title: Negative liberty

text: "This "freedom" from absolute, arbitrary power, is so necessary to, and closely joined with a man's preservation, that he cannot part with it, but by what forfeits his preservation and life together: for a man, not having the power of his own life, cannot, by compact, or his own consent, enslave himself to any one, nor put himself under the absolute, arbitrary power of another, to take away his life, when he pleases. No body can give more power than he has himself; and he that cannot take away his own life, cannot give another power over it. Indeed, having by his fault forfeited his own life, by some act that deserves death; he, to whom he has forfeited it, may (when he has him in his power) delay to take it, and make use of him to his own service, and he does him no injury by it: for, whenever he finds the hardship of his slavery outweigh the value of his life, it is in his power, by resisting the will of his master, to draw on himself the death he desires."


title: Negative liberty

text: This section outlines specific examples of governmental types which follow the concept of negative liberty.


title: Negative liberty

text: Thomas Hobbes' "Leviathan" outlines a commonwealth based upon a monarchy to whom citizens have ceded their rights. The basic reasoning for Hobbes' assertion that this system was most ideal relates more to Hobbes' value of order and simplicity in government. The monarchy provides for its subjects, and its subjects go about their day-to-day lives without interaction with the government:


title: Negative liberty

text: The commonwealth is instituted when all agree in the following manner: "I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition; that thou give up, thy right to him, and authorise all his actions in like manner."


title: Negative liberty

text: Hobbes explicitly rejects the idea of "Separation of Powers", in particular the form that would later become the separation of powers under the United States Constitution. Part 6 is a perhaps under-emphasised feature of Hobbes's argument: his is explicitly in favour of censorship of the press and restrictions on the rights of free speech, should they be considered desirable by the sovereign in order to promote order.


title: Negative liberty

text: Upon closer inspection of Hobbes' "Leviathan", it becomes clear that Hobbes believed individual people in society must give up liberty to a sovereign. Whether that sovereign is an absolute monarch or other form was left open to debate, however Hobbes himself viewed the absolute monarch as the best of all options. Hobbes himself said,


title: Negative liberty

text: For as amongst masterless men, there is perpetual war, of every man against his neighbour; no inheritance, to transmit to the son, nor to expect from the father; no propriety of goods, or lands; no security; but a full and absolute liberty in every particular man: so in states, and commonwealths not dependent on one another, every commonwealth, not every man, has an absolute liberty, to do what it shall judge, that is to say, what that man, or assembly that representeth it, shall judge most conducing to their benefit.


title: Negative liberty

text: From this quote it is clear that Hobbes contended that people in a state of nature ceded their individual rights to create sovereignty, retained by the state, in return for their protection and a more functional society. In essence, a social contract between the sovereign and citizens evolves out of pragmatic self-interest. Hobbes named the state "Leviathan", thus pointing to the artifice involved in the social contract. In this vein, Hobbes' concept of negative liberty was built upon the notion that the state would not act upon its subjects because its subjects had willingly relinquished their liberties.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: This article presents the historical development and role of political parties in Ukrainian politics, and outlines more extensively the significant modern political parties since Ukraine gained independence in 1991.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: Ukraine has a multi-party system with numerous political parties, in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments. In the (October 2014) Ukrainian parliamentary election 52 political parties nominated candidates. In the nationwide (October 2015) local elections this number had grown to 132 political parties.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: Many parties in Ukraine have very small memberships and are unknown to the general public. Party membership in Ukraine is lower than 1% of the population eligible to vote (compared to an average 4.7% in the European Union). National parties currently not represented in Ukraine's national parliament Verkhovna Rada do have representatives in municipal councils. Small parties used to join in multi-party coalitions (electoral blocks) for the purpose of participating in parliamentary elections; but on November 17, 2011, the Ukrainian Parliament approved an election law that banned the participation of blocs of political parties in parliamentary elections. Ukrainian society's trust of political parties is very low overall. According to an April 2014 poll by Razumkov Centre 14.7%. According to a February 2020 poll by again Razumkov Centre, more than 70% of respondents said they rather or completely did not trust political parties.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: The Ukrainian oligarchs play a key role in sponsoring of political parties and participation in every day politics.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: Parties can only register with the Ministry of Justice if they can "demonstrate a base of support in two-thirds of Ukraine's Oblasts" (Ukraine's 24 primary administrative units) and in two-thirds of the raions of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. This means that 10,000 signatures needs to be collected in these areas. Including in Crimea, although Ukraine lost control of this territory in 2014 (to Russia). (The only way to fulfill this norm is to get signatures of Ukrainian citizens living elsewhere in Ukraine with Crimean residence.) Then within six months the party must establish regional offices in a majority of the 24 oblasts. In practice these offices rarely stay active and open in-between elections. Because of the procedural difficulties of registering a party the practice of renaming existing political forces is widespread. (For instance, from January to September 2020 50 parties changed their name.) In practice this means that long career politicians in Ukraine regularly switch to a new party.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: 10 years in a row not nominating candidates for national parliamentary and presidential elections is a legal ground for liquidating a party.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: All data on any legal political parties as any other public organizations in Ukraine is kept at the Single Registry (, "Yedynyi reyestr hromadskykh formuvan"), with online version of which provided by the Ministry of Justice. On 1 January 2020 349 political parties were in this register.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: The first movement (mentioned above) gets its voters mainly from Western Ukraine and Central Ukraine; the latter from Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: Ukrainian parties tend not to have a clear ideology but to contain different political groups with diverging ideological outlooks. Unlike in Western politics, civilizational and geostrategic orientations play a more important role than economic and socio-political agendas for parties. An example is the membership of the social-democratic Batkivshchyna party in the economically liberal European People's Party. This has led to coalition governments that would be unusual from a Western point of view; for example: the first Azarov government included the Party of Regions, the centrist Lytvyn Bloc and the Communist Party of Ukraine.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: Professor Paul D'Anieri has argued (in 2006) that Ukrainian parties are "elite-based rather than mass-based," while former Ambassador of Germany to Ukraine (2000–2006) Dietmar Stüdemann from Embassy of Germany, Kyiv believes that personalities are more important in Ukrainian politics than (ideological) platforms. "Parties in the proper meaning of this word do not exist in Ukraine so far. A party for Germans is its platform first, and its personalities later."


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: Even before Ukraine became independent in August 1991, political parties in Ukraine started to form around intellectuals and former Soviet dissidents. They posed the main opposition to the ruling Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine (CP(b)U). At the first convocation of the Verkhovna Rada those parties formed the parliamentary opposition People's Council. The most noticeable parties of the parliamentary opposition included the People's Movement of Ukraine (The Movement) and the Ukrainian Republican Party. Due to the August Putsch in Moscow (19–21 August 1991), a process to prohibit communist parties in Ukraine took place. Led by Oleksandr Moroz, the parliamentary faction of the CP(b)U, Group of 239, started a process to re-form the CP(b)U into the Socialist Party of Ukraine. The restriction on the existence of communist parties in Ukraine was successfully adopted soon after the Ukrainian independence, however in the couple of years the resolution was later challenged and eventually the restriction was lifted. In 1993 in Donetsk the first congress of the reinstated Communist Party of Ukraine took place, with the Party led by Petro Symonenko.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: In the hastily organized 1994 parliamentary elections the communists surprisingly achieved the highest party rating, while the main opposing party, the Movement, did not gain even a quarter of their earned seats. The re-formed party of the CP(b)U, the Socialist Party of Ukraine, and its major ally, the Peasant Party of Ukraine, performed relatively strongly. About a third of the elected parliamentarians were not affiliated. The elections became a major fiasco of the Democratic forces in Ukraine. After the 1994 elections numerous independent political parties were elected to the Ukrainian parliament, leading to the formation of nine deputy groups and parliamentary factions: Communists, Socialists, Agrarians, Inter-regional Deputy Group (MDG), Unity, Center, Statehood, Reforms, and the Movement. The concept of a "situational majority" was first used during that convocation to form a parliamentary coalition. The ruling coalition in the parliament often included the Communist Party of Ukraine, the Socialist Party of Ukraine, Agrarians, MDG, and Unity.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: During the Kuchma presidency (1994–2004) parties started to form around politicians who had achieved power; these parties were often a vehicle of Ukrainian oligarchs. Scholars defined several "Clans" in Ukrainian politics grouped around businessmen and politicians from particular Ukrainian mayor cities; the "Donetsk-clan" (Rinat Akhmetov, Viktor Yanukovich and Mykola Azarov), the "Dnipropetrovsk-clan" (Yulia Tymoshenko, Leonid Kuchma, Viktor Pinchuk, Sergey Tigipko and Pavlo Lazarenko), the "Kyiv-clan" (Viktor Medvedchuk and the brothers Surkis; this clan has also been linked to Zakarpattia) and the smaller "Kharkiv-clan".


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: After the 2002 elections the Ukrainian parliament saw some consolidation of democratic political parties and the establishment of the main political camps in Ukraine: a coalition of nationally oriented deputies with the pro-European vector, a coalition of left-wing parties, and the pro-Russian parties coalition of the former Soviet nomenklatura. A major change took place during the Orange revolution when finally the two opposing political camps were established after the left-wing coalition split.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: On 17 November 2011 the Ukrainian Parliament approved an election law that banned the participation of blocs of political parties in parliamentary elections; since then several parties have merged with other parties. Strong Ukraine merged with the Party of Regions on 17 March 2012. Front of Changes and former Our Ukraine Bloc and Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko members performed in the 2012 parliamentary elections under "umbrella" party Fatherland. Front for Changes leader Yatsenyuk headed this election list; because Fatherland-leader Yulia Tymoshenko was imprisoned.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: On 15 June 2013 Reforms and Order Party and Front for Change merged into Fatherland. A part of People’s Movement of Ukraine (including its former chairman Borys Tarasyuk) also merged with Fatherland (the rest of this party had merged with Ukrainian People's Party in May 2013).


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: In preparation for the upcoming 2014 parliamentary elections, several ministers of the Fatherland party in the government of Arseniy Yatsenyuk moved to the new party People's Front, which elected as its party leader Arseniy Yatsenyuk on 10 September 2014.


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: UDAR merged into the Petro Poroshenko Bloc on 28 August 2015 after in the 2014 parliamentary election, 30% of the Petro Poroshenko Bloc election list had been filled by members of UDAR (as non-partisan).


title: Political parties in Ukraine

text: On 20 March 2022, President Volodymyr Zelensky announced a ban on 11 political parties for ties with Russia: Opposition Platform — For Life, Party of Shariy, Nashi, Opposition Bloc, Left Opposition, Union of Leftists, Derzhava, Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine, Socialist Party of Ukraine, Socialists Party and Volodymyr Saldo Bloc.


title: Myst (series)

text: Myst is a franchise centered on a series of adventure video games. The first game in the series, "Myst", was released in 1993 by brothers Rand and Robyn Miller and their video game company Cyan, Inc. The first sequel to "Myst", "Riven", was released in 1997 and was followed by three more direct sequels: "" in 2001, "" in 2004, and "" in 2005. A spinoff featuring a multiplayer component, "", was released in 2003 and followed by two expansion packs.


title: Myst (series)

text: "Myst"s story concerns an explorer named Atrus who has the ability to write books that serve as links to other worlds, known as Ages. This practice of creating linking books was developed by an ancient civilization known as the D'ni, whose society crumbled after being ravaged by disease. The player takes the role of an unnamed person referred to as the Stranger and assists Atrus by traveling to other Ages and solving puzzles. Over the course of the series, Atrus writes a new Age for the D'ni survivors to live on, and players of the games set the course the civilization will follow.


title: Myst (series)

text: The brothers developed "Myst" after producing award-winning games for children. Drawing on childhood stories, the brothers spent months designing the Ages players would investigate. The name "Myst" came from Jules Verne's novel "The Mysterious Island". After "Riven" was released, Robyn left Cyan to pursue other projects, and Cyan began developing "Uru"; developers Presto Studios and Ubisoft created "Exile" and "Revelation" before Cyan returned to complete the series with "End of Ages". "Myst" and its sequels were critical and commercial successes, selling more than twelve million copies; the games drove sales of personal computers and CD-ROM drives as well as attracting casual gamers with its nonviolent, methodical gameplay. The video games' success has led to three published novels in addition to soundtracks, a comic series, and television and movie pitches.


title: Myst (series)

text: "Myst"s story begins with the arrival of a people known as the D'ni on Earth, almost 10,000 years ago. The D'ni are an ancient race who used a special skill to create magical books that serve as portals to the worlds they describe, known as Ages. The D'ni build a great city and thriving civilization in caverns. A young geologist from the surface, Anna, stumbled upon the D'ni civilization. Learning the D'ni language, Anna becomes known as Ti'ana and marries a D'ni named Aitrus; the couple have a son named Gehn. Soon after, D'ni is ravaged by a plague created by a man named A'Gaeris. Aitrus sacrifices himself to save his wife and child, killing A'Gaeris while Ti'ana and Gehn escape to the surface as the D'ni civilization falls.


title: Myst (series)

text: Ti'ana raises Gehn until he runs away as a teenager, learning the D'ni Art of writing descriptive books. Ti'ana also cares for Gehn's son, Atrus, until Gehn arrives to teach Atrus the Art. Atrus realizes that his father is reckless and power-hungry, and with the help of Ti'ana and a young woman, Catherine, Atrus traps Gehn on his Age of Riven with no linking books. Atrus and Catherine marry and have two children, Sirrus and Achenar. The brothers grow greedy, and, after plundering their father's Ages, they trap Catherine on Riven. When Atrus returns to investigate, the brothers strand him in a D'ni cavern before they themselves are trapped by special "prison" books. Through the help of a Stranger, Atrus is freed and sends his benefactor to Riven to retrieve Catherine from the clutches of Gehn. Sirrus and Achenar are punished for their crimes by being imprisoned in separate Ages until they reform.


title: Myst (series)

text: Atrus writes a new Age called Releeshahn for the D'ni survivors to rebuild their civilization as he and Catherine settle back on Earth, raising a daughter named Yeesha. As Atrus prepares to take the Stranger to Releeshahn, a mysterious man named Saavedro appears and steals the Releeshahn Descriptive Book. The Stranger follows Saavedro through several Ages (which were used to train Sirrus and Achenar in the art of writing Ages) before finally recovering the book. Ten years later, Atrus asks for the Stranger's help in determining if his sons have repented after their lengthy imprisonment; the Stranger saves Yeesha from Sirrus's machinations, but Sirrus and a repentant Achenar are killed. D'ni is not fully restored until the creatures the D'ni enslaved, known as the Bahro, are freed.


title: Myst (series)

text: "Myst" was originally conceptualized by brothers Rand and Robyn Miller. The Millers had created fictional worlds and stories as young children, influenced by the works of authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien, Robert A. Heinlein, and Isaac Asimov. They formed a video game company together called Cyan, Inc.; their first game, called "The Manhole", won the Software Publishers Association award in 1988 for best use of the digital medium. Cyan produced other games, aimed at children; the Millers eventually decided their next project would be made for adults.


title: Myst (series)

text: The brothers spent months designing the Ages comprising the game, which were influenced by earlier whimsical "worlds" Cyan had made for children's games. The game's name, as well as the overall solitary and mysterious atmosphere of the island, was inspired by the book "The Mysterious Island" by Jules Verne. Robyn's unfinished novel, "Dunnyhut", influenced aspects of "Myst"s story, which was developed bit by bit as the brothers conceptualized the various worlds. As development progressed, the Millers realized that they would need to have even more story and history than would be revealed in the game itself. Realizing that fans would enjoy getting a deeper look at the story not in the games, the Millers produced a rough draft of what would become a novel, "Myst: The Book of Atrus".


title: Myst (series)

text: After the enormous response to "Myst", work quickly began on the next "Myst" game. Cyan moved from their garage to a new office and hired additional programmers, designers, and artists. The game was to ship in late 1996, but the release was pushed back a year. Development costs were between $5 and $10 million, many times "Myst"s budget. After the release of "Riven", Robyn Miller left the company to pursue other projects, while Rand stayed behind to work on a "Myst" franchise.


title: Myst (series)

text: While Rand Miller stated Cyan would not make another sequel to "Myst", Mattel (then the owner of the "Myst" franchise) offered the task of developing a sequel to several video game companies who created detailed story proposals and technology demonstrations. Presto Studios, makers of the "Journeyman Project" adventure games, was hired to develop "Myst III". Presto spent millions developing the game and used the studio's entire staff to complete the project, which took two and a half years to develop. Soon after "Myst III: Exile" was released, Presto was shut down, and "Exile" publisher Ubisoft developed the sequel, "Myst IV: Revelation", internally. Meanwhile, Cyan produced the spinoff title "", which included an aborted multiplayer component allowing players to cooperatively solve puzzles.


title: Myst (series)

text: Cyan returned to produce what was billed as the final game in the series, discarding live action sequences embedded in prerendered graphics for a world rendered in real time. The actors' faces were turned into textures and mapped onto digital characters, with the actor's actions synchronized by motion capture. Shortly before release, Cyan closed down development, although this did not impact the release of the game; the company was able to rehire its employees a few weeks later, and continued to work on non-"Myst" projects and an attempted resurrection of "Uru"s multiplayer component, "". Servers paid for by donation were set up in 2010, and the game went open-source in 2011.


title: Myst (series)

text: Among the detailed elements of the "Myst" universe Cyan created was the language and culture of the D'ni. The civilization's numbers and writing first appeared in "Riven", and were important to solving some of the game's puzzles. The D'ni language was the language presented in various games and novels of the "Myst" franchise, created by Richard A. Watson. Several online D'ni dictionaries have been developed as part of the ongoing fan-based culture associated with the game.


title: Myst (series)

text: The music for each game in the "Myst" series has fallen to various composers. Originally, the Millers believed that any music or sound besides ambient noise would distract the player from the game and ruin the sense of reality; "Myst", therefore, was to have no music at all. A sound test eventually persuaded the developers that music heightened the sense of immersion rather than lessening it, and as such Robyn Miller composed 40 minutes of synthesized music for the game. He would also produce the music for "Riven", which featured leitmotifs for each of the main characters. Virgin Records bought the rights to the music and produced the soundtracks, which were released in 1998.


title: Myst (series)

text: For "Myst III: Exile" and "Myst IV: Revelation", composer Jack Wall created the music, developing a more active musical style different from Miller's ambient themes. Wall looked at the increasing complexity of games as an opportunity to give players a soundtrack with as much force as a movie score, and tried to create a distinctive sound that was still recognizable as "Myst" music. In "Revelation", Wall adapted the themes for the recurring characters of "Myst", and collaborated with Peter Gabriel, who provided a song to the game as well as voicework.


title: Myst (series)

text: The music for "Uru: Ages Beyond Myst" and "Myst V: End of Ages" was composed by Tim Larkin, who had gotten involved in the series doing sound design for "Riven". Larkin stepped away from his background as a jazz composer and musician to create music with less structure and without a definite beginning and end. Larkin created different music depending on the location, giving each setting and Age a distinctive tone. For "End of Ages", Larkin was unable to afford a full orchestra to perform his score, so he combined individual instrumentation with an array of synthesizers.


title: Myst (series)

text: Rand and Robyn Miller both wanted to develop "Myst"s back story into novels. After the success of "Myst", publisher Hyperion signed a three-book, US$1 million deal with the brothers. David Wingrove worked from the Miller brothers' story outlines. The three books — "Myst: The Book of Atrus", "Myst: The Book of Ti'ana", and "Myst: The Book of D'ni" — were released in 1995, 1996, and 1997, respectively. The books were later packaged together as "The Myst Reader". A fourth novel, "Myst: The Book of Marrim", was planned but has not surfaced.


title: Myst (series)

text: Cyan partnered with Dark Horse Comics in 1993 to release a four-part comic series called "Myst: The Book of Black Ships". The series would have focused on Atrus and his young sons, taking place before the events of "Myst". The first issue was released on September 3, 1997, but further books were canceled after Cyan decided the first issue did not live up to expectations. Another comic, "Myst #0: Passages", was later released online.


title: Myst (series)

text: Various proposals for films and television series based on the franchise were planned or rumored but never came to fruition. They include:


title: Myst (series)

text: In May 2015, "Unwritten: Adventures in the Ages of MYST and Beyond" was published by Inkworks Productions as an authorized, Myst-based pencil-and-paper role-playing game. Unwritten was built on the popular Fate Core RPG system with a focus on investigation and non-violent adventure. Two small supplements exist as background for game-players: The D'Ni Primer explaining the history of the D'Ni, and The Myst Saga giving a chronology of the Myst series.


title: Myst (series)

text: In 2016, Cyan Worlds released the Kickstarter-backed "Obduction". While "Obduction" is not narratively linked to "Myst", the game was considered by Rand Miller to be a spiritual successor to the "Myst" series, borrowing several of its themes and puzzle-design approaches, as well as incorporating full-motion video in homage to "Myst". Robyn, who had left Cyan before this point, collaborated to help score the game and take on the role of one of the in-game characters.


title: Myst (series)

text: In anticipation of the first game's 25th anniversary in September 2018, Cyan Worlds secured the necessary rights to release all of the "Myst" games, updated for modern Windows systems with assistance of GOG.com to be released as a collected physical collectors edition. Further, Cyan launched a Kickstarter in April 2018 to provide digital copies of the seven games as well as backer rewards including a simulated Linking Book, using an LCD screen inserted into a book binding. The Kickstarter was successfully funded, bringing in on a target goal.


title: Myst (series)

text: On June 26, 2019, Village Roadshow Entertainment Group announced that they have acquired the rights to the franchise and plans to expand its mythology to develop a multi-platform universe that includes movies and TV series. They will work alongside Miller and his brother Ryan as well as Isaac Testerman and Yale Rice of Delve Media.


title: Myst (series)

text: Overall, the "Myst" series has been critically and commercially successful. Rand and Robyn Miller were expecting "Myst" to perform as well as previous Cyan titles, making enough money to fund the next project. Instead, "Myst" sold more than six million units, becoming the top-selling PC game of all time until "The Sims" surpassed "Myst" sales in 2002. The first three games in the series have sold more than twelve million copies.


title: Myst (series)

text: 1UP.com writer Jeremy Parish noted that there have been two main opinions of "Myst"s slow, puzzle-based gameplay; "Fans consider "Myst" an elegant, intelligent game for grown-ups, while detractors call it a soulless stroll through a digital museum, more art than game." Game industry executives were confused by "Myst"s success, not understanding how an "interactive slide show" turned out to be a huge hit. Online magazine writer Russell Pitts of "The Escapist" called "Myst" "unlike anything that had come before, weaving video almost seamlessly into a beautifully rendered world, presenting a captivating landscape filled with puzzles and mystery. In a game market dominated by "Doom" clones and simulators, "Myst" took us by the hand and showed us the future of gaming. It took almost a decade for anyone to follow its lead." Critics from "Wired" and "Salon" considered the games approaching the level of art, while authors Henry Jenkins and Lev Manovich pointed out the series as exemplifying the promise of new media to create unseen art forms.


title: Myst (series)

text: The series caused a major shift in the adventure game genre. Unlike previous games, "Myst" attempted to keep players immersed in the world by removing all information not associated with the fictional world itself—no explanatory text, inventory, or score counters. "Myst" has also been cited as the reason for the decline of the adventure game genre; eager to capitalize on "Myst"s success, publishers churned out mediocre "Myst" clones, which flooded the market. By "Exile"s release, games like "Myst" were considered to be an "antiquated" form of gaming by some critics.


title: Myst (series)

text: The title was widely credited as one of the first games to appeal not just to hardcore gamers but to casual players and demographics that generally did not play games, such as women. "Myst"s lack of conventional game elements—violence, dying, and failure—appealed to nongamers and those contemplating buying a computer. The Millers' decision to develop "Myst" for the nascent CD-ROM format helped boost interest and adoption of disc drives.


title: Myst (series)

text: The game inspired a CD parody game called "Pyst", written by comedian Peter Bergman and featured John Goodman in video scenes. Players traveled across the spoiled island of Myst after millions of players walked over it, with the parody game poking fun at elements of the prototype.


title: Myst (series)

text: The game has spawned annual fan conventions around the world. Mysterium has been held since 2000, which grew out of the plans of a small group of fans who wanted to meet in person. Approximately 200 people attended the meeting in Spokane, Washington, which was held at the headquarters of Cyan Worlds, developers of the game. Subsequent conventions have been more formally planned, involving presentations and live music. Similar to Mysterium, Mystralia is a gathering for Australia and New Zealand and has been held since 2005.


title: Solingen

text: Solingen (; ) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located some 25 km east of Düsseldorf along the northern edge of the region called Bergisches Land, south of the Ruhr area, and, with a 2009 population of 161,366, is after Wuppertal the second-largest city in the Bergisches Land. It is a member of the regional authority of the Rhineland.


title: Solingen

text: Solingen is called the "City of Blades", since it has long been renowned for the manufacturing of fine swords, knives, scissors and razors made by famous firms such as WKC, DOVO, Wüsthof, Zwilling J. A. Henckels, Böker, Güde, Hubertus, Diefenthal, Puma, Clauberg, Eickhorn, Linder, Carl Schmidt Sohn, Dreiturm, Herder, and numerous other manufacturers.


title: Solingen

text: In medieval times, the swordsmiths of Solingen designed the town's coat of arms, which continues to the present. In the latter part of the 17th century, a group of swordsmiths from Solingen broke their guild oaths by taking their sword-making secrets with them to Shotley Bridge, County Durham in England.


title: Solingen

text: Solingen lies southwest of Wuppertal in the Bergisches Land. The city has an area of , of which roughly 50% is used for agriculture, horticulture, or forestry. The city's border is long, and the city's dimensions are east to west and north to south. The Wupper river, a right tributary of the Rhine, flows through the city for . The city's highest point at 276 metres (906 ft) is in the northern borough of Gräfrath at the Light Tower, previously the water tower, and the lowest point at 53 metres (174 ft) is in the southwest.


title: Solingen

text: The following cities and communities share a border with Solingen, starting in the northeast and going clockwise around the city:


title: Solingen

text: Solingen currently consists of five boroughs. Each borough has a municipal council of either 13 or 15 representatives ("Bezirksvertreter") elected every five years by the borough's population. The municipal councils are responsible for many of the boroughs' important administrative affairs.


title: Solingen

text: The individuals boroughs are in part composed of separate quarters or residential areas with their own names, although they often lack precise borders. These areas are:


title: Solingen

text: Solingen was first mentioned in 1067 by a chronicler who called the area "Solonchon". Early variations of the name included "Solengen", "Solungen", and "Soleggen", although the modern name seems to have been in use since the late 14th and early 15th centuries.


title: Solingen

text: Blacksmiths' smelters, dating back over 2000 years, have been found around the town, adding to Solingen's fame as a Northern Europe blacksmith centre. Swords from Solingen have turned up in places such as the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the British Isles. Northern Europe prized the quality of Solingen's manufactured weaponry, and they were traded across the European continent. Solingen today remains the knife-centre of Germany.


title: Solingen

text: After being ravaged by the plague with about 1,800 deaths in 1614–1619, Solingen was heavily fought-over during the Thirty Years' War, repeatedly attacked and plundered, and the Burg Castle was destroyed.


title: Solingen

text: In 1929, Ohligs located in the Prussian Rhine Province, by rail north of Cologne became part of Solingen. Its chief manufactures were cutlery and hardware, and there were iron-foundries and flour mills. Other industries were brewing, dyeing, weaving and brick-making.


title: Solingen

text: In World War II, the Old Town was completely destroyed by a bombing raid by the RAF in 1944; 1,800 people died and over 1,500 people were injured. As such, there are few pre-war sites in the centre.


title: Solingen

text: In 1993 Solingen, the birthplace of Adolf Eichmann became once again the scene of racist violence with its 1993 Solingen arson attack, when four skinheads, with neo-Nazi ties, set fire to the house of a large Turkish family. Three girls and two women died; fourteen other family members, including several children, were injured, some of them severely.


title: Solingen

text: Solingen's population doubled between the years 1880 and 1890 due to the incorporation of the town of Dorp into Solingen in 1889, at which time the population reached 36,000. The population again received a large boost on August 1, 1929 through the incorporation of Ohligs, Wald, Höhscheid, and Gräfrath into the city limits. This brought the population above the 100,000 mark, which gave Solingen the distinction of being a "large city" ("Großstadt"). The number of inhabitants peaked in 1971 with 177,899 residents, and the 2006 population figure was 163,263.


title: Solingen

text: The following chart shows the population figures within Solingen's city limits at the respective points in time. The figures are derived from census estimates or numbers provided by statistical offices or city agencies, with the exception of figures preceding 1843, which were gathered using inconsistent recording techniques.


title: Solingen

text: The current Mayor of Solingen is Tim Kurzbach of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), elected in 2015 and re-elected in 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:


title: Solingen

text: The Solingen city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:


title: Solingen

text: Solingen Hauptbahnhof is served by Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn line S1 from Düsseldorf and Düsseldorf Airport Station. S-Bahn line S7 links Solingen (including the station nearest the city centre, Solingen Mitte, and Solingen-Grünewald) to Wuppertal via Remscheid, Remscheid-Lennep and Wuppertal-Ronsdorf. This line has been operated by Abellio Deutschland since 15 Dec. 2013. The Rhein-Wupper-Bahn (RB 48) runs over the Gruiten–Köln-Deutz line to Bonn-Mehlem via Opladen and Cologne. It has been operated by National Express as of 13 Dec. 2015.


title: Solingen

text: Solingen has a trolleybus network, one of only three in Germany remaining besides Eberswalde and Esslingen am Neckar.


title: Solingen

text: The nearest airports are Düsseldorf Airport and Cologne Bonn Airport. Both airports can be reached by train from Solingen-Hauptbahnhof (change trains at Köln Messe/Deutz station for the S-Bahn 13 to Cologne Bonn Airport).


title: Solingen

text: Other easily reached airports are Frankfurt Airport (ICE train stop), Dortmund Airport (railway station "Holzwickede" on the RE7 trainline) and the low cost Weeze Airport (coaches from Düsseldorf Hauptbahnhof).


title: Solingen

text: Solingen has belonged from its beginnings to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne ("Erzbistum Köln"), and more specifically to the Archdeaconry of the Probst ("provost") of St. Kunibert, the deanery of Deutz. Although the Protestant Reformation gradually made gains in the city, which was under the control of the Counts of Berg, the population by and large remained Roman Catholic for a while. The Catholic community was newly endowed by the local lord in 1658 and in 1701 received a new church building. In 1827 Solingen became the seat of its own deanery within the newly defined Archdiocese of Cologne, to which the city's current parishes still belong.


title: Solingen

text: As mentioned, the Reformation only gradually gained a foothold in Solingen. A reformed church affiliated with the Bergisch synod was established in 1590, and the city's parish church became reformed in 1649. Lutherans had been present in Solingen since the beginning of the 17th century, and a Lutheran congregation was founded in 1635. In 1672 a formalized religious agreement was reached between the city's religious groups. The Reformation was also introduced in Gräfrath in 1590, where a church council was apparently established in 1629. The Reformed and Lutheran churches were formed into a united church community in 1838 following the general merger of Reformed and Lutheran churches in Prussia in 1817.


title: Solingen

text: The Protestant parishes originally belonged to the district synod of Lennep, today part of the city Remscheid. A new synod was established in Solingen in 1843, and the city acquired its own superintendent, a form of church administrator. This formed the basis for the present-day Church District of Solingen, a member of the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland. With the exception of the free churches, most Protestant churches belong to the Church District of Solingen.


title: Solingen

text: Today approximately 34% of Solingen's population belongs to Protestant churches, and roughly 26% belong to Catholic churches. Other church communities in Solingen include Greek Orthodox, Evangelical Free (including Baptist and Brethren), Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist, Pentecostal, Salvation Army, and free churches. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses and the New Apostolic Church also have communities in Solingen.


title: Solingen

text: Most of the Turkish immigrants belong to the Muslim faith and they have several mosques/worship places in Solingen:


title: Solingen

text: The Solingen Paladins are an American football club from Solingen in North Rhine-Westphalia, which was founded in 2006. In the 2020 season, the Paladins will play their third season in GFL2 Nord, the second-highest division in Germany.


title: Solingen

text: The Solingen Alligators are a baseball and softball club from Solingen. The club was founded in 1991 and the first men's team was promoted to the first division of the Baseball Bundesliga for the 2003 season. It has played there in every season since, winning the league championship in 2006 and 2014. The club claims over 250 members.


title: Solingen

text: The "Schachgesellschaft Solingen e.V. 1868" is best known for its chess team, which plays in the Schachbundesliga (Chess Bundesliga), the top tier of the German chess league system, and is the most successful club in German chess history, having won a record 12 national titles (1969, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1980, 1980/81, 1986/87, 1987/88, 1996/97 and 2015/16), three national cups (1986, 2006 und 2009) and 2 European cups (1976 and 1990).


title: Solingen

text: In handball, Solingen's most successful team is "Bergischer HC", playing in the top-tier Handball-Bundesliga which they were promoted to for the second time in 2013, reaching 15th place in the 2013–14 campaign and therefore staying in the top flight for a second consecutive season. "BHC"


title: Solingen

text: originates from a 2006 cooperation between the "SG Solingen" and rivals "LTV Wuppertal" from the nearby city of the same name. The club advertises itself as a representative of the entire Bergisches Land region. The team plays its home games at both Solingen's "Klingenhalle" (2,600 seats) and Wuppertal's "Uni-Halle" (3,200 seats).


title: Solingen

text: In May 1955, the city of Solingen took over the partnership of the German general cargo ship "Solingen" of the Hamburg-American Packet Transit Actien-Gesellschaft (Hapag).


title: Solingen

text: The founders of Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company, which later became the automobile company Studebaker, trace their lineage to bladesmen from the region that migrated to America in 1736.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: A Meckel's diverticulum, a true congenital diverticulum, is a slight bulge in the small intestine present at birth and a vestigial remnant of the omphalomesenteric duct (also called the vitelline duct or yolk stalk). It is the most common malformation of the gastrointestinal tract and is present in approximately 2% of the population, with males more frequently experiencing symptoms.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Meckel's diverticulum was first explained by Fabricius Hildanus in the sixteenth century and later named after Johann Friedrich Meckel, who described the embryological origin of this type of diverticulum in 1809.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: The majority of people with a Meckel's diverticulum are asymptomatic. An asymptomatic Meckel's diverticulum is called a "silent" Meckel's diverticulum. If symptoms do occur, they typically appear before the age of two years. The most common presenting symptom is painless rectal bleeding such as melaena-like black offensive stools, followed by intestinal obstruction, volvulus and intussusception. Occasionally, Meckel's diverticulitis may present with all the features of acute appendicitis. Also, severe pain in the epigastric region is experienced by the person along with bloating in the epigastric and umbilical regions. At times, the symptoms are so painful that they may cause sleepless nights with acute pain felt in the foregut region, specifically in the epigastric and umbilical regions. In some cases, bleeding occurs without warning and may stop spontaneously. The symptoms can be extremely painful, often mistaken as just stomach pain resulting from not eating or constipation. Rarely, a Meckel's diverticulum containing ectopic pancreatic tissue can present with abdominal pain and increased serum amylase levels, mimicking acute pancreatitis.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: The lifetime risk for a person with Meckel's diverticulum to develop certain complications is about 4–6%. Gastrointestinal bleeding, peritonitis or intestinal obstruction may occur in 15–30% of symptomatic people (Table 1). Only 6.4% of all complications require surgical treatment, and untreated Meckel's diverticulum has a mortality rate of 2.5–15%.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Bleeding of the diverticulum is most common in young children, especially in males who are less than 2 years of age. Symptoms may include bright red blood in stools (hematochezia), weakness, abdominal tenderness or pain, and even anaemia in some cases.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Inflammation of the diverticulum can mimic symptoms of appendicitis, i.e., periumbilical tenderness and intermittent crampy abdominal pain. Perforation of the inflamed diverticulum can result in peritonitis. Diverticulitis can also cause adhesions, leading to intestinal obstruction.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Anomalies between the diverticulum and umbilicus may include the presence of fibrous cord, cyst, fistula, or sinus, leading to:


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Tumors in Meckel's diverticulum may cause bleeding, acute abdominal pain, gastrointestinal obstruction, perforation or intussusception.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: The omphalomesenteric duct (omphaloenteric duct, vitelline duct, or yolk stalk) normally connects the embryonic midgut to the yolk sac ventrally, providing nutrients to the midgut during embryonic development. The vitelline duct narrows progressively and disappears between the 5th and 8th weeks of gestation.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: In Meckel's diverticulum, the proximal part of vitelline duct fails to regress and involute, which remains as a remnant of variable length and location. The solitary diverticulum lies on the antimesenteric border of the ileum (opposite to the mesenteric attachment) and extends into the umbilical cord of the embryo. The left and right vitelline arteries originate from the primitive dorsal aorta, and travel with the vitelline duct. The right becomes the superior mesenteric artery that supplies a terminal branch to the diverticulum, while the left involutes. Having its own blood supply, Meckel's diverticulum is susceptible to obstruction or infection.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Meckel's diverticulum is located in the distal ileum, usually within 60–100 cm (2 feet) of the ileocecal valve. This "blind segment" or small pouch is about 3–6 cm (2 inch) long and may have a greater lumen diameter than that of the ileum. It runs antimesenterically and has its own blood supply. It is a remnant of the connection from the yolk sac to the small intestine present during embryonic development. It is a "true diverticulum", consisting of all 3 layers of the bowel wall which are mucosa, submucosa and muscularis propria.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: As the vitelline duct is made up of pluripotent cell lining, Meckel's diverticulum may harbor abnormal tissues, containing embryonic remnants of other tissue types. Jejunal, duodenal mucosa or Brunner's tissue were each found in 2% of ectopic cases. Heterotopic rests of gastric mucosa and pancreatic tissue are seen in 60% and 6% of cases respectively. Heterotopic means the displacement of an organ from its normal anatomic location. Inflammation of this Meckel's diverticulum may mimic appendicitis. Therefore, during appendectomy, ileum should be checked for the presence of Meckel's diverticulum, if it is found to be present it should be removed along with appendix.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: However, the exact values for the above criteria range from 0.2–5 (for example, prevalence is probably 0.2–4%).


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: It can also be present as an indirect hernia, typically on the right side, where it is known as a ""Hernia of Littré"". A case report of strangulated umbilical hernia with Meckel's diverticulum has also been published in the literature. Furthermore, it can be attached to the umbilical region by the vitelline ligament, with the possibility of vitelline cysts, or even a patent vitelline canal forming a vitelline fistula when the umbilical cord is cut. Torsions of intestine around the intestinal stalk may also occur, leading to obstruction, ischemia, and necrosis.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: A technetium-99m (99mTc) pertechnetate scan, also called Meckel scan or nuclear scintigraphy scan, is the investigation of choice to diagnose Meckel's diverticula in children. This scan detects gastric mucosa; since approximately 50% of symptomatic Meckel's diverticula have ectopic gastric or pancreatic cells contained within them, this is displayed as a spot on the scan distant from the stomach itself. In children, this scan is highly accurate and noninvasive, with 95% specificity and 85% sensitivity; however, in adults the test is only 9% specific and 62% sensitive. This scan is more accurate in children because gastric mucosa is found in 90% of bleeding diverticula; which is the most common symptom in children, not adults.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Patients with these misplaced gastric cells may experience peptic ulcers as a consequence. Therefore, other tests such as colonoscopy and screenings for bleeding disorders should be performed, and angiography can assist in determining the location and severity of bleeding. Colonoscopy might be helpful to rule out other sources of bleeding but it is not used as an identification tool. Angiography might identify brisk bleeding in patients with Meckel's diverticulum.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Ultrasonography could demonstrate omphaloenteric duct remnants or cysts. Computed tomography (CT scan) might be a useful tool to demonstrate a blind ended and inflamed structure in the mid-abdominal cavity, which is not an appendix.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: In asymptomatic patients, Meckel's diverticulum is often diagnosed as an incidental finding during laparoscopy or laparotomy.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Treatment is surgical, potentially with a laparoscopic resection. In patients with bleeding, strangulation of bowel, bowel perforation or bowel obstruction, treatment involves surgical resection of both the Meckel's diverticulum itself along with the adjacent bowel segment, and this procedure is called a "small bowel resection". In patients without any of the aforementioned complications, treatment involves surgical resection of the Meckel's diverticulum only, and this procedure is called a simple diverticulectomy.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: With regards to asymptomatic Meckel's diverticulum, some recommend that a search for Meckel's diverticulum should be conducted in every case of appendectomy/laparotomy done for acute abdomen, and if found, Meckel's diverticulectomy or resection should be performed to avoid secondary complications arising from it.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Meckel's diverticulum occurs in about 2% of the population. Prevalence in males is 3–5 times higher than in females. Only 2% of cases are symptomatic, which usually presents among children at the age of 2.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Most cases of Meckel's diverticulum are diagnosed when complications manifest or incidentally in unrelated conditions such as laparotomy, laparoscopy or contrast study of the small intestine. Classic presentation in adults includes intestinal obstruction and inflammation of the diverticulum (diverticulitis). Painless rectal bleeding most commonly occurs in toddlers.


title: Meckel's diverticulum

text: Inflammation in the ileal diverticulum has symptoms that mimic appendicitis, therefore its diagnosis is of clinical importance. Detailed knowledge of the pathophysiological properties is essential in dealing with the life-threatening complications of Meckel's diverticulum.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: Korean Air Flight 858 was a scheduled international passenger flight between Baghdad, Iraq, and Seoul, South Korea. On 29 November 1987, the aircraft flying that route exploded in mid-air upon the detonation of a bomb planted inside an overhead storage bin in the airplane's passenger cabin by two North Korean agents.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: The agents, acting upon orders from the North Korean government, planted the device before disembarking from the aircraft during the first stop-over, in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. While the aircraft was flying over the Andaman Sea to its second stop-over, in Bangkok, Thailand, the bomb detonated and destroyed the Korean Air Boeing 707-3B5C. Everyone aboard the airliner was killed, a total of 104 passengers and 11 crew members (almost all were South Koreans). The attack occurred 34 years after the Korean Armistice Agreement that ended the hostilities of the Korean War on 27 July 1953.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: The two bombers were traced to Bahrain, where they both took ampules of cyanide hidden in cigarettes when they realized they were about to be taken into custody. The man died, but the woman, Kim Hyon-hui, survived and later confessed to the bombing. She was sentenced to death after being put on trial for the attack, but was later pardoned by the President of South Korea, Roh Tae-woo because it was deemed that she had been brainwashed in North Korea. Kim's testimony implicated Kim Jong-il, who at that time was the future leader of North Korea, as the person ultimately responsible for the incident. The United States Department of State specifically refers to the bombing of KAL 858 as a "terrorist act" and, except between 2008 and 2017, has included North Korea on its State Sponsors of Terrorism list.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: Since the attack, diplomatic relations between North Korea and South Korea have not significantly improved, although some progress has been made in the form of four Inter-Korean summits. Kim Hyon-hui later released a book, "The Tears of My Soul", in which she recalled being trained in an espionage school run by the North Korean army, and being told personally by Kim Jong-il to carry out the attack. She was branded a traitor by North Korea and became a critic of North Korea after seeing South Korea. Kim now resides in exile, and under constant tight security, fearing that the North Korean government wants to kill her. "Being a culprit, I do have a sense of agony with which I must fight", she said at a press conference in 1990. "In that sense I must still be a prisoner or a captive—of a sense of guilt."


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: On 12 November 1987, two North Korean agents, Kim Sung-Il and Kim Hyon-hui, traveled from Pyongyang, North Korea, on an airliner to Moscow, the capital of the Soviet Union. From there, the agents left for Budapest, Hungary, the following morning, where they stayed in the home of a North Korean agent for six days. On 18 November, the pair traveled to Vienna, Austria, by car. After crossing the Austrian border, the guidance officer with whom they had stayed in Budapest gave the pair two forged Japanese passports. Posing as tourists staying in the Am Parkring Hotel in Vienna, the two purchased tickets from Austrian Airlines for flights that would take them from Vienna to Belgrade, Yugoslavia (now Serbia), then on to Baghdad, Abu Dhabi, and finally Bahrain. They also purchased tickets from Abu Dhabi to Rome, Italy, for use in escaping after planting the bomb on the KAL flight.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: On 27 November, two guidance officers who had arrived in Yugoslavia by train from Vienna gave them the time bomb, a Panasonic transistor radio made in Japan, which contained explosives, a detonator, and a bottle of liquid explosive intended to intensify the blast, disguised as a liquor bottle. The next day, they left Belgrade for Saddam International Airport, Baghdad, Iraq, on an Iraqi Airways flight. At the airport, they waited three hours and 30 minutes for the arrival of KAL 858—the target of their operation—which took off at around 11:30 p.m. The two bombers planted the improvised explosive device above their seats, 7B and 7C, and disembarked the aircraft at Abu Dhabi International Airport.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: After the attack, the bombers attempted to fly from Abu Dhabi to Amman, Jordan—the first leg of their planned escape route—but there were complications with airport authorities regarding their travel visas; therefore, they were forced to fly to Bahrain, where they agreed they would travel to Rome. However, the bombers' passports were identified as forgeries at the airport in Bahrain. Realising that they were about to be taken into custody, they both attempted suicide by ingesting cyanide hidden inside cigarettes. Kim Sung-il was rushed to the hospital where he was pronounced dead, but the female, 25-year-old Kim Hyon-hui, survived. The body of Kim Sung-il was sent to South Korea and subsequently buried in the Cemetery for North Korean and Chinese Soldiers.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: The aircraft operating Korean Air Flight 858 was a Boeing 707-3B5C, registered . It made its first flight in 1971, and at the time of its destruction, the aircraft was 16 years old and had accumulated 36,000 flying hours. Around a month before the crash, it had been recently repainted in the new Korean Air livery with an official airline sticker for the upcoming 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: The aircraft took off from Saddam International Airport (later renamed Baghdad International Airport) in Baghdad, Iraq around 11:30 p.m. (20:30 UTC), flying to Gimpo International Airport in Gangseo-gu, Seoul, South Korea, with stops at Abu Dhabi International Airport in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, and Don Mueang International Airport in Bangkok, Thailand.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: On the second leg of the flight, from Abu Dhabi to Thailand, KAL 858 was carrying 104 passengers and 11 crew members. At around 2:05 p.m. Korean Standard Time (05:05 UTC), nine hours after the bomb had been planted and near the end of the flight, the bomb detonated and the aircraft exploded over the Andaman Sea () west of Burmese coast, killing all 115 on board. The pilot transmitted his final radio message shortly before the explosion: "We expect to arrive in Bangkok on time. Time and location normal."


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: One hundred thirteen of the people aboard were South Korean nationals, along with an Indian national and a Lebanese national. Many of the 113 South Korean nationals were young workers who were returning to their home country after working for several years in the construction industry in the Middle East. A South Korean diplomat, who worked at the embassy in Baghdad, and his wife, were also aboard the flight, though it is not known if they were the prime targets of the attack. Wreckage from the flight was found inland in Thailand around from where the detonation is thought to have occurred. The flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder were not located.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: According to testimony at a United Nations Security Council meeting, on December 15, 1987, Kim was transferred to Seoul, South Korea, where she recovered from the poison and, initially, said she was a Chinese orphan who grew up in Japan and said that she was not connected to the attack. Authorities grew more suspicious when, while being questioned in Bahrain, she attacked a police officer and attempted to grab his firearm, before being apprehended. At the hearing, the main evidence against Kim was the cigarettes, which, analysis showed, were the type used by a number of other North Korean agents apprehended in South Korea.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: Speaking at the United Nations Security Council, Choi Young-jin, representing South Korea, said that after eight days of interrogation in South Korea, she was permitted to see a film of life in the country on a television screen, and realized that "life ... on the streets of Seoul was entirely different from what she had been led to believe." She had been taught that South Korea was an American puppet state that was fraught with poverty and corruption. However, when she saw how South Koreans actually lived, Choi said, "she began to realize that what she had been told while living in the North was totally untrue." Kim then "threw herself into the arms of a female investigator" and confessed to the bombing. In Korean, she said, "Forgive me. I am sorry. I will tell you everything," and said that she had been "exploited as a tool for North Korean terrorist activities", and made a detailed and voluntary confession.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: The escape route, she said, was to be from Abu Dhabi via Amman to Rome, but the pair were diverted to Bahrain due to visa complications. She added that she had been travelling undercover for three years preparing for the attack. Kim told investigators that when she was sixteen, she was chosen by the Workers' Party of Korea and trained in a number of languages. Three years later, she was educated at a secret and elite espionage school run by the North Korean Army, where she was trained to kill with her hands and feet and to use rifles and grenades. Training at the school involved enduring several years of gruelling physical and psychological conditioning. In 1987, aged 25, Kim was ordered to detonate a bomb aboard a South Korean jetliner, an attack that she was told would reunify her divided country forever.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: In January 1988, Kim announced at a press conference held by the Agency for National Security Planning, the South Korean secret services agency, that both she and her partner were North Korean operatives. She said that they had left a radio containing 350 grams of C-4 explosive and a liquor bottle containing approximately 700 ml of PLX explosive, with a timer set to go off for nine hours after departure from Baghdad, in an overhead rack in the passenger cabin of the aircraft. Kim expressed remorse for her actions and asked for the forgiveness of the families of those who had died. She also said that the order for the bombing had been "personally penned" by Kim Jong-il, the son of North Korean supreme leader Kim Il-sung, who had wanted to destabilize the South Korean government, disrupt its upcoming 1988 parliamentary elections, and frighten international teams from attending the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul later that year. "It is natural that I should be punished and killed a hundred times for my sin," she said. Writing in "The Washington Post" on 15 January 1988, journalist Peter Maass stated that it was not clear to him if Kim was coerced in her remarks or was motivated by remorse for her actions. Kim was subsequently sentenced to execution for the bombing of KAL 858, but she was later pardoned by the President of South Korea, Roh Tae-woo. "The persons who ought to be on trial here are the leaders of North Korea," he said. "This child is as much a victim of this evil regime as the passengers aboard KAL 858."


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: In January 2020, a South Korean television news team from Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation reported that they may have found the main wreckage at a depth of under the Andaman Sea. Tipped off by local fishing crews they conducted sonar scans which found a wing-shaped object long and a long section believed to be fuselage. Grainy images from underwater cameras were shown on South Korean TV and, although there was no official confirmation that this was KAL 858 or its location, some families of the victims held a news conference demanding the fuselage be salvaged.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: The United States State Department specifically refers to the bombing of KAL 858 as a "terrorist act" and, except between 2008 and 2017, has included North Korea on its State Sponsors of Terrorism list based on the results of the South Korean investigation. Charles E. Redman, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, said in January 1988 that the incident was an "act of mass murder," adding that the administration had "concluded that the evidence of North Korean culpability is compelling. We call on all nations to condemn North Korea for this terrorist act." The action was discussed at length in at least two United Nations Security Council meetings where the allegations and evidence was aired by all sides, but no resolution was passed. North Korea continues to deny involvement in the attack on KAL 858, saying that the incident was a "fabrication" by South Korea and other countries.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: Kim Jong-il became the leader of North Korea in 1994, succeeding his father. In 2001, right-wing activists and relatives of the victims killed in the attack demanded that Kim Jong-il be arrested for terrorism offences when he visited Seoul later in the year. Two petitions were filed against him, with the activists and relatives stating that there was strong evidence—namely Kim's testimony—to suggest he was ultimately responsible for the bombing. They also called for him to make a public apology for the incident and formally compensate the victims' families. The leader of a right-wing South Korean group, lawyer Lee Chul-sung, said, "Kim Jong-il must be arrested and punished if he comes to Seoul without admitting his criminal acts and offering an apology and compensation." Kim Jong-il was not arrested, however. He died in December 2011, and was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong-un.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: In 1993, William Morrow and Company published "The Tears of My Soul," Kim's account of how she was trained as a North Korean espionage agent and carried out the bombing of KAL 858. As a gesture of contrition for her crime, she donated all of the proceeds from this book to the families of the victims of KAL 858. The book details her early training and life in China, Macao, and across Europe, carrying out the bombing, her consequent trial, reprieve, and integration into South Korea. In the book, Kim states that Kim Jong-il masterminded the bombing, and gave her the order to carry out the attack. It is also believed that Kim Jong-il masterminded the Rangoon bombing of 1983, in which North Korea attempted to assassinate South Korean president, Chun Doo-hwan. Her story has also been turned into a motion picture, "Mayumi", directed by Shin Sang-ok in 1990.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: In 2010, Kim Hyon-hui visited Japan, where she met the families of Japanese people abducted by North Korea during the 1970s and 1980s who were forced to teach North Korean spies to disguise themselves as Japanese—whom, it was reported, may have trained Kim Hyon-hui. The Japanese government waived immigration rules in order for the visit to take place since Kim is regarded as a criminal in the country for her use of the false Japanese passport in the attack. The Japanese press, however, criticized the visit, for which security was tight over fears that she might be attacked. Kim arrived in the country on a private jet chartered by the Japanese government and was ushered into a car shielded by large umbrellas. During the visit, she stayed in a holiday home owned by Yukio Hatoyama, prime Minister of Japan. Kim today resides in an undisclosed location and remains under constant protection for fear of reprisals, from either victims' families or the North Korean government, which has described her as a traitor to their cause.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: In 2007, an association of families of victims released their suspicions on the official version of the events. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission investigated the matter and found out that the bombing was "not a manipulation" by the South Korean National Intelligence Service (NIS). In 2016, Kim Kwang-jin, a member of the National Assembly raised the suspicion that the bombing was done by the NIS during the unsuccessful filibuster of the anti-terrorism bill.


title: Korean Air Flight 858

text: The tension between North Korea and South Korea has not subsided since the signing of the armistice in 1953, and no formal peace treaty permanently ending the conflict has been signed. In 2000, however, both countries held the first Inter-Korean summit, in which the leaders of both countries signed a joint declaration, stating that they would hold a second summit, in 2007. Furthermore, both countries were involved in militarily and ministerial discussions in Pyongyang, Seoul and Jeju Island in that year. On 2 October 2007, South Korean president, Roh Moo-hyun, walked across the Korean Demilitarized Zone in travelling to Pyongyang for talks with Kim Jong-il. Both leaders reaffirmed the spirit of the 2000 joint declaration and had discussions on various issues related to realizing the advancement of south–north relations, peace on the Korean Peninsula, common prosperity of the Korean people, and the reunification of Korea. On 4 October 2007, South Korean president, Roh Moo-hyun, and North Korean leader, Kim Jong-il, signed the peace declaration. The document called for international talks to replace the armistice, which ended the Korean War, with a permanent peace treaty.


title: Control rod

text: Control rods are used in nuclear reactors to control the rate of fission of the nuclear fuel – uranium or plutonium. Their compositions include chemical elements such as boron, cadmium, silver, hafnium, or indium, that are capable of absorbing many neutrons without themselves decaying. These elements have different neutron capture cross sections for neutrons of various energies. Boiling water reactors (BWR), pressurized water reactors (PWR), and heavy-water reactors (HWR) operate with thermal neutrons, while breeder reactors operate with fast neutrons. Each reactor design can use different control rod materials based on the energy spectrum of its neutrons. Control rods have been used in nuclear aircraft engines like Project Pluto as a method of control.


title: Control rod

text: Control rods are inserted into the core of a nuclear reactor and adjusted in order to control the rate of the nuclear chain reaction and, thereby, the thermal power output of the reactor, the rate of steam production, and the electrical power output of the power station.


title: Control rod

text: The number of control rods inserted, and the distance to which they are inserted, strongly influence the "reactivity" of the reactor. When reactivity (as effective neutron multiplication factor) is above 1, the rate of the nuclear chain reaction increases exponentially over time. When reactivity is below 1, the rate of the reaction decreases exponentially over time. When all control rods are fully inserted, they keep reactivity barely above 0, which quickly slows a running reactor to a stop and keeps it stopped (in shutdown). If all control rods are fully removed, reactivity is significantly above 1, and the reactor quickly runs hotter and hotter, until some other factor (such as temperature reactivity feedback) slows the reaction rate. Maintaining a constant power output requires keeping the long-term average neutron multiplication factor close to 1.


title: Control rod

text: A new reactor is assembled with its control rods fully inserted. Control rods are partially removed from the core to allow the nuclear chain reaction to start up and increase to the desired power level. Neutron flux can be measured, and is roughly proportional to reaction rate and power level. To increase power output, some control rods are pulled out a small distance for a while. To decrease power output, some control rods are pushed in a small distance for a while. Several other factors affect the reactivity; to compensate for them, an automatic control system adjusts the control rods small amounts in or out, as-needed in some reactors. Each control rod influences some part of the reactor more than others; calculated adjustments to fuel distribution can be made to maintain similar reaction rates and temperatures in different parts of the core.


title: Control rod

text: Typical shutdown time for modern reactors such as the European Pressurized Reactor or Advanced CANDU reactor is 2 seconds for 90% reduction, limited by decay heat.


title: Control rod

text: Control rods are usually used in control rod assemblies (typically 20 rods for a commercial PWR assembly) and inserted into guide tubes within the fuel elements. Control rods often stand vertically within the core. In PWRs they are inserted from above, with the control rod drive mechanisms mounted on the reactor pressure vessel head. In BWRs, due to the necessity of a steam dryer above the core, this design requires insertion of the control rods from beneath.


title: Control rod

text: Chemical elements with usefully high neutron capture cross-sections include silver, indium, and cadmium. Other candidate elements include boron, cobalt, hafnium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium. Alloys or compounds may also be used, such as high-boron steel, silver-indium-cadmium alloy, boron carbide, zirconium diboride, titanium diboride, hafnium diboride, gadolinium nitrate, gadolinium titanate, dysprosium titanate, and boron carbide–europium hexaboride composite.


title: Control rod

text: The material choice is influenced by the neutron energy in the reactor, their resistance to neutron-induced swelling, and the required mechanical and lifespan properties. The rods may have the form of tubes filled with neutron-absorbing pellets or powder. The tubes can be made of stainless steel or other "neutron window" materials such as zirconium, chromium, silicon carbide, or cubic (cubic boron nitride).


title: Control rod

text: The burnup of "burnable poison" isotopes also limits lifespan of a control rod. They may be reduced by using an element such as hafnium, a "non-burnable poison" which captures multiple neutrons before losing effectiveness, or by not using neutron absorbers for trimming. For example, in pebble bed reactors or in possible new type lithium-7-moderated and -cooled reactors that use fuel and absorber pebbles.


title: Control rod

text: Some rare-earth elements are excellent neutron absorbers and are more common than silver (reserves of about 500,000t). For example, ytterbium (reserves about 1 M tons) and yttrium, 400 times more common, with middle capturing values, can be found and used together without separation inside minerals like xenotime (Yb) (YbYLuErDyTmHo)PO, or keiviite (Yb) (YbLuErTmYDyHo)SiO, lowering the cost. Xenon is also a strong neutron absorber as a gas, and can be used for controlling and (emergency) stopping helium-cooled reactors, but does not function in cases of pressure loss, or as a burning protection gas together with argon around the vessel part especially in case of core catching reactors or if filled with sodium or lithium. Fission-produced xenon can be used after waiting for caesium to precipitate, when practically no radioactivity is left. Cobalt-59 is also used as an absorber for winning of cobalt-60 for X-ray production. Control rods can also be constructed as thick turnable rods with a tungsten reflector and absorber side turned to stop by a spring in less than 1 second.


title: Control rod

text: Silver-indium-cadmium alloys, generally 80% Ag, 15% In, and 5% Cd, are a common control rod material for pressurized water reactors. The somewhat different energy absorption regions of the materials make the alloy an excellent neutron absorber. It has good mechanical strength and can be easily fabricated. It must be encased in stainless steel to prevent corrosion in hot water. Although indium is less rare than silver, it is more expensive.


title: Control rod

text: Boron is another common neutron absorber. Due to the different cross sections of B and B, materials containing boron enriched in B by isotopic separation are frequently used. The wide absorption spectrum of boron also makes it suitable as a neutron shield. The mechanical properties of boron in its elementary form are unsuitable, and therefore alloys or compounds have to be used instead. Common choices are high-boron steel and boron carbide. The latter is used as a control rod material in both PWRs and BWRs. B/B separation is done commercially with gas centrifuges over BF, but can also be done over BH from borane production or directly with an energy optimized melting centrifuge, using the heat of freshly separated boron for preheating.


title: Control rod

text: Hafnium has excellent properties for reactors using water for both moderation and cooling. It has good mechanical strength, can be easily fabricated, and is resistant to corrosion in hot water. Hafnium can be alloyed with other elements, e.g. with tin and oxygen to increase tensile and creep strength, with iron, chromium, and niobium for corrosion resistance, and with molybdenum for wear resistance, hardness, and machineability. Such alloys are designated as Hafaloy, Hafaloy-M, Hafaloy-N, and Hafaloy-NM. The high cost and low availability of hafnium limit its use in civilian reactors, although it is used in some US Navy reactors. Hafnium carbide can also be used as an insoluble material with a high melting point of 3890 °C and density higher than that of uranium dioxide for sinking, unmelted, through corium.


title: Control rod

text: Dysprosium titanate was undergoing evaluation for pressurized water control rods. Dysprosium titanate is a promising replacement for Ag-In-Cd alloys because it has a much higher melting point, does not tend to react with cladding materials, is easy to produce, does not produce radioactive waste, does not swell and does not outgas. It was developed in Russia and is recommended by some for VVER and RBMK reactors. A disadvantage is less titanium and oxide absorption, that other neutron absorbing elements do not react with the already high-melting point cladding materials and that just using the unseparated content with dysprosium inside of minerals like Keiviit Yb inside chromium, SiC or c11B15N tubes deliver superior price and absorption without swelling and outgassing.


title: Control rod

text: Hafnium diboride is another such material. It can be used alone or in a sintered mixture of hafnium and boron carbide powders.


title: Control rod

text: Many other compounds of rare-earth elements can be used, such as samarium with boron-like europium and samarium boride, which is already used in the colour industry. Less absorptive compounds of boron similar to titanium, but inexpensive, such as molybdenum as MoB. Since they all swell with boron, in practice other compounds are better, such as carbides, etc., or compounds with two or more neutron-absorbing elements together. It is important that tungsten, and probably also other elements like tantalum, have much the same high capture qualities as hafnium, but with the opposite effect. This is not explainable by neutron reflection alone. An obvious explanation is resonance gamma rays increasing the fission and breeding ratio versus causing more capture of uranium, etc. over metastable conditions like for isotope U, which has a half-life of about 26 min.


title: Control rod

text: Other means of controlling reactivity include (for PWR) a soluble neutron absorber (boric acid) added to the reactor coolant, allowing the complete extraction of the control rods during stationary power operation, ensuring an even power and flux distribution over the entire core. This chemical shim, along with the use of burnable neutron poisons within the fuel pellets, is used to assist regulation of the core's long term reactivity, while the control rods are used for rapid reactor power changes (e.g. shutdown and start up). Operators of BWRs use the coolant flow through the core to control reactivity by varying the speed of the reactor recirculation pumps (an increase in coolant flow through the core improves the removal of steam bubbles, thus increasing the density of the coolant/moderator, increasing power).


title: Control rod

text: In most reactor designs, as a safety measure, control rods are attached to the lifting machinery by electromagnets, rather than direct mechanical linkage. This means that in the event of power failure, or if manually invoked due to failure of the lifting machinery, the control rods fall automatically, under gravity, all the way into the pile to stop the reaction. A notable exception to this fail-safe mode of operation is the BWR, which requires hydraulic insertion in the event of an emergency shut-down, using water from a special tank under high pressure. Quickly shutting down a reactor in this way is called scramming.


title: Control rod

text: Mismanagement or control rod failure have often been blamed for nuclear accidents, including the SL-1 explosion and the Chernobyl disaster.


title: Control rod

text: "Homogeneous" neutron absorbers have often been used to manage criticality accidents which involve aqueous solutions of fissile metals. In several such accidents, either borax (sodium borate) or a cadmium compound has been added to the system. The cadmium can be added as a metal to nitric acid solutions of fissile material; the corrosion of the cadmium in the acid will then generate cadmium nitrate "in situ".


title: Control rod

text: In carbon dioxide-cooled reactors such as the AGR, if the solid control rods fail to arrest the nuclear reaction, nitrogen gas can be injected into the primary coolant cycle. This is because nitrogen has a larger absorption cross-section for neutrons than carbon or oxygen; hence, the core then becomes less reactive.


title: Control rod

text: As the neutron energy increases, the neutron cross section of most isotopes decreases. The boron isotope B is responsible for the majority of the neutron absorption. Boron-containing materials can also be used as neutron shielding, to reduce the activation of material close to a reactor core.


title: Yakhchāl

text: Yakhchāl ( "ice pit"; "yakh" meaning "ice" and "chāl" meaning "pit") is an ancient type of ice house that functions as an evaporative cooler. The structure had a domed shape above ground and a subterranean storage space. It was often used to store ice, but sometimes was used to store food as well. The subterranean space coupled with the thick heat-resistant construction material insulated the storage space year round. These structures were mainly built and used in Persia. Many that were built hundreds of years ago remain standing.


title: Yakhchāl

text: By 400 BCE, Persian engineers were building yakhchāls in the desert to store ice. A yakhchāl takes advantage of the low humidity in desert climates which promotes the evaporation of water (making evaporative cooling more effective) and promotes rapid cooling once the sun sets (water vapor inhibits radiative cooling in less arid climates). In some desert climates (especially those at high altitudes), temperatures drop below freezing at night. Water is often channeled from a qanat (Iranian aqueduct) to a yakhchāl, where it freezes when the temperature is low enough. A wall is usually built in an east–west direction near the yakhchāl. Incoming water is channeled along the north side of the wall so that radiative cooling in the shadow of the wall cools the water before it enters the yakhchāl. Ice is sometimes brought in from nearby mountains and stored in the yakhchāl.


title: Yakhchāl

text: The building allows cold air to pour in from entries at the base of the structure and descend to the lowest part of the yakhchāl, large underground spaces up to in volume. At the same time, the tall conical shape of the building guides any remaining heat upward and outside through openings at the very top of the building, and through this active process the air inside the yakhchāl remains cooler than the outside. The yakhchāl is built of a unique water-resistant mortar called sarooj, composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, that is resistant to heat transfer and is thought to be completely water-impenetrable. This material acts as an effective insulation all year round. The sarooj walls are at least two meters thick at the base.


title: Yakhchāl

text: Yakhchāls often have access to a qanat, and are sometimes equipped with bâdgirs (windcatchers or wind towers) built of mud or mud brick in square or round shapes with vents at the top which funnel cool air down through internal, vertically-placed wooden slats to the water or structure below. A bâdgir can also function as a chimney, releasing warm air out the top and pulling cool air in from a base opening or a connected qanat (air in a qanat is cooled by the underground stream). Many homes in desert towns are equipped with a bâdgir system.


title: Yakhchāl

text: The ice created and stored in yakhchāls is used throughout the year especially during hot summer days for various purposes, including preservation of food, to chill treats, or to make faloodeh, the traditional Persian frozen dessert.


title: Yakhchāl

text: A yakhchāl in Kerman (over a mile above sea level) is located about one and a half kilometers from the center of the city. This cone-shaped building is about eighteen meters high. The massive insulation and the continuous cooling waters that spiral down its side keeps the ice frozen throughout the summer.


title: Yakhchāl

text: In present-day Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan, the term yakhchāl is also used to refer to modern refrigerators.


title: Yakhchāl

text: Many yakhchāls were built beside ice pools so ice could easily be transported to storage units within yakhchāls. Ice pools would use the cold of the desert nights to freeze water which would later be transported to storage as ice.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: Richard Allan Ream (born August 8, 1961), better known by the stage name Rikki Rockett, is an American drummer for rock band Poison.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: The band has sold more than 50 million albums worldwide and 15 million records in the United States alone.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: Richard Allan Ream was born on August 8, 1961, in Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania, the youngest of two children of Norman and Margaret Ream. He attended Cedar Cliff High School in Camp Hill. Before founding Poison with vocalist Bret Michaels, Rockett worked as a hairdresser, lifeguard, dishwasher, emergency medical technician and a suit salesman.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: In late 1993, Rockett discovered that the then guitarist Richie Kotzen of Poison was having a relationship with Deanna Eve, Rockett's fiancée at the time. Kotzen was fired due to this incident. In VH1's "Behind the Music", singer Bret Michaels said he never wanted to speak to Kotzen again.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: In 1995 Rikki co-created and coloured the 6 issue comic book series, Sisters Of Mercy, published by Maximum Press.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: After almost 20 years with Poison, Rockett released his first solo album "Glitter 4 Your Soul" on January 7, 2003 which was distributed online. The album was a tribute to 1970s glam rock. He also guested on Britny Fox's "Bite Down Hard".


title: Rikki Rockett

text: On April 26, 2007, Rockett announced the creation of Rockett Drum Works Inc. It is a drum manufacturing company, specializing in the creation of ultra custom drum kits, snare drums and custom accessories. Prior to setting up his enterprise, Rockett worked for Chop Shop Custom Drum. He departed after conflicting opinions with Chop Shop founder Brian Cocivera. Rockett recruited most of the staff from Chop Shop along with some newer staff members.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: In 2015 Rockett co-formed a new rock supergroup the Devil City Angels with guitarist Tracii Guns (L.A. Guns), bassist Eric Brittingham (Cinderella) and vocalist and rhythm guitarist Brandon Gibbs (Cheap Thrill).


title: Rikki Rockett

text: In October 2008, Rockett married longtime girlfriend Melanie Martel. On July 14, 2009, they had their first child, Jude Aaron Rockett. On March 2, 2013, Rikki and Melanie had their second child, a daughter named Lucy Sky. Both children are named after The Beatles' songs "Hey Jude" and "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds". They separated in July 2015 and their divorce became final in June 2017.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: Rockett holds a black belt in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, under trainer Renato Magno and trains at Street Sports Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, located in Santa Monica, California.


title: Rikki Rockett

text: In December 2015, Rockett announced that he had been battling throat cancer. In July 2016, he reported that he is now cancer-free. In July 2021, Rikki celebrated the fact that he is still cancer free, six years after the original diagnoses.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: Piperacillin/tazobactam, sold under the brand name Zosyn among others, is a combination medication containing the antibiotic piperacillin and the β-lactamase inhibitor tazobactam. The combination has activity against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria including "Pseudomonas aeruginosa". It is used to treat pelvic inflammatory disease, intra-abdominal infection, pneumonia, cellulitis, and sepsis. It is given by injection into a vein.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: Common adverse effects include headache, trouble sleeping, rash, nausea, constipation, and diarrhea. Serious adverse effects include "Clostridium difficile" infection and allergic reactions including anaphylaxis. Those who are allergic to other β-lactam are more likely to be allergic to piperacillin/tazobactam. Use in pregnancy or breastfeeding appears to generally be safe. It usually results in bacterial death through blocking their ability to make a cell wall.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: Piperacillin/tazobactam was approved for medical use in the United States in 1993. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: Its main uses are in intensive care medicine (pneumonia, peritonitis), some diabetes-related foot infections, and empirical therapy in febrile neutropenia (e.g., after chemotherapy). The drug is administered intravenously every 6 or 8 hr, typically over 3–30 min. It may also be administered by continuous infusion over four hours. Prolonged infusions are thought to maximize the time that serum concentrations are above the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the bacteria implicated in infection.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: Piperacillin-tazobactam is recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence as first-line therapy for the treatment of bloodstream infections in neutropenic cancer patients.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: For β-lactam antipseudomonal antibiotics, including piperacillin/tazobactam, prolonged intravenous infusion is associated with lower mortality than bolus intravenous infusion in persons with sepsis due to "Pseudomonas aeruginosa".


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: The most common adverse effect is diarrhea (7–11%). Another adverse effect is inhibition of platelets which is also known as thrombocytopenia.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: Zosyn is contraindicated when a patient has hypersensitivity to penicillins, cephalosporins, beta-lactamase inhibitors or any component of the formulation.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: Apart from Tazocin and Zosyn, the drug is marketed in various countries under other trade names such as Tazovex,Tazact, Biopiper TZ, Brodactam, Piptaz, Maxitaz, Kilbac, Trezora, Du-Tazop, Tazopen, Sytaz, Tazin, and Inzalin TZ.


title: Piperacillin/tazobactam

text: Various sources have referred to a shortage of the drug since May 2017, citing various reasons, including an earthquake in China and other issues at the major production facility in 海正 (Hisun); increased demand; withdrawal of funding by a major pharmaceutical company.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: A sanitary sewer is an underground pipe or tunnel system for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings (but not stormwater) to a sewage treatment plant or disposal. Sanitary sewers are a type of gravity sewer and are part of an overall system called a "sewage system" or sewerage. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas may also carry industrial wastewater. In municipalities served by sanitary sewers, separate storm drains may convey surface runoff directly to surface waters. An advantage of sanitary sewer systems is that they avoid combined sewer overflows. Sanitary sewers are typically much smaller in diameter than combined sewers which also transport urban runoff. Backups of raw sewage can occur if excessive stormwater inflow or groundwater infiltration occurs due to leaking joints, defective pipes etc. in aging infrastructure.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: Sewage treatment is less effective when sanitary waste is diluted with stormwater, and combined sewer overflows occur when runoff from heavy rainfall or snowmelt exceeds the hydraulic capacity of sewage treatment plants. To overcome these disadvantages, some cities built separate sanitary sewers to collect only municipal wastewater and exclude stormwater runoff, which is collected in separate storm drains. The decision to build a combined sewer system or two separate systems is mainly based on the need for sewage treatment and the cost of providing treatment during heavy rain events. Many cities with combined sewer systems built their systems prior to installing sewage treatment plants, and have not subsequently replaced those sewer systems.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: In the developed world, sewers are pipes from buildings to one or more levels of larger underground trunk mains, which transport the sewage to sewage treatment facilities. Vertical pipes, usually made of precast concrete, called manholes, connect the mains to the surface. Depending upon site application and use, these vertical pipes can be cylindrical, eccentric, or concentric. The manholes are used for access to the sewer pipes for inspection and maintenance, and as a means to vent sewer gases. They also facilitate vertical and horizontal angles in otherwise straight pipelines.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: Pipes conveying sewage from an individual building to a common gravity sewer line are called laterals. Branch sewers typically run under streets receiving laterals from buildings along that street and discharge by gravity into trunk sewers at manholes. Larger cities may have sewers called interceptors, receiving flow from multiple trunk sewers.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: Design and sizing of sanitary sewers considers the population to be served over the anticipated life of the sewer, per capita wastewater production, and flow peaking from timing of daily routines. Minimum sewer diameters are often specified to prevent blockage by solid materials flushed down toilets; and gradients may be selected to maintain flow velocities generating sufficient turbulence to minimize solids deposition within the sewer. Commercial and industrial wastewater flows are also considered, but diversion of surface runoff to storm drains eliminates wet weather flow peaks of inefficient combined sewers.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: A force main or rising main is a pumped sewer that may be necessary where gravity sewers serve areas at lower elevations than the sewage treatment plant, or distant areas at similar elevations. A lift station is a sewer sump that lifts accumulated sewage to a higher elevation. They may also be used to prime an inverted siphon used to cross underneath rivers or other obstructions. The pump may discharge to another gravity sewer or directly to a treatment plant. Force mains are typically constructed of welded steel or HDPE jointed to resist pressures within the pipe. Force mains are substantially different from pressure sewers which serve individual properties or groups of properties and provide a means of injecting sewage into a local gravity main.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: Effluent sewer systems, also called septic tank effluent drainage (STED) or solids-free sewer (SFS) systems, have septic tanks that collect sewage from residences and businesses, and the effluent that comes out of the tank is sent to either a centralized sewage treatment plant or a distributed treatment system for further treatment. Most of the solids are removed by the septic tanks, so the treatment plant can be much smaller than a typical plant. In addition, because of the vast reduction in solid waste, a pumping system, rather than a gravity system, can be used to move the wastewater. The pipes have small diameters, typically . Because the waste stream is pressurized, they can be laid just below the ground surface along the land's contour.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: Where it is impossible or impractical to discharge sewage from a property into a gravity sanitary sewer, a pressure sewer may provide an alternative means of connection. A macerator pump in a pumping well close to the property ejects sewage through a small diameter high pressure pipe into the nearest gravity sewer.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: Simplified sanitary sewers consist of small-diameter pipes, typically around , often laid at fairly flat gradients (1 in 200). Although the investment cost for simplified sanitary sewers can be about half the cost of conventional sewers, the requirements for operation and maintenance are usually higher. Simplified sewers are most common in Brazil and are also used in a number of other developing countries.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: In low-lying communities, wastewater is often conveyed by vacuum sewer. Pipelines range in size from pipes of in diameter up to in diameter. Vacuum sewer systems use differential atmospheric pressure to move the liquid to a central vacuum station.


title: Sanitary sewer

text: Sanitary sewer overflow can occur due to blocked or broken sewer lines, infiltration of excessive stormwater or malfunction of pumps. In these cases untreated sewage is discharged from a sanitary sewer into the environment prior to reaching sewage treatment facilities. To avoid this, maintenance is required.