title: Kaine Parker

text: After settling debts with the Assassins Guild and encountering the Superior Spider-Man, Kaine's scars returned. This was however a trick by Kraven the Hunter who had drugged Kaine so he had hallucinate the scars' return as well as for a brief time seeing Kraven as Ben Reilly. After Kaine worked out he was being played he fought the hallucination, eventually seeing Kraven's face in a replica of Ben Reilly's costume. Kaine prepared to fight again unaware that Kraven and his daughter Ana had kidnapped Aracely, Annabelle and all his friends. As his fight with Kravinoffs went on, it turned out Kraven wanted to settle the score with Kaine because Kaine's blood was used to resurrect Kraven and by using his blood Kraven was cursed into un-life and wanted to fight Kaine to the death, using his friends as a leverage should he refuse: Kaine's friend Donald is disemboweled when this happens. Kaine kills then revives Kraven as a punishment, and then Kraven escapes with his daughter. Donald is then placed in intensive care, but the guilt threatens to overcome Kaine.


title: Kaine Parker

text: After saving his friends once more when his hotel room is destroyed by the daughter of Roxxon's CEO with a rocket-propelled grenade while they were in the middle of an attack by the mystic entity Shathra and an arrest attempt by Wally (who is angry at him for Donald's condition), Kaine is forced to use the form of the Other once more in front of them, scaring away Annabelle. Overwhelmed by all these events occurring at the same time and his guilt, Kaine stops trying to be a hero in Houston and decides to go to Mexico with Aracely to help her find if her parents are alive and the truth of every mystery regarding her they have come across.


title: Kaine Parker

text: During the "Spider-Verse" storyline, Kaine was with the New Warriors in Eastern Europe when they were attacked by Daemos of the Inheritors. A family of Spider-Totem hunters, the Inheritors were tightening their noose on the spiders across the multi-verse, including Kaine, despite him being a clone of Peter Parker and the receptacle of "the Other". After Daemos defeated the New Warriors, Kaine attempted to impale him through the chest with spikes coming from his arm, as "the Other" Spider-monster within was inclined to takeover. Daemos realized that, unlike other spiders, Kaine's arsenal makes him feel pain. As Daemos realizes that Kaine is the current receptacle of the Other, believing he could savour the spider-essence within Kaine for days, he is suddenly by the group of other Spiders including Old Man Spider-Man, Spider-Man of Earth-70105, and Spider-Woman of Earth-65. Kaine is skeptical at first, believing these are clones (Parkers and Stacys) sent by his father, the Jackal. Suddenly, this version of Ben Reilly (the original Scarlet Spider) informs Kaine that they are other versions from across the multi-verse, which surprised Kaine, as his brother Ben Reilly of the 616 Universe was murdered by Green Goblin. Daemos then breaks Spider-Man of Earth-70105's spine and Kaine escapes with the into a portal to Earth-13, which was the Safe Zone.


title: Kaine Parker

text: At the Safe Zone, the pheromones of Kaine's Spider-Essence (from the Other) are recognized by Silk. After collaborating with the other spiders, it becomes clear that the Inheritors have mastered cloning technology, as they regenerate with the same memories into new cloned bodies (explaining Morlun twice returning after turning to dust, as most clones do). As Black Widow of Earth 1610 (Ultimate Peter Parker's female clone), Ben Reilly, and Kaine are all clones, they head the mission to Jennix's realm to infiltrate his cloning facility in the Baxter Building. After disabling that reality's Johnny Storm and Tony Stark, the clones then attempt to take on Jennix in the cloning facility. After Kaine killed Jennix with spikes coming from within, Jennix regenerated in the cloning caskets. After realizing that the top of the Baxter Building was the receiver that transferred the consciousness of deceased Inheritors into newly cloned bodies, Ben Reilly sacrificed himself to remove the Inheritors' safety net. After losing Ben Reilly a second time, Kaine began to feel the Other emerging and took off to Loomworld to face the Inheritors alone. While coming face-to-face with the Inheritors, Kaine had spikes emerge from his body and he killed Solus, the Patriarch of the Inheritors. In retaliation, Morlun killed Kaine in his "Other form" by ripping off one of his spider arms and impaling him in the skull. As the Inheritors require the Bride (Silk), the Scion (Benjy Parker from MC2/Earth 982) and the Other, which was Kaine, for the ceremony, Kaine's body was required for his blood to be used in the coming ritual.


title: Kaine Parker

text: After the other spiders defeat the Inheritors and imprison them in the bunker within Earth-3145, Karn was revealed to be a future Master Weaver. After past Karn takes his place as the Master Weaver and sends all the spiders to their home realities except for Spider-UK and Spider-Girl (who become the Warriors of the Great Web), a human hand bursts out of the Other's deceased husk, revealing that Kaine is still alive.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine returns in the "" storyline, where he and Spider-Gwen attempt to help Peter escape New U Technologies. Prior to that, it was revealed that Kaine's human body emerged from the Other's corpse similar to Peter's in the "Changes" storyline and is greeted by the , who soon realizes that Kaine no longer has the powers of the Other and is now dying from the carrion virus that's a side-effect of Warren's cloning process, and is not allowed to go back to his Earth to avoid anyone catching it. Karn shows Kaine a number of realities with zombie apocalypses caused by this disease, and Kaine decides to visit these realities to find a possible way to stop it as he would be immune to the attacks. He tries to keep himself hidden from Karn's Web Warriors while researching it, but is caught by Spider-Gwen assisting him in going to other worlds and trying to find research to stop the virus. Kaine discovers that all the downfalls of these realities was caused by Parker Industries teaming up with the New U to spread Warren's technology which made the diseases widespread. In one of the realities, they manage to steal research from Peter and Warren before battling that reality's Kaine that dies from the disease during their fight. They take the alternate Kaine's corpse to the Great Web to study it, learning that Kaine himself is not contagious. Karn reveals that the events Kaine encountered in the other realities is starting to happen in Kaine's own reality. Since it is in the early process and Peter has not formed a full partnership with Warren yet, they still have a chance to stop it from happening. Their plan is to infiltrate the New U and have Spider-Gwen replace the 616 Gwen Stacy to find out more about the area. While Spider-Gwen changes her looks, Kaine reveals to Karn that his research on his deceased counterpart led him to discover when he is going to die, and he has very limited time. He kept it a secret from Spider-Gwen to make sure saving the 616 reality is their top priority. Kaine and Gwen are now currently in a relationship


title: Kaine Parker

text: After kidnapping the 616 Gwen, Kaine informs Anna Maria Marconi that if they do not stop The Jackal and Miles Warren, "Peter Parker is the man who destroys the world". Unfortunately, he ends up being captured by The Jackal to be experimented on by him. However, due to Doctor Octopus' conflict with the Jackal for infecting Anna Maria with cloning cells and unintentionally activating kill switch that will kill all resurrected people and the clones' cloned body including Kaine and The Jackal, and the living human who has a clone cell like Maria without realizing it, Kaine is rescued by Spider-Woman of Earth-65. During the clone riots while combating The Jackal and most of Spider-Man's rogues in New U headquarters, Kaine soon realized that Ben Reilly is alive and he is now the Jackal before being throw by Ben off the building but was rescued again by Earth-65's Spider-Woman. As Spider-Man manage to deactivate and destroy the kill switch with help of his remaining allies, Kaine, along with most of the formerly deceased people and the clones manage to survive from the cloning degeneration. He reported to Peter that Prowler and DeWolfe had been trying their best to stop the riot before the virus dissolved and killed them once more. However, the New U's employer Dr. Clarkston reveals to Kaine and his allies that the recently-thought dead templates, the true Prowler/Hobie Brown and Jerry Salteres, were only comatose, being kept under the sub-basement and having their respective diseases cured as well. It is revealed thanks to the Webware's reversed signal, Kaine has been cured as well, leaving him with only mild facial scars. In the aftermath, detailed in "Clone Conspiracy: Omega", Kaine bids farewell to Spider-Gwen, vowing to find Reilly and have him answer for his crimes.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine makes good on this in the new 2017 series "" where he confronts Ben Reilly upon tracking him to Las Vegas and they get into a fight. Ben convinces Kaine to stand down by arguing that he is genuinely trying to cure Abigail Mercury's terminal condition, but Kaine makes it clear to Ben that he will kill his "brother" for protecting the world if the girl dies and once Ben has saved her life. After Abigail Mercury because Ben tested a new drug on her too quickly, he is attacked by Kaine once again only for Kaine to be "killed" by what appears to be Marlo Chandler. The character that resembles Marlo Chandler then quickly identifies herself as actually being Death in disguise. She offers Ben the chance to restore Abigail Mercury or Kaine to life before she departs. When Ben asks her to save both of them and kill him instead, Death not only heals the other two, but also restores Ben to a healthy physical appearance, affirming that he has made a start on his efforts to redeem himself of his sins as the Jackal.


title: Kaine Parker

text: During the "Spider-Geddon" storyline, Superior Octopus becomes Superior Spider-Man again and recruits Kaine to help fight the return of the Inheritors. Kaine informs them that he is not the "Other" anymore and suggests they call Ben Reilly as well, Superior Spider-Man states that they are using technology from the defunct New U Technologies to rebuild their cloning machine. Kaine sees Superior Spider-Man's point and leaves with him in a portal, unaware that Ben Reilly has followed them.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine volunteers for a suicide mission to Earth-3145, where the Inheritors were trapped after the events of Spider-Verse. Kaine recruits Ashley Barton of Earth-807128 (that of "Old Man Logan"), who is not afraid to make sacrifices and take out the Inheritors, much like Kaine and Otto themselves, and unlike the other spiders. Kaine convinces Jessica Drew of Earth-616 to join the team, and deceives her, telling her the mission is actually a suicide mission to destroy the stone containing Solus' essence that could potentially leave them trapped to die on the radioactive Earth-3145. Lastly, they recruit "Charlie", a Peter Parker from Earth-218, who escaped the abuse of his Uncle Ben and does not believe in power or responsibility. Kaine plans to use Charlie as bait to lure Verna of the Inheritors.


title: Kaine Parker

text: On Earth-3145, they are confronted by John Jameson at Sims Tower, known as Astro-Spider, the second spider of that reality who received his powers from a radioactive spider that bit him in spacer. As they are submitted to Astro-Spider's psychic powers, all come to an understanding and take on Verna. After approaching Verna, Astro-Spider stabs her in the chest with the Solus Stone.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Verna heals from her wounds and absorbs the life force of Astro-Spider, killing him. Spider-Woman, taking the only working teleporter, leads a chase with Verna back to Earth, where Kaine, Ashley Barton, Jessica Drew and Charlie follow. As Verna learns she cannot absorb the life force of Jessica Drew due to her radioactive blood, Jessica plans to kill Verna. However, the Inheritor has one last trick up her sleeve, and she teleports Jessica right to Earth-616 and into the hands of Jennix. Meanwhile, Kaine attempting to sacrifice himself to Verna's hounds, plans to die on Earth-3145 as an ultimate sacrifice, enabling the escape of Ashley and Charlie. It appears that Spider-Force is left to die on Earth-3145, the radioactive earth.


title: Kaine Parker

text: It is revealed that Spider-Gwen and Peter Parker of 616 saved Kaine, Ashley and Charlie, recruiting them for the final battle against the Inheritors on Earth-616.


title: Kaine Parker

text: As an imperfect clone of Spider-Man, Kaine has superhuman strength, speed, agility, reflexes, and equilibrium all at higher levels than Spider-Man due to his continued mutation.


title: Kaine Parker

text: The true limit of his strength is unknown, but he has proven able to beat the Rhino unconscious and to hold his own against three Spider-Men at the same time (Peter Parker, Ben Reilly, and Spidercide). Kaine's durability is also superior to Spider-Man's, as he was able to withstand a massive explosion without any form of discomfort. He also tanked a full power blow from Spider-Man, without so much as flinching, as well as a bullet to the shoulder which barely slowed him down.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine’s spider-sense is even more stronger than Spider-Man’s Spider-Sense. Kaine Parker can sense danger, see short glimpses of the future, and can sense venom unlike Spider-Man. Kaine also does not set off Parker or Reilly's spider-senses, but they do not set off his either.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Like Spider-Man his clinging ability is because of the Van der Waals force, but also left a distinctive scarring into surfaces (and people), which he calls the "Mark of Kaine". After defeating an enemy, usually resulting in death such as breaking their neck using his superhuman strength, he would burn the "Mark of Kaine" onto their face. Notable characters to have been defeated in such a fashion include Doctor Octopus (that was later resurrected). This ability also allows him to melt Spider-Man's webbing, and on at least one occasion he was able to use this 'talent' to cauterize a potentially fatal throat wound. Additionally, Kaine possesses a retractable bone spike on the underside of each forearm behind the wrist, which he calls the "Sting of Kaine", reminiscent of Wolverine's bone claws, though their exact composition is unknown.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine also uses his ability to stick to walls in other ways. In one instance, he fashioned a weapon out of a large section of a building by simply sticking to the building and then pulling away with his superhuman strength, bringing a large chunk of it with him.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Due to flaws in his genetic make-up Kaine does not look like an ordinary human, his skin covered with a web-like mass of disfiguring scars. The costume that Kaine typically wears has been said to slow the degeneration process in his body. However it was recently suggested in "Spider-Island: Deadly Foes" that Kaine has a regeneration factor.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Being a clone of Spider-Man, Kaine is immune to the worldwide mind purging of Spider-Man's identity and retains this knowledge. However, Kaine was never implanted with Peter's memories and as a result of that lacks Peter's scientific knowledge.


title: Kaine Parker

text: The extent of Kaine's powers in his Tarantula state are not fully known. Tarantula has four large spider legs that protrude from his back much like Spider-Man's Iron Spider costume. He retained all of the abilities he had as Kaine, with the addition of organic web shooters and presumably enhanced strength.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Following the loss of his Tarantula form during Spider-Island, his degeneration is currently reversed. Kaine now looks to be a perfect clone of Peter Parker (as Ben Reilly was), and while he cryptically claims to have retained his Spider-Powers, it was still unknown if he maintained them at the same power level prior to being resurrected as Tarantula. He also had a similar rebirth to Peter Parker was during the events of , as Kaine is shown exhibiting forearm stingers and organic webbing near the end of the Spider-Island story.


title: Kaine Parker

text: In addition to possessing super-human levels of strength, speed, agility, durability, reflexes, Precognitive Spider Sense,


title: Kaine Parker

text: and equilibrium, Kaine can also generate organic webbing from his wrists, similar to Spider-Man's web-shooters, is imbued with an accelerated healing factor, which helps him to recover from minor to fatal injuries and wounds in a much faster rate compared to a normal human, which usually takes days or weeks, depending on the nature of his injuries and has lost his scars to have a normal appearance. He has also been imbued with enhanced vision, which grants him the ability to see in the dark, as well as a form of psychic connection with arachnids and spiders. From his former powers, Kaine appears to still have the "Mark of Kaine", using the ability to burn off his beard and most of his hair, and retains the two retractable stingers, one on the inside of each wrist, which retains its lethality and can tear through flesh and plastic. Even without his spider-sense, Kaine has proven to be a formidable and ruthless hand-to-hand combatant, with many instances showing him take on several groups of opponents, such as gangsters, ninjas and superhumanly-powered enemies, usually winning such conflicts without sustaining much injuries or wounds. At one point, Kaine managed to take down the majority of the criminal gangs in the city of Houston within one night, without suffering any serious injuries or wounds, systematically and brutally targeting each one of the organisations at a time. This is partially attributed to his less polished and more brutal and violent fighting style, compared to Spider-Man's, who usually holds back from seriously wounding his opponents, which contrasts with Kaine's, who does not hold back his attacks while engaging in fights and is thus more likely to heavily maim or even kill his opponents, rather than simply incapacitating them.


title: Kaine Parker

text: After the events of Spider Island, Kaine retained the stealth suit, which Peter Parker created at Horizon Labs and used against the Spider-Queen. This gives Kaine invisibility to both visual and audio means, along with immunity to sonic-based attacks. However, Madame Web enhanced the suit to stay permanently red, helping perpetuate the Scarlet Spider alias around Houston.


title: Kaine Parker

text: In the alternate future known as MC2, Kaine successfully rescues baby May Parker from Norman Osborn and returns the girl to the parents (Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson-Parker).


title: Kaine Parker

text: Later, Kaine allies himself with the Kingpin of Crime, but is betrayed by him during a confrontation with Daredevil. Daredevil sacrifices his own life to save Kaine. Kaine takes Daredevil's body to a regeneration chamber, where he is also attempting to assist Reilly Tyne (Ben Reilly's son) who is degenerating as a result of his imperfectly clone father's DNA. He attempts to summon the demon Zarathos to aid in saving the two, but, in the end, Zarathos turns on him and attempts to claim the boy's body as his human vessel. The soul of Daredevil fights the demon, and in the end Tyne is transformed into Darkdevil, with the soul of a hero and the powers of a demon.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine attempts to kill the Kingpin but is stopped by Spider-Girl and sent to prison. There, he is recruited by Special Agent Arthur Whedon as part of a team of captured supervillains given the opportunity to redeem themselves by working for the government. Those under his command include the Big Man, Quickwire, Raptor and Normie Osborn.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine appears to be genuinely interested in reformation, and has since been supportive of Spider-Girl and acted as an adviser.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Spider-Girl is clueless about their genetic relationship with Kaine, although Kaine hinted at it in their first encounter. It is implied that Darkdevil does know the truth, however, once commenting on Kaine's "twisted notions of simple concepts like family". It has been later revealed that Darkdevil indeed does know about Kaine's connection to his deceased father, going as far as to refer to Kaine as "Uncle Kaine". He, however, has not mentioned any of this to his cousin.


title: Kaine Parker

text: In the comic's final story-arc, and a replica of May Parker appears on the scene, a comment is made about trying to find out which one is the real May Parker to which Kaine comments "Are you saying clones aren't real?"


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine appears during the miniseries exploring the Clone Saga as it was originally conceived. He is working for both a shadowy figure and Jackal for unknown reasons and attacks Ben Reilly and Peter Parker when they first meet. After Jackal targets Mary Jane, Kaine leads them to Jackal's lair, only for all three to be captured. It is at this point that the two learn that Kaine is another Parker clone. When Kaine sees Gwen Stacy being cloned, he breaks all three free before burning the Mark of Kaine into Jackal's face and breaking his neck. When the building explodes, Kaine escapes, having stolen both Jackal's clone stabilizing agent and a second pod containing an unknown clone for his shadowy boss. The figure is later revealed to be Harry Osborn still alive, with the pod containing a clone of Norman Osborn. The duo have Doctor Octopus make a clone-stabilizing agent. Later, Kaine is shown obtaining the infant May Parker from Allison Mongrain for Harry. He begins having doubts over Harry's plans when he holds the baby. After more soul-searching, he finally convinces himself to defy Harry's orders and returns the baby to Mary Jane Watson before escaping.


title: Kaine Parker

text: The Ultimate Marvel version of Kaine is depicted as a misguided, disfigured clone of Spider-Man (Peter Parker). Created by ambitious mastermind Dr. Octopus (acting with the CIA's consent), Kaine possessed superhuman strength, reflexes, equilibrium and a spider-sense, and wears a tattered version of Ben Reilly's Spider-Man costume. He kidnaps Mary Jane Watson and attempts to give his captive superpowers (via OZ), triggering a transformation into a large red monster despite the Tarantula's efforts. While trying to prevent Mary Jane from being taken, Kaine is killed by Nick Fury's Spider Slayers.


title: Kaine Parker

text: A variation of Kaine appears in the "Ultimate Spider-Man" three-part episode "The Spider-Slayers", voiced by Drake Bell. This version is an imperfect synthezoid Spider-Slayer created by Doctor Octopus using Spider-Man's DNA and Arnim Zola's technology who is highly resistant to damage, can reattach lost limbs, and absorb life energy from Spider-themed individuals or his own fellow synthezoids. He first emerges after Spider-Man and Spider-Woman find one of HYDRA's abandoned labs and they seemingly defeat him. However, Kaine reemerges at the Triskelion as a deformed, mutated monster to absorb the other synthezoids and become the Ultimate Spider-Slayer, only to be defeated by Agent Venom.


title: Kaine Parker

text: Kaine Parker / Scarlet Spider will appear in the upcoming film "" as a member of Miguel O'Hara's Spider-Forces.


title: C. L. R. James

text: Cyril Lionel Robert James (4 January 1901 – 31 May 1989), who sometimes wrote under the pen-name J. R. Johnson, was a Trinidadian historian, journalist and Marxist. His works are influential in various theoretical, social, and historiographical contexts. His work is a staple of Marxism, and he figures as a pioneering and influential voice in postcolonial literature. A tireless political activist, James is the author of the 1937 work "World Revolution" outlining the history of the Communist International, which stirred debate in Trotskyist circles, and in 1938 he wrote on the Haitian Revolution, "The Black Jacobins".


title: C. L. R. James

text: Characterised by one literary critic as an "anti-Stalinist dialectician", James was known for his autodidactism, for his occasional playwriting and fiction – his 1936 book "Minty Alley" was the first novel by a black West Indian to be published in Britain – and as an avid sportsman. He is also famed as a writer on cricket, and his 1963 book "Beyond a Boundary", which he himself described as "neither cricket reminiscences nor autobiography", is commonly named as the best single book on cricket, and even the best book about sports ever written.


title: C. L. R. James

text: Born in 1901 in Tunapuna, Trinidad, then a British Crown colony, C. L. R. James was the first child of Ida Elizabeth James (née Rudder) and Robert Alexander James, a schoolteacher.


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1910, James won a scholarship to Queen's Royal College (QRC), the island's oldest non-Catholic secondary school, in Port of Spain, where he became a club cricketer and distinguished himself as an athlete (he would hold the Trinidad high-jump record at from 1918 to 1922), as well as beginning to write fiction. After graduating in 1918 from QRC, he worked there as a teacher of English and History in the 1920s; among those he taught was the young Eric Williams, who would become the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago.


title: C. L. R. James

text: Together with Ralph de Boissière, Albert Gomes and Alfred Mendes, James was a member of the anticolonialist "Beacon Group", a circle of writers associated with "The Beacon" magazine, in which he published a series of short stories. His short story "La Divina Pastora" was published in October 1927 in the "Saturday Review of Literature", and was widely reprinted.


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1932, James left Trinidad for the small town of Nelson in Lancashire, England, at the invitation of his friend, West Indian cricketer Learie Constantine, who needed his help writing his autobiography "Cricket and I" (published in 1933). James had brought with him to England the manuscript of his first full-length non-fiction work, partly based on his interviews with the Trinidad labour leader Arthur Andrew Cipriani, which was published with financial assistance from Constantine in 1932.


title: C. L. R. James

text: During this time James took a job as cricket correspondent with the "Manchester Guardian". In 1933 he moved to London. The following year he joined a Trotskyist group that met to talk for hours in his rented room. Louise Cripps, one of its members, recalled: "We felt our work could contribute to the time when we would see Socialism spreading."


title: C. L. R. James

text: James had begun to campaign for the independence of the West Indies while in Trinidad. An abridged version of his "Life of Captain Cipriani" was issued by Leonard and Virginia Woolf's Hogarth Press in 1933 as the pamphlet "The Case for West-Indian Self Government". He became a champion of Pan-Africanism, and was named Chair of the International African Friends of Abyssinia, later renamed the International African Friends of Ethiopia (IAFE) – a group formed in 1935 in response to the Italian fascist invasion of Ethiopia (the Second Italo-Abyssinian War). Leading members included Amy Ashwood Garvey, Jomo Kenyatta and Chris Braithwaite.


title: C. L. R. James

text: When the IAFE was transformed into the International African Service Bureau in 1937, James edited its newsletter, "Africa and the World", and its journal, "International African Opinion". The Bureau was led by his childhood friend George Padmore, who would be a driving force for socialist Pan-Africanism for several decades. Both Padmore and James wrote for the "New Leader", published by the Independent Labour Party (ILP), which James had joined in 1934 (when Fenner Brockway was its General Secretary).


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1934, James wrote a three-act play about the Haitian revolutionary Toussaint L'Ouverture (entitled ""), which was staged in London's West End in 1936 and starred Paul Robeson, Orlando Martins, Robert Adams and Harry Andrews. The play had been presumed lost until the rediscovery of a draft copy in 2005. In 1967, James went on to write a second play about the Haitian Revolution, "The Black Jacobins", which would become the first production from Talawa Theatre Company in 1986, coinciding with the overthrow of Baby Doc Duvalier. 1936 also saw Secker & Warburg in London publish James's novel, "Minty Alley", which he had brought with him in manuscript form from Trinidad. (Fenner Brockway had introduced him to Fredric Warburg, co-owner of the press.) It was the first novel to be published by a black Caribbean author in the UK.


title: C. L. R. James

text: Amid his frenetic political activity, James wrote what are perhaps his best known works of non-fiction: "World Revolution" (1937), a history of the rise and fall of the Communist International, which was critically praised by Leon Trotsky, George Orwell, E. H. Carr and Fenner Brockway; and "The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution" (1938), a widely acclaimed history of the Haitian Revolution, which would later be seen as a seminal text in the study of the African diaspora. James went to Paris to research this work, where he met Haitian military historian Alfred Auguste Nemours. In a new foreword to the 1980 Allison and Busby edition of "The Black Jacobins", James recalled that "Nemours used coffee cups and books in Paris cafés to bring to life the military skills of revolutionary Haitians."


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1936, James and his Trotskyist Marxist Group left the ILP to form an open party. In 1938, this new group took part in several mergers to form the Revolutionary Socialist League (RSL). The RSL was a highly factionalised organisation.


title: C. L. R. James

text: At the urging of Trotsky and James P. Cannon, in October 1938, James was invited to tour the United States by the leadership of the Socialist Workers' Party (SWP), then the US section of the Fourth International, to facilitate its work among black workers. Following several meetings in New York, which garnered "enthusiastic praise for his oratorical ability and capacity for analysis of world events," James kicked off his national speaking tour on 6 January 1939 in Philadelphia. He gave lectures in cities including New Haven, Youngstown, Rochester, and Boston, before finishing the tour with two lectures in Los Angeles and another in Pasadena in March 1939. He spoke on topics such as "Twilight of the British Empire" and "The Negro and World Imperialism".


title: C. L. R. James

text: Constance Webb, who would later become James' second wife, attended one of his 1939 lectures in Los Angeles and reflected on it in her memoir, writing: "I had already heard speeches by two great orators, Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Now I was hearing a third. The three men were masters of the English language, a skill that gave them extraordinary power."


title: C. L. R. James

text: James's relationship with Louise Cripps Samoiloff had broken up after her second abortion, so that intimate tie no longer bound him to England.


title: C. L. R. James

text: In April 1939, James visited Trotsky in Coyoacán, México. James stayed there about a month and also met Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, before returning to the United States in May 1939. A key topic that James and Trotsky discussed was the "Negro Question". Parts of their conversation were transcribed, with James sometimes referred to by his pen-name, J. R. Johnson. Whereas Trotsky saw the Trotskyist Party as providing leadership to the black community, in the general manner that the Bolsheviks provided guidance to ethnic minorities in Russia, James suggested that the self-organised struggle of African Americans would precipitate a much broader radical social movement.


title: C. L. R. James

text: James stayed in the United States until he was deported in 1953. By 1940, he had begun to doubt Trotsky's view of the Soviet Union as a degenerated workers state. He left the SWP along with Max Shachtman, who formed the Workers' Party (WP). Within the WP, James formed the Johnson–Forest Tendency with Raya Dunayevskaya (his pseudonym was "Johnson" and Dunayevskaya's was "Forest") and Grace Lee (later Grace Lee Boggs) to spread their views within the new party.


title: C. L. R. James

text: As "J. R. Johnson", James wrote the column "The Negro Question" for "Socialist Appeal" (later renamed "The Militant"), and was also a columnist for "Labor Action".


title: C. L. R. James

text: While within the WP, the views of the Johnson–Forest Tendency underwent considerable development. By the end of the Second World War, they had definitively rejected Trotsky's theory of Russia as a degenerated workers' state. Instead, they classified it as state capitalist, a political evolution shared by other Trotskyists of their generation, most notably Tony Cliff. Unlike Cliff, the Johnson–Forest Tendency was focusing increasingly on the liberation movements of oppressed minorities, a theoretical development already visible in James's thought in his 1939 discussions with Trotsky. Such liberation struggles came to take centre stage for the Johnson–Forest Tendency.


title: C. L. R. James

text: After the Second World War, the WP witnessed a downturn in revolutionary sentiment. The Tendency, on the other hand, was encouraged by the prospects for revolutionary change for oppressed peoples. After a few short months as an independent group, during which they published a great deal of material, in 1947, the Johnson–Forest Tendency joined the SWP, which it regarded as more proletarian than the WP.


title: C. L. R. James

text: James would still describe himself as a Leninist despite his rejection of Vladimir Lenin's conception of the vanguard role of the revolutionary party. He argued for socialists to support the emerging black nationalist movements. By 1949, James rejected the idea of a vanguard party. This led the Johnson–Forest Tendency to leave the Trotskyist movement and rename itself the Correspondence Publishing Committee.


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1955 after James had left for Britain, about half the membership of the Committee withdrew, under the leadership of Raya Dunayevskaya, to form a separate tendency of Marxist-humanism and found the organisation News and Letters Committees. Whether Dunayevskaya's faction had constituted a majority or a minority in the Correspondence Publishing Committee remains a matter of dispute. Historian Kent Worcester says that Dunayevskaya's supporters formed a majority, but Martin Glaberman says in "New Politics" that the faction loyal to James had a majority.


title: C. L. R. James

text: The Committee split again in 1962, as Grace Lee Boggs and James Boggs, two key activists, left to pursue a more Third Worldist approach. The remaining Johnsonites, including leading member Martin Glaberman, reconstituted themselves as Facing Reality. James advised the group from Great Britain until it dissolved in 1970, against his urging.


title: C. L. R. James

text: James's writings were also influential in the development of Autonomist Marxism as a current within Marxist thought. He himself saw his life's work as developing the theory and practice of Leninism.


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1953, James was forced to leave the US under threat of deportation for having overstayed his visa. In his attempt to remain in America, he wrote a study of Herman Melville, "Mariners, Renegades and Castaways: The Story of Herman Melville and the World We Live In", and had copies of the privately published work sent to every member of the Senate. He wrote the book while being detained at the immigration station on Ellis Island. In an impassioned letter to his old friend George Padmore, James said that in "Mariners" he was using "Moby Dick" as a parable for the anti-communism sweeping the United States, a consequence, he thought, of Americans' uncritical faith in capitalism.


title: C. L. R. James

text: Returning to Britain, James appeared to Padmore and his partner Dorothy Pizer to be a man adrift. After James started reporting on cricket for the "Manchester Guardian", Padmore wrote to American novelist Richard Wright: "That will take him out of his ivory tower and making his paper revolution..." Grace Lee Boggs, a colleague from the Detroit group, came to London in 1954 to work with James, but she too, saw him "at loose ends, trying to find his way after fifteen years out of the country."


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1957, James travelled to Ghana for the celebration of its independence from British rule in March that year. He had met Ghana's new head of state, Kwame Nkrumah, in the United States when Nkrumah was studying there and sent him on to work with George Padmore in London after the Second World War; Padmore was by this point a close Nkrumah advisor and had written "The Gold Coast Revolution" (1953). In correspondence sent from Ghana in 1957, James told American friends that Nkrumah thought he too ought to write a book on the Convention People's Party, which under Nkrumah's leadership had brought the country to independence. The book would show how the party's strategies could be used to build a new African future. James invited Grace Lee Boggs, his colleague from Detroit, to join in the work, though in the end, James wrote "Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution" on his own. The book was not published until 1977 (by Allison & Busby), years after Nkrumah's overthrow, exile and subsequent death.


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1958 James went back to Trinidad, where he edited "The Nation" newspaper for the pro-independence People's National Movement (PNM) party. He also became active again in the Pan-African movement. He believed that the Ghana revolution greatly encouraged the anticolonialist revolutionary struggle.


title: C. L. R. James

text: James also advocated the West Indies Federation. It was over this issue that he fell out with the PNM leadership. He returned to Great Britain, where he joined Calvin Hernton, Obi Egbuna and others on the faculty of the Antiuniversity of London, which had been set up by a group of left-wing thinkers led by American academic Joseph Berke. In 1968 James was invited to the US, where he taught at the University of the District of Columbia (formerly Federal City College), leaving for Trinidad in 1980.


title: C. L. R. James

text: Ultimately returning to Britain in 1981, he spent his last years in Brixton, London. In the 1980s, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from South Bank Polytechnic (later to become London South Bank University) for his body of socio-political work, including that relating to race and sport.


title: C. L. R. James

text: James died in London from a chest infection on 19 May 1989, aged 88. His funeral took place on Monday, 12 June in Trinidad, where he was buried at Tunapuna. A state memorial service was held for him at the National Stadium, Port of Spain, on 28 June 1989.


title: C. L. R. James

text: James married his first wife, Juanita Young, in Trinidad in 1929, but his move three years later to Britain led to their estrangement. He met his second wife, Constance Webb (1918–2005), an American model, actress and author, after he moved to the US in 1938; she wrote of having first heard him speak in the spring of 1939 at a meeting in California. James and Webb married in 1946 and their son, C. L. R. James Jr, familiarly known as Nobbie, was born in 1949. Separated forcibly in 1952, by James's arrest and detention on Ellis Island, the couple divorced in 1953, when James was deported to Britain, while Webb remained in New York with Nobbie. A collection of James's letters to Webb was posthumously published as "Special Delivery: The Letters of C.L.R. James to Constance Webb, 1939–1948", edited and introduced by Anna Grimshaw (Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996). Stories written by James for his son were published in 2006 as "The Nobbie Stories for Children and Adults", edited and introduced by Constance Webb.


title: C. L. R. James

text: In 1956 James married Selma Weinstein ("née" Deitch), who had been a young member of the Johnson–Forest Tendency; they remained close political colleagues for more than 25 years, but divorced in 1980. She is best known as one of the founders of the International Wages for Housework Campaign.


title: C. L. R. James

text: Collections of C. L. R. James papers are held at the University of the West Indies Alma Jordan Library, St Augustine, Trinidad, and at Columbia University Libraries.


title: C. L. R. James

text: Duke University Press publish the series "The C. L. R. James Archives", edited by Robert A. Hill, literary executor of the estate of C. L. R. James, producing new editions of books by James, as well as scholarly explorations of his oeuvre.


title: C. L. R. James

text: He is widely known as a writer on cricket, especially for his autobiographical 1963 book, "Beyond a Boundary", which he himself described as "neither cricket reminiscences nor autobiography". It is considered a seminal work on the game, and is often named as the best single book on cricket (or even the best book on any sport) ever written. John Arlott called it "so outstanding as to compel any reviewer to check his adjectives several times before he describes it and, since he is likely to be dealing in superlatives, to measure them carefully to avoid over-praise – which this book does not need … in the opinion of the reviewer, it is the finest book written about the game of cricket." A conference to mark the 50th anniversary of its first publication was held 10–11 May 2013.


title: C. L. R. James

text: The book's key question, frequently quoted by modern journalists and essayists, is inspired by a line in Rudyard Kipling's poem "English Flag" – "What do they know of England who only England know?" James asks in the Preface: "What do they know of cricket who only cricket know?" Acknowledging that "To answer involves ideas as well as facts", James uses this challenge as the basis for describing cricket in an historical and social context, the strong influence cricket had on his life, and how it meshed with his role in politics and his understanding of issues of class and race.


title: C. L. R. James

text: While editor of "The Nation", he led the successful campaign in 1960 to have Frank Worrell appointed the first black captain of the West Indies cricket team. James believed that the relationship between players and the public was a prominent reason behind the West Indies' achieving so much with so little.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: The Voyage of the Beagle is the title most commonly given to the book written by Charles Darwin and published in 1839 as his Journal and Remarks, bringing him considerable fame and respect. This was the third volume of "The Narrative of the Voyages of H.M. Ships Adventure and Beagle", the other volumes of which were written or edited by the commanders of the ships. "Journal and Remarks" covers Darwin's part in the second survey expedition of the ship HMS "Beagle". Due to the popularity of Darwin's account, the publisher reissued it later in 1839 as Darwin's Journal of Researches, and the revised second edition published in 1845 used this title. A republication of the book in 1905 introduced the title "The Voyage of the "Beagle"", by which it is now best known.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: "Beagle" sailed from Plymouth Sound on 27 December 1831 under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy. While the expedition was originally planned to last two years, it lasted almost five—"Beagle" did not return until 2 October 1836. Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land (three years and three months on land; 18 months at sea). The book is a vivid travel memoir as well as a detailed scientific field journal covering biology, geology, and anthropology that demonstrates Darwin's keen powers of observation, written at a time when Western Europeans were exploring and charting the whole world. Although Darwin revisited some areas during the expedition, for clarity the chapters of the book are ordered by reference to places and locations rather than by date.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Darwin's notes made during the voyage include comments hinting at his changing views on the fixity of species. On his return, he wrote the book based on these notes, at a time when he was first developing his theories of evolution through common descent and natural selection. The book includes some suggestions of his ideas, particularly in the second edition of 1845.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: In May 1826 two ships left Plymouth to survey the southern coasts of South America. The senior officer of the expedition was Phillip Parker King, Commander and Surveyor of HMS "Adventure", and under his orders Pringle Stokes was Commander and Surveyor of HMS "Beagle". In August 1828 Stokes died after shooting himself. In December Robert FitzRoy was given command of the ship and continued the survey. In January 1830 FitzRoy noted in his journal the need for expertise in mineralogy or geology, on a future expedition he would "endeavour to carry out a person qualified to examine the land; while the officers, and myself, would attend to hydrography." Both ships returned to Plymouth in August 1830. King was in poor health, and retired from the Navy (he moved back to his home in Australia in 1832).


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: In August 1831, while "Beagle" was being readied, FitzRoy's offer of a place for a self-funded naturalist was raised with University of Cambridge professors. Henslow passed it on to Darwin who was well qualified and, enthused by reading Humboldt's "Personal Narrative", was on a short study tour with geologist Adam Sedgwick in preparation for a planned visit with friends to Tenerife. Darwin read the letters when he got home, and was eager to join the voyage.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: On board the ship, Darwin began a day-to-day record of activities in the form of a diary, he commonly called this "my Journal" but that term is associated with the published book, transcriptions of the original manuscript include "Charles Darwin's Diary of the Voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle"' (ed. Nora Barlow) and "Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary" (ed. Richard Keynes). Darwin wrote entries, in ink, while on the ship or when staying for a period in a house on shore. When travelling on land, he left the manuscript on the ship, and made pencil notes in pocket books to record details of his excursions along with his field notes on geology and natural history. He then wrote up his diary entries from these notes or from memory, sometimes several weeks after the event.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Pages 1 and 2, dated 16 December 1831, outline events from Darwin arriving home on 29 August to his arrival at Devonport on 24 October. From page 3 onwards he adopts a consistent layout, with month, the year and place in a heading at the top, page number in a top corner, and the day of the month in the margin at each entry. After delays and false starts due to weather, they set off on 27 December. Darwin suffered seasickness, and his entry for that date starts "I am now on the 5th of Jan.y writing the memoranda of my misery for the last week".


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: In April, a month after reaching South America, he wrote to his sister Caroline that he was struggling to write letters, partly due to "writing everything in my journal". A few weeks later at Botafogo, tired and short of time, he sent her "in a packet, my commonplace Journal.— I have taken a fit of disgust with it & want to get it out of my sight, any of you that like may read it.— a great deal is absolutely childish: Remember however this, that it is written solely to make me remember this voyage, & that it is not a record of facts but of my thoughts". He invited criticisms. In reply, his sister Catherine praised his "interesting and entertaining" descriptions, "Susan read the Journal aloud to Papa, who was interested, and liked it very much". His Wedgwood relatives had asked to see it at Maer Hall. Darwin left that "entirely in your hands.— I suspect the first part is abominaly childish, if so do not send it to Maer.— Also, do not send it by the Coach, (it may appear ridiculous to you) but I would as soon loose a piece of my memory as it.— I feel it is of such consequence to my preserving a just recollection of the different places we visit."


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: By 14 July 1833 Darwin had sent more of his diary. On 28 October Caroline gave the requested critical assessment – in the first part Darwin had "probably from reading so much of Humboldt, got his phraseology & occasionly made use of the kind of flowery french expressions which he uses, instead of your own simple straight forward & far more agreeable style. I have no doubt you have without perceiving it got to embody your ideas in his poetical language & from his being a foreigner it does not sound unnatural in him". However, "the greatest part I liked exceedingly & could find no fault". In July 1834, Darwin agreed that these points were "perfectly just", and continued to update his diary carefully.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: As "Beagle" headed homewards in April 1836, Darwin told Caroline that FitzRoy too was busy with writing "the account of the Voyage". This "Book" might be "rather diffuse", but otherwise good: "his style is very simple & excellent. He has proposed to me, to join him in publishing the account, that is, for him to have the disposal & arranging of my journal & to mingle it with his own. Of course I have said I am perfectly willing, if he wants materials; or thinks the chit-chat details of my journal are any ways worth publishing. He has read over the part, I have on board, & likes it." Darwin asked his family about this idea, but would be aware the custom of the Navy was that the captain had a right to first use of papers.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Soon after Darwin's return, he was at a party hosted by Fanny and Hensleigh Wedgwood for their relatives on 4 December 1836. They agreed to review his journal. The physician and travel writer Henry Holland looked at some pages and "thought that it would not be worth while to publish it alone, as it would be partly going over the same ground with the Captain", leaving Darwin "more perplexed" but "becoming rather inclined to the plan of mixing up long passages with Capt Fitzroy." He would "go on with the geology and let the journal take care of itself", but Emma Wedgwood did not think Holland "any judge as to what is amusing or interesting", and like Catherine thought it should be published by itself, not "mixed up with Capt. FitzRoy's". Fanny and Hensleigh found the "Journal so interesting, that it is quite difficult to stop to criticize". Though "not in general a good reader of travels", he "found no part of yours tedious." They had "read a great deal of it aloud too" as a more severe test, and concluded it had "more variety and a greater number of interesting portions" than other travel books, "the less it is mixed up with the Captains the better."


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: After advice from Broderip, FitzRoy wrote on 30 December that "One volume might be for King—another for you—and a third for me. The profits if any, to be divided into three equal portions—What think you of such a plan?" Darwin agreed, and began work on his volume. In March he told Fox "I am now hard at work and give up every thing else for it. Our plan is as follows.— Capt. FitzRoy writes two volumes, out of the materials collected during both the last voyage under Capt. King to T. del Fuego and during our circumnavigation.— I am to have the third volume, in which I intend giving a kind of journal of a naturalist, not following however always the order of time, but rather the order of position.— The habits of animals will occupy a large portion, sketches of the geology, the appearance of the country, and personal details will make the hodge-podge complete.— Afterwards I shall write an account of the geology in detail, and draw up some Zoological papers.— So that I have plenty of work, for the next year or two, and till that is finished I will have no holidays."


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Darwin reorganised his diary, trimmed parts, and incorporated scientific material from his field notes. He passed his writing to the publisher, Henry Colburn, and in August 1837 had the first proofs back from the printer. Henslow helped check them, on 4 November Darwin wrote to him that "If I live till I am eighty years old I shall not cease to marvel at finding myself an author". Part of it was printed, "the smooth paper and clear type has a charming appearance, and I sat the other evening gazing in silent admiration at the first page of my own volume, when I received it from the printers!"


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: FitzRoy had to edit King's account of the first voyage, adding extracts from the journal of the previous captain of "Beagle" and his own journal when he took over, as well as write his own account of the second voyage. In mid November 1837 he took offence that Darwin's preface to volume III (and a similar preface to the first part of "The Zoology") lacked, in his view, enough acknowledgement of the help given by FitzRoy and other officers; the problem was overcome. By the end of February 1838 King's "Narrative" (volumes I) and Darwin's "Journal" (volume III) had been printed, but FitzRoy was still hard at work on volume II.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: The "Narrative" was completed and published as a four-volume set in May 1839, as the Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle, "describing their Examination of the Southern Shores of South America, and the Beagle's Circumnavigation of the Globe, in three volumes". Volume one covers the first voyage under Commander Phillip Parker King, volume two is FitzRoy's account of the second voyage. Darwin's Journal and Remarks, 1832–1835 forms the third volume, and the fourth volume is a lengthy appendix. The publication was reviewed as a whole by Basil Hall in the July 1839 issue of the "Edinburgh Review".


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Volume two includes FitzRoy's "Remarks with reference to the Deluge" in which he recanted his earlier interest in the geological writings of Charles Lyell and his remarks to Darwin during the expedition that sedimentary features they saw "could never have been effected by a forty days' flood", asserting his renewed commitment to a literal reading of the Bible. He had married on the ship's return, and his wife was very religious.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Darwin's contribution proved remarkably popular and the publisher, Henry Colburn of London, announced on 15 August a separate volume of Darwin's text, published with a new title page as Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the various countries visited by H.M.S. Beagle. "The Publishers‘ Circular" of 2 September carried an advertisement for this volume, as well as a separate advertisement for the other volumes, as listed at William Broderip's article in the "Quarterly Review". This was apparently done without seeking Darwin's permission or paying him a fee.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: The second edition of 1845 incorporated extensive revisions made in the light of interpretation of the field collections and developing ideas on evolution. This edition was commissioned by the publisher John Murray, who actually paid Darwin a fee of £150 for the copyright. The full title was modified to Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: In the first edition, Darwin remarks in regard to the similarity of Galápagos wildlife to that on the South American continent, "The circumstance would be explained, according to the views of some authors, by saying that the creative power had acted according to the same law over a wide area". (This was written in a reference to Charles Lyell's ideas of "centres of creation".) Darwin notes the gradations in size of the beaks of species of finches, suspects that species "are confined to different islands", "But there is not space in this work, to enter into this curious subject."


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Considering the small size of these islands, we feel the more astonished at the number of their aboriginal beings, and at their confined range... within a period geologically recent the unbroken ocean was here spread out. Hence, both in space and time, we seem to be brought somewhat near to that great fact – that mystery of mysteries – the first appearance of new beings on this earth.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Speaking of the finches with their gradations in size of beaks, he writes "one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: In 1890 John Murray published an illustrated edition of the book, at the suggestion of the artist Robert Taylor Pritchett who was already known for accompanying voyages of the RYS "Wanderer" and "Sunbeam", and producing pictures used in books on these cruises. In his foreword to this edition of "Journal and Researches", Murray said that most "of the views given in this work are from sketches made on the spot by Mr. Pritchett, with Mr. Darwin's book by his side", and the illustrations had been "chosen and verified with the utmost care and pains".


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: For readability, the chapters of the book are arranged geographically rather than in an exact chronological sequence of places Darwin visited or revisited. The main headings (and in some cases subheadings) of each chapter give a good idea of where he went, but not the exact sequence. See second voyage of HMS "Beagle" for a detailed synopsis of Darwin's travels. The contents list in the book also notes topics discussed in each chapter, not shown here for simplicity. Names and spellings are those used by Darwin. The list below is based on the "Journal and Remarks" of 1839.


title: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: In the second edition, the "Journal of Researches" of 1845, chapters VIII and IX were merged into a new chapter VIII on "Banda Oriental and Patagonia", and chapter IX now included "Santa Cruz, Patagonia and The Falkland Islands". After chapter X on Tierra del Fuego, chapter XI had the revised heading "Strait of Magellan–Climate of the Southern Coasts". The following chapters were renumbered accordingly. Chapter XIV was given the revised heading "Chiloe and Concepcion: Great Earthquake", and chapter XX had the heading "Keeling Island:–Coral Formations", with the concluding chapter XXI keeping the heading "Mauritius to England".


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The Zapotec civilization ( "The People"; 700 BC–1521 AD) was an indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca in Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence shows that their culture originated at least 2,500 years ago. The Zapotec archaeological site at the ancient city of Monte Albán has monumental buildings, ball courts, magnificent tombs and grave goods, including finely worked gold jewelry. Monte Albán was one of the first major cities in Mesoamerica. It was the center of a Zapotec state that dominated much of the territory which today is known as the Mexican state of Oaxaca.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: Zapotec civilization originated in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca in the late 6th century BC. The three valleys were divided among three different-sized societies, separated by “no-man’s-land” in the middle. The city of Oaxaca much later developed in that area. Archaeological evidence, such as burned temples and sacrificed war captives, suggests that the three societies competed against each other. At the end of the Rosario phase (700–500 BC), the valley's largest settlement San José Mogote, and a nearby settlement in the Etla valley, lost most of their population.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: During the same period, a new large settlement developed in the “no-man’s-land” on top of a mountain overlooking the three valleys; it was later called Monte Albán. Early Monte Albán pottery is similar to pottery from San José Mogote, which suggests that the newer city was populated by people who had left San José Mogote. Although there is no direct evidence in the early phases of Monte Albán's history, walls and fortifications around the site during the archaeological phase Monte Alban 2 (ca. 100 BC–200 AD) suggest that the city was constructed in response to a military threat. American archaeologists Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery liken this process to what happened in ancient Greece - synoikism: a centralization of smaller dispersed populations congregated in a central city to meet an external threat.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The Zapotec state formed at Monte Albán began to expand during the late "Monte Alban 1" phase (400–100 BC) and throughout the "Monte Alban 2" phase (100 BC – AD 200). During Monte Alban 1c (roughly 200 BC) to Monte Alban 2 (200 BC – AD 100), Zapotec rulers seized control of the provinces outside the valley of Oaxaca, because none of the surrounding provinces could compete with them politically and militarily. By 200 AD, the Zapotec had extended their influence, from Quiotepec in the North to Ocelotepec and Chiltepec in the South. Monte Albán had become the largest city in what are today the southern Mexican highlands, and retained this status until approximately 700 AD.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The expansion of the Zapotec empire peaked during the Monte Alban 2 phase. The Zapotec conquered or colonized settlements far beyond The Valley of Oaxaca. Most notably, their influence is visible in the sudden change in style of ceramics made in regions outside the valley. These regions' unique styles were suddenly replaced with Zapotec-style pottery, indicating their integration into the Zapotec empire.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: Archaeologist Alfonso Caso, one of the first to conduct excavations in Monte Albán in the 1930s, argued that a building on the main plaza of Monte Albán is further evidence for the dramatic expansion of the Zapotec state: What today is called "building J" is shaped like an arrowhead, unlike other monumental buildings. It displays more than 40 carved stones with hieroglyphic writing. Archaeologists interpreted the glyphs to represent the provinces controlled by the Zapotec. Each glyph group also depicts a head, with an elaborate head dress, carved into the slabs. These are assumed to represent the rulers of the provinces. Heads turned upside down are believed to represent the rulers killed and whose provinces were taken by force, while the upright ones may represent those who did not resist annexation and had their lives spared. For this reason, building J is also referred to by archeologists as “The Conquest Slab”.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: Marcus and Flannery write about the subsequent dramatic expansion of the Monte Albán state, noting when there is


title: Zapotec civilization

text: "a great disparity in populations between the core of a state and its periphery, it may only be necessary for the former to send colonists to the latter. Small polities, seeing that resistance would be futile, may accept a face-saving offer. Larger polities unwilling to lose their autonomy may have to be subdued militarily. During the expansion of Monte Alban 2 state, we think we see both colonization and conquest".


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The last battle between the Aztecs and the Zapotecs occurred between 1497–1502, under the Aztec ruler Ahuizotl. At the time of Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, when news arrived that the Aztecs were defeated by the Spaniards, King Cosijoeza ordered his people not to confront the Spaniards so they would avoid the same fate. They were defeated by the Spaniards only after several campaigns between 1522–1527. However, uprisings against colonial authorities occurred in 1550, 1560, and 1715.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The name "Zapotec" is an exonym; they were referred to by Nahuatl speakers as "tzapotēcah" (singular "tzapotēcatl"), which means "inhabitants of the place of sapote". The Zapotec referred to themselves by some variant of the term "Be'ena'a", which means "The Cloud People".


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The Zapotec languages belong to a language family called Oto-manguean, an ancient family of Mesoamerican languages. It is estimated that today's Oto-manguean languages branched off from a common root at around 1500 BC. The Manguean languages probably split off first, followed by the Oto-pamean branch while the divergence of Mixtecan and Zapotecan languages happened later still. The Zapotecan group includes the Zapotec languages and the closely related Chatino. Zapotec languages are spoken in parts of the Northern Sierra, the Central Valleys as well as in parts of the Southern Sierra, in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and along parts of the Pacific Coast. Due to decades of out-migration, Zapotec is also spoken in parts of Mexico City and Los Angeles, CA. There are 7 distinct Zapotec languages and over 100 dialects.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: Zapotec is a tone language, which means that the meaning of a word is often determined by voice pitch (tonemes), essential for understanding the meaning of different words. The Zapotec languages features up to 4 distinct tonemes: high, low, rising and falling.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: Between Monte Alban phases 1 and 2 there was a considerable expansion of the population of the Valley of Oaxaca. As the population grew, so did the degree of social differentiation, the centralization of political power, and ceremonial activity. During Monte Alban 1-2 the valley appears to have been fragmented into several independent states, as manifested in regional centers of power. By Monte Alban phase 3, the fragmentation between the city and the valleys resulted in a swell in the population and urban development of Monte Albán itself.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The Central Valleys of Oaxaca, the cradle of Zapotec civilization, are three broad valleys—Etla in the west, Ocotlán in the south and Mitla in the east—that join at an altitude of about 4500 feet above sea level in the center of what today is the state of Oaxaca. They are located about 200 km south of Mexico City. Mountains surround the valley with The Sierra Norte in the north and the mountains of Tlacolula in the southeast. The environment is well suited for agriculture and is considered one of the cradles of maize. It is estimated that at the time of the emergence of Zapotec civilization, the valley soil were unaffected by the erosion seen today, as the oak and pine forests covering the surrounding mountains had not yet been decimated by logging. There is a dry season from November until May but along the rivers it is possible to plant and harvest crops twice. The mountains are traversed from north-west to south by the Atoyac River which provides water for a small strip of land bordering the river, when it periodically floods. To provide water for crops elsewhere in the valley away from the river, the Zapotecs used canal irrigation. By using water from small streams, the Zapotecs were able to bring water to Monte Albán, situated 400 meters above the valley floor. Archaeologists found remains of a small irrigation system consisting of a dam and a canal on the south-eastern flank of the mountain. As this would not have been enough to support all the population of Monte Albán, it is assumed that there were many other irrigation systems. Likewise, crops grown in the valley were not enough to sustain the rapid population growth in the Monte Albán I phase. Therefore, crops were grown on the foothills where the soil is a less fertile and artificial irrigation was needed.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: Innovation of farming enabled the Zapotec to pay tribute to the Spanish conquerors and create enough surplus to feed themselves despite natural disasters and disease.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The Zapotecs developed a calendar and a logosyllabic system of writing that used a separate glyph to represent each of the syllables of the language. This writing system is thought to be one of the first writing systems of Mesoamerica and a predecessor of those developed by the Maya, Mixtec and Aztec civilizations. There is debate as to whether Olmec symbols, dated to 650 BC, are actually a form of writing preceding the oldest Zapotec writing dated to about 500 BC.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: In the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, there were Zapotec and Mixtec artisans who fashioned jewelry for the Aztec rulers ("tlatoanis"), including Moctezuma II. However, relations with central Mexico go back much further, as suggested by the archaeological remains of a Zapotec neighborhood within Teotihuacan and a Teotihuacan style "guest house" in Monte Albán. Other important pre-Columbian Zapotec sites include Lambityeco, Dainzú, Mitla, Yagul, San José Mogote, El Palmillo and Zaachila.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The Zapotecs were a sedentary culture living in villages and towns, in houses constructed with stone and mortar. They recorded the principal events in their history by means of hieroglyphics, and in warfare they made use of a cotton armour. The well-known ruins of Mitla have been attributed to them.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: At Monte Albán archaeologists have found extended text in a glyphic script. Some signs can be recognized as calendar information but the script as such remains undeciphered. Read in columns from top to bottom, its execution is somewhat cruder than that of the later Classic Maya and this has led epigraphers to believe that the script was also less phonetic than the largely syllabic Mayan script.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The earliest known artifact with Zapotec writing is a "Danzante" ("dancer") stone, officially known as Monument 3, found in San José Mogote, Oaxaca. It has a relief of what appears to be a dead and bloodied captive with two glyphic signs between his legs, possibly his name. First dated to 500–600 BC, this was initially considered the earliest writing in Mesoamerica. However, doubts have been expressed as to this dating as the monument may have been reused. The Zapotec script appears to have gone out of use in the late Classic period.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: Like most Mesoamerican religious systems, the Zapotec religion was polytheistic. Some known deities were Cocijo, the rain god (similar to the Aztec god Tlaloc); Coquihani, the god of light; and Pitao Cozobi, the god of maize. Zapotec deities were predominantly associated with fertility or agriculture. Both male and female deities are represented, differentiated by costume. Males are depicted wearing breechclouts with or without capes, while females are depicted wearing skirts. There is some evidence of worship of deities not directly associated with Zapotec culture, such as the Teotihuacan Feathered Serpent, Butterfly God, and rain god; and the Nahuatl god of spring Xipe Totec. It is believed that the Zapotec used human sacrifice in some of their rituals.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: There are several legends of the origin of the Zapotec. One of them is that they were the original people of the valley of Oaxaca and were born from rocks, or descended from big cats such as pumas, jaguars and ocelots. Another is that the Zapotec settled in the Oaxaca valley after founding the Toltec empire, and were descendants of the people of Chicomoztoc. These legends were not transcribed until after the Spanish conquest.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: According to historical and contemporary Zapotec legends, their ancestors emerged from the earth, from caves, or turned into people from trees or jaguars. Their governing elite believed that they descended from supernatural beings who lived among the clouds, and that upon death they would return to the clouds. The name by which Zapotecs are known today results from this belief. The Zapotecs of the Central Valleys call themselves "Be'ena' Za'a" - The Cloud People.


title: Zapotec civilization

text: The Zapotec used dedication rituals to sanctify their living spaces and structures. Excavation of Mound III at the Cuilapan Temple Pyramid in Oaxaca revealed a dedication cache containing many jade beads, two jade earspools, three obsidian blades, shells, stones, a pearl, and small animal bones, likely from birds, dated to 700 AD. Each of these materials symbolized different religious concepts. As it was not easily attainable, jade was valued, and worked jade even more so because the elite were the primary artists. Obsidian blades are associated with sacrifice, as they were commonly used in bloodletting rituals. Shells and pearl represent the underworld, being from the ocean, and the small bird bones represent the sky and its relation to the balanced cosmos. These artifacts are significant due to their placement in a structure used for ritual and associated with power. This cache is a form of dedication ritual, dedicating the Cuilapan Temple Pyramid to these ideas of power, sacrifice, and the relationship between underworld and cosmos.


title: Devika Rani

text: Devika Rani Choudhuri (30 March 1908 – 9 March 1994), usually known as Devika Rani, was an Indian actress who was active in Hindi films during the 1930s and 1940s. Widely acknowledged as the first lady of Indian cinema, Devika Rani had a successful film career that spanned 10 years.


title: Devika Rani

text: Born into a wealthy, anglicized Indian family, Devika Rani was sent to boarding school in England at age nine and grew up in that country. In 1928, she met Himanshu Rai, an Indian film-producer, and married him the following year. She assisted in costume design and art direction for Rai's experimental silent film "A Throw of Dice" (1929). Both of them then went to Germany and received training in film-making at UFA Studios in Berlin. Rai then cast himself as hero and her as heroine in his next production, the bilingual film "Karma (1933)", made simultaneously in English & Hindi. The film premiered in England in 1933, elicited interest there for a prolonged kissing scene featuring the real-life couple, and flopped badly in India. The couple returned to India in 1934, where Himanshu Rai established a production studio, Bombay Talkies, in partnership with certain other people. The studio produced several successful films over the next 5–6 years, and Devika Rani played the lead role in many of them. Her on-screen pairing with Ashok Kumar became popular in India.


title: Devika Rani

text: Following Rai's death in 1940, Devika Rani took control of the studio and produced some more films in partnership with her late husband's associates, namely Sashadhar Mukherjee and Ashok Kumar. As she was to recollect in her old age, the films which she supervised tended to flop, while the films supervised by the partners tended to be hits. In 1945, she retired from films, married the Russian painter Svetoslav Roerich and moved to his estate on the outskirts of Bangalore, thereafter leading a very reclusive life for the next five decades. Her persona, no less than her film roles, were considered socially unconventional. Her awards include the Padma Shri (1958), Dadasaheb Phalke Award (1970) and the Soviet Land Nehru Award (1990).


title: Devika Rani

text: Devika Rani was born as Devika Rani Choudhury on 30 March 1908 in Waltair near Visakhapatnam in present-day Andhra Pradesh, into an extremely affluent and educated Bengali family, the daughter of Col. Dr. Manmathnath Choudhury by his wife Leela Devi Choudhury.


title: Devika Rani

text: Devika's father, Colonel Manmatha Nath Chaudhuri, scion of a large landowning "zamindari" family, was the first Indian Surgeon-General of Madras Presidency. Devika's paternal grandfather, Durgadas Choudhury, was the "Zamindar" (landlord) of Chatmohar Upazila of Pabna district of present-day Bangladesh. Her paternal grandmother, Sukumari Devi (wife of Durgadas), was a sister of the nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. Devika's father had five brothers, all of them distinguished in their own fields, mainly law, medicine and literature. They were Sir Ashutosh Chaudhuri, Chief Justice of Calcutta High Court during the British Raj; Jogesh Chandra Chaudhuri and Kumudnath Chaudhuri, both prominent Kolkata-based barristers; Pramathanath Choudhary, the famous Bengali writer, and Dr. Suhridnath Chaudhuri, a noted medical practitioner. The future Chief of Army Staff, Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, was Devika's first cousin: their fathers were brothers to each other.


title: Devika Rani

text: Devika's mother, Leela Devi Choudhury, also came from an equally educated family and was a niece of Rabindranath Tagore. Thus, Devika Rani was related through both her parents to the poet and Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore. Her father, Manmathnath Choudhury, was the son of Sukumari Devi Choudhury, sister of Rabindranath Tagore. Devika's mother, Leela Devi Chaudhuri, was the daughter of Indumati Devi Chattopadhyay, whose mother Saudamini Devi Gangopadhyay was another sister of the Nobel laureate. Thus, Devika's father and maternal grandmother were first cousins to each other, being the children of two sisters of Rabindranath Tagore. Nor was this all: Two of Devika's uncles (Chief Justice Sir Ashutosh and Pramathanath) were married to their first cousins (mother's brother's daughters), the nieces of Rabindranath Tagore: Prativa Devi Choudhury, wife of Sir Ashutosh Choudhury, was the daughter of Hemendranath Tagore, and Indira Devi Choudhury, wife of Pramathanath Choudhury, was the daughter of Satyendranath Tagore. Devika thus had extremely strong family ties to Jarasanko, seat of the Tagore family in Kolkata and a major crucible of the Bengali Renaissance.


title: Devika Rani

text: Devika Rani was sent to boarding school in England at the age of nine, and grew up there. After completing her schooling in the mid-1920s, she enrolled in the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) and the Royal Academy of Music in London to study acting and music. She also enrolled for courses in architecture, textile and decor design, and even apprenticed under Elizabeth Arden. All of these courses, each of them a few months long, were completed by 1927, and Devika Rani then took up a job in textile design.


title: Devika Rani

text: In 1928, Devika Rani first met her future husband, Himanshu Rai, an Indian barrister-turned-film maker, who was in London preparing to shoot his forthcoming film "A Throw of Dice". Rai was impressed with Devika's "exceptional skills" and invited her to join the production team of the film, although not as an actress. She readily agreed, assisting him in areas such as costume designing and art direction. The two also traveled to Germany for the post-production work, where she had occasion to observe the film-making techniques of the German film industry, specifically of G. W. Pabst and Fritz Lang. Inspired by their methods of film-making, she enrolled for a short film-making course at Universum Film AG studio in Berlin. Devika Rani learnt various aspects of film-making and also took a special course in film acting. Around this time, they both acted in a play together, for which they received many accolades in Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries. During this time she was also trained in the production unit of Max Reinhardt, an Austrian theatre director.


title: Devika Rani

text: Devika and Himanshu Rai returned to India, where Himanshu produced a film titled "Karma" (1933). The film was his first talkie, and like his previous films, it was a joint production between people from India, Germany and the United Kingdom. Rai, who played the lead role, decided to cast Devika Rani as the female lead, and this marked her acting debut. "Karma" is credited as having been the first English language talkie made by an Indian. It was one of the earliest Indian films to feature a kissing scene. The kissing scene, involving Himanshu Rai and Devika Rani, lasted for about four minutes, and eighty years later, this stands as the record for duration of a kissing scene in Indian cinema as of 2014. Devika Rani also sang a song in the film, a bi-lingual song in English and Hindi. This song is said to be Bollywood's first English song.


title: Devika Rani

text: Made simultaneously in both English and Hindi, "Karma" premiered in London in May 1933. Alongside a special screening for the Royal family at Windsor, the film was well received throughout Europe. Devika Rani's performance was internationally acclaimed as she won "rave reviews" in the London media. A critic from "The Daily Telegraph" noted Devika Rani for her "beauty" and "charm" while also crediting her to be a "potential star of the first magnitude". Following the release of the film, she was invited by the BBC to enact a role in their first ever television broadcast in Britain in 1933. She also inaugurated the company's first short wave radio transmission to India. In spite of its success in England, "Karma" did not interest Indian audiences and turned out be a failure in India when it was released in Hindi as "Nagin Ki Ragini" in early 1934. However, the film received good critical response and helped Devika Rani establish herself as a leading actress in Indian cinema. Indian independence activist and poet Sarojini Naidu called her a "lovely and gifted little lady".


title: Devika Rani

text: After the critical success of "Karma", the couple returned to India in 1934. Although the Hindi version of the film, released in India in 1934, flopped without a trace, Himanshu Rai had established the required networks in Europe, and was able to start a film studio named Bombay Talkies, partnering with Niranjan Pal, a Bengali playwright and screenwriter who he had met previously in London and Franz Osten, who directed several of Rai's films.


title: Devika Rani

text: Upon inception, Bombay Talkies was one of the "best-equipped" film studios in the country. The studio would serve as a launch pad for future actors including Dilip Kumar, Leela Chitnis, Madhubala, Raj Kapoor, Ashok Kumar and Mumtaz. The studio's first film "Jawani Ki Hawa" (1935), a crime thriller, starring Devika Rani and Najm-ul-Hassan, was shot fully on a train.


title: Devika Rani

text: Najm-ul-Hassan was also Devika's co-star in the studio's next venture, "Jeevan Naiya." The two co-stars developed a romantic relationship, and during the shooting schedule of "Jeevan Naiya," Devika eloped with Hassan. Himanshu was both enraged and distraught. Since the leading pair were absent, production was stalled. A significant portion of the movie had been shot and a large sum of money, which had been taken as credit from financers, had been spent. The studio therefore suffered severe financial losses and a loss of credit among bankers in the city while the runaway couple made merry.


title: Devika Rani

text: Sashadhar Mukherjee, an assistant sound-engineer at the studio, had a brotherly bond with Devika Rani because both of them were Bengalis and spoke that language with each other. He established contact with the runaway couple and managed to convince Devika Rani to return to her husband. In the India of that era, divorce was legally almost impossible and women who eloped were regarded as no better than prostitutes and were shunned by their own families. In her heart of hearts, Devika Rani knew that she could not secure a divorce or marry Hassan under any circumstances. She negotiated with her husband through the auspices of Sashadhar Mukherjee, seeking the separation of her finances from those of her husband as a condition for her return. Henceforth, she would be paid separately for working in his films, but he would be required to single-handedly pay the household expenses for the home in which both of them would live. Himanshu agreed to this, in order to save face in society and to prevent his studio from going bankrupt. Devika Rani returned to her marital home. However, things would never be the same between husband and wife again, and it is said that thenceforth, their relationship was largely confined to work and little or no intimacy transpired between them after this episode.


title: Devika Rani

text: Despite the additional expense involved in re-shooting many portions of the film, Himanshu Rai replaced Najm-ul-Hassan with Ashok Kumar, who was the brother of Sashadhar Mukherjee's wife, as the hero of "Jeevan Naiya." This marked the debut, improbable as it may seem, of Ashok Kumar's six-decade-long career in Hindi films. Najm-ul-Hassan was dismissed from his job at Bombay Talkies (this was the period in which actors and actresses were paid regular monthly salaries by one specific film studio and could not work in any other studio). His reputation as a dangerous cad established, he could not find work in any other studio. His career was ruined and he sank into obscurity.


title: Devika Rani

text: "Achhut Kannya" (1936), the studio's next production was a tragedy drama that had Devika Rani and Ashok Kumar portraying the roles of an untouchable girl and a Brahmin boy who fall in love. The film is considered a "landmark" in Indian cinema as it challenged the caste system in the country. The casting of Devika Rani was considered a mismatch as her looks did not match the role of a poor untouchable girl by virtue of her "upper-class upbringing". However, her pairing with Ashok Kumar became popular and they went on to star in as many as ten films together with most of them being Bombay Talkies productions.


title: Devika Rani

text: In the 1930s, Bombay Talkies produced several women-centric films with Devika Rani playing the lead role in all of them. In majority of the films produced by the studio, she was paired opposite Ashok Kumar, who was "overshadowed" by her. "Jeevan Prabhat", released in 1937, saw a role-reversal between Devika Rani and Ashok Kumar—she played a higher-caste Brahmin woman who is mistaken by society of having an extra-marital affair with an untouchable man. Her next release "Izzat" (1937), based on "Romeo and Juliet", was set in the medieval period and depicted two lovers belonging to enemy clans of a Maratha empire. "Nirmala", released in the following year, dealt with the plight of a child-less woman who is told by an astrologer to abandon her husband to ensure successful pregnancy. In "Vachan", her second release of the year, she played a Rajput princess. "Durga", her only release in 1939, was a romantic drama that told the story of an orphaned girl and a village doctor, played by Ashok Kumar.


title: Devika Rani

text: Following the death of Rai in 1940, there was a rift between two parties of the Bombay Talkies led by Mukherjee and Amiya Chakravarty. Devika Rani assumed principal responsibility and took over the studio along with Mukherjee. In 1941, she produced and acted in "Anjaan" co-starring Ashok Kumar. In the subsequent years, she produced two successful films under the studio—"Basant" and "Kismet. Basant Kismet" (1943) contained anti-British messages (India was under British rule at that time) and turned out to be a "record-breaking" film. Devika Rani made her last film appearance in "Hamari Baat" (1943), which had Raj Kapoor playing a small role.


title: Devika Rani

text: She handpicked newcomer Dilip Kumar for a role in "Jwar Bhata" (1944), produced by her on behalf of the studio. An internal politics that arose in the studio led prominent personalities including Mukherjee and Ashok Kumar to part ways with her and set up a new studio called Filmistan. Due to lack of support and interest, she decided to quit the film industry. In an interview to journalist Raju Bharatan, she mentioned that her idea of not willing to compromise on "artistic values" of film-making as one of the major reasons for her quitting the industry.


title: Devika Rani

text: Following her retirement from films, Devika Rani married Russian painter Svetoslav Roerich, son of Russian artist Nicholas Roerich, in 1945. After marriage, the couple moved to Manali, Himachal Pradesh where they got acquainted with the Nehru family. During her stay in Manali, Devika Rani made a few documentaries on wildlife. After staying in Manali for some years, they moved to Bangalore, Karnataka, and settled there managing an export company. The couple bought a estate on the outskirts of the city and led a solitary life for the remainder of their lives.


title: Devika Rani

text: She died of bronchitis on 9 March 1994—a year after Roerich died—in Bangalore. At her funeral, Devika Rani was given full state honors. Following her death, the estate was on litigation for many years as the couple had no legal claimants; Devika Rani remained childless throughout her life. In August 2011, the Government of Karnataka acquired the estate after the Supreme Court of India passed the verdict in favour of them.


title: Devika Rani

text: Devika Rani was called the first lady of Indian cinema. She is credited for being one of the earliest personalities who took the position of Indian cinema to global standards. Her films were mostly tragic romantic dramas that contained social themes. The roles played by her in films of Bombay Talkies usually involved in romantic relationship with men who were unusual for the social norms prevailing in the society at that time, mainly for their caste background or community identity. Rani was highly influenced by the German cinema by virtue of her training at the UFA Studios;


title: Devika Rani

text: Although she was influenced by German actress Marlene Dietrich, her acting style was compared to Greta Garbo, thus leading to Devika Rani being named the "Indian Garbo".


title: Devika Rani

text: Rani's attire, both in films and sometimes in real life, were considered "risque" at that time. In his book "Bless You Bollywood!: A tribute to Hindi Cinema on completing 100 years", Tilak Rishi mentions that Devika Rani was known as the "Dragon Lady" for her "smoking, drinking, cursing and hot temper".


title: Devika Rani

text: In 1958, the Government of India honoured Devika Rani with a Padma Shri, the country's fourth highest civilian honour. She became the first ever recipient of the Dadasaheb Phalke Award, the country's highest award for films, when it was instituted in 1969.


title: Devika Rani

text: A postage stamp commemorating her life was released by the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology in February 2011.


title: Devika Rani

text: In 2020, Kishwar Desai published a book titled "The Longest Kiss: The Life and Times of Devika Rani", which sheds light on Devika Rani's professional accomplishments and her personal misfortunes.


title: Slade discography

text: The discography of Slade, an English rock band, consists of fifteen studio albums, fifty seven singles, four live albums, and twelve compilation albums.


title: Slade discography

text: Since the 21st century, chart rules changed in many territories to allow downloads of old singles to re-enter the singles charts.


title: Henri Christophe

text: Henri Christophe (; 6 October 1767 – 8 October 1820) was a key leader in the Haitian Revolution and the only monarch of the Kingdom of Haiti.


title: Henri Christophe

text: Christophe was of Bambara ethnicity in West Africa, and perhaps of Igbo descent. Beginning with the slave uprising of 1791, he rose to power in the ranks of the Haitian revolutionary military. The revolution succeeded in gaining independence from France in 1804. In 1805 he took part under Jean-Jacques Dessalines in the capturing of Santo Domingo (now Dominican Republic), against French forces who acquired the colony from Spain in the Treaty of Basel.


title: Henri Christophe

text: After Dessalines was assassinated, Christophe retreated to the Plaine-du-Nord and created a separate government. On 17 February 1807, he was elected president of the State of Haiti, as he named that area. Alexandre Pétion was elected president in the south. On 26 March 1811, Christophe created a kingdom in the north and was later proclaimed Henry I, King of Haïti. He also created a nobility and named his legitimate son Jacques-Victor Henry as prince and heir.


title: Henri Christophe

text: He is known for constructing Citadel Henry, now known as Citadelle Laferrière, the Sans-Souci Palace, the royal chapel of Milot, and numerous other palaces. Under his policies of "corvée", or forced labor bordering on slavery, the Kingdom earned revenues from agricultural production, primarily sugar; but the Haitian people resented the system. He reached an agreement with Great Britain to respect its Caribbean colonies in exchange for their warnings to his government of any French naval activity threatening Haiti. In 1820, unpopular, ill and fearing a coup, he committed suicide. Jacques-Victor, his son and heir, was assassinated 10 days later. The general Jean-Pierre Boyer came to power and reunited the two parts of Haiti.


title: Henri Christophe

text: Claims about Henri Christophe's place of birth and life before coming to prominence have been contested since the early nineteenth century. Born Christophe Henry, probably in Grenada but perhaps St Kitts the son of a slave mother and Christophe, a freeman, he was brought as a slave to the northern part of Saint-Domingue. In 1779 he may have served with the French forces as a drummer boy in the Chasseurs-Volontaires de Saint-Domingue, a regiment composed of gens de couleur (mixed-race residents of Saint-Domingue). The regiment fought at the Siege of Savannah, a battle during the American Revolutionary War. It is claimed that Christophe was wounded in this battle.


title: Henri Christophe

text: As an adult, Christophe may have worked as a mason, sailor, stable hand, waiter, or billiard marker; if so, most of his pay would have gone to his master. One popular story claims that he worked in and managed La Couronne, a hotel restaurant in Cap-Français, the first capital of the French colony of Saint-Domingue and a major colonial city. There, the legend goes, he became skilled at dealing with the "grand blancs," as the wealthy white French planters were called. However, none of the hotel's sales records support this claim. He was said to have gained his freedom from slavery as a young man, before the slave uprising of 1791. Sometime after he had settled in Haiti, he brought his sister Marie there; she married and had children. The political skills he learned as a hotelier also served him well when he later became an officer in the military and leader in the country.


title: Henri Christophe

text: Beginning with the slave uprising of 1791, Christophe distinguished himself as a soldier in the Haitian Revolution and quickly rose to be a colonel during the revolutionary years. He fought for years with Toussaint Louverture in the north, participating in numerous battles during the revolution, and eventually rising to the rank of commander-in-chief at Cap-Français. By 1802, Louverture had promoted him to general.


title: Henri Christophe

text: The French deported Toussaint Louverture to France, and brought in more than 20,000 new troops under the Vicomte de Rochambeau in an effort to regain control of the colony and re-establish slavery. Jean Jacques Dessalines led the fight to defeat the French forces. The French withdrew their 7,000 surviving troops in late 1803. As leader, Dessalines declared the independence of Saint-Domingue with its new name of Haïti in 1804.


title: Henri Christophe

text: Christophe was in charge of the northern section of the country, where he notably supervised the first steps of the construction of Citadelle Laferrière. In 1805, General Nicolas Geffrard, commander in the south, approached Christophe with a plot to kill Dessalines, the self-proclaimed emperor of Haiti; Christophe did not warn Dessalines. Christophe's influence and power in the north was such that Dessalines, though aware of opposition brewing against him in the highest circles of power, found himself unable to strike against his general. The conspiracy involved the majority of Dessalines's senior officers, including his minister of war and navy Etienne Elie Gérin, General Alexandre Pétion, commander-in-chief of the second division in the west, General Nicolas Geffrard and many others. On 16 October 1806, they signed a proclamation entitled “Resistance to Oppression,” declaring the necessity to overthrow Dessalines's government, and proclaimed Christophe head of the provisional Haitian government. Dessalines was assassinated on 17 October 1806.


title: Henri Christophe

text: In 1805 French troops were still posted on the eastern part of the island (mainly in Santo Domingo), where they were led by the French officer Marie-Louis Ferrand. He mobilized his troops and ordered them to seize all black children of both sexes below the age of 14 years to be sold as slaves. Learning of this action, Dessalines was outraged and decided to invade Santo Domingo, with his forces looting several towns, such as Azua and Moca, and finally laying siege to the city of Santo Domingo, the stronghold of the French.


title: Henri Christophe

text: Henry Christophe (referred to as Enrique Cristóbal in Spanish-language accounts), under Dessalines, attacked the towns of Moca and Santiago. The barrister Gaspar de Arredondo y Pichardo wrote, "40 children had their throats cut at the Moca's church, and the bodies found at the presbytery, which is the space that encircles the church's altar..." This event was one of several documented accounts of atrocities perpetrated by General Christophe under the orders of Dessalines; they retreated from the Spanish-ruled side of the island after their failed invasion attempt.