is primarily a prize giving event, where prizes are awarded to senior boys who have excelled in particular subjects. The Apposition Dinner is held in the Mercer's Hall in London every year around May.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Consequences of apposition have led to the dismissal of previous High Masters including Thomas Freeman, for lack of learning (although more probably for holding the incorrect religious views) in 1559. In 1748, High Master Charles was removed as he had allegedly threatened to "pull the Surmaster by the nose and kick him about the school."


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Since it was re-introduced in 1969, the ceremony today takes place in May and is purely ceremonial, incorporating prize giving for boys in the final two years of the school.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The original school, which stood in St Paul's Churchyard, was destroyed with the Cathedral in the Great Fire of London in 1666. The school was twice rebuilt, first in 1670, and again on the same site in 1822; but towards the end of the 19th century, as London expanded and residents moved away from the City of London and its environs, it was decided that the school should move to larger premises.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: In 1884 a new building designed by the architect Alfred Waterhouse rose to dominate the countryside of Hammersmith. The terracotta for the Hammersmith school was made by the famous Gibbs and Canning Limited of Tamworth. At this time the street numbering was changed locally and so the school address, whether by accident or design, became 153 Hammersmith Road. The preparatory school, Colet Court, was soon afterwards housed in new premises in a similar style on the opposite side of the road.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: In September 1939 the school was evacuated to Easthampstead Park, near Crowthorne in Berkshire, where, under the then High Master, W. F. Oakeshott, it became solely a boarding school for the period of the war. Playing fields and some other facilities were borrowed from nearby Wellington College, but the boys and the teachers from the two schools remained entirely separate.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: In the meantime, the London buildings became the headquarters of the Home Forces in July 1940 and the headquarters of the XXI Army Group under the command of General, later Field-Marshal, Bernard Montgomery, himself an Old Pauline, in July 1943. There the XXI army part of the military side of the invasion of Europe was planned, including the D-Day landings. The map that he used is still present in the modern day site of the school in the Montgomery Room. The school recovered its buildings in September 1945, and resumed life essentially as a day school, although it retains a small number of boarders to this day. In 1959, Queen Elizabeth II visited the school to mark the 450th anniversary of its founding. Upon her death, BBC journalist John Simpson, a pupil at the time, was most complimentary, saying that "we were all just bowled over by it [the visit]".


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Following the school's move to Barnes in 1968, the Hammersmith buildings were demolished – amid protests – to allow building of flats, apart from the gates and the peripheral walls, the High Master's House, and a toolhut. The Colet Court building also survives.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: By 1961 it had become evident that the old school buildings were unsuited to modern educational needs. The opportunity arose to rebuild the school on a 45-acre (182,000 m²) riverside site at Barnes, adjacent to Hammersmith Bridge. This land had previously been the site of reservoirs which were filled in with earth excavated during the construction of the Victoria line. The sports pitches took a long time to settle, and competitive matches were not played regularly at the Barnes site until summer 1979.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The fifth school buildings were opened in September 1968, to designs by architects Feilden and Mawson. The new site also includes the preparatory school, St Paul's Juniors (formerly Colet Court), whose pupils account for roughly one half of the senior school's intake each year.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The 1968 buildings include a 25m, 6 lane swimming pool shared with St Paul's Juniors. Extensive sports facilities notably include a fencing salle, six rugby fives courts, three squash courts and a racquets court. The location next to the River Thames meant that a rowing boathouse was included in the plans, which itself included both an indoor training tank and housing to accommodate a boatman, whose primary job was to build and maintain the boats. A striking and deliberate omission from the new buildings was any provision for a school hall capable of holding all masters and boys simultaneously, and although the main sports hall is large enough to accommodate the entire school, the difficulty in setting up enough chairs means that the hall is used to house the entire school only twice per year. There were originally two boarding houses in the 1968 buildings (School House and High House) accommodating up to 120 boarders, but the number of boarders has steadily declined since then and is now only 20. One of the boarding houses (School House) has been demolished to make way for a new music building, which houses the Wathen Hall. The other (High House, renamed School House) is in the process of being demolished, with boarders relocated to the recently renovated Colet House. The only building which remained from the previous Water Board landowners became the music department for St Paul's Juniors.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The original buildings were built using a modular system of interlocking concrete slabs, known as the CLASP system. This allowed for relatively quick and cheap construction, and allowed for the fact that much of the site was formed from reservoir land which was still settling. The whole complex is now in need of replacement; the only existing buildings likely to remain are the Music school, incorporating the Wathen Hall from 1999 and the Rackets Court.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The boys' school numbered 856 boys in 2009, the 500th year of its foundation. A rebuilding of the school at its present site is planned, to be completed over a 25-year period. While former High Master, George Martin Stephen, announced an aspiration for the school to be needs-blind within 25 years, £250 million will need to be raised to accomplish this.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The school day lasts from 8.35 a.m. to 4.15 p.m. and consists of 8 periods, including a one-and-three-quarter-hour lunch break during which pupils are encouraged to participate in sporting or extracurricular activities such as music, debating or computing. Pupils of all ages are not allowed to leave the school premises without permission at any time during the day.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The school still maintains a boarding house. There are strong boarding house traditions including the annual bonfire and two hours of compulsory study known as "prep" every evening. Newer traditions include the sponsored all night five-a-side football tournament, a "charity sponging" event. However, the charity sponging did not take place in 2010 due to, as some boarders claim, complaints from a boarding student who had been "sponged" particularly often and the future of the traditional event is unclear.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The school has recently opened its Science wing. The wing is a four-storey building finished in February 2013, built to give university standard of work spaces and labs. The school now has its own scanning electron microscope along with the new science building. It has a floor dedicated to each branch of science, i.e. biology, physics and chemistry. The bottom floor is a careers and university section to for the older students. Tables with computers and spaces for students or staff to use as desks are available on all floors.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: A large number of music concerts, art exhibitions and plays take place each year, and pupils regularly receive national recognition for their achievements. The school also has a strong sports department; St Paul's was a founding member of the Rugby Football Union in 1871 and was pre-eminent in public school boxing, its first team failing to win only two boxing matches against first team boxers from other schools over a period of 25 years; however, boxing was discontinued as a school sport in the 1960s. More recently, the school teams were runners-up in the rugby U15 Daily Mail Cup in 2005 and in 2007. The school has a strong record in rugby. In 1979, the 1st XV of St Paul's, nicknamed the 'Invincibles' went twelve matches undefeated. Big rivals for the school are RGS Guildford, King's College School, Dulwich College, St John's Leatherhead, Merchant Taylors', Wellington and Eton.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: St Paul's ranks highest on the Sunday Times Private School Pay List, with nine staff members paid salaries exceeding £100,000 in the accounting period 2019-20. St Paul’s also had the highest individual earner, with one staff member earning between £330,000 and £339,000 from September 2019 to August 2020.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: St Paul's has a poor record of recent press appearances, partially as a consequence of being investigated by the Metropolitan Police for historic crimes of paedophilia that it was given its own operational name, Operation Winthorpe. The school has entirely reviewed and majorly revised its safeguarding procedures since.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: A major independent report published in January 2020, revealed 80 complaints against 32 members of staff over a period of six decades, mainly from the 1960s to the 1990s. There were 28 recommendations on how current practice could be improved.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The school has numerous sports facilities, and sport plays a major part in the everyday lives of the boys. There is a large sports hall, gymnasium, dojo, fencing salle, 25m swimming pool, 6 fives courts, a rackets court, three squash courts, a fitness centre, a 100m sprint straight, ten tennis courts and a multi use games area (MUGA). There is also a large boathouse and the school has extensive playing fields which consist of 11 football or rugby pitches during the winter months, including a recently built '3g' pitch, or seven cricket pitches during the summer months.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The renewal campaign is the project to rebuild the entire school campus, frequently known as the Masterplan.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The majority of the current buildings date from the 1960s, and the CLASP technology used in the construction of the buildings has a limited lifespan. Even though over the last few years various buildings (such as the Wathen Hall Music School, Rackets Court and Milton Building) have been added on the campus wherever space was available, the dated buildings represent approximately three quarters of the school.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Local planning restrictions combined with a lack of available surplus land mean that St Paul's is faced with progressively replacing obsolete buildings with new ones located in the same general area. The plan should eventually result in a large building footprint area increase as well as increasing the amount of staff housing. The number of car parking spaces will be reduced, but there will be much more available room for bicycles.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: In 2007, Nicholas Hare Architects were appointed to produce detailed designs for the first set of new buildings. Late in 2009, Richmond Council granted St Paul's detailed planning permission, and building started in 2011


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The new science block and courtyard building was completed in 2012 and won a Civic Trust Award in 2013 and a RIBA London Award in 2015. Two years later, the new Drama Centre and Samuel Pepys Theatre was completed. This building was also designed by Nicholas Hare Architects.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Walters & Cohen Architects were appointed to design a new teaching building for the school in 2012. The building, which is arranged in an L-shape in order to connect to buildings on either side on all levels, and enclose the central green courtyard known as Founder’s Court, was completed in 2019. At more than 9,000m², it comprises classrooms, the Kayton Library – named after Desmond Kayton, an Old Pauline who fought in World War II – as well as a dining hall, kitchen, administrative offices, a chapel, hall and social spaces, including a generous multi-purpose Atrium. Elegant vertical piers set out an irregular rhythm and form an integral part of the building's energy efficiency, providing natural ventilation, solar shading and noise attenuation.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: In 2007, St Paul's recorded their most notable result in the sport when they reached the final of the U15 Daily Mail Cup, the premier rugby union tournament for British secondary schools. The team was coached by Richard Girvan, Surmaster from 2012 to 2020. St Paul's lost the game played at Twickenham Stadium 20-15 to Lymm High School.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The St Paul's School Boat Club (SPSBC) has won the Princess Elizabeth Challenge Cup at Henley Royal Regatta six times.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: In 2018 the SPSBC 1st VIII were named "the best schoolboy crew ever" at Henley Royal Regatta after a season of unprecedented success. The crew won the "triple crown" of schoolboy rowing with record breaking wins in the Princess Elizabeth Challenge Cup and the School's Head of the River, plus victory at the National School's Regatta in the Queen Mother's Challenge Cup; they also won the Men's Youth Eights at Head of the Charles in a record time and recorded the fastest time in history by any schoolboy crew over 2k of 5:36.59 at Marlow Regatta. Members of the crew also won the Pairs Head, Sculler's Head & Fours Head and all eligible members of the crew won gold medals at the World Rowing Junior Championships that year.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: In 2008, for the first time, its students sat the IGCSE exam instead of the GCSE in Science, following sitting IGCSE in Mathematics the previous year. The school does not currently offer the International Baccalaureate as an alternative to A Level, and has suffered on many league tables as a result. Dr Martin Stephen, former High Master of St Paul's, has stated he believes that "league tables put massive pressure on headmasters to do bad things" and announced that St Paul's will be joining other private schools in London in withdrawing from the ISC's 2008 league tables.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The school record for students gaining places at Oxford or Cambridge was 74 pupils in 2010, representing 42% of the year group. In the same year, a record 53.5% of A Level entries were graded at A*, with 93.5% of grades at A* or A and 99.4% at or above a B. According to more recent data, pupils starting university in 2016 numbered 189. Of those starting in the UK in 2016, 95% went on to Russell Group universities, with 53 entering Oxford or Cambridge. The highest ever number of pupils (34) chose to study in America, at Ivy League or equivalent schools. In 2017, 72 pupils were made offers by Oxford or Cambridge, with 40 offers for Oxford and 32 for Cambridge. In addition, 40 pupils received offers from North American universities, with no fewer than five securing places at Yale. A further three offers were made each by Princeton and Columbia.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The school had its first student attain a place on the Prime Minister's Global Fellowship programme in 2009.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The school also has its first student win the national competition of IFS Young Business Writer of the Year 2010 Award, an award for the top young business thinker.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: The head teacher of St Paul's is known as the High Master, and the deputy head as the Surmaster. These titles are assigned in the school statutes. The following have been High Masters of St Paul's:


title: St Paul's School, London

text: In June 2019, St Paul's announced that Mark Bailey would stand down in 2020, and that his replacement from September 2020 would be Sally-Anne Huang, head of James Allen's Girls' School since 2015, and the first woman to be High Master.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: By the end of the 19th century, the funds of the Dean Colet Foundation had increased to such an extent that the Trustees decided to build a school for girls, and in 1904, St Paul's Girls' School was opened in Brook Green, Hammersmith, just around the corner from the then site of the boys' school in Hammersmith Road. Unlike the boys', the girls' school remains in its original position, although it has expanded and constructed new buildings and facilities alongside the old. In 1881, a boys' preparatory school was founded which in 1892 became Colet Court, and in 2016 St Paul's Juniors. St Paul's Juniors is now on the same site as the main school and most of its pupils are expected to pass into St Paul's School when they reach the age of 13. It thus serves as a junior school for the main establishment.


title: St Paul's School, London

text: Former pupils are known as Old Paulines, and may keep in touch with each other through the Old Pauline Club. Various sporting clubs are affiliated to the Old Pauline Club, such as the Old Pauline Football Club (OPFC), which is the oldest Old Boys' rugby club in the world, the Old Pauline Association Football Club (OPAFC), the Old Pauline Cricket Club (OPCC), Colet Boat Club, which regularly races in national events, the Old Pauline Association Club (OPAC) and the Old Pauline Harvey Chess Society (OPHCS), who have participated in many national tournaments with moderate success. The club is located on a site in Thames Ditton and owns a number of sports pitches there, as well as the Colets' Health and Fitness Club. There is also a Masonic lodge, Old Pauline Lodge No 3969, which celebrated its centenary in 2019. The Lodge meets at the School.


title: Steven Chu

text: Steven Chu (born February 28, 1948) is an American physicist and former government official. He is a Nobel laureate and was the 12th United States Secretary of Energy. He is currently the William R. Kenan Jr. Professor of Physics and Professor of Molecular and Cellular Physiology at Stanford University. He is known for his research at the University of California, Berkeley, and his research at Bell Laboratories and Stanford University regarding the cooling and trapping of atoms with laser light, for which he shared the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics with Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William Daniel Phillips.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu served as United States Secretary of Energy under the administration of President Barack Obama from 2009 to 2013. At the time of his appointment as Energy Secretary, Chu was a professor of physics and molecular and cellular biology at the University of California, Berkeley, and the director of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, where his research was concerned primarily with the study of biological systems at the single molecule level. Chu resigned as energy secretary on April 22, 2013. He returned to Stanford as Professor of Physics and Professor of Molecular & Cellular Physiology.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu is a vocal advocate for more research into renewable energy and nuclear power, arguing that a shift away from fossil fuels is essential to combating climate change. He has conceived of a global "glucose economy", a form of a low-carbon economy, in which glucose from tropical plants is shipped around like oil is today. On February 22, 2019, Chu began a one-year term as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu was born on 28 February 1948 in St. Louis, Missouri, with Chinese ancestry from Liuhe, Taicang, China, and went to Garden City High School. He received both a B.A. in mathematics and a B.S. in physics in 1970 from the University of Rochester, and earned his Ph.D. in physics from the University of California, Berkeley, under Eugene D. Commins, in 1976, during which he was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu comes from a family of highly educated white collar professionals and scholars. His father, Ju-Chin Chu, earned a doctorate in chemical engineering from MIT and taught at Washington University in St. Louis and Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, and his mother studied economics at MIT. His maternal grandfather, Shu-tian Li, a hydraulic engineer who earned a Ph.D. from Cornell University and a professor and president of Tianjin University. His mother's uncle, Li Shu-hua, a biophysicist, attended University of Paris before returning to China. Chu's older brother, Gilbert Chu, is a professor of biochemistry and medicine at Stanford University. His younger brother, Morgan Chu, is a patent lawyer who is the former co-managing partner at the law firm Irell & Manella. According to Chu, his two brothers and four cousins have four Ph.D.s, three M.D.s, and a J.D. among them.


title: Steven Chu

text: After obtaining his doctorate he remained at Berkeley as a postdoctoral researcher for two years before joining Bell Labs, where he and his several co-workers carried out his Nobel Prize-winning laser cooling work. He left Bell Labs and became a professor of physics at Stanford University in 1987, serving as the chair of its Physics Department from 1990 to 1993 and from 1999 to 2001. At Stanford, Chu and three others initiated the Bio-X program, which focuses on interdisciplinary research in biology and medicine, and played a key role in securing the funding for the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology. In August 2004, Chu was appointed as the director of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, a U.S. Department of Energy National Laboratory, and joined UC Berkeley's Department of Physics and Department of Molecular and Cell Biology. Under Chu's leadership, the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory was a center of research into biofuels and solar energy. He spearheaded the laboratory's Helios project, an initiative to develop methods of harnessing solar power as a source of renewable energy for transportation.Chu's early research focused on atomic physics by developing laser cooling techniques and the magneto-optical trapping of atoms using lasers. He and his co-workers at Bell Labs developed a way to cool atoms by employing six laser beams opposed in pairs and arranged in three directions at right angles to each other. Trapping atoms with this method allows scientists to study individual atoms with great accuracy. Additionally, the technique can be used to construct an atomic clock with great precision.


title: Steven Chu

text: At Stanford, Chu's research interests expanded into biological physics and polymer physics at the single-molecule level. He studied enzyme activity and protein and RNA folding using techniques like fluorescence resonance energy transfer, atomic force microscopy, and optical tweezers. His polymer physics research used individual DNA molecules to study polymer dynamics and their phase transitions. He continued researching atomic physics as well and developed new methods of laser cooling and trapping. , he is the President of the Scientific Committee of ESPCI Paris.


title: Steven Chu

text: Steven Chu was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1997 for the "development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light", together with Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William Daniel Phillips.


title: Steven Chu

text: He is a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, the Pontifical Academy of Sciences and the Academia Sinica of Taiwan, and is a foreign member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Korean Academy of Science and Engineering. He was also awarded the Humboldt Prize by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in 1995. In 1998, Chu received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu received an honorary doctorate from Boston University when he was the keynote speaker at the 2007 commencement exercises. He is a Senior Fellow of the Design Futures Council. "Diablo Magazine" awarded him an Eco Award in its April 2009 issue, shortly after he was nominated for Energy Secretary.


title: Steven Chu

text: Washington University in St. Louis and Harvard University awarded him honorary doctorates during their 2010 and 2009 commencement exercises, respectively. He was awarded an honorary degree from Yale University during its 2010 commencement. He was also awarded an honorary degree from the Polytechnic Institute of New York University, the same institution at which his father taught for several years, during its 2011 commencement. Penn State University awarded him an honorary doctorate during their 2012 commencement exercises. In 2014, Chu was awarded an honorary doctorate from Williams College, during which he gave a talk moderated by Williams College Professor Protik Majumder. He was awarded an honorary doctorate from Dartmouth College during its 2015 commencement. Chu was also awarded an honorary doctorate from Amherst College in 2017, where he later gave a lecture titled "Climate Change and Needed Technical Solutions for a Sustainable Future" in March 2018.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu was elected an international fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering UK in 2011, and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 2014. His nomination reads:


title: Steven Chu

text: His nomination to be Secretary of Energy was unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate on January 20, 2009. On January 21, 2009, Chu was sworn in as Secretary of Energy in the Barack Obama administration. Chu is the first person appointed to the U.S. Cabinet after having won a Nobel Prize. He is also the second Chinese American to be a member of the U.S. Cabinet, after former Secretary of Commerce Gary Locke.His scientific work continued, however, and he even published a paper on gravitational redshift in "Nature" in February 2010 and another one he co-authored in July 2010.


title: Steven Chu

text: In March 2011 Chu said that regulators at the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission should not delay approving construction licenses for planned U.S. nuclear power plants in the wake of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan.


title: Steven Chu

text: In August 2011 Chu praised an advisory panel report on curbing the environmental risks of natural-gas development. Chu responded to the panel's report on hydraulic fracturing, the controversial drilling method that is enabling a U.S. gas boom while bringing fears of groundwater contamination. The report called for better data collection of air and water data, as well as "rigorous" air pollution standards and mandatory disclosure of the chemicals used in the hydraulic fracturing process. Chu said that he would "be working closely with my colleagues in the Administration to review the recommendations and to chart a path for continued development of this vital energy resource in a safe manner".


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu faced controversy for a statement he made prior to being appointed, claiming in a September 2008 interview with the Wall Street Journal that "somehow we have to figure out how to boost the price of gasoline to the levels in Europe." However, in March 2012 he retracted this comment, saying "since I walked in the door as secretary of Energy I've been doing everything in my powers to do what we can to … reduce those prices" and that he "no longer shares the view [that we need to figure out how to boost gasoline prices in America]".


title: Steven Chu

text: On February 1, 2013, Chu announced his intent to resign. In his resignation announcement, he warned of the risks of climate change from continued reliance on fossil fuels, and wrote, "the Stone Age did not end because we ran out of stones; we transitioned to better solutions". He resigned on April 22, 2013.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu has been a vocal advocate for more research into renewable energy and nuclear power, arguing that a shift away from fossil fuels is essential to combat climate change and global warming. He also spoke at the 2009 and 2011 National Science Bowl about the importance of America's science students, emphasizing their future role in environmental planning and global initiative. Chu said that a typical coal power plant emits 100 times more radiation than a nuclear power plant.


title: Steven Chu

text: He joined the Copenhagen Climate Council, an international collaboration between business and science established to create momentum for the 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, Denmark.


title: Steven Chu

text: In 2015, Chu signed the "Mainau Declaration 2015 on Climate Change" on the final day of the 65th Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting. The declaration was signed by a total of 76 Nobel Laureates and handed to then-President of the French Republic, François Hollande, as part of the successful COP21 climate summit in Paris.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu was instrumental in submitting a winning bid for the Energy Biosciences Institute, a BP-funded $500 million multidisciplinary collaboration between UC Berkeley, the Lawrence Berkeley Lab, and the University of Illinois. This sparked controversy on the Berkeley campus, where some fear the alliance could harm the school's reputation for academic integrity.


title: Steven Chu

text: Based partially on his research at UC Berkeley, Chu has speculated that a global "glucose economy", a form of a low-carbon economy, could replace the current system. In the future, special varieties of high-glucose plants would be grown in the tropics, processed, and then the chemical would be shipped around like oil is today to other countries. "The St. Petersburg Times" has stated that Chu's concept "shows vision on the scale needed to deal with global warming".


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu has also advocated making the roofs of buildings and the tops of roads around the world white or other light colors, which may reflect sunlight back into space and mitigate global warming. The effect would be, according to Chu, similar to taking every car in the world off the roads for about 11 years. Samuel Thernstrom, a resident fellow at the American Enterprise Institute and co-director of its Geoengineering Project, expressed support for the idea in "The American", praising Chu for "do[ing] the nation a service" with the concept. Chu is on the board of directors of Xyleco, a company developing alternate energy.


title: Steven Chu

text: In 1997, he married Jean Fetter, a British-American Oxford-trained physicist. He has two sons, Geoffrey and Michael, from a previous marriage to Lisa Chu-Thielbar.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu is interested in sports such as baseball, swimming, and cycling. He taught himself tennis—by reading a book—in the eighth grade, and was a second-string substitute for the school team for three years. He also taught himself how to pole vault using bamboo poles obtained from the local carpet store. Chu said he never learned to speak Chinese because his parents always spoke to their children in English.


title: Steven Chu

text: Chu's Wikipedia article has been featured in the webcomic xkcd. He has also been satirised as a no-nonsense Secretary of Energy in a cutaway gag in season 11 of the American animated comedy show Family Guy.


title: Rilakkuma

text: San-X employee Aki Kondo had previously created characters such as Amagurichan and Mikanbouya. At the time, San-X ordered staff members to create one character per month. After watching a TV show about dogs at the height of the pet boom in Japan, Kondo not only wanted a pet dog, but also envied its life, as she was busy with work and hoped to relax more. This inspired her to create Rilakkuma, with its name a portmanteau of the words and Rilakkuma was designed with a slightly sloppy posture because Kondo found it amusing, believing that it should look "cute", yet "out of place." Kondo had also designed Rilakkuma with a zipper on its back, which became one of its quirks. San-X initially found Rilakkuma too gangly and had preferred characters with small hands.


title: Rilakkuma

text: Rilakkuma was launched in 2003 and first seen in San-X's four-panel comic series titled "Rilakkuma Seikatsu". In "Rilakkuma Seikatsu", which describes its origin story, it appears one day in the apartment of a female office worker named Kaoru, who only appears as a silhouette. Rilakkuma spends every day relaxing. The zipper on its back reveals that his appearance is a costume, and its true form is unknown. It is accompanied by other creatures in the series, who also have their own character lines.


title: Rilakkuma

text: is a white bear introduced in "Rilakkuma Seikatsu" in 2003. Like Rilakkuma, it appeared in Kaoru's apartment one day and was named by Kiiroitori. It has a red button on its chest and does not appear to be a real bear. It has a mischievous personality and loves pranks.


title: Rilakkuma

text: is Kaoru's pet yellow bird introduced in "Rilakkuma Seikatsu" in 2003. He can leave his cage at any time and takes care of both Rilakkuma and Korilakkuma.


title: Rilakkuma

text: is a brown honey bear introduced in 2016. Korilakkuma finds it one day in the forest and befriends it, bringing it to meet Rilakkuma and Kiiroitori. Chairoikoguma has defined fangs when its mouth is opened, as well as bear-shaped honey patches on its feet and rear. Its friend is Kumanbachi, a honey bee.


title: Rilakkuma

text: Along with stationery and product lines, Rilakkuma has collaborated with multiple organizations, brands, and character cafes.


title: Rilakkuma

text: In September 2017 San-X opened its first temporary pop-up Rilakkuma shop in Florida, USA. In September 2018, a second pop-up shop opened at the New York City's Times Square.


title: Rilakkuma

text: A stop motion animated series called "Rilakkuma and Kaoru" began streaming on Netflix on April 19, 2019. The series was made at Dwarf Studio. It is directed by Masahito Kobayashi and written by Naoko Ogigami, with Mikako Tabe voicing Kaoru in Japanese and Lana Condor voicing Kaoru in English. In October 2020, it was announced another stop-motion series "Rilakkuma's Theme Park Adventure" will be released on Netflix. San-X has announced on its Japanese website that "Rilakkuma's Theme Park Adventure" will be released worldwide exclusively on Netflix on August 25, 2022.


title: Rilakkuma

text: Initial sales for the Rilakkuma product line were low but slowly picked up popularity in 2004, with Rilakkuma breaking the stereotype of cute characters needing to be energetic. In May 2010, Rilakkuma ranked as the fifth most popular character in Japan in a survey of the Character Databank. , character merchandise has generated a total of in retail sales revenue across Asia.


title: Cofferdam

text: A cofferdam is an enclosure built within a body of water to allow the enclosed area to be pumped out. This pumping creates a dry working environment so that the work can be carried out safely. Cofferdams are commonly used for construction or repair of permanent dams, oil platforms, bridge piers, etc., built within water.


title: Cofferdam

text: These cofferdams are usually welded steel structures, with components consisting of sheet piles, wales, and cross braces. Such structures are usually dismantled after the construction work is completed.


title: Cofferdam

text: The origin of the word comes from "coffer" (originally from Latin "cophinus" meaning "basket") and "dam" from Proto-German "*dammaz" meaning "barrier across a stream of water to obstruct its flow and raise its level").


title: Cofferdam

text: For dam construction, two cofferdams are usually built, one upstream and one downstream of the proposed dam, after an alternative diversion tunnel or channel has been provided for the river flow to bypass the foundation area of the dam. These cofferdams are typically a conventional embankment dam of both earth- and rock-fill, but concrete or some sheet piling also may be used. Usually, upon completion of the dam and associated structures, the downstream coffer is removed and the upstream coffer is flooded as the diversion is closed and the reservoir begins to fill. Depending on the geography of a dam site, in some applications, a "U"-shaped cofferdam is used in the construction of one half of a dam. When complete, the cofferdam is removed and a similar one is created on the opposite side of the river for the construction of the dam's other half.


title: Cofferdam

text: The cofferdam is also used on occasion in the shipbuilding and ship repair industry, when it is not practical to put a ship in drydock for repair work or modernization. An example of such an application is the lengthening of ships. In some cases a ship is actually cut in two while still in the water, and a new section of ship is floated in to lengthen the ship. The cutting of the hull is done inside a cofferdam attached directly to the hull of the ship; the cofferdam is then detached before the hull sections are floated apart. The cofferdam is later replaced while the hull sections are welded together again. As expensive as this may be to accomplish, the use of a drydock might be even more expensive. "See also caisson."


title: Cofferdam

text: A 100-ton open caisson that was lowered more than a mile to the sea floor in attempts to stop the flow of oil in the "Deepwater Horizon" oil spill has been called a cofferdam.


title: Cofferdam

text: A cofferdam over 1 mile long was built to permit the construction of the Livingstone Channel in the Detroit River. See main article at Stony Island.


title: Cofferdam

text: A cofferdam may also refer to an insulating space between two watertight bulkheads or decks within a ship. A cofferdam can be a void (empty) space or a ballast space. Cofferdams are usually employed to ensure that oil or other chemicals do not leak into fresh water tanks which would result in contamination of the drinking water supply on the ship. The cofferdam would be empty at all times and the ship may have sensors within the cofferdam to warn if the cofferdam has begun to fill with liquid. If two different cargoes that react dangerously with each other are carried on the same vessel, one or more cofferdams are usually required between the cargo spaces.


title: Cofferdam

text: Portable cofferdams can be inflatable or frame and fabric cofferdams that can be reused. Inflatable cofferdams are stretched across the site, then inflated with water from the prospected dry area. Frame and fabric cofferdams are erected in the water and covered with watertight fabric. Once the area is dry, water still remaining from the dry area can be siphoned over to the wet area.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: The Delaware Blue Coats are an American professional basketball team in the NBA G League based in Wilmington, Delaware, and are affiliated with the Philadelphia 76ers. The Blue Coats play their home games at Chase Fieldhouse. The team was founded in 2007 as the Utah Flash and served as an affiliate to the Utah Jazz. In April 2013, the 76ers acquired the team and relocated it to Delaware, where it played as the Delaware 87ers (nicknamed the Sevens) until 2018.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: The 87ers moved to the Chase Fieldhouse in Wilmington, Delaware, in 2018 and were rebranded as the Delaware Blue Coats.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: In 2004, Utah entrepreneur Brandt Andersen heard the NBA was expanding operations to include a development league. Eventually Andersen got a new team to start play in 2007, based in Orem, Utah, playing at the McKay Events Center.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: The Flash nickname was chosen by a name-the-team contest, in which over 21,000 votes were cast. The team was established with a close help from its NBA affiliate Utah Jazz, who indicated to the general manager job David Fredman – who was an assistant coach and director of scouting for the Jazz for 28 years, and also the assistant general manager for the Denver Nuggets – and as a coach Brad Jones, a regional scout who was the nephew of long time Jazz coach Jerry Sloan. Also as an NBA affiliate were the Boston Celtics. In the first season for the Flash on December 21, 2007, guard Morris Almond (who had been sent down to the D league by the Jazz) tied an NBA Development League record with 51 points in a 118–116 victory over the Austin Toros later in that season Almond broke the record with a 53-point performance in the 102–87 blowout win against the Bakersfield Jam, Almond also led the league in scoring averaging 25.6 points a game. In July 2008, Fredman was called back by the Jazz to work as a scout, and coach Jones ended up pulling double duty as General Manager as well. In 2009, the Celtics changed affiliations to the new team Maine Red Claws, leading the Atlanta Hawks to join forces with the Flash.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: On December 8, 2009, the Flash hosted a sold-out crowd that hoped Michael Jordan was going to appear to play in a charity exhibition at halftime against former Utah Jazz guard Bryon Russell. However, Jordan did not appear, and a Jordan lookalike was introduced in what turned out to be a hoax. Brad Jones retired as head coach of the Utah Flash on September 7, 2010, and Kevin Young was named as his replacement. Young had been the assistant coach for the Flash for the prior two years, as well as scout and director of basketball operations, and before joining the organization worked at the Utah Valley University team.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: The team suspended operations following the 2011 season, as Andersen was forced to sell his interest in the Flash. Despite high ticket sales, being second in NBADL attendance during the 2010–2011 season, drawing more than 100,000 fans and averaging 4,237 per game, the Flash had frequent financial struggles, as both the Jazz and the city's minor league baseball team Orem Owlz made it difficult to get sponsorship deals.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: On April 27, 2013, after two years of hiatus, the Philadelphia 76ers acquired the team, and renamed it the Delaware 87ers. The nickname, a play on the 76ers' own, was inspired by the fact that Delaware was the first state to ratify the United States Constitution in 1787. The team played its games at the University of Delaware campus. Former Ripken Baseball Inc. assistant vice president of sales/marketing Aaron Moszer was named team president.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: In September 2013, Brandon Williams was named the team's first general manager. Rod Baker was named the team's head coach for their inaugural season in Delaware.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: The 87ers finished their first season with a 12–38 record. Two players received a GATORADE Call-Up during the 2013–14 season – Kendall Marshall was called up by the Los Angeles Lakers on December 20, 2013, and Vander Blue was called up by the Boston Celtics on January 22, 2014 Thanasis Antetokounmpo was selected with the 51st overall pick in the 2014 NBA Draft by the New York Knicks – the first 87er to be drafted into the NBA.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: Over the summer, the 87ers introduced their mascot, Caesar, on August 22, 2014. Caesar was a fox, the state animal of Delaware, and is named after Caesar Rodney who served on the Continental Congress as a representative from Delaware during the American Revolution.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: Ahead of the 2014–15 season, Baker was called up by the Sixers to serve as a scout in the front office. Hired as his replacement was Kevin Young, who led the team to an improved 20–30 record, and the Sevens ranked No. 7 in the D-League in points per game. On April 10, 2015, the 87ers earned the Merit Award for Emerging Business of the Year, and also received the Voter's Choice Award for Community Involvement at the Delaware Small Business Chamber's Blue Ribbon Awards Ceremony.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: The 87ers improved upon their offensive play from the previous season, with four different players scoring at least 45 points in a game in 2015–16 (a D-League record). Sean Kilpatrick scored 45 points, Jordan McRae set the all-time D-League single-game scoring record with 61 points, Christian Wood scored 45 points, and Russ Smith broke McRae's record and scored 65 points. McRae and Kilpatrick were selected as All-Stars, and both along with Wood received NBA call-ups. With three of their top four players now in the NBA, the 87ers went through a rough stretch from a 17–13 start to finish 21–29. They were however aided by former NBA All-Star Baron Davis, who played six games with the team to conclude the season.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: Beginning with the 2018–19 season, the team was renamed the Delaware Blue Coats, an homage to the 1st Delaware Regiment, also known as the "Delaware Blues," and their key role in the American Revolution. The team logo pays homage to Caesar Rodney (the namesake for the aforementioned mascot) and his 70-mile ride from Dover to Philadelphia on July 1–2, 1776, to cast Delaware's tie-breaking vote in favor of what would become the Declaration of Independence. The rebrand coincided with the opening of the new Chase Fieldhouse in Wilmington. On September 20, 2018, general manager Elton Brand was promoted to general manager of the Philadelphia 76ers.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: In the 2020–21 NBA G League season, the Blue Coats advanced to the championship before losing to Lakeland Magic. The following offseason led to general manager Matt Lilly being let go by the team and coach Connor Johnson resigning to look at other opportunities. Sixers vice president of player personnel, Prosper Karangwa, was given the duties of general manager while former South Bay Lakers' head coach Coby Karl was named head coach.


title: Delaware Blue Coats

text: All NBA D-League prospects — players whose rights are not owned by NBA teams — are free agents and are eligible to be called up to the NBA.


title: Axe (brand)

text: Axe or Lynx is a brand of male grooming products owned by the British company Unilever and marketed toward the younger male demographic. It is marketed as Lynx in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, Australia, New Zealand and China.


title: Axe (brand)

text: Axe was launched in France in 1983 by Unilever. It was inspired by another of Unilever's brands, Impulse. Unilever introduced many products in the range, but was forced to use the name Lynx in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand due to trademark issues with the Axe name. In addition, some countries (such as South Africa) introduced the brand as EGO.


title: Axe (brand)

text: Scents have evolved over time. From 1983 until about 1989, the variant names were descriptions of the fragrances and included "Musk", "Spice", "Amber", "Oriental", and "Marine". From 1990 until 1996, geographic names for fragrances were used. In 2009, the brand launched an eight-centimetre container called the Axe Bullet. The brand has also extended into other areas.


title: Axe (brand)

text: Most scent names usually have a shower gel to accompany them and sometimes an antiperspirant/deodorant stick and an aftershave lotion. The Axe Shampoos come in three different sizes: regular size, travel or sample size, and XL bottles. Axe also ships a shower scrub tool called the Axe Detailer.


title: Axe (brand)

text: Axe also launches limited edition variants from time to time that may be on sale for a few months or over a year.


title: Axe (brand)

text: From the 1990s, Axe advertisements portrayed various ways the products supposedly helped men attract women. In 2003, the advertising in the UK for the "Pulse" fragrance showed how it supposedly gave "geeky" men the confidence to woo women with dance. In 2005, Consumer Expert Dr. Vince Wong, CEO of Insights Interactive, was hired to help explore cross cultural behavioral motivations of their young male adult consumers. This fed into development of the brand globally, resulting in award-winning global communication campaigns. This was followed by "Touch", "Unlimited", "Clix", and in 2007, "Vice", which was marketed on a theme of making "nice" women become "naughty".


title: Axe (brand)

text: Their Twitter handle is also active in marketing Axe's various products and campaigns. The social media profile also proclaim that their "tweets are banger".


title: Axe (brand)

text: Adverse publicity has been generated by the product's advertisements for encouraging sexual promiscuity and sexism. The Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood claimed that Bartle Bogle Hegarty's work on Axe "epitomizes the sexist and degrading marketing that can undermine girls' healthy development."


title: Axe (brand)

text: On 12 January 2008 12-year-old Daniel Hurley from Derbyshire, England, died in a hospital five days after collapsing at his home. The medical coroner ruled that he had suffered from cardiac arrhythmia and died from heart failure as a result of spraying large amounts of Lynx in a confined space. Videos on social networking sites depicted teens setting themselves on fire after spraying themselves with Axe. The trend resulted in multiple injuries. After these incidents occurred, the company created two ads, one against the use of Axe as an inhalant, and the other warning of its flammability.


title: Axe (brand)

text: Axe initiated a marketing campaign whereby the company would select people in a worldwide contest to become astronauts who would fly sub-orbital space missions aboard the XCOR Lynx spaceplane. On 5 December 2013, Axe announced the 23 space cadets, who had won the extensive training competition held at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The winners were from 23 countries, some of which did not have space agencies or had not produced any astronauts before. The suborbital rides would take place after the unbuilt XCOR Lynx rocket would have passed flight test objectives.


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus (17 May 1908 – 15 January 2011) was a French Resistance fighter during World War II who later served as CEO of the Louis Dreyfus Cie.


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus was born on 17 May 1908 in Paris, one of four children born to Charles Louis-Dreyfus (1870–1929), a merchant and ship-owner, and Sarah Germaine Hément. His family was Jewish. His paternal grandfather, Léopold Louis-Dreyfus, founded the Louis Dreyfus Group in 1851. He had two siblings, brother François Louis Dreyfus (1909–1958) and sister, Arlette Louis Dreyfus (1911–2001). His granddaughter is Julia Louis-Dreyfus.


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: Called to military service, he became a cadet in the Reserve Cavalry School at Saumur in October 1928 and was released in May 1929 with the rank of sub-lieutenant. He was then assigned to the 6th Dragoons until his release in October 1929. Thereafter, he worked in the family business, Louis Dreyfus & Cie., eventually becoming a partner. He was recalled in August 1939 and served as a lieutenant in the 2nd Dragoon Regiment. He served two rotations in Luxembourg and France before again being discharged after the French capitulation.


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: In 1941, along with his friends, Emile Laffon, Jacques Bounin and Emmanuel d'Astier, he came into contact with and joined the French Resistance. Having extensive military training, Louis-Dreyfus was assigned responsibility for coordinating the resistance groups in the south of France. He was forced to flee France in December 1942 and arrived back in England in January 1943. In April 1943, he joined the 1st Free French Division in Africa and was promoted to captain serving as a liaison officer with the Scottish 51st Highland Division. In December 1943, he requested assignment to the Bomber Group "Lorraine" where he served as a gunner. From July 1944 until May 1945, he flew 81 bombing missions on the Western Front in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany. He received four citations for his "tireless work" and for exhibiting the "best professional qualities, military and moral." He was then assigned as a representative of the French Army assigned to the 137th Wing of the Royal Air Force.


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: After the war, he returned to the family business, Louis-Dreyfus and Co where he became first vice-president and then served as CEO from 1967 until 1975.


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: He significantly expanded the maritime trade of the company under his direction. The company, now known as Louis Dreyfus Group, had $46 billion in sales in 2011. Upon retirement, his son, Gérard Louis-Dreyfus, headed the company.


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: He has also served Vice President on the Board of Directors "Société d'entraide des Compagnons de la Libération" (Society for the Support for members of the French Resistance), was a member of the "Conseil supérieur de la marine marchande" (Supreme Council of Marine Merchants) and vice-president of the "Comité central des armateurs de France" (Central Committee of French shipowners).


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: Louis-Dreyfus was married twice. In 1929, he married American-born Dolores Neubauer, the daughter of a Jewish Brazilian father and a Mexican mother. They had two children: a daughter, Dominique (b. 1930), and a son, Gerard (1932–2016). They separated in 1935 and divorced in 1936. Dolores obtained custody of children and while Pierre was fighting in World War II; she moved to the United States in 1940 and returned to France in 1945. She remarried to Michel Théodore Robert Edmond Porges (1908-1999).


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: In 1939, Pierre married Claude Singer. They had two children, Philippe (born 1945) and Danièle Louis-Dreyfus (died 2006). Philippe is the president of Louis Dreyfus Shipping. He married Anne Boinvilliers, with whom he has three children Charlotte, Edouard, and Marie. Danièle married Jean Sudreau, the son of French politician Pierre Sudreau; they have a daughter, Laure Sudreau. Danièle died of breast cancer in 2006.


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: Louis-Dreyfus participated in the 24 Hours of Le Mans eleven times between 1931 and 1955. He raced under the pseudonym 'Heldé', derived from L-D (Louis-Dreyfus).


title: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus

text: Pierre Louis-Dreyfus died on 15 January 2011 in Neuilly-sur-Seine. He was buried in Ville d'Avray in the Hauts-de-Seine.


title: Mini Ladd

text: Craig Joseph Thompson (born 7 January 1995), known by the online community as Mini Ladd, is an Emirati-born British entertainer, comedian, vlogger, gamer and YouTuber. As of August 2019, he has accumulated over 10 million followers across all social platforms (YouTube, Twitter and Instagram), over 1.4 billion views, and averages roughly 50,000 concurrent viewers during his live-streams. In September 2019, Thompson was named No. 3 out of the Top 100 Influencers in the UK by the "Sunday Times". His father is English and his mother is Northern Irish.


title: Mini Ladd

text: Thompson launched his first YouTube channel, "Mini Ladd", in May 2011, posting mainly gaming-related content and compilation videos. In 2018, he launched his second channel, "Craig Thompson", wherein the content was mainly off of vlogs. In 2019, he launched his third YouTube channel, "Mini Ladd Vault", wherein he uploads old videos off his Mini Ladd channel which were previously demonetized or taken down.


title: Mini Ladd

text: In 2018, Thompson partnered with the Thirst Project and raised over $150,000 for relief. In 2019, the Thirst Project named him as one of their board members; as of October 2022, he is no longer a board member.


title: Mini Ladd

text: In 2019 City of Derry R.F.C. renamed their stadium to the "Craig Thompson Stadium". City of Derry ended their relationship with Thompson in July 2020 following sexual misconduct allegations made against him.


title: Mini Ladd

text: In September 2019 Thompson was named by "The Sunday Times" as one of Britain's top 100 influencers, behind KSI and PewDiePie.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: The Market for Lemons: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism is a widely-cited 1970 paper by economist George Akerlof which examines how the quality of goods traded in a market can degrade in the presence of information asymmetry between buyers and sellers, leaving only "lemons" behind. In American slang, a lemon is a car that is found to be defective after it has been bought.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: Suppose buyers cannot distinguish between a high-quality car (a "peach") and a "lemon". Then they are only willing to pay a fixed price for a car that averages the value of a "peach" and "lemon" together ("p"). But sellers know whether they hold a peach or a lemon. Given the fixed price at which buyers will buy, sellers will sell only when they hold "lemons" (since "p" < "p") and they will leave the market when they hold "peaches" (since "p" > "p"). Eventually, as enough sellers of "peaches" leave the market, the average willingness-to-pay of buyers will decrease (since the average quality of cars on the market decreased), leading to even more sellers of high-quality cars to leave the market through a positive feedback loop. Thus the uninformed buyer's price creates an adverse selection problem that drives the high-quality cars from the market. Adverse selection is a market mechanism that can lead to a market collapse.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: Akerlof's paper shows how prices can determine the quality of goods traded on the market. Low prices drive away sellers of high-quality goods, leaving only lemons behind. In 2001, Akerlof, along with Michael Spence, and Joseph Stiglitz, jointly received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, for their research on issues related to asymmetric information.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: Akerlof's paper uses the market for used cars as an example of the problem of quality uncertainty. A used car is one in which ownership is transferred from one person to another, after a period of use by its first owner and its inevitable wear and tear. There are good used cars ("peaches") and defective used cars ("lemons"), normally as a consequence of several not-always-traceable variables, such as the owner's driving style, quality and frequency of maintenance, and accident history. Because many important mechanical parts and other elements are hidden from view and not easily accessible for inspection, the buyer of a car does not know beforehand whether it is a peach or a lemon. So the buyer's best guess for a given car is that the car is of average quality; accordingly, the buyer will be willing to pay the price of a car of known average quality. This means that the owner of a carefully maintained, never-abused, good used car will be unable to get a high enough price to make selling that car worthwhile.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: Therefore, owners of good cars will not place their cars on the used car market. The withdrawal of good cars reduces the average quality of cars on the market, causing buyers to revise downward their expectations for any given car. This, in turn, motivates the owners of moderately good cars not to sell, and so on. The result is that a market in which there is asymmetric information with respect to quality shows characteristics similar to those described by Gresham's Law: the bad drives out the good. (Although Gresham's principle applies more specifically to exchange rates, modified analogies can be drawn.)


title: The Market for Lemons

text: Akerlof considers a situation in which demand "D" for used cars depends on the cars price "p" and quality "µ" = "µ"("p") and the supply "S" depends on price alone. Economic equilibrium is given by "S"("p") = "D"("p","µ") and there are two groups of traders with utilities given by:


title: The Market for Lemons

text: where "M" is the consumption of goods other than automobiles, "x" the car's quality and "n" the number of automobiles. Let "Y", "D" and "S" be income, demand and supply for group "i". Assuming that utilities are linear, that the traders are Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility maximizers and that the price of other "M" goods is unitary, the demand "D" for cars is "Y"/"p" if "μ"/"p" > 1, otherwise null. The demand "D" is "Y"/"p" if 3"μ"/"2" > "p", otherwise null. Market demand is given by:


title: The Market for Lemons

text: Group 1 has "N" cars to sell with quality between 0 and 2 and group 2 has no cars to sell, therefore "S" = "pN"/2 and "S" = 0. For a given price "p", average quality is "p"/2, and therefore "D" = 0. The market for used cars collapses when there is asymmetric information.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: The paper by Akerlof describes how the interaction between quality heterogeneity and asymmetric information can lead to the disappearance of a market where guarantees are indefinite. In this model, as quality is indistinguishable beforehand by the buyer (due to the asymmetry of information), incentives exist for the seller to pass off low-quality goods as higher-quality ones. The buyer, however, takes this incentive into consideration, and takes the quality of the goods to be uncertain. Only the average quality of the goods will be considered, which in turn will have the side effect that goods that are above average in terms of quality will be driven out of the market. This mechanism is repeated until a no-trade equilibrium is reached.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: As a consequence of the mechanism described in this paper, markets may fail to exist altogether in certain situations involving quality uncertainty. Examples given in Akerlof's paper include the market for used cars, the dearth of formal credit markets in developing countries, and the difficulties that the elderly encounter in buying health insurance. However, not all players in a given market will follow the same rules or have the same aptitude of assessing quality. So there will always be a distinct advantage for some vendors to offer low-quality goods to the less-informed segment of a market that, on the whole, appears to be of reasonable quality and have reasonable guarantees of certainty. This is part of the basis for the idiom buyer beware.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: This is likely the basis for the idiom that an informed consumer is a better consumer. An example of this might be the subjective quality of fine food and wine. Individual consumers know best what they prefer to eat, and quality is almost always assessed in fine establishments by smell and taste before they pay. That is, if a customer in a fine establishment orders a lobster and the meat is not fresh, he can send the lobster back to the kitchen and refuse to pay for it. However, a definition of 'highest quality' for food eludes providers. Thus, a large variety of better-quality and higher-priced restaurants are supported.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: George E. Hoffer and Michael D. Pratt state that the "economic literature is divided on whether a lemons market actually exists in used vehicles". The authors' research supports the hypothesis that "known defects provisions", used by US states (e.g., Wisconsin) to regulate used car sales, have been ineffectual, because the quality of used vehicles sold in these states is not significantly better than the vehicles in neighboring states without such consumer protection legislation.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: Both the "American Economic Review" and the "Review of Economic Studies" rejected the paper for "triviality", while the reviewers for "Journal of Political Economy" rejected it as incorrect, arguing that, if this paper were correct, then no goods could be traded. Only on the fourth attempt did the paper get published in "Quarterly Journal of Economics". Today, the paper is one of the most-cited papers in modern economic theory and most downloaded economic journal paper of all time in RePEC (more than 39,275 citations in academic papers as of February 2022). It has profoundly influenced virtually every field of economics, from industrial organisation and public finance to macroeconomics and contract theory.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: It is possible to generalize the reasoning in Akerlof's paper. Suppose that there are two populations of cars: the peaches formula_4 and the lemons formula_5, where we assume that the quality formula_6 of peaches is always greater than the quality of lemons:formula_7Accordingly, the utility formula_8 and the price formula_9 of the peaches will also always be greater than that of the lemons. Let formula_10 be the probability of a buyer encountering a peach in the used car market. Then the expected utility for the buyer formula_11 from purchasing a used car is:formula_12where formula_13 and formula_14 represent the mean peach and lemon respectively. The expected utility for the buyer will always increase - for a monotonic, positive utility function - as the probability of encountering a peach increases.formula_15Furthermore, the equation for a buyer's expected utility implies that the equilibrium price in an informationally symmetric market is:formula_16However, the used car market is not a symmetric market: the sellers know which cars are peaches and lemons, while the buyers cannot distinguish between the two. Depending on the type of car he owns, the seller has a differing decision rule based on the offer price formula_17:formula_18with formula_19 by definition. It is also assumed that, for both peaches and lemons, sellers are willing to accept a price lower than the full value of the car:formula_20However, if formula_21, then the sellers possessing peaches will not put them on the market and the equilibrium price will drop. This occurs when:formula_22with the associated asymmetric information price equilibrium:formula_23where formula_24 is the indicator function. Once lemons saturate the market, the peaches are driven out of the market because their sellers cannot be matched with buyers to meet their selling price in equilibrium. The beauty of this example is that it illustrates how product quality can collapse in a market with asymmetric information.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: Five years after Akerlof's paper was published, the United States enacted a federal "lemon law" (the Magnuson–Moss Warranty Act) that protects citizens of all states. There are also state laws regarding "lemons" which vary by state and may not necessarily cover used or leased vehicles. The rights afforded to consumers by "lemon laws" may exceed the warranties expressed in purchase contracts. These state laws provide remedies to consumers for automobiles that repeatedly fail to meet certain standards of quality and performance. "Lemon law" is the common nickname for these laws, but each state has different names for the laws and acts, which may also cover more than just automobiles. In California and federal law, "Lemon Laws" cover anything mechanical.


title: The Market for Lemons

text: The federal "lemon law" also provides that the warrantor may be obligated to pay the attorney fees of the party prevailing in a lemon , as do most state lemon laws. If a car has to be repaired for the same defect four or more times and the problem is still occurring, the car may be deemed to be a "lemon". The defect must substantially hinder the vehicle's use, value, or safety. Dealers and manufacturers are required by branding the title as "Lemon Law Buyback" of such vehicles after their reacquiring them due to any defect, malfunctioning or failure under the federal statute or typically nonconformities under state "lemon laws"; dealers may not withhold the lemon branding of such vehicles and an "as is" or "with all defects" labeling does not protect a dealer from legal recourse should they not disclose the "lemon law buyback" status of such vehicles.