title: William Pierce (serial killer)

text: In June 1970, Pierce surfaced in the city of North Augusta, South Carolina. On June 27, with the aim of robbery, he entered a home and came upon 18-year-old Ann Goodwin (a Winthrop College student), a babysitter looking after the neighbor's children for the evening. He sexually assaulted and shot her after a struggle (she later died at a local hospital). He stole a number of valuables from the home as well. On December 18, thirteen-year-old Margaret 'Peg' Cuttino left her home in Sumter, South Carolina at about one o'clock in the afternoon to have lunch with her sister at school. When she did not show up after 45 minutes, her parents, state representative James Cuttino and his wife, reported her missing. Peg's body was found on December 30, ten miles away from where she was last seen. During the forensic autopsy, it was determined that she had been beaten and suffocated to death.


title: William Pierce (serial killer)

text: On December 20, two days after Cuttino's disappearance, Pierce drove to a service station in Vidalia, Georgia, where he shot 59-year-old employee Joe Fletcher, stealing $78 from the cash register. On January 12 the following year, he robbed a store in Soperton, and then, in order to get rid of any witnesses, Pierce shot 51-year-old Lacey Tigpen, the store's administrator. Ten days later, he abducted 32-year-old Helen Wilcox near a store in Hazlehurst. He took the woman to the woodlands outside the city, where he sexually assaulted and then shot Wilcox, burying her corpse in a shallow grave, where it was discovered a few days later. On January 28, Pierce committed another robbery at a store in Baxley, in which he killed the 60-year-old store owner Vivian Miles, and brutally beat her 5-year-old granddaughter, who suffered a severe head injury, but managed to survive. While fleeing the crime scene, he was spotted by a truck driver named Joe Overstreet. Pierce attempted to kill Overstreet by firing at him twice at close range, and then fled. Overstreet was unharmed, and would later give police a description of his attacker.


title: William Pierce (serial killer)

text: On the afternoon of March 8, 1971, Pierce was arrested soon after robbing a gas station in Baxley. He was taken to the police station, where he was interrogated for many hours, resulting in him confessing to the six murders, including that of Ann Goodwin (North Augusta, SC) and Peg Cuttino. In addition, he confessed to three other homicides: the abduction and strangulation of 17-year-old Kathy Jo Anderson, who went missing on December 22, 1970, from Columbia, South Carolina and was later discovered in a wooded area on February 17, 1971; the August 21, 1970, handgun slaying of 20-year-old Virginia Carol Mains in Gastonia, North Carolina; and finally, on August 10, 1970, while robbing a service station in Beaufort, North Carolina, he hacked to death the 60-year-old employee James L. Sires with an axe, before stealing $970 and fleeing.


title: William Pierce (serial killer)

text: Junior Pierce's trial began in September 1971. In addition to his confession, a number of items found in his apartment and in the passenger seat of Pierce's car, which were identified as belonging to the victims, were presented to the court as evidence that resulted in his conviction. The only witness, Joe Overstreet, also identified Junior as the man who had robbed Miles' store and then killed her, on the basis of which he was convicted for Miles' killing and received life imprisonment. In March 1972, he was transferred to the Jeff Davis County Circuit Court, where he stood trial on charges of killing Helen Wilcox. During the trial, Pierce refuted his testimony, claiming that the interrogators had forced him to falsely confess while he was intoxicated and had not been read his Miranda rights. Despite his claims, he was found guilty and received another life imprisonment term. In early 1973, Pierce was extradited to South Carolina, where during that year, he appeared before the courts in various counties on charges of the other murders, being convicted each time and receiving new life imprisonment terms.


title: William Pierce (serial killer)

text: Following his convictions, Junior Pierce retracted his confession. In 1974, his lawyers appealed for the abolition of their client's murder convictions in South Carolina, and the appointment for a new trial, but they were rejected. In 1977, his lawyers attempted to appeal his sentences in Georgia, but again, they were rejected.


title: William Pierce (serial killer)

text: In April 1977, another serial killer, Donald Henry Gaskins, also confessed to the murder of Peg Cuttino, but later retracted his statements, stating that he was pressured by investigators during interrogation. Based on Gaskins' testimony, in 1985, Pierce's attorneys appealed for the vacation of the murder conviction. Despite the fact that his attorneys provided the Court of Appeals with a number of witnesses and their testimonies, according to which Gaskins was working in Sumter on the day the girl disappeared and was not far from where she had disappeared, while Pierce was in Georgia at the time, the appeal was rejected.


title: William Pierce (serial killer)

text: In 2019, Pierce appeared in the second season of the Netflix series "Mindhunter", in which he was portrayed by Michael Filipowich.


title: Glitter

text: Glitter is an assortment of small, reflective particles that come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. Glitter particles reflect light at different angles, causing the surface to sparkle or shimmer. Glitter is similar to confetti, sparkles and sequins, but somewhat smaller.


title: Glitter

text: Since prehistoric times, glitter has been made from many different materials including stones such as malachite, and mica, as well as insects and glass. Modern glitter is usually manufactured from the combination of aluminum and plastic which is rarely recycled leading some scientists to call for bans on plastic glitter.


title: Glitter

text: Glittering surfaces have been found to be used since prehistoric times in the arts and in cosmetics. The modern English word "glitter" comes from the Middle English word "gliteren", possibly by way of the Old Norse word "glitra." However, as early as 30,000 years ago, mica flakes were used to give cave paintings a glittering appearance. Prehistoric humans are believed to have used cosmetics, made of powdered hematite, a sparkling mineral.


title: Glitter

text: From 40,000 BC to 200 BC, ancient Egyptians, produced "glitter-like substances from crushed beetles" as well as finely ground green malachite crystal. Researchers believe Mayan temples were sometimes painted with red, green, and grey glitter paint made from mica dust, based on infrared scans of the remnants of paint still found on the structures in present-day Guatemala.


title: Glitter

text: People of the Americas 8,000 years ago were using powdered galena, a form of lead, to produce a bright greyish-white glittering paint used for objects of adornment. The collecting and surface mining of galena was prevalent in the Upper Mississippi Valley region by the Cahokia native peoples, for regional trade both raw and crafted into beads or other objects.


title: Glitter

text: The first production of modern plastic glitter is credited to the American machinist Henry F. Ruschmann who invented a machine to cut photo films and paper in the 1930s. Sometimes, the machine "stuttered" generating small pieces of glossy cellulose that employees picked up and used as "snow" to decorate their Christmas trees, and modern glitter was born. With his partner, Harry Goetz, Ruschmann cut mica into washers and glitter from metallized cellulose acetate film. During World War II, glass glitter became unavailable so Ruschmann found a market for scrap plastics, which were ground into glitter. In 1943, he purchased Meadowbrook Farm in Bernardsville, New Jersey where he founded Meadowbrook Farm Inventions (MFI) in 1948 to produce industrial glitter. MFI became Meadowbrook Inventions, Inc. in 1953. Ruschmann filed a patent for a mechanism for cross-cutting films as well as other glitter-related inventions. Substrates for cutting glitter expanded from metalized cellulose and aluminum foil to metalized and iridescent film, polyester, PVC, and laminations cut into various shapes.


title: Glitter

text: Today over 20,000 varieties of glitter are manufactured in a vast number of different colors, sizes, and materials. One estimate suggests of glitter was either purchased or produced between the years of 1989 and 2009, however the source provides no evidence or reference point. Commercial glitter ranges in size from a side. First, flat multi-layered sheets are produced combining plastic, coloring, and reflective material such as aluminium, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, and bismuth oxychloride. These sheets are then cut into tiny particles of many shapes including squares, triangles, rectangles, and hexagons.


title: Glitter

text: Prior to fabrics made with modern glitter, sequins were sewn or woven on to fabric to give it a glittering appearance. Edible glitter made from gum arabic and other ingredients is even used by culinary artists.


title: Glitter

text: Glitter is used in cosmetics to make the face and nails shiny or sparkly. Additionally, it is commonly used in arts and crafts to color, accessorise and texture items. The small, brightly colored particles often stick to clothing, skin, and furniture, and can be difficult to remove. It is also used on optically variable inks.


title: Glitter

text: Glitter coatings or finishes are frequently used on fishing lures to draw attention by simulating the scales of prey fish.


title: Glitter

text: Due to its unique characteristics, glitter has also proven to be useful forensic evidence. Because of the tens of thousands of different commercial glitters, identical glitter particles can be compelling evidence that a suspect has been at a crime scene. Forensic scientist Edwin Jones has one of the largest collections of glitter consisting of over 1,000 different samples used in comparison of samples taken from crime scenes. Glitter particles are easily transferred through the air or by touch, yet cling to bodies and clothing, often unnoticed by suspects.


title: Glitter

text: Glitter can be seen as a tool of fashion used by various subcultures, as it allows for a visible statement to be worn and seen on the body. This is because it has been theorized to be a "flickering signifier", or something that destabilizes known notions of popular culture, identity, and society. Glitter is associated with "fringe cultures", which often use excessive glitz and glamor (such as glitter) to evoke a deeper understanding between the relationships of commercialized popular culture and "high" culture, or "high-brow" art.


title: Glitter

text: Used by glam rockers, such as David Bowie, Gary Glitter and Iggy Pop, glitter is also used as a tool to help blur gender lines. This helped to create the more extreme "glitter rock" – an even more heightened version of glam rock.


title: Glitter

text: Glitter is also used by nail artists and make-up artists to make statements about femininity and beauty standards. The flashy, sparkling nature of glitter allows users to push standard ideas of beauty and what is and isn't considered "excessive" in terms of make-up. Glitter is usually associated with nightlife and not professionalism, but wearing it in different settings can push these boundaries.


title: Glitter

text: Because of its tendency to shed off of items it is applied to and stick onto unwanted surfaces, including skin, hair, and clothes, glitter is also used for glitter bombing, which is an act of protest in which activists throw glitter on people at public events. Glitter bombers have frequently been motivated by, though not limited to, their targets' opposition to same-sex marriage. Some legal officials argue glitter bombing is technically assault and battery. It is possible for glitter to enter the eyes or nose and cause damage to the cornea or other soft tissues potentially irritating them or leading to infection, depending on the size of the glitter. Whether a prosecutor would pursue the charges depends on a number of factors.


title: Glitter

text: Trisia Farrelly, an environmental anthropologist at Massey University, has called for a ban on glitter made of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) and aluminium, as it is a microplastic that can leach hormonal disruptors into the environment. Furthermore, plastic glitter takes about one thousand years to biodegrade, according to Victoria Miller, a materials and engineering scientist at North Carolina State University. When dozens of British music festivals pledged to ban single-use plastics by 2021, the proposed ban included plastic glitter.


title: Glitter

text: Biodegradable glitter made from eucalyptus tree extract is metaled with aluminium and can be coloured. It is "40% softer and more delicate on the skin than conventional glitter," and it decomposes in soil or water. Cellulose glitter is also available.


title: Glitter

text: According to Dr. Chris Flower, Director-General of the Cosmetic Toiletry and Perfumery Association, "the total contribution to marine plastic litter from glittery cosmetic products is negligible when compared to the damaging effects of bags and bottles... [While the] total effect of giving up traditional glitter might not be great in comparison with other harmful plastics, we should still do everything we can."


title: Computer multitasking

text: In computing, multitasking is the concurrent execution of multiple tasks (also known as processes) over a certain period of time. New tasks can interrupt already started ones before they finish, instead of waiting for them to end. As a result, a computer executes segments of multiple tasks in an interleaved manner, while the tasks share common processing resources such as central processing units (CPUs) and main memory. Multitasking automatically interrupts the running program, saving its state (partial results, memory contents and computer register contents) and loading the saved state of another program and transferring control to it. This "context switch" may be initiated at fixed time intervals (pre-emptive multitasking), or the running program may be coded to signal to the supervisory software when it can be interrupted (cooperative multitasking).


title: Computer multitasking

text: Multitasking does not require parallel execution of multiple tasks at exactly the same time; instead, it allows more than one task to advance over a given period of time. Even on multiprocessor computers, multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than there are CPUs.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Multitasking is a common feature of computer operating systems since at least the 1960s. It allows more efficient use of the computer hardware; when a program is waiting for some external event such as a user input or an input/output transfer with a peripheral to complete, the central processor can still be used with another program. In a time-sharing system, multiple human operators use the same processor as if it was dedicated to their use, while behind the scenes the computer is serving many users by multitasking their individual programs. In multiprogramming systems, a task runs until it must wait for an external event or until the operating system's scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the CPU. Real-time systems such as those designed to control industrial robots, require timely processing; a single processor might be shared between calculations of machine movement, communications, and user interface.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Often multitasking operating systems include measures to change the priority of individual tasks, so that important jobs receive more processor time than those considered less significant. Depending on the operating system, a task might be as large as an entire application program, or might be made up of smaller threads that carry out portions of the overall program.


title: Computer multitasking

text: A processor intended for use with multitasking operating systems may include special hardware to securely support multiple tasks, such as memory protection, and protection rings that ensure the supervisory software cannot be damaged or subverted by user-mode program errors.


title: Computer multitasking

text: The term "multitasking" has become an international term, as the same word is used in many other languages such as German, Italian, Dutch, Romanian, Czech, Danish and Norwegian.


title: Computer multitasking

text: In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and peripherals were very slow. When the computer ran a program that needed access to a peripheral, the central processing unit (CPU) would have to stop executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the data. This was usually very inefficient.


title: Computer multitasking

text: The first computer using a multiprogramming system was the British "Leo III" owned by J. Lyons and Co. During batch processing, several different programs were loaded in the computer memory, and the first one began to run. When the first program reached an instruction waiting for a peripheral, the context of this program was stored away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run. The process continued until all programs finished running.


title: Computer multitasking

text: The use of multiprogramming was enhanced by the arrival of virtual memory and virtual machine technology, which enabled individual programs to make use of memory and operating system resources as if other concurrently running programs were, for all practical purposes, nonexistent.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Multiprogramming gives no guarantee that a program will run in a timely manner. Indeed, the first program may very well run for hours without needing access to a peripheral. As there were no users waiting at an interactive terminal, this was no problem: users handed in a deck of punched cards to an operator, and came back a few hours later for printed results. Multiprogramming greatly reduced wait times when multiple batches were being processed.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Early multitasking systems used applications that voluntarily ceded time to one another. This approach, which was eventually supported by many computer operating systems, is known today as cooperative multitasking. Although it is now rarely used in larger systems except for specific applications such as CICS or the JES2 subsystem, cooperative multitasking was once the only scheduling scheme employed by Microsoft Windows and classic Mac OS to enable multiple applications to run simultaneously. Cooperative multitasking is still used today on RISC OS systems.


title: Computer multitasking

text: As a cooperatively multitasked system relies on each process regularly giving up time to other processes on the system, one poorly designed program can consume all of the CPU time for itself, either by performing extensive calculations or by busy waiting; both would cause the whole system to hang. In a server environment, this is a hazard that makes the entire environment unacceptably fragile.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Preemptive multitasking allows the computer system to more reliably guarantee to each process a regular "slice" of operating time. It also allows the system to deal rapidly with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process. Operating systems were developed to take advantage of these hardware capabilities and run multiple processes preemptively. Preemptive multitasking was implemented in the PDP-6 Monitor and Multics in 1964, in OS/360 MFT in 1967, and in Unix in 1969, and was available in some operating systems for computers as small as DEC's PDP-8; it is a core feature of all Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, Solaris and BSD with its derivatives, as well as modern versions of Windows.


title: Computer multitasking

text: At any specific time, processes can be grouped into two categories: those that are waiting for input or output (called "I/O bound"), and those that are fully utilizing the CPU ("CPU bound"). In primitive systems, the software would often "poll", or "busywait" while waiting for requested input (such as disk, keyboard or network input). During this time, the system was not performing useful work. With the advent of interrupts and preemptive multitasking, I/O bound processes could be "blocked", or put on hold, pending the arrival of the necessary data, allowing other processes to utilize the CPU. As the arrival of the requested data would generate an interrupt, blocked processes could be guaranteed a timely return to execution.


title: Computer multitasking

text: The earliest preemptive multitasking OS available to home users was Sinclair QDOS on the Sinclair QL, released in 1984, but very few people bought the machine. Commodore's Amiga, released the following year, was the first commercially successful home computer to use the technology, and its multimedia abilities make it a clear ancestor of contemporary multitasking personal computers. Microsoft made preemptive multitasking a core feature of their flagship operating system in the early 1990s when developing Windows NT 3.1 and then Windows 95. In 1988 Apple offered A/UX as an UNIX System V-based alternative to the Classic Mac OS. In 2001 Apple switched to the NeXTSTEP-influenced Mac OS X.


title: Computer multitasking

text: A similar model is used in Windows 9x and the Windows NT family, where native 32-bit applications are multitasked preemptively. 64-bit editions of Windows, both for the x86-64 and Itanium architectures, no longer support legacy 16-bit applications, and thus provide preemptive multitasking for all supported applications.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Another reason for multitasking was in the design of real-time computing systems, where there are a number of possibly unrelated external activities needed to be controlled by a single processor system. In such systems a hierarchical interrupt system is coupled with process prioritization to ensure that key activities were given a greater share of available process time.


title: Computer multitasking

text: As multitasking greatly improved the throughput of computers, programmers started to implement applications as sets of cooperating processes (e. g., one process gathering input data, one process processing input data, one process writing out results on disk). This, however, required some tools to allow processes to efficiently exchange data.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Threads were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are effectively processes that run in the same memory context and share other resources with their parent processes, such as open files. Threads are described as "lightweight processes" because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context.


title: Computer multitasking

text: While threads are scheduled preemptively, some operating systems provide a variant to threads, named "fibers", that are scheduled cooperatively. On operating systems that do not provide fibers, an application may implement its own fibers using repeated calls to worker functions. Fibers are even more lightweight than threads, and somewhat easier to program with, although they tend to lose some or all of the benefits of threads on machines with multiple processors.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Essential to any multitasking system is to safely and effectively share access to system resources. Access to memory must be strictly managed to ensure that no process can inadvertently or deliberately read or write to memory locations outside the process's address space. This is done for the purpose of general system stability and data integrity, as well as data security.


title: Computer multitasking

text: In general, memory access management is a responsibility of the operating system kernel, in combination with hardware mechanisms that provide supporting functionalities, such as a memory management unit (MMU). If a process attempts to access a memory location outside its memory space, the MMU denies the request and signals the kernel to take appropriate actions; this usually results in forcibly terminating the offending process. Depending on the software and kernel design and the specific error in question, the user may receive an access violation error message such as "segmentation fault".


title: Computer multitasking

text: In a well designed and correctly implemented multitasking system, a given process can never directly access memory that belongs to another process. An exception to this rule is in the case of shared memory; for example, in the System V inter-process communication mechanism the kernel allocates memory to be mutually shared by multiple processes. Such features are often used by database management software such as PostgreSQL.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Inadequate memory protection mechanisms, either due to flaws in their design or poor implementations, allow for security vulnerabilities that may be potentially exploited by malicious software.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Use of a swap file or swap partition is a way for the operating system to provide more memory than is physically available by keeping portions of the primary memory in secondary storage. While multitasking and memory swapping are two completely unrelated techniques, they are very often used together, as swapping memory allows more tasks to be loaded at the same time. Typically, a multitasking system allows another process to run when the running process hits a point where it has to wait for some portion of memory to be reloaded from secondary storage.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Processes that are entirely independent are not much trouble to program in a multitasking environment. Most of the complexity in multitasking systems comes from the need to share computer resources between tasks and to synchronize the operation of co-operating tasks.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Various concurrent computing techniques are used to avoid potential problems caused by multiple tasks attempting to access the same resource.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Bigger systems were sometimes built with a central processor(s) and some number of I/O processors, a kind of asymmetric multiprocessing.


title: Computer multitasking

text: Over the years, multitasking systems have been refined. Modern operating systems generally include detailed mechanisms for prioritizing processes, while symmetric multiprocessing has introduced new complexities and capabilities.


title: Carter Jenkins

text: Carter Mark Jenkins (born September 4, 1991) is an American actor. He is best known for his roles in the films "Aliens in the Attic" (2009), "Valentine's Day" (2010), and "Struck by Lightning" (2012). On television, Jenkins was part of the main cast of "Surface" (2005–06), "Viva Laughlin" (2007), and "Famous in Love" (2017–2018).


title: Carter Jenkins

text: Jenkins was born in Tampa, Florida to Mary and Eric Jenkins, and was raised in Carrollwood, Florida, where he attended Independent Day School. His family later moved to Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles. He has an older brother, Renneker Jenkins, who is also an actor, and an older sister, Tiffany. Like his character in "Keeping Up with the Steins", Jenkins was raised Jewish, and attended Hebrew school.


title: Carter Jenkins

text: Jenkins began performing in community theatre, and then on local and national commercials. He played lead roles in the television series "Surface" (2005–06) and "Viva Laughlin" (2007), and guest starred in episodes of "", "House", "", "Without a Trace", "The Bernie Mac Show", and "Unfabulous". He has also starred in feature films such as "Bad News Bears" and "Keeping Up with the Steins", and starred in the television film "Life Is Ruff".


title: Carter Jenkins

text: In 2009, Jenkins appeared in the film "Aliens in the Attic", playing the lead role Tom Pearson. In 2010, he appeared in the romantic-comedy "Valentine's Day", playing Alex Franklin, the boyfriend of Emma Roberts' character. Jenkins had a supporting role in the 2012 coming-of-age comedy-drama "Struck by Lightning", which starred Chris Colfer, who also wrote the screenplay. In 2015, Jenkins portrayed one of the main roles in the supernatural thriller film "Nightlight". He starred as Rainer Devon on Freeform's "Famous in Love" from 2017 to 2018. In 2020, he joined the cast of the After film franchise.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Paul Ekman (born February 15, 1934) is an American psychologist and professor emeritus at the University of California, San Francisco who is a pioneer in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions. He was ranked 59th out of the 100 most cited psychologists of the twentieth century. Ekman conducted seminal research on the specific biological correlations of specific emotions, attempting to demonstrate the universality and discreteness of emotions in a Darwinian approach.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Paul Ekman was born in 1934 in Washington, D.C., and grew up in a Jewish family in New Jersey, Washington, Oregon, and California. His father was a pediatrician and his mother was an attorney. His sister, Joyce Steinhart, is a psychoanalytic psychologist who, before her retirement, practiced in New York City.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman originally wanted to be a psychotherapist, but when he was drafted into the army in 1958 he found that research could change army routines, making them more humane. This experience converted him from wanting to be a psychotherapist to wanting to be a researcher, in order to help as many people as possible.


title: Paul Ekman

text: At the age of 15, without graduating from high school, Paul Ekman enrolled at the University of Chicago, where he completed three years of undergraduate study. During his time in Chicago he was fascinated by group therapy sessions and understanding group dynamics. Notably, his classmates at Chicago included writer Susan Sontag, film director Mike Nichols, and actress Elaine May.


title: Paul Ekman

text: He then studied two years at New York University (NYU), earning his BA in 1954. The subject of his first research project, under the direction of his NYU professor, Margaret Tresselt, was an attempt to develop a test of how people would respond to group therapy.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Next, Ekman was accepted into the Adelphi University graduate program for clinical psychology. While working for his master's degree, Ekman was awarded a predoctoral research fellowship from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) in 1955. His Master's thesis was focused on facial expression and body movement he had begun to study in 1954. Ekman eventually went on to receive his Ph.D. in clinical psychology at Adelphi University in 1958, after a one-year internship at the Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1958 to serve two years as soon as his internship at Langley Porter was finished. He served as first lieutenant-chief psychologist, at Fort Dix, New Jersey, where he did research on army stockades and psychological changes during infantry basic training.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Upon completion of military service in 1960, he accepted a position as a research associate with Leonard Krasner at the Palo Alto Veterans Administration Hospital, working on a grant focused on the operant conditioning of verbal behavior in psychiatric patients. Ekman also met anthropologist Gregory Bateson in 1960 who was on the staff of the Palo Alto Veterans Administration Hospital. Five years later, Gregory Bateson gave Paul Ekman motion picture films taken in Bali in the mid-1930s to help Ekman with cross-cultural studies of expression and gesture.


title: Paul Ekman

text: From 1960 to 1963, Ekman was supported by a post doctoral fellowship from NIMH. He submitted his first research grant through San Francisco State College with himself as the principal investigator (PI) at the young age of 29. He received this grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) in 1963 to study nonverbal behaviour. This award would be continuously renewed for the next 40 years and would pay his salary until he was offered a professorship at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) in 1972.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Encouraged by his college friend and teacher Silvan S. Tomkins, Ekman shifted his focus from body movement to facial expressions. He wrote his most famous book, "Telling Lies", and published it in 1985. The 4th edition is still in print. He retired in 2004 as professor of psychology in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). From 1960 to 2004 he also worked at the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute on a limited basis consulting on various clinical cases.


title: Paul Ekman

text: After retiring from the University of California, San Francisco, Paul Ekman founded the Paul Ekman Group (PEG) and Paul Ekman International.


title: Paul Ekman

text: His work is frequently referred to in the TV series "Lie to Me". Dr. Lightman is based on Paul Ekman, and Ekman served as a scientific adviser for the series; he read and edited the scripts and sent video clip-notes of facial expressions for the actors to imitate. While Ekman has written 15 books, the series "Lie to Me" has more effectively brought Ekman's research into people's homes.


title: Paul Ekman

text: He has also collaborated with Pixar's film director and animator Pete Docter in preparation of his 2015 film "Inside Out". Ekman also wrote a parent's guide to using "Inside Out" to help parents talk with their children about emotion, which can be found on his personal website.


title: Paul Ekman

text: He was named one of the top Time 100 most influential people in the May 11, 2009 edition of Time magazine. He was also ranked fifteenth among the most influential psychologists of the 21st century in 2014 by the journal Archives of Scientific Psychology. He is currently on the Editorial Board of Greater Good magazine, published by the Greater Good Science Center of the University of California, Berkeley. His contributions include the interpretation of scientific research into the roots of compassion, altruism, and peaceful human relationships.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman's interest in nonverbal communication led to his first publication in 1957, describing how difficult it was to develop ways of empirically measuring nonverbal behaviour. He chose the Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute, the psychiatry department of the University of California Medical School, for his clinical internship partly because Jurgen Ruesch and Weldon Kees had recently published a book called "Nonverbal Communication" (1956).


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman then focused on developing techniques for measuring nonverbal communication. He found that facial muscular movements that created facial expressions could be reliably identified through empirical research. He also found that human beings are capable of making over 10,000 facial expressions; only 3,000 relevant to emotion. Psychologist Silvan Tomkins convinced Ekman to extend his studies of nonverbal communication from body movement to the face, helping him design his classic cross-cultural emotion recognition studies.


title: Paul Ekman

text: In "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" published in 1872, Charles Darwin theorized that emotions were evolved traits universal to the human species. However, the prevalent belief during the 1950s, particularly among anthropologists, was that facial expressions and their meanings were determined through behavioral learning processes. A prominent advocate of the latter perspective was the anthropologist Margaret Mead, who had travelled to different countries examining how cultures communicated using nonverbal behavior.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Through a series of studies, Ekman found a high agreement across members of diverse Western and Eastern literate cultures on selecting emotional labels that fit facial expressions. Expressions he found to be universal included those indicating wrath, grossness, fear, joy, loneliness, and shock. Findings on contempt were less clear, though there is at least some preliminary evidence that this emotion and its expression are universally recognized. Working with Wallace V. Friesen, Ekman demonstrated that the findings extended to preliterate Fore tribesmen in Papua New Guinea, whose members could not have learned the meaning of expressions from exposure to media depictions of emotion. Ekman and Friesen then demonstrated that certain emotions were exhibited with very specific display rules, culture-specific prescriptions about who can show which emotions to whom and when. These display rules could explain how cultural differences may conceal the universal effect of expression.


title: Paul Ekman

text: In the 1990s, Ekman proposed an expanded list of basic emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions that are not all encoded in facial muscles. The newly included emotions are: Amusement, Contempt, Contentment, Embarrassment, Excitement, Guilt, Pride in achievement, Relief, Satisfaction, Sensory pleasure, and Shame.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman's famous test of emotion recognition was the Pictures of Facial Affect (POFA) stimulus set published in 1976. Consisting of 110 black and white images of Caucasian actors portraying the six universal emotions plus neutral expressions, the POFA has been used to study emotion recognition rates in normal and psychiatric populations around the world. Ekman used these stimuli in his original cross-cultural research. Many researchers favor the POFA because these photographs have been rated by large normative groups in different cultures. In response to critics, however, Ekman eventually released a more culturally diverse set of stimuli called the Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion (JACFEE).


title: Paul Ekman

text: By 1978, Ekman and Friesen had finalized and developed the Facial Action Coding System. FACS is an anatomically based system for describing all observable facial movement for every emotion. Each observable component of facial movement is called an action unit or AU and all facial expressions can be decomposed into their constituent core AUs. An update of this tool came in the early 2000s.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Other tools have been developed, including the MicroExpressions Training Tool (METT), which can help individuals identify more subtle emotional expressions that occur when people try to suppress their emotions. Application of this tool includes helping people with Asperger's or autism to recognize emotional expressions in their everyday interactions. The Subtle Expression Training Tool (SETT) teaches recognition of very small, micro signs of emotion. These are very tiny expressions, sometimes registering in only part of the face, or when the expression is shown across the entire face, but is very small. Subtle expressions occur for many reasons, for example, the emotion experienced may be very slight or the emotion may be just beginning. METT and SETT have been shown to increase accuracy in evaluating truthfulness.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Paul Ekman International was established in 2010 by the EIA Group based on a partnership between Cliff Lansley and Paul Ekman to deliver emotional skills and deception detection workshops around the world.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman has contributed to the study of social aspects of lying, why people lie, and why people are often unconcerned with detecting lies. He first became interested in detecting lies while completing his clinical work. As detailed in Ekman's "Telling Lies", a patient he was involved in treating denied that she was suicidal in order to leave the hospital. Ekman began to review videotaped interviews to study people's facial expressions while lying. In a research project along with Maureen O'Sullivan, called the Wizards Project (previously named the Diogenes Project), Ekman reported on facial "microexpressions" which could be used to assist in lie detection. After testing a total of 20,000 people from all walks of life, he found only 50 people who had the ability to spot deception without any formal training. These "naturals" are also known as "Truth Wizards", or wizards of deception detection from demeanor.


title: Paul Ekman

text: In his profession, he also uses oral signs of lying. When interviewed about the Monica Lewinsky scandal, he mentioned that he could detect that former President Bill Clinton was lying because he used distancing language.


title: Paul Ekman

text: In his 1993 paper in the psychology journal "American Psychologist", Ekman describes nine direct contributions that his research on facial expression has made to the understanding of emotion. Highlights include:


title: Paul Ekman

text: Most credibility-assessment researchers agree that untrained people are unable to visually detect lies.


title: Paul Ekman

text: The application of part of Ekman's work to airport security via the Transportation Security Administration's "Screening Passengers by Observation Techniques" (SPOT) program has been criticized for not having been put through controlled scientific tests. A 2007 report on SPOT referring to untrained people stated that "simply put, people (including professional lie-catchers with extensive experience of assessing veracity) would achieve similar hit rates if they flipped a coin". Since controlled scientific tests typically involve people playing the part of terrorists, Ekman says those people are unlikely to have the same emotions as actual terrorists.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Field research by the EIA Group documented empirical testing of the impact of behavioral analysis in an airport environment by having a small group of trained and untrained subjects identify people from yet another group who had to bring unauthorized items through security. But the white paper is not peer-reviewed or published in a scientific paper, and had only two exercises of an airport security shift-length with the control group and two with the trained group, with about 20 participants total.


title: Paul Ekman

text: The methodology used by Ekman and O'Sullivan in their recent work on "Truth Wizards" has also received criticism on the basis of validation.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Other criticisms of Ekman's work are based on experimental and naturalistic studies by several other emotion psychologists that did not find evidence in support of Ekman's proposed taxonomy of discrete emotions and discrete facial expression.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Methodological criticisms of Ekman's work focus on the essentially circular and tautological nature of his experiments, in which test subjects were shown selected photographs of "basic emotions," and then asked to match them with the same set of concepts used in their production. Ekman showed photographs selected from over 3000 pictures of individuals asked to simulate emotions, from which he edited to contain "those which showed only the pure display of a single affect," using no control and subject only to Ekman's intuition. If Ekman felt a photograph did not show the correct "pure" emotion, he excluded it.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman received hostility from some anthropologists at meetings of the American Psychological Association and the American Anthropological Association from 1967 to 1969. He recounted that, as he was reporting his findings on universality of expression, one anthropologist tried to stop him from finishing by shouting that his ideas were fascist. He compares this to another incident when he was accused of being racist by an activist for claiming that Black expressions are not different from White expressions. In 1975, Margaret Mead, an anthropologist, wrote against Ekman for doing "improper anthropology", and for disagreeing with Ray Birdwhistell's claim opposing universality. Ekman wrote that, while many people agreed with Birdwhistell then, most came to accept his own findings over the next decade.


title: Paul Ekman

text: However, some anthropologists continued to suggest that emotions are not universal. Ekman argued that there has been no quantitative data to support the claim that emotions are culture specific. In his 1993 discussion of the topic, Ekman states that there is no instance in which 70% or more of one cultural group select one of the six universal emotions while another culture group labels the same expression as another universal emotion.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman criticized the tendency of psychologists to base their conclusions on surveys of college students. Hank Campbell quotes Ekman saying at the "Being Human" conference, "We basically have a science of undergraduates." Ekman's own studies have used freshman college students as the subject group, comparing their results with those of illiterate subjects from New Guinea.


title: Paul Ekman

text: Ekman has refused to submit his more recent work to peer-review, claiming that revealing the details of his work might reveal state secrets and endanger security. Critics assert that this is instead an attempt to shield his work from methodological criticisms within experimental psychology, even as his public and popular visibility has grown.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Bedtime procrastination is a psychological phenomenon that involves "needlessly and voluntarily delaying going to bed, despite foreseeably being worse off as a result". The causes of bedtime procrastination vary from losing sight of the time to staying up later than desired in an attempt to have control over the night due to a perceived lack of influence over events during the day. This latter phenomenon has recently been called revenge bedtime procrastination.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: It is most often that people lack sleep not because they cannot fall asleep but because they do not put themselves in the best situation to fall asleep. This directs that one of the main factors of Bedtime Procrastination is human behaviour.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: The "revenge" prefix is believed to have been added first in China in the late 2010s, possibly relating to the 996 working hour system (72 hours per week). "Revenge" because many feel that it is the only way they can take any control over their daytime self.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Writer Daphne K. Lee popularised the term in a Twitter post using the term "revenge bedtime procrastination" (報復性熬夜), describing it as "a phenomenon in which people who don't have much control over their daytime life refuse to sleep early in order to regain some sense of freedom during late night hours."


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Now, defining Bedtime Procrastination is shown in multiple ways like "going to bed later than planned" and "delaying sleep."


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: An individual may procrastinate sleep due to a variety of causes. The person may not consciously be avoiding sleep, but rather continuing to complete activities they perceive as more enjoyable than sleep (such as watching television or browsing social media). There are many distractions in the 21st century: obtaining distractions to delay sleep is much easier than in earlier decades.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Smartphone addiction directly causes bedtime procrastination. People who are additive to a smartphone are more probably delay their bedtime off because they are hard to stop using the phone and keep distracted by it before going to sleep. Those people enjoy the temporary satisfaction of smartphone use and want more time to entertain themselves. In addition, bedtime procrastination plays a mediated role between smartphone addiction and depression and anxiety. Smartphone addiction results in bedtime procrastination, And then less sleep duration and quality may trigger many negative emotions responsible for depression and anxiety.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Statistics show that disturbed sleep patterns are increasingly common: In 2013, an estimated 40% of U.S. adults slept less than the recommended amount. In Belgium, where data was collected for the study, 30% of adults reported difficulty sleeping, and 13% reported taking sleeping pills.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: A 2014 study of Dutch individuals concluded that low self-regulation could cause bedtime procrastination. Due to COVID-19, 40% more people have had sleeping problems. A 2021 study found that boredom also leads to bedtime procrastination. Boredom increases inattention, which leads to increased bedtime procrastination.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Another study in 2014 with 145 people resulted that 43% of the self-labeled bedtime procrastinators did not have a set bedtime or routine. This study suggests and emphasizes that inattention is a big factor of bedtime procrastination. This is because it is not necessary for explicit awareness to be active when procrastinating. People do not procrastinate intentionally, it is a result of poor self-regulation.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: A 2018 study which tested 19 people led to three bedtime procrastination themes: deliberate procrastination, mindless procrastination and strategic delay. Deliberate procrastination results from a person consciously believing they deserve more time for themselves, causing them to intentionally stay up later. Mindless procrastination results from losing track of time during one's daily tasks and consequently staying up later without intending to. Strategic delay results from purposely staying up late in order to fall asleep easier. Strategic delay has also been found to be linked with undiagnosed insomnia.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: In a 2022 cross-culture research, 210 employees in the United States and 205 employees in China are participated in. The results show that off-time work-related smartphone use may provoke bedtime procrastination. And the negative impact of such smartphone use on bedtime procrastination is more significant in individualist countries such as the United States than in collective countries such as China. In the research, due to different values in two cultures, employees in the United States have a more resistant attitude than employees in China when facing work after hours, resulting in a higher self-control depletion and a higher possibility of bedtime procrastination.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Researches found that bedtime procrastination's main causes are low-self control and increased stress.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Bedtime procrastinators engaged in more leisure and social activities in the 3 hours before bedtime. High and low procrastinators spend similar amounts of time watching TV and using computers. As bedtime approached, they spent 451 percent differently on smartphones. In the 3 hours before bedtime, high bedtime procrastinators spent 79.5 minutes on their phones, while low bedtime procrastinators spent 17.6 minutes on their phones. People who stayed up late reported more symptoms of depression and anxiety, lower sleep quality and a higher risk of insomnia than those who didn't go to bed later.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: The research conducted in a survey-based study with 317 participants in 2022 has shown that people's subjective perception of time is associated with bedtime procrastination. Sleep time perceived as the end of the day prompts people to think about the rest of their time. In the research, people who procrastinate before sleep often use their evening time to enjoy their favorite activities as a reward for the hard work of the day and tend to focus on immediate rewards and immediate benefits. When people only pursue short-term pleasures, they develop negative attitudes toward time and a poor future time view. Bedtime procrastination causes people to feel that time is passing quickly, which can lead to anxiety and stress.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: For people who don't sleep well, bedtime is an abominable time. Sleep can become a task and a burden that increases people's worry about getting enough sleep and leading to nervousness and increases their psychological stress. It can lead to a variety of negative health outcomes, including fatigue, mood swings, and difficulty concentrating.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Women, students, and "night owls" are most likely to experience bedtime procrastination. People with high daytime stress levels are more prone to bedtime procrastination.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Sleep procrastination comes in many other forms as well, such as delaying going to sleep (sleep procrastination) and delaying the time trying to fall asleep (while in bed procrastination).


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: According to researchers, there are three key factors that differentiate between bedtime procrastination and staying up late:


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: People with higher cell-phone addiction report more signs of bedtime procrastination. This behaviour has been linked to failures in self-control. The media environment creates the atmosphere for sleep procrastination by providing plenty of fun pastimes before lights out. People use media for gratification and to delay falling asleep. People with low self-control tend to prioritize short-term gains over long-term goals, and people with high self-control are able to resist the temptation of short-term gratification.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: A person who experiences bedtime procrastination is likely to face effects related to the delayed sleep. One study indicated that bedtime procrastination was frequently associated with sleep deprivation and experiencing more fatigue throughout the day.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Bedtime procrastinators are more likely to lose willpower, lose control of themselves, and fidget all the time. It is easy to cause a state of low interest, high dissatisfaction, and high distraction.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Bedtime procrastination can cause sleep deprivation which leads to slow thinking, low attention levels, bad memory, bad decision making, stress, anxiety and irritation. If sleep deprivation is not treated quickly, long term consequences include heart disease, diabetes, obesity, weakened immune system, pain, hormone issues, and mental health issues.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: People who have bedtime procrastination lead to short sleep, which can increase people's psychosis and may cause people to suffer from depression.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: People who have bed procrastination suffer from sleep disturbance and need medication to fall asleep.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: Media use interventions as treatment strategies for sleep insufficiency have been targeted mainly at reducing the volume of media use. This might not be a feasible scenario for the contemporary and future media user anymore, given the immense proliferation of media and the experience of being connected 24/7. Using a self-control perspective on electronic media use and bedtime procrastination could provide novel ways of approaching this issue. As the endpoint of media use (which often implies getting ready to go to bed) is dependent on the level of self-control, strategies aimed at improving self-control could be a valuable avenue for future exploration.


title: Bedtime procrastination

text: It is highly important to prevent Bedtime procrastination as getting the right amount of sleep is essential for the human body to function properly. Most common consequences of lack of sleep are grogginess, lack of concentration, mood swings and also some long-term detrimental effects affecting both physical and mental health.


title: Paternalism

text: Paternalism is action that limits a person's or group's liberty or autonomy and is intended to promote their own good. Paternalism can also imply that the behavior is against or regardless of the will of a person, or also that the behavior expresses an attitude of superiority. Paternalism, paternalistic and paternalist have all been used as a pejorative for example in the context of societal and/or political realms and references.


title: Paternalism

text: The word "paternalism" derives from the adjective "paternal", which entered the English language in the 15th century from Old French "paternel" (cf. Old Occitan "paternal", as in Catalan, Spanish and Portuguese), itself from Medieval Latin "paternalis". The classical Latin equivalent was "paternus" "fatherly", from "pater" "father".


title: Paternalism

text: Soft paternalism is the view that paternalism is justified only if an action to be committed is involuntary. John Stuart Mill gives the example of a person about to walk across a damaged bridge. One cannot tell the person the bridge is damaged as he does not speak our language. According to soft paternalism, one would be justified in forcing him to not cross the bridge so one could find out whether he knows about the damage. If he knows and wants to jump off the bridge and commit suicide then one should allow him to. Hard paternalists say that at least sometimes one is entitled to prevent him from crossing the bridge and committing suicide.


title: Paternalism

text: Pure paternalism is paternalism where the person(s) having their liberty or autonomy taken away are those being protected. Impure paternalism occurs when the class of people whose liberty or autonomy is violated by some measure is wider than the group of persons thereby protected.


title: Paternalism

text: Moral paternalism is where paternalism is justified to promote the moral well-being of a person(s) even if their welfare would not improve. For example, it could be argued that someone should be prevented from prostitution even if they make a decent living off it and their health is protected. A moral paternalist would argue that it is ethical considering they believe prostitution to be morally corrupting.


title: Paternalism

text: In his "Two Treatises of Government", John Locke argues (against Robert Filmer) that political and paternal power are not the same.


title: Paternalism

text: John Stuart Mill opposes state paternalism on the grounds that individuals know their own good better than the state does, that the moral equality of persons demands respect for others' liberty, and that paternalism disrupts the development of an independent character. In On Liberty, he writes:


title: Paternalism

text: Mill, however, disregards his own analysis when it comes to colonial subjects. In On Liberty, he writes:


title: Paternalism

text: Mill above declares barbarians to be in need of paternalism. But he narrowly defines barbarism historically, geographically, and economically insofar as to declare it fit to describe the people he intends to describe as such.


title: Paternalism

text: A concept of paternalism functioned as a tool of justification during the slavery era, and the concept promoted the institution of the slavery. Masters, who were the owners of slaves, believed themselves that the concept of paternalism can justify their wrongdoings such as trading of slaves and punishment of their slaves. The masters believed that they are helping and rescuing slaves from poor conditions; therefore, the masters believed themselves as parent or savior of their slaves. Masters used the concept of paternalism to show that their behavior is not wrong or unethical. Not only by the masters, but slaves also exploited the concept of paternalism for their own benefit. For instance, slaves believed that enslavement would be better than the freedom. Slaves believed that they would be treated better as long as they build good relationship with their masters. Slaves also believed that they could get basic human needs such as food from their masters. Thus, the concept of paternalism for slaves was the tool that made slaves feel more comfortable and free. Walter Johnson introduces a concept of paternalism in "" that mentions "Slave-market paternalism thus replayed the plots of proslavery propaganda and fiction: the good hearted slave at the side of the dying master; the slave who could be trusted to master himself; the slaveholder's saving interventions in the life of the unfortunate slave". Even though slaves could benefit from the concept of paternalism by receiving abundant food and medical care, the concept can never justify the institution of slavery.


title: Head Games (album)

text: Head Games is the third studio album by the British-American rock band Foreigner, released on 10 September 1979 by Atlantic Records. Recorded at Atlantic Studios in New York, with additional recording and whole mixing taking place at Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles, it was the only Foreigner album co-produced by Roy Thomas Baker, best known for working on Queen's classic albums. It marked the first appearance of new bass guitarist Rick Wills (formerly of Jokers Wild and Small Faces) who replaced Ed Gagliardi (who was fired from the band), and was the last album with founding members Ian McDonald and Al Greenwood, who would leave the band after the recording. "Head Games" is also the last Foreigner album to feature a lead vocal by guitarist Mick Jones ("The Modern Day").


title: Head Games (album)

text: The model in the photograph on the front cover is American actress and film producer Lisanne Falk. The cover art was criticized by feminists for showing a teenage girl looking afraid in a boys' restroom. But according to Foreigner lead singer Lou Gramm, the cover was intended to be cute, like a cartoon. Gramm said "The girl is being naughty, erasing graffiti [in the restroom]. She's looking at whoever buys the album, she's been caught." According to "Miami Herald" critic Bill Ashton, the cover art is a play on the album title "Head Games". Atlantic Records publicity director Stuart Ginsburg pointed out that "head is a naval term for bathroom" and Foreigner's media coordinator Susan Steinberg stated that "the girl on the cover is shocked by the graffiti. It's not like somebody is attacking her. I swear to you, it's not premeditated."


title: Head Games (album)

text: In August 1979, the release of the album was preceded by its first single, the hard rock song "Dirty White Boy", which peaked at number 12 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The album itself continued Foreigner's popularity, climbing to number 5 on the "Billboard" 200 chart and receiving a Platinum certification four months after it hit the stores. By now, "Head Games" has gained a 5× Platinum status for selling at least 5 million copies in the United States. The next singles were the title track and "Women", which reached number 14 and 41, respectively.


title: Head Games (album)

text: "Ultimate Classic Rock" critic Eduardo Rivadavia rated three of the songs from "Head Games" – "Dirty White Boy," "Rev on the Red Line" and "I'll Get Even with You" – among Foreigner's 10 most underrated songs. Rivadavia praises Jones' "sizzling" guitar solo on "Rev on the Red Line," calling it one of the band's best b-sides.


title: Head Games (album)

text: "Classic Rock" critic Malcolm Dome rated two songs from "Head Games" as being among Foreigner's 10 most underrated – "Rev on the Red Line" at #10 and "Dirty White Boy" at #3. Dome particularly praised the "sublime melody," Lou Gramm's vocal performance and the way all the musicians "show their skills, without ever showing off"


title: Head Games (album)

text: "Billboard" reviewer Gary Graff rated "Seventeen" to be Foreigner's ninth greatest song, calling it a "hidden gem."


title: Rolling resistance

text: Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface. It is mainly caused by non-elastic effects; that is, not all the energy needed for deformation (or movement) of the wheel, roadbed, etc., is recovered when the pressure is removed. Two forms of this are hysteresis losses (see below), and permanent (plastic) deformation of the object or the surface (e.g. soil). Note that the slippage between the wheel and the surface also results in energy dissipation. Although some researchers have included this term in rolling resistance, some suggest that this dissipation term should be treated separately from rolling resistance because it is due to the applied torque to the wheel and the resultant slip between the wheel and ground, which is called slip loss or slip resistance. In addition, only the so-called slip resistance involves friction, therefore the name "rolling friction" is to an extent a misnomer.


title: Rolling resistance

text: Analogous with sliding friction, rolling resistance is often expressed as a coefficient times the normal force. This coefficient of rolling resistance is generally much smaller than the coefficient of sliding friction.


title: Rolling resistance

text: Any coasting wheeled vehicle will gradually slow down due to rolling resistance including that of the bearings, but a train car with steel wheels running on steel rails will roll farther than a bus of the same mass with rubber tires running on tarmac/asphalt. Factors that contribute to rolling resistance are the (amount of) deformation of the wheels, the deformation of the roadbed surface, and movement below the surface. Additional contributing factors include wheel diameter, load on wheel, surface adhesion, sliding, and relative micro-sliding between the surfaces of contact. The losses due to hysteresis also depend strongly on the material properties of the wheel or tire and the surface. For example, a rubber tire will have higher rolling resistance on a paved road than a steel railroad wheel on a steel rail. Also, sand on the ground will give more rolling resistance than concrete. Sole rolling resistance factor is not dependent on speed.


title: Rolling resistance

text: A characteristic of a deformable material such that the energy of deformation is greater than the energy of recovery. The rubber compound in a tire exhibits hysteresis. As the tire rotates under the weight of the vehicle, it experiences repeated cycles of deformation and recovery, and it dissipates the hysteresis energy loss as heat. Hysteresis is the main cause of energy loss associated with rolling resistance and is attributed to the viscoelastic characteristics of the rubber.


title: Rolling resistance

text: This main principle is illustrated in the figure of the rolling cylinders. If two equal cylinders are pressed together then the contact surface is flat. In the absence of surface friction, contact stresses are normal (i.e. perpendicular) to the contact surface. Consider a particle that enters the contact area at the right side, travels through the contact patch and leaves at the left side. Initially its vertical deformation is increasing, which is resisted by the hysteresis effect. Therefore, an additional pressure is generated to avoid interpenetration of the two surfaces. Later its vertical deformation is decreasing. This is again resisted by the hysteresis effect. In this case this decreases the pressure that is needed to keep the two bodies separate.


title: Rolling resistance

text: The resulting pressure distribution is asymmetrical and is shifted to the right. The line of action of the (aggregate) vertical force no longer passes through the centers of the cylinders. This means that a moment occurs that tends to retard the rolling motion.


title: Rolling resistance

text: Materials that have a large hysteresis effect, such as rubber, which bounce back slowly, exhibit more rolling resistance than materials with a small hysteresis effect that bounce back more quickly and more completely, such as steel or silica. Low rolling resistance tires typically incorporate silica in place of carbon black in their tread compounds to reduce low-frequency hysteresis without compromising traction. Note that railroads also have hysteresis in the roadbed structure.


title: Rolling resistance

text: In the broad sense, specific "rolling resistance" (for vehicles) is the force per unit vehicle weight required to move the vehicle on level ground at a constant slow speed where aerodynamic drag (air resistance) is insignificant and also where there are no traction (motor) forces or brakes applied. In other words, the vehicle would be coasting if it were not for the force to maintain constant speed. This broad sense includes wheel bearing resistance, the energy dissipated by vibration and oscillation of both the roadbed and the vehicle, and sliding of the wheel on the roadbed surface (pavement or a rail).


title: Rolling resistance

text: But there is an even broader sense that would include energy wasted by wheel slippage due to the torque applied from the engine. This includes the increased power required due to the increased velocity of the wheels where the tangential velocity of the driving wheel(s) becomes greater than the vehicle speed due to slippage. Since power is equal to force times velocity and the wheel velocity has increased, the power required has increased accordingly.


title: Rolling resistance

text: The pure "rolling resistance" for a train is that which happens due to deformation and possible minor sliding at the wheel-road contact. For a rubber tire, an analogous energy loss happens over the entire tire, but it is still called "rolling resistance". In the broad sense, "rolling resistance" includes wheel bearing resistance, energy loss by shaking both the roadbed (and the earth underneath) and the vehicle itself, and by sliding of the wheel, road/rail contact. Railroad textbooks seem to cover all these resistance forces but do not call their sum "rolling resistance" (broad sense) as is done in this article. They just sum up all the resistance forces (including aerodynamic drag) and call the sum basic train resistance (or the like).


title: Rolling resistance

text: Since railroad rolling resistance in the broad sense may be a few times larger than just the pure rolling resistance reported values may be in serious conflict since they may be based on different definitions of "rolling resistance". The train's engines must, of course, provide the energy to overcome this broad-sense rolling resistance.


title: Rolling resistance

text: For tires, rolling resistance is defined as the energy consumed by a tire per unit distance covered. It is also called rolling friction or rolling drag. It is one of the forces that act to oppose the motion of a driver. The main reason for this is that when the tires are in motion and touch the surface, the surface changes shape and causes deformation of the tire.


title: Rolling resistance

text: For highway motor vehicles, there is obviously some energy dissipated in shaking the roadway (and the earth beneath it), the shaking of the vehicle itself, and the sliding of the tires. But, other than the additional power required due to torque and wheel bearing friction, non-pure rolling resistance doesn't seem to have been investigated, possibly because the "pure" rolling resistance of a rubber tire is several times higher than the neglected resistances.


title: Rolling resistance

text: formula_4 is the force needed to push (or tow) a wheeled vehicle forward (at constant speed on a level surface, or zero grade, with zero air resistance) per unit force of weight. It is assumed that all wheels are the same and bear identical weight. Thus: formula_7 means that it would only take 0.01 pounds to tow a vehicle weighing one pound. For a 1000-pound vehicle, it would take 1000 times more tow force, i.e. 10 pounds. One could say that formula_4 is in lb(tow-force)/lb(vehicle weight). Since this lb/lb is force divided by force, formula_4 is dimensionless. Multiply it by 100 and you get the percent (%) of the weight of the vehicle required to maintain slow steady speed. formula_4 is often multiplied by 1000 to get the parts per thousand, which is the same as kilograms (kg force) per metric ton (tonne = 1000 kg ), which is the same as pounds of resistance per 1000 pounds


title: Rolling resistance

text: of load or Newtons/kilo-Newton, etc. For the US railroads, lb/ton has been traditionally used; this is just formula_11. Thus, they are all just measures of resistance per unit vehicle weight. While they are all "specific resistances", sometimes they are just called "resistance" although they are really a coefficient (ratio)or a multiple thereof. If using pounds or kilograms as force units, mass is equal to weight (in earth's gravity a kilogram a mass weighs a kilogram and exerts a kilogram of force) so one could claim that formula_4 is also the force per unit mass in such units. The SI system would use N/tonne (N/T, N/t), which is formula_13 and is force per unit mass, where "g" is the acceleration of gravity in SI units (meters per second square).


title: Rolling resistance

text: The above shows resistance proportional to formula_14 but does not explicitly show any variation with speed, loads, torque, surface roughness, diameter, tire inflation/wear, etc., because formula_4 itself varies with those factors. It might seem from the above definition of formula_14 that the rolling resistance is directly proportional to vehicle weight but it is not.


title: Rolling resistance

text: The results of these tests can be hard for the general public to obtain as manufacturers prefer to publicize "comfort" and "performance".


title: Rolling resistance

text: The coefficient of rolling resistance for a slow rigid wheel on a perfectly elastic surface, not adjusted for velocity, can be calculated by


title: Rolling resistance

text: As an alternative to using formula_14 one can use formula_26, which is a different rolling resistance coefficient or coefficient of rolling friction with dimension of length. It is defined by the following formula:


title: Rolling resistance

text: The above equation, where resistance is inversely proportional to radius formula_29 seems to be based on the discredited "Coulomb's law" (Neither Coulomb's inverse square law nor Coulomb's law of friction). See dependence on diameter. Equating this equation with the force per the rolling resistance coefficient, and solving for formula_30, gives formula_30 = formula_35. Therefore, if a source gives rolling resistance coefficient (formula_4) as a dimensionless coefficient, it can be converted to formula_30, having units of length, by multiplying formula_4 by wheel radius formula_29.


title: Rolling resistance

text: For example, in earth gravity, a car of 1000 kg on asphalt will need a force of around 100 newtons for rolling (1000 kg × 9.81 m/s × 0.01 = 98.1 N).


title: Rolling resistance

text: According to Dupuit (1837), rolling resistance (of wheeled carriages with wooden wheels with iron tires) is approximately inversely proportional to the square root of wheel diameter. This rule has been experimentally verified for cast iron wheels (8" - 24" diameter) on steel rail and for 19th century carriage wheels. But there are other tests on carriage wheels that do not agree. Theory of a cylinder rolling on an elastic roadway also gives this same rule These contradict earlier (1785) tests by Coulomb of rolling wooden cylinders where Coulomb reported that rolling resistance was inversely proportional to the diameter of the wheel (known as "Coulomb's law"). This disputed (or wrongly applied)


title: Rolling resistance

text: For pneumatic tires on hard pavement, it is reported that the effect of diameter on rolling resistance is negligible (within a practical range of diameters).


title: Rolling resistance

text: The driving torque formula_40 to overcome rolling resistance formula_41 and maintain steady speed on level ground (with no air resistance) can be calculated by:


title: Rolling resistance

text: It is noteworthy that formula_45 is usually not equal to the radius of the rolling body as a result of wheel slip. The slip between wheel and ground inevitably occurs whenever a driving or braking torque is applied to the wheel. Consequently, the linear speed of the vehicle differs from the wheel`s circumferential speed. It is notable that slip does not occur in driven wheels, which are not subjected to driving torque, under different conditions except braking. Therefore, rolling resistance, namely hysteresis loss, is the main source of energy dissipation in driven wheels or axles, whereas in the drive wheels and axles slip resistance, namely loss due to wheel slip, plays the role as well as rolling resistance. Significance of rolling or slip resistance is largely dependent on the tractive force, coefficient of friction, normal load, etc.


title: Rolling resistance

text: "Applied torque" may either be driving torque applied by a motor (often through a transmission) or a braking torque applied by brakes (including regenerative braking). Such torques results in energy dissipation (above that due to the basic rolling resistance of a freely rolling, i.e. except slip resistance). This additional loss is in part due to the fact that there is some slipping of the wheel, and for pneumatic tires, there is more flexing of the sidewalls due to the torque. Slip is defined such that a 2% slip means that the circumferential speed of the driving wheel exceeds the speed of the vehicle by 2%.


title: Rolling resistance

text: A small percentage slip can result in a slip resistance which is much larger than the basic rolling resistance. For example, for pneumatic tires, a 5% slip can translate into a 200% increase in rolling resistance. This is partly because the tractive force applied during this slip is many times greater than the rolling resistance force and thus much more power per unit velocity is being applied (recall power = force x velocity so that power per unit of velocity is just force). So just a small percentage increase in circumferential velocity due to slip can translate into a loss of traction power which may even exceed the power loss due to basic (ordinary) rolling resistance. For railroads, this effect may be even more pronounced due to the low rolling resistance of steel wheels.


title: Rolling resistance

text: It is shown that for a passenger car, when the tractive force is about 40% of the maximum traction, the slip resistance is almost equal to the basic rolling resistance (hysteresis loss). But in case of a tractive force equal to 70% of the maximum traction, slip resistance becomes 10 times larger than the basic rolling resistance.


title: Rolling resistance

text: In order to apply any traction to the wheels, some slippage of the wheel is required. For trains climbing up a grade, this slip is normally 1.5% to 2.5%.


title: Rolling resistance

text: Slip (also known as creep) is normally roughly directly proportional to tractive effort. An exception is if the tractive effort is so high that the wheel is close to substantial slipping (more than just a few percent as discussed above), then slip rapidly increases with tractive effort and is no longer linear. With a little higher applied tractive effort the wheel spins out of control and the adhesion drops resulting in the wheel spinning even faster. This is the type of slipping that is observable by eye—the slip of say 2% for traction is only observed by instruments. Such rapid slip may result in excessive wear or damage.


title: Rolling resistance

text: Rolling resistance greatly increases with applied torque. At high torques, which apply a tangential force to the road of about half the weight of the vehicle, the rolling resistance may triple (a 200% increase). This is in part due to a slip of about 5%. The rolling resistance increase with applied torque is not linear, but increases at a faster rate as the torque becomes higher.


title: Rolling resistance

text: The rolling resistance coefficient, Crr, significantly decreases as the weight of the rail car per wheel increases. For example, an empty freight car had about twice the Crr as a loaded car (Crr=0.002 vs. Crr=0.001). This same "economy of scale" shows up in testing of mine rail cars. The theoretical Crr for a rigid wheel rolling on an elastic roadbed shows Crr inversely proportional to the square root of the load.


title: Rolling resistance

text: If Crr is itself dependent on wheel load per an inverse square-root rule, then for an increase in load of 2% only a 1% increase in rolling resistance occurs.


title: Rolling resistance

text: For pneumatic tires, the direction of change in Crr (rolling resistance coefficient) depends on whether or not tire inflation is increased with increasing load. It is reported that, if inflation pressure is increased with load according to an (undefined) "schedule", then a 20% increase in load decreases Crr by 3%. But, if the inflation pressure is not changed, then a 20% increase in load results in a 4% increase in Crr. Of course, this will increase the rolling resistance by 20% due to the increase in load plus 1.2 x 4% due to the increase in Crr resulting in a 24.8% increase in rolling resistance.


title: Rolling resistance

text: When a vehicle (motor vehicle or railroad train) goes around a curve, rolling resistance usually increases. If the curve is not banked so as to exactly counter the centrifugal force with an equal and opposing centripetal force due to the banking, then there will be a net unbalanced sideways force on the vehicle.


title: Rolling resistance

text: This will result in increased rolling resistance. Banking is also known as "superelevation" or "cant" (not to be confused with rail cant of a rail). For railroads, this is called curve resistance but for roads it has (at least once) been called rolling resistance due to cornering.


title: Rolling resistance

text: Rolling friction generates sound (vibrational) energy, as mechanical energy is converted to this form of energy due to the friction. One of the most common examples of rolling friction is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a roadway, a process which generates sound as a by-product. The sound generated by automobile and truck tires as they roll (especially noticeable at highway speeds) is mostly due to the percussion of the tire treads, and compression (and subsequent decompression) of air temporarily captured within the treads.


title: Rolling resistance

text: Wheel bearing torque losses can be measured as a rolling resistance at the wheel rim, Crr. Railroads normally use roller bearings which are either cylindrical (Russia) or tapered (United States). The specific rolling resistance in bearings varies with both wheel loading and speed. Wheel bearing rolling resistance is lowest with high axle loads and intermediate speeds of 60–80 km/h with a Crr of 0.00013 (axle load of 21 tonnes). For empty freight cars with axle loads of 5.5 tonnes, Crr goes up to 0.00020 at 60 km/h but at a low speed of 20 km/h it increases to 0.00024 and at a high speed (for freight trains) of 120 km/h it is 0.00028. The Crr obtained above is added to the Crr of the other components to obtain the total Crr for the wheels.


title: Rolling resistance

text: The rolling resistance of steel wheels on steel rail of a train is far less than that of the rubber tires wheels of an automobile or truck. The weight of trains varies greatly; in some cases they may be much heavier per passenger or per net ton of freight than an automobile or truck, but in other cases they may be much lighter.


title: Rolling resistance

text: As an example of a very heavy passenger train, in 1975, Amtrak passenger trains weighed a little over 7 tonnes per passenger, which is much heavier than an average of a little over one ton per passenger for an automobile. This means that for an Amtrak passenger train in 1975, much of the energy savings of the lower rolling resistance was lost to its greater weight.


title: Rolling resistance

text: An example of a very light high-speed passenger train is the N700 Series Shinkansen, which weighs 715 tonnes and carries 1323 passengers, resulting in a per-passenger weight of about half a tonne. This lighter weight per passenger, combined with the lower rolling resistance of steel wheels on steel rail means that an N700 Shinkansen is much more energy efficient than a typical automobile.


title: Rolling resistance

text: In the case of freight, CSX ran an advertisement campaign in 2013 claiming that their freight trains move "a ton of freight 436 miles on a gallon of fuel", whereas some sources claim trucks move a ton of freight about 130 miles per gallon of fuel, indicating trains are more efficient overall.


title: Types of marriages

text: The type, functions, and characteristics of marriage vary from culture to culture, and can change over time. In general there are two types: civil marriage and religious marriage, and typically marriages employ a combination of both (religious marriages must often be licensed and recognized by the state, and conversely civil marriages, while not sanctioned under religious law, are nevertheless respected). Marriages between people of differing religions are called interfaith marriages, while marital conversion, a more controversial concept than interfaith marriage, refers to the religious conversion of one partner to the other's religion for sake of satisfying a religious requirement.


title: Types of marriages

text: In the Americas and Europe, in the 21st century, legally recognized marriages are formally presumed to be monogamous (although some pockets of society accept polygamy socially, if not legally, and some couples choose to enter into open marriages). In these countries, divorce is relatively simple and socially accepted. In the West, the prevailing view toward marriage today is that it is based on a legal covenant recognizing emotional attachment between the partners and entered into voluntarily.


title: Types of marriages

text: In the West, marriage has evolved from a life-time covenant that can only be broken by fault or death to a contract that can be broken by either party at will. Other shifts in Western marriage since World War I include:


title: Types of marriages

text: Some societies permit polygamy, in which a man could have multiple wives; even in such societies however, most men have only one. In such societies, having multiple wives is generally considered a sign of wealth and power. The status of multiple wives has varied from one society to another.


title: Types of marriages

text: In Imperial China, formal marriage was sanctioned only between a man and a woman, although among the upper classes, the primary wife was an arranged marriage with an elaborate formal ceremony while concubines could be taken on later with minimal ceremony. After the rise of Communism, only strictly monogamous marital relationships are permitted, although divorce is a relatively simple process.


title: Types of marriages

text: Polyandry (a woman having multiple husbands) occurs very rarely in a few isolated tribal societies. These societies include some bands of the Canadian Inuit, although the practice has declined sharply in the 20th century due to their conversion from tribal religion to Christianity by Moravian missionaries. Additionally, the Spartans were notable for practicing polyandry.


title: Types of marriages

text: Societies which permit group marriage are extremely rare, but have existed in Utopian societies such as the Oneida Community.


title: Types of marriages

text: Today, many married people practice various forms of consensual nonmonogamy, including polyamory and Swinging. These people have agreements with their spouses that permit other intimate relationships or sexual partners. Therefore, the concept of marriage need not necessarily hinge on sexual or emotional monogamy.


title: Types of marriages

text: In the Christian society, a "one man one woman" model for the Christian marriage was advocated by Saint Augustine (354–439 AD) with his published letter "The Good of Marriage". To discourage polygamy, he wrote it "was lawful among the ancient fathers: whether it be lawful now also, I would not hastily pronounce. For there is not now necessity of begetting children, as there then was, when, even when wives bear children, it was allowed, in order to a more numerous posterity, to marry other wives in addition, which now is certainly not lawful." (chapter 15, paragraph 17) Sermons from St. Augustine's letters were popular and influential. In 534 AD Roman Emperor Justinian criminalized all but monogamous man/woman sex within the confines of marriage. The Codex Justinianus was the basis of European law for 1,000 years.


title: Types of marriages

text: Several examples of other types of relationships are exhibited in the Bible amongst various Biblical figures, incestuous relationships such as Abraham and Sarah, Nachor and Melcha, Lot and his Daughters, Amram and Jochabed and more.


title: Types of marriages

text: In 21st century Western societies, bigamy is illegal and sexual relations outside marriage are generally frowned-upon, though there is a minority view accepting (or even advocating) open marriage.


title: Types of marriages

text: However, divorce and remarriage are relatively easy to undertake in these societies. This has led to a practice called serial monogamy, which involves entering into successive marriages over time. Serial monogamy is also sometimes used to refer to cases where the couples cohabitate without getting married.


title: Types of marriages

text: Some parts of India follow a custom in which the groom is required to marry with an auspicious plant called "Tulsi" before a second marriage to overcome inauspicious predictions about the health of the husband. This also applies if the prospective wife is considered to be 'bad luck' or a 'bad omen' astrologically. However, the relationship is not consummated and does not affect partners' ability to remarry later.


title: Types of marriages

text: In the state of Kerala, India, the Nambudiri Brahmin caste traditionally practiced henogamy, in which only the eldest son in each family was permitted to marry. The younger children could have "sambandha" (temporary relationship) with Kshatriya or Nair women. This is no longer practiced, and in general the Nambudiri Brahmin men marry only from the Nambudiri caste and Nair women prefer to be married to Nair men. Tibetan fraternal polyandry (see Polyandry in Tibet) follows a similar pattern, in which multiple sons in a family all marry the same wife, so the family property is preserved; leftover daughters either become celibate Buddhist nuns or independent households. It was formerly practiced in Tibet and nearby Himalayan areas, and while it was discouraged by the Chinese after their conquest of the region, it is becoming more common again.


title: Types of marriages

text: In Mormonism, a couple may seal their marriage "for time and for all eternity" through a "sealing" ceremony conducted within an LDS Temple. The couple is then believed to be bound to each other in marriage throughout eternity if they live according to their covenants made in the ceremony. Mormonism also allows living persons to act as proxies in the sealing ceremony to "seal" a marriage between ancestors who have been dead for at least one year and who were married during their lifetime. According to LDS theology, it is then up to the deceased individuals to accept or reject this sealing in the spirit world before their eventual resurrection. A living person can also be sealed to his or her deceased spouse, with another person (of the same sex as the deceased) acting as proxy for that deceased individual.


title: Types of marriages

text: One society traditionally did without marriage entirely - the Na of Yunnan province in southern China. According to anthropologist Cia Hua, sexual liaisons among the Na took place in the form of "visits" initiated by either men or women, each of whom might have two or three partners each at any given time (and as many as two hundred throughout a lifetime). The nonexistence of fathers in the Na family unit was consistent with Na practices of matrilineality and matrilocality, in which siblings and their offspring lived with their maternal relatives. In recent years the Chinese state has encouraged the Na to acculturate to the monogamous marriage norms of greater China. Such programs have included land grants to monogamous Na families, conscription (in the 1970s, couples were rounded up in villages ten or twenty at a time and issued marriage licenses), legislation declaring frequent sexual partners married and outlawing "visits", and the withholding of food rations from children who could not identify their fathers. Many of these measures were relaxed in favor of educational approaches after Deng Xiaoping came to power in 1981. See also the Mosuo ethnic minority of China and their practice of walking marriage.


title: Types of marriages

text: Popular wisdom and standard social attitudes as transmitted in folk tales may show a matter-of-fact acceptance of universality of marriage in a variety of manifestations. Folk-tales can feature marriage (labelled as such) between species,


title: Dutch Brazil

text: Dutch Brazil (), also known as New Holland (), was a colony of the Dutch Republic in the northeastern portion of modern-day Brazil, controlled from 1630 to 1654 during Dutch colonization of the Americas. The main cities of the colony were the capital Mauritsstad (today part of Recife), Frederikstadt (João Pessoa), Nieuw Amsterdam (Natal), Saint Louis (São Luís), São Cristóvão, Fort Schoonenborch (Fortaleza), Sirinhaém, and Olinda.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: From 1630 onward, the Dutch Republic conquered almost half of Brazil's settled European area at the time, with its capital in Recife. The Dutch West India Company (GWC) set up its headquarters in Recife. The governor, John Maurice of Nassau, invited artists and scientists to the colony to help promote Brazil and increase immigration. However, the tide turned against the Dutch when the Portuguese won a significant victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649. On 26 January 1654, the Dutch surrendered and signed the capitulation, but only as a provisional pact. By May 1654, the Dutch Republic demanded that New Holland was to be given back. On 6 August 1661, New Holland was formally ceded to Portugal through the Treaty of The Hague.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: While of only transitional importance for the Dutch, this period was of considerable importance in the history of Brazil. This period also precipitated a decline in Brazil's sugar industry, since conflict between the Dutch and Portuguese disrupted Brazilian sugar production, amidst rising competition from British, French, and Dutch planters in the Caribbean.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: The Habsburg family had ruled the Low Countries from 1482; the area became part of the Spanish Empire under the Spanish Habsburgs in 1556; however, in 1568 the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) broke out, and the Dutch established the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands in 1581. As part of the war, Dutch raiders attacked Spanish lands, colonies, and ships. In 1594 Philip II, who was both king of Spain and (from 1580) of Portugal, gave permission for Dutch ships bound for Brazil to sail together once a year in a fleet of twenty ships. In 1609 the Habsburgs and the Dutch Republic signed the Twelve Years' Truce, during which the Dutch Republic was allowed to trade with Portuguese settlements in Brazil (Portugal was in a dynastic union with Habsburg Spain from 1580 to 1640). Portugal's small geographic size and small population meant that it needed "foreign participation in the colonization and commerce of its empire", and the Dutch had played such a role, which was mutually beneficial. As part of the truce of 1609-1621 the Dutch also agreed to delay the establishment of a West India Company (WIC), a counterpart to the already existing Dutch East India Company.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: By the end of the truce, the Dutch had vastly expanded their trade networks and gained over half of the carrying trade between Brazil and Europe. The northern Netherlands operated 29 sugar refineries by 1622, versus 3 in 1595. In 1621, the twelve-year peace treaty expired and the United Netherlands immediately chartered a Dutch West India Company. The Dutch–Portuguese War, which had started in 1602, resumed, and through the new company the Dutch now started to interfere with the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: As part of the "Groot Desseyn" plan, admiral Jacob Willekens led a WIC force to Salvador in December 1623, which was then the capital of Brazil and the center of a captaincy famous for its sugarcane. The expedition consisted of 26 ships and 3,300 men. They arrived on 8 May 1624, whereupon the Portuguese governor Diogo Tristão de Mendonça Furtado surrendered.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: However, on 30 April 1625, a combined Spanish and Portuguese force consisting of 52 ships and 12,500 men recaptured the city. The city would then play a critical role as a base of the Portuguese struggle against the Dutch for the control of Brazil.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: In 1628, the seizure of a Spanish silver convoy by Piet Heyn in Matanzas Bay provided the Dutch WIC the funds for another attempt to conquer Brazil at Pernambuco.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: In the summer of 1629, the Dutch coveted a newfound interest in obtaining the captaincy of Pernambuco, the largest and richest sugar-producing area in the world. The Dutch fleet of 65 ships was led by Hendrick Corneliszoon Loncq; the WIC gained control of Olinda by 16 February 1630, and Recife (the capital of Pernambuco) and António Vaz by March 3.


title: Dutch Brazil

text: Matias de Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor of Pernambuco, led a strong Portuguese resistance which hindered the Dutch from developing their forts on the lands which they had captured. By 1631, the Dutch left Olinda and tried to gain control of the Fort of Cabedello on Paraíba, the Rio Grande, Rio Formoso, and Cabo de Santo Agostinho. These attempts were also unsuccessful, however.