title: Real property

text: In countries with personal ownership of real property, civil law protects the status of real property in real-estate markets, where estate agents work in the market of buying and selling real estate. Scottish civil law calls real property "heritable property", and in French-based law, it is called "immobilier" ("immovable property").


title: Real property

text: The word "real" derives from Latin "res" ("thing"). Under European civil law, a lawsuit that seeks official recognition of a property right is known as an "actio in rem" (action in relation to a thing). This contrasts with an "actio in personam" in which the plaintiff seeks relief for the actions of a particular person. The distinction can be subtle; the medieval action of novel disseisin, although aimed at repossessing land, was not an "actio in rem" because it was brought against the alleged dispossessor.


title: Real property

text: Henry de Bracton's "Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England" is credited with giving "real property" its peculiar meaning in English law. After discussing the distinction in civil law, Bracton proposed that actions for movable property were inherently actions for relief, and that therefore an "actio in rem" could be brought only upon immovable property. This view is not accepted in continental civil law, but can be understood in the context of legal developments during Bracton's lifetime. In thirteenth-century England the courts of canon law claimed broad authority to interpret wills, but inheritance of land remained a matter for the royal courts. Laws governing the conveyance of land and that of movable personal property then developed along different paths.


title: Real property

text: In modern legal systems derived from English common law, classification of property as real or personal may vary somewhat according to jurisdiction or, even within jurisdictions, according to purpose, as in defining whether and how the property may be taxed. Houseboats, for example, occupy a gray area between personal and real property, and may be treated as either according to jurisdiction and circumstance.


title: Real property

text: Bethell (1998) contains much information on the historical evolution of real property and property rights.


title: Real property

text: Real property is immobile, preventing it from moving to a better market. Landlords are incapable of moving their physical land to the desired location, such as to another city for sale. To benefit from using parcels of land, users must travel from location to location to increase utility, therefore, location is a large component of a real property's value.


title: Real property

text: Changes that take place nearby will directly affect the real property’s value. Real property is vulnerable to externalities due to its immobile nature. External factors outside of the real property will affect the value of the real property, for example, the noises that neighboring people and construction sites produce.


title: Real property

text: A location of desired resources will draw attention to the location. Natural locational attractions include water supply, climate, soil fertility, water frontage, and mineral deposits. As the area develops revolving around such natural resources, these developments become components to look for when determining land use and real property values. The surrounding development and proximity, such as markets and transportation routes, will also determine the value of the real property.


title: Real property

text: Although the amount of land in terms of the surface area is fixed, the supply of urban land is often not limited due to the nature of how urban land is supplied. By bidding land away from non-urban uses of land, such as farmland, will increase urban land supply. Urban land value is expected to exceed that of agricultural land value in the long run, therefore, creating the incentive to convert non-urban land to urban land. The value of the land is directly associated with its use. Zoning regulations regarding multi-story development are modified to intensify the use of cities, instead of occupying more physical space.


title: Real property

text: To be of any value, a claim to any property must be accompanied by a verifiable and legal property description. Such a description usually makes use of natural or man-made boundaries such as seacoasts, rivers, streams, the crests of ridges, lakeshores, highways, roads, and railroad tracks or purpose-built markers such as cairns, surveyor's posts, iron pins or pipes, concrete monuments, fences, official government surveying marks (such as ones affixed by the National Geodetic Survey), and so forth. In many cases, a description refers to one or more lots on a plat, a map of property boundaries kept in public records.


title: Real property

text: These legal descriptions are usually described in two different ways – metes & bounds, and lot & block. A third way is the Public Land Survey System, as used in the United States.


title: Real property

text: The law recognizes different sorts of interests called estates, in real property. The type of estate is usually determined by the language of the deed, lease, bill of sale, will, land grant, etc., through which the estate was acquired. Estates are distinguished by the varying property rights that vest in each and determine the duration and transferability of the various estates. A party enjoying an estate is called a "tenant".


title: Real property

text: A tenant enjoying an undivided estate in some property after the termination of some estate of limited-term is said to have a "future interest". Two important types of future interests are:


title: Real property

text: Estates may be held jointly as joint tenants with rights of survivorship or as tenants in common. The difference between these two types of joint ownership of an estate in land is basically the inheritability of the estate and the shares of interest that each tenant owns.


title: Real property

text: In a joint tenancy with rights of survivorship deed or JTWROS, the death of one tenant means that the surviving tenants become the sole owners of the estate. Nothing passes to the heirs of the deceased tenant. In some jurisdictions, the specific words "with right of survivorship" must be used, or the tenancy will assume to be tenants in common without rights of survivorship. The co-owners always take a JTWROS deed in equal shares, so each tenant must own an equal share of the property regardless of any contribution to the purchase price. If the property is someday sold or subdivided, the proceeds must be distributed equally with no credits given for any excess that anyone co-owner may have contributed to purchase the property.


title: Real property

text: The death of a co-owner of tenants in common (TIC) deed will have a heritable portion of the estate in proportion to his ownership interest which is presumed to be equal among all tenants unless otherwise stated in the transfer deed. However, if TIC property is sold or subdivided, in some States, Provinces, etc., a credit can be automatically made for unequal contributions to the purchase price (unlike a partition of a JTWROS deed).


title: Real property

text: Real property may be owned jointly with several tenants, through devices such as the condominium, housing cooperative, and building cooperative.


title: Real property

text: Real property is unique because there are multiple rights associated with each piece of property. For example, most U.S. jurisdictions recognized the following rights: right to sell; right to lease; right to acquire minerals, gas, oil, etc. within the land; right to use; right to possess; right to develop; etc. These multiple rights are important because owners of the real property can generally do what they choose with each right. For example, the owner could choose to keep all the rights but lease the right to drill for oil to an oil company, or the owner could choose to keep all the rights but lease the property to a tenant. In other words, the owner can elect to keep, lease or sell the rights to the land.


title: Real property

text: In the law of almost every country, the state is the ultimate owner of all land under its jurisdiction, because it is the sovereign, or supreme lawmaking authority. Physical and corporate persons do not have allodial title; they do not own land but only enjoy estates in the land, also known as "equitable interests".


title: Real property

text: In many countries, the Torrens title system of real estate ownership is managed and guaranteed by the government and replaces cumbersome tracing of ownership. The Torrens title system operates on the principle of "title by registration" (i.e. the indefeasibility of a registered interest) rather than "registration of title". The system does away with the need for a chain of title (i.e. tracing title through a series of documents) and does away with the conveyancing costs of such searches. The State guarantees title and is usually supported by a compensation scheme for those who lose their title due to the State's operation. It has been in practice in all Australian states and New Zealand since between 1858 and 1875, has more recently been extended to strata title, and has been adopted by many states, provinces and countries, and in modified form in 9 states of the US.


title: Real property

text: In the United Kingdom, The Crown is held to be the ultimate owner of all real property in the realm. This fact is material when, for example, the property has been disclaimed by its erstwhile owner, in which case the law of escheat applies. In some other jurisdictions (not including the United States), real property is held absolutely.


title: Real property

text: English law has retained the common law distinction between real property and personal property, whereas the civil law distinguishes between "movable" and "immovable" property. In English law, real property is not confined to the ownership of property and the buildings sited thereonoften referred to as "land". Real property also includes many legal relationships between individuals or owners of the land that are purely conceptual. One such relationship is the easement, where the owner of one property has the right to pass over a neighboring property. Another is the various "incorporeal hereditaments", such as "profits-à-Prendre", where an individual may have the right to take crops from land that is part of another's estate.


title: Real property

text: English law retains several forms of property that are largely unknown in other common law jurisdictions such as the advowson, chancel repair liability and lordships of the manor. In the early common law, these are all classified as real property, as they would have been protected by real actions.


title: Real property

text: Each U.S. State except Louisiana has its own laws governing real property and the estates therein, grounded in the common law. In Arizona, real property is generally defined as land and the things permanently attached to the land. Things that are permanently attached to the land, which also can be referred to as "improvements", include homes, garages, and buildings. Manufactured homes can obtain an affidavit of affixture.


title: Real property

text: Land use, land valuation, and the determination of the incomes of landowners are among the oldest questions in economic theory. Land is an essential input (a factor of production) for agriculture, and agriculture is by far the most important economic activity in pre-industrial societies. With the advent of industrialization, important new uses for land emerge, as sites for factories, warehouses, offices, and urban agglomerations. Also, the value of the real property taking the form of man-made structures and machinery increases relative to the value of the land alone. The concept of the real property eventually comes to encompass effectively all forms of tangible fixed capital. with the rise of extractive industries, real property comes to encompass natural capital. With the rise of tourism and leisure, real property comes to include scenic and other amenity values.


title: Real property

text: Starting in the 1960s, as part of the emerging field of law and economics, economists and legal scholars began to study the property rights enjoyed by tenants under the various estates and the economic benefits and costs of the various estates. This resulted in a much-improved understanding of the:


title: Real property

text: For an introduction to the economic analysis of property law, see Shavell (2004), and Cooter and Ulen (2003). For a collection of related scholarly articles, see Epstein (2007). Ellickson (1993) broadens the economic analysis of real property with a variety of facts drawn from history and ethnography.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Christina Machamer (born March 13, 1982) is an American chef who won in the fourth season of Fox Network's reality cooking show "Hell's Kitchen". She was awarded the position of "senior sous chef" (not the executive chef position as promised) at Gordon Ramsay's then-new restaurant at The London West Hollywood, where she earned a $250,000 yearly salary.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Machamer, the daughter of Rick and Leasa Machamer, was born and raised in St. Louis and began working in restaurants at age 16. She graduated from Lafayette High School in 2000 and, after some time in college, dropped out of pre-law and decided that cooking was her calling in life. After an apprenticeship with chef Larry Forgione at An American Place, she began her formal training at Forest Park Community College in 2003. She moved on to The Culinary Institute of America in Hyde Park in spring 2006 and graduated on February 29, 2008.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Machamer decided to apply to "Hell's Kitchen" after watching season 3. She went to the open audition in Manhattan and was called back for a screen test. The casting director thought she was "hilarious".


title: Christina Machamer

text: As a culinary student, Machamer was the contestant with the least cooking experience and was nominated for elimination five times (including one from Ramsay), mostly because of what her peers saw as infantile behavior (a good example being at the start of the third episode where Jen was unable to calm her down over her nomination and angrily scolded Corey for nominating her) and a threatening intellect. Despite this, she broke the standing record for the number of challenges won with nine wins and finished as the final competitor, defeating the season's runner-up, Louis Petrozza. What most impressed Ramsay was her special potential, something of which he didn't see nearly enough in any of the other contestants. After winning, Machamer had the choice of accepting her $250,000 prize money at once or earning it as a paycheck for working a year at Gordon Ramsay's restaurant.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Although promised the position of executive chef at the new Gordon Ramsay at The London restaurant in The London West Hollywood hotel, Machamer, as the winning contestant, was instead given the position of senior sous chef under executive chef Andy Cook.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Thereafter, while she waited for the show to air again so she could gain permission to disclose her win, Machamer worked at Revival, a restaurant in St. Louis started by her mentor, chef Cary McDowell.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Together with Cory Lemieux, Machamer also began BCBC Blends, a small artisan spice company they launched nationally.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Gordon Ramsay at The London in West Hollywood was awarded a Michelin Star in the 2009 Michelin Guide. As of early 2009, Machamer was the executive sous chef at the London West Hollywood restaurant, where she worked nearly 14 hours a day and was also charged with supervising the kitchen's various stations.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Later, it was announced that Machamer would be blogging for BuddyTV.com after each episode of "Hell's Kitchen" season 5. At the time, she also recently completed her sommelier diploma in wine service.


title: Christina Machamer

text: Since being invested with celebrity status from her "Hell's Kitchen" win, Machamer was invited to a number of culinary events. She and the 2007 "Hell's Kitchen" winner Rock Harper competed in a cookoff, and both were among those who presented at the 2009 Scottsdale Culinary Festival in Arizona.


title: Christina Machamer

text: After Gordon Ramsay at The London in West Hollywood was sold back to LXR hotels, Machamer traveled to Napa to study wine at CIA Greystone in St. Helena, California. Shortly after, she returned to Los Angeles to be part of the opening team at Bouchon in Beverly Hills for celebrated chef Thomas Keller.


title: Christina Machamer

text: In 2011, she relocated to the Napa Valley, where she found a new niche, bridging the gap between food and wine at the much-celebrated B Cellars in Calistoga, California.


title: Christina Machamer

text: She also appeared in the 11th season of "Hell's Kitchen" (in 2013) as part of a brigade consisting of past "Hell's Kitchen" winners in order to compete against the final 5 contestants.


title: Christina Machamer

text: With the winner of "Hell's Kitchen" season 12, Scott Commings, Machamer briefly appeared in the 16th-season premiere of the show (in 2016) as a guest, during the red team's challenge reward (a dinner with Ramsay). She gave the women several tips about working under pressure in "Hell's Kitchen".


title: Salt marsh

text: A salt marsh or saltmarsh, also known as a coastal salt marsh or a tidal marsh, is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open saltwater or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides. It is dominated by dense stands of salt-tolerant plants such as herbs, grasses, or low shrubs. These plants are terrestrial in origin and are essential to the stability of the salt marsh in trapping and binding sediments. Salt marshes play a large role in the aquatic food web and the delivery of nutrients to coastal waters. They also support terrestrial animals and provide coastal protection.


title: Salt marsh

text: Salt marshes have historically been endangered by poorly implemented coastal management practices, with land reclaimed for human uses or polluted by upstream agriculture or other industrial coastal uses. Additionally, sea level rise caused by climate change is endangering other marshes, through erosion and submersion of otherwise tidal marshes. However, recent acknowledgement by both environmentalists and larger society for the importance of saltwater marshes for biodiversity, ecological productivity and other ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, has led to an increase in salt marsh restoration and management since the 1980s.


title: Salt marsh

text: Salt marshes occur on low-energy shorelines in temperate and high-latitudes which can be stable, emerging, or submerging depending if the sedimentation is greater, equal to, or lower than relative sea level rise (subsidence rate plus sea level change), respectively. Commonly these shorelines consist of mud or sand flats (known also as tidal flats or abbreviated to mudflats) which are nourished with sediment from inflowing rivers and streams. These typically include sheltered environments such as embankments, estuaries and the leeward side of barrier islands and spits. In the tropics and sub-tropics they are replaced by mangroves; an area that differs from a salt marsh in that instead of herbaceous plants, they are dominated by salt-tolerant trees.


title: Salt marsh

text: Most salt marshes have a low topography with low elevations but a vast wide area, making them hugely popular for human populations.


title: Salt marsh

text: Salt marshes are located among different landforms based on their physical and geomorphological settings. Such marsh landforms include deltaic marshes, estuarine, back-barrier, open coast, embayments and drowned-valley marshes. Deltaic marshes are associated with large rivers where many occur in Southern Europe such as the Camargue, France in the Rhône delta or the Ebro delta in Spain. They are also extensive within the rivers of the Mississippi Delta in the United States. In New Zealand, most salt marshes occur at the head of estuaries in areas where there is little wave action and high sedimentation. Such marshes are located in Awhitu Regional Park in Auckland, the Manawatū Estuary, and the Avon Heathcote Estuary / Ihutai in Christchurch. Back-barrier marshes are sensitive to the reshaping of barriers in the landward side of which they have been formed. They are common along much of the eastern coast of the United States and the Frisian Islands. Large, shallow coastal embayments can hold salt marshes with examples including Morecambe Bay and Portsmouth in Britain and the Bay of Fundy in North America.


title: Salt marsh

text: Salt marshes are sometimes included in lagoons, and the difference is not very marked; the Venetian Lagoon in Italy, for example, is made up of these sorts of animals and or living organisms belonging to this ecosystem. They have a big impact on the biodiversity of the area. Salt marsh ecology involves complex food webs which include primary producers (vascular plants, macroalgae, diatoms, epiphytes, and phytoplankton), primary consumers (zooplankton, macrozoa, molluscs, insects), and secondary consumers.


title: Salt marsh

text: The low physical energy and high grasses provide a refuge for animals. Many marine fish use salt marshes as nursery grounds for their young before they move to open waters. Birds may raise their young among the high grasses, because the marsh provides both sanctuary from predators and abundant food sources which include fish trapped in pools, insects, shellfish, and worms.


title: Salt marsh

text: Saltmarshes across 99 countries (essentially worldwide) were mapped by Mcowen et al. 2017. A total of 5,495,089 hectares of mapped saltmarsh across 43 countries and territories are represented in a Geographic Information Systems polygon shapefile. This estimate is at the relatively low end of previous estimates (2.2–40 Mha). A later study conservatively estimated global saltmarsh extent as 90,800km (9,080,000 hectares). The most extensive saltmarshes worldwide are found outside the tropics, notably including the low-lying, ice-free coasts, bays and estuaries of the North Atlantic which are well represented in their global polygon dataset.


title: Salt marsh

text: The formation begins as tidal flats gain elevation relative to sea level by sediment accretion, and subsequently the rate and duration of tidal flooding decreases so that vegetation can colonize on the exposed surface. The arrival of propagules of pioneer species such as seeds or rhizome portions are combined with the development of suitable conditions for their germination and establishment in the process of colonisation. When rivers and streams arrive at the low gradient of the tidal flats, the discharge rate reduces and suspended sediment settles onto the tidal flat surface, helped by the backwater effect of the rising tide. Mats of filamentous blue-green algae can fix silt and clay sized sediment particles to their sticky sheaths on contact which can also increase the erosion resistance of the sediments. This assists the process of sediment accretion to allow colonising species (e.g., Salicornia spp.) to grow. These species retain sediment washed in from the rising tide around their stems and leaves and form low muddy mounds which eventually coalesce to form depositional terraces, whose upward growth is aided by a sub-surface root network which binds the sediment. Once vegetation is established on depositional terraces further sediment trapping and accretion can allow rapid upward growth of the marsh surface such that there is an associated rapid decrease in the depth and duration of tidal flooding. As a result, competitive species that prefer higher elevations relative to sea level can inhabit the area and often a succession of plant communities develops.


title: Salt marsh

text: Coastal salt marshes can be distinguished from terrestrial habitats by the daily tidal flow that occurs and continuously floods the area. It is an important process in delivering sediments, nutrients and plant water supply to the marsh. At higher elevations in the upper marsh zone, there is much less tidal inflow, resulting in lower salinity levels. Soil salinity in the lower marsh zone is fairly constant due to everyday annual tidal flow. However, in the upper marsh, variability in salinity is shown as a result of less frequent flooding and climate variations. Rainfall can reduce salinity and evapotranspiration can increase levels during dry periods. As a result, there are microhabitats populated by different species of flora and fauna dependent on their physiological abilities. The flora of a salt marsh is differentiated into levels according to the plants' individual tolerance of salinity and water table levels. Vegetation found at the water must be able to survive high salt concentrations, periodical submersion, and a certain amount of water movement, while plants further inland in the marsh can sometimes experience dry, low-nutrient conditions. It has been found that the upper marsh zones limit species through competition and the lack of habitat protection, while lower marsh zones are determined through the ability of plants to tolerate physiological stresses such as salinity, water submergence and low oxygen levels.


title: Salt marsh

text: The New England salt marsh is subject to strong tidal influences and shows distinct patterns of zonation. In low marsh areas with high tidal flooding, a monoculture of the smooth cordgrass, "Spartina alterniflora" dominate, then heading landwards, zones of the salt hay, "Spartina patens", black rush, "Juncus gerardii" and the shrub "Iva frutescens" are seen respectively. These species all have different tolerances that make the different zones along the marsh best suited for each individual.


title: Salt marsh

text: Plant species diversity is relatively low, since the flora must be tolerant of salt, complete or partial submersion, and anoxic mud substrate. The most common salt marsh plants are glassworts ("Salicornia" spp.) and the cordgrass ("Spartina" spp.), which have worldwide distribution. They are often the first plants to take hold in a mudflat and begin its ecological succession into a salt marsh. Their shoots lift the main flow of the tide above the mud surface while their roots spread into the substrate and stabilize the sticky mud and carry oxygen into it so that other plants can establish themselves as well. Plants such as sea lavenders ("Limonium" spp.), plantains ("Plantago" spp.), and varied sedges and rushes grow once the mud has been vegetated by the pioneer species.


title: Salt marsh

text: Salt marshes are quite photosynthetically active and are extremely productive habitats. They serve as depositories for a large amount of organic matter and are full of decomposition, which feeds a broad food chain of organisms from bacteria to mammals. Many of the halophytic plants such as cordgrass are not grazed at all by higher animals but die off and decompose to become food for micro-organisms, which in turn become food for fish and birds.


title: Salt marsh

text: The factors and processes that influence the rate and spatial distribution of sediment accretion within the salt marsh are numerous. Sediment deposition can occur when marsh species provide a surface for the sediment to adhere to, followed by deposition onto the marsh surface when the sediment flakes off at low tide. The amount of sediment adhering to salt marsh species is dependent on the type of marsh species, the proximity of the species to the sediment supply, the amount of plant biomass, and the elevation of the species. For example, in a study of the Eastern Chongming Island and Jiuduansha Island tidal marshes at the mouth of the Yangtze River, China, the amount of sediment adhering to the species "Spartina alterniflora", "Phragmites australis", and "Scirpus mariqueter" decreased with distance from the highest levels of suspended sediment concentrations (found at the marsh edge bordering tidal creeks or the mudflats); decreased with those species at the highest elevations, which experienced the lowest frequency and depth of tidal inundations; and increased with increasing plant biomass. "Spartina alterniflora", which had the most sediment adhering to it, may contribute >10% of the total marsh surface sediment accretion by this process.


title: Salt marsh

text: Salt marsh species also facilitate sediment accretion by decreasing current velocities and encouraging sediment to settle out of suspension. Current velocities can be reduced as the stems of tall marsh species induce hydraulic drag, with the effect of minimising re-suspension of sediment and encouraging deposition. Measured concentrations of suspended sediment in the water column have been shown to decrease from the open water or tidal creeks adjacent to the marsh edge, to the marsh interior, probably as a result of direct settling to the marsh surface by the influence of the marsh canopy.


title: Salt marsh

text: Inundation and sediment deposition on the marsh surface is also assisted by tidal creeks which are a common feature of salt marshes. Their typically dendritic and meandering forms provide avenues for the tide to rise and flood the marsh surface, as well as to drain water, and they may facilitate higher amounts of sediment deposition than salt marsh bordering open ocean. Sediment deposition is correlated with sediment size: coarser sediments will deposit at higher elevations (closer to the creek) than finer sediments (further from the creek). Sediment size is also often correlated with particular trace metals, and can thus tidal creeks can affect metal distributions and concentrations in salt marshes, in turn affecting the biota. Salt marshes do not however require tidal creeks to facilitate sediment flux over their surface although salt marshes with this morphology seem to be rarely studied.


title: Salt marsh

text: The elevation of marsh species is important; those species at lower elevations experience longer and more frequent tidal floods and therefore have the opportunity for more sediment deposition to occur. Species at higher elevations can benefit from a greater chance of inundation at the highest tides when increased water depths and marsh surface flows can penetrate into the marsh interior.


title: Salt marsh

text: The coast is a highly attractive natural feature to humans through its beauty, resources, and accessibility. As of 2002, over half of the world's population was estimated to being living within 60 km of the coastal shoreline, making coastlines highly vulnerable to human impacts from daily activities that put pressure on these surrounding natural environments. In the past, salt marshes were perceived as coastal 'wastelands,' causing considerable loss and change of these ecosystems through land reclamation for agriculture, urban development, salt production and recreation. The indirect effects of human activities such as nitrogen loading also play a major role in the salt marsh area. Salt marshes can suffer from dieback in the high marsh and die-off in the low marsh. A study published in 2022 estimates that 22% of saltmarsh loss from 1999-2019 was due to direct human drivers, defined as observable activities occurring at the location of the detected change, such as conversion to aquaculture, agriculture, coastal development, or other physical structures. Additionally, 30% of saltmarsh gain over this same time period were also due to direct drivers, such as restoration activities or coastal modifications to promote tidal exchange.


title: Salt marsh

text: Reclamation of land for agriculture by converting marshland to upland was historically a common practice. Dikes were often built to allow for this shift in land change and to provide flood protection further inland. In recent times intertidal flats have also been reclaimed. For centuries, livestock such as sheep and cattle grazed on the highly fertile salt marsh land. Land reclamation for agriculture has resulted in many changes such as shifts in vegetation structure, sedimentation, salinity, water flow, biodiversity loss and high nutrient inputs. There have been many attempts made to eradicate these problems for example, in New Zealand, the cordgrass "Spartina anglica" was introduced from England into the Manawatu River mouth in 1913 to try and reclaim the estuary land for farming. A shift in structure from bare tidal flat to pastureland resulted from increased sedimentation and the cordgrass extended out into other estuaries around New Zealand. Native plants and animals struggled to survive as non-natives out competed them. Efforts are now being made to remove these cordgrass species, as the damages are slowly being recognized.


title: Salt marsh

text: In the Blyth estuary in Suffolk in eastern England, the mid-estuary reclamations (Angel and Bulcamp marshes) that were abandoned in the 1940s have been replaced by tidal flats with compacted soils from agricultural use overlain with a thin veneer of mud. Little vegetation colonisation has occurred in the last 60–75 years and has been attributed to a combination of surface elevations too low for pioneer species to develop, and poor drainage from the compacted agricultural soils acting as an aquiclude. Terrestrial soils of this nature need to adjust from fresh to saline interstitial water by a change in the chemistry and the structure of the soil, accompanied with fresh deposition of estuarine sediment, before salt marsh vegetation can establish. The vegetation structure, species richness, and plant community composition of salt marshes naturally regenerated on reclaimed agricultural land can be compared to adjacent reference salt marshes to assess the success of marsh regeneration.


title: Salt marsh

text: Cultivation of land upstream from the salt marsh can introduce increased silt inputs and raise the rate of primary sediment accretion on the tidal flats, so that pioneer species can spread further onto the flats and grow rapidly upwards out of the level of tidal inundation. As a result, marsh surfaces in this regime may have an extensive cliff at their seaward edge. At the Plum Island estuary, Massachusetts (U.S.A), stratigraphic cores revealed that during the 18th and 19th century the marsh prograded over subtidal and mudflat environments to increase in area from 6 km to 9 km after European settlers deforested the land upstream and increased the rate of sediment supply.


title: Salt marsh

text: The conversion of marshland to upland for agriculture has in the past century been overshadowed by conversion for urban development. Coastal cities worldwide have encroached onto former salt marshes and in the U.S. the growth of cities looked to salt marshes for waste disposal sites. Estuarine pollution from organic, inorganic, and toxic substances from urban development or industrialisation is a worldwide problem and the sediment in salt marshes may entrain this pollution with toxic effects on floral and faunal species. Urban development of salt marshes has slowed since about 1970 owing to growing awareness by environmental groups that they provide beneficial ecosystem services. They are highly productive ecosystems, and when net productivity is measured in g m yr they are equalled only by tropical rainforests. Additionally, they can help reduce wave erosion on sea walls designed to protect low-lying areas of land from wave erosion.


title: Salt marsh

text: De-naturalisation of the landward boundaries of salt marshes from urban or industrial encroachment can have negative effects. In the Avon-Heathcote estuary/Ihutai, New Zealand, species abundance and the physical properties of the surrounding margins were strongly linked, and the majority of salt marsh was found to be living along areas with natural margins in the Avon / Ōtākaro and Ōpāwaho / Heathcote river outlets; conversely, artificial margins contained little marsh vegetation and restricted landward retreat. The remaining marshes surrounding these urban areas are also under immense pressure from the human population as human-induced nitrogen enrichment enters these habitats. Nitrogen loading through human-use indirectly affects salt marshes causing shifts in vegetation structure and the invasion of non-native species.


title: Salt marsh

text: Human impacts such as sewage, urban run-off, agricultural and industrial wastes are running into the marshes from nearby sources. Salt marshes are nitrogen limited and with an increasing level of nutrients entering the system from anthropogenic effects, the plant species associated with salt marshes are being restructured through change in competition. For example, the New England salt marsh is experiencing a shift in vegetation structure where "S. alterniflora" is spreading from the lower marsh where it predominately resides up into the upper marsh zone. Additionally, in the same marshes, the reed "Phragmites australis" has been invading the area expanding to lower marshes and becoming a dominant species. "P. australis" is an aggressive halophyte that can invade disturbed areas in large numbers outcompeting native plants. This loss in biodiversity is not only seen in flora assemblages but also in many animals such as insects and birds as their habitat and food resources are altered.


title: Salt marsh

text: Due to the melting of Arctic sea ice and thermal expansion of the oceans, as a result of global warming, sea levels have begun to rise. As with all coastlines, this rise in water levels is predicted to negatively affect salt marshes, by flooding and eroding them. The sea level rise causes more open water zones within the salt marsh. These zones cause erosion along their edges, further eroding the marsh into open water until the whole marsh disintegrates.


title: Salt marsh

text: While salt marshes are susceptible to threats concerning sea level rise, they are also an extremely dynamic coastal ecosystem. Salt marshes may in fact have the capability to keep pace with a rising sea level, by 2100, mean sea level could see increases between 0.6m to 1.1m. Marshes are susceptible to both erosion and accretion, which play a role in a what is called a bio-geomorphic feedback. Salt marsh vegetation captures sediment to stay in the system which in turn allows for the plants to grow better and thus the plants are better at trapping sediment and accumulate more organic matter. This positive feedback loop potentially allows for salt marsh bed level rates to keep pace with rising sea level rates. However, this feedback is also dependent on other factors like productivity of the vegetation, sediment supply, land subsidence, biomass accumulation, and magnitude and frequency of storms. In a study published by Ü. S. N. Best in 2018, they found that bioaccumulation was the number one factor in a salt marsh's ability to keep up with SLR rates. The salt marsh's resilience depends upon its increase in bed level rate being greater than that of sea levels increasing rate, otherwise the marsh will be overtaken and drowned.


title: Salt marsh

text: Biomass accumulation can be measured in the form of above-ground organic biomass accumulation, and below-ground inorganic accumulation by means of sediment trapping and sediment settling from suspension. Salt marsh vegetation helps to increase sediment settling because it slows current velocities, disrupts turbulent eddies, and helps to dissipate wave energy. Marsh plant species are known for their tolerance to increased salt exposure due to the common inundation of marshlands. These types of plants are called halophytes. Halophytes are a crucial part of salt marsh biodiversity and their potential to adjust to elevated sea levels. With elevated sea levels, salt marsh vegetation would likely be more exposed to more frequent inundation rates and it must be adaptable or tolerant to the consequential increased salinity levels and anaerobic conditions. There is a common elevation (above the sea level) limit for these plants to survive, where anywhere below the optimal line would lead to anoxic soils due to constant submergence and too high above this line would mean harmful soil salinity levels due to the high rate of evapotranspiration as a result of decreased submergence.


title: Salt marsh

text: Along with the vertical accretion of sediment and biomass, the accommodation space for marsh land growth must also be considered. Accommodation space is the land available for additional sediments to accumulate and marsh vegetation to colonize laterally. This lateral accommodation space is often limited by anthropogenic structures such as coastal roads, sea walls and other forms of development of coastal lands. A study by Lisa M. Schile, published in 2014, found that across a range of sea level rise rates, marshlands with high plant productivity were resistant against sea level rises but all reached a pinnacle point where accommodation space was necessary for continued survival. The presence of accommodation space allows for new mid/high habitats to form, and for marshes to escape complete inundation.


title: Salt marsh

text: Earlier in the 20th century, it was believed that draining salt marshes would help reduce mosquito populations, such as "Aedes taeniorhynchus", the black salt marsh mosquito. In many locations, particularly in the northeastern United States, residents and local and state agencies dug straight-lined ditches deep into the marsh flats. The end result, however, was a depletion of killifish habitat. The killifish is a mosquito predator, so the loss of habitat actually led to higher mosquito populations, and adversely affected wading birds that preyed on the killifish. These ditches can still be seen, despite some efforts to refill the ditches.


title: Salt marsh

text: Increased nitrogen uptake by marsh species into their leaves can prompt greater rates of length-specific leaf growth, and increase the herbivory rates of crabs. The burrowing crab "Neohelice granulata" frequents SW Atlantic salt marshes where high density populations can be found among populations of the marsh species "Spartina densiflora" and "Sarcocornia perennis". In Mar Chiquita lagoon, north of Mar del Plata, Argentina, "Neohelice granulata" herbivory increased as a likely response to the increased nutrient value of the leaves of fertilised "Spartina densiflora" plots, compared to non-fertilised plots. Regardless of whether the plots were fertilised or not, grazing by "Neohelice granulata" also reduced the length specific leaf growth rates of the leaves in summer, while increasing their length-specific senescence rates. This may have been assisted by the increased fungal effectiveness on the wounds left by the crabs.


title: Salt marsh

text: The salt marshes of Cape Cod, Massachusetts (USA), are experiencing creek bank die-offs of "Spartina" spp. (cordgrass) that has been attributed to herbivory by the crab "Sesarma reticulatum". At 12 surveyed Cape Cod salt marsh sites, 10% – 90% of creek banks experienced die-off of cordgrass in association with a highly denuded substrate and high density of crab burrows. Populations of "Sesarma reticulatum" are increasing, possibly as a result of the degradation of the coastal food web in the region. The bare areas left by the intense grazing of cordgrass by "Sesarma reticulatum" at Cape Cod are suitable for occupation by another burrowing crab, "Uca pugnax", which are not known to consume live macrophytes. The intense bioturbation of salt marsh sediments from this crab's burrowing activity has been shown to dramatically reduce the success of "Spartina alterniflora" and "Suaeda maritima" seed germination and established seedling survival, either by burial or exposure of seeds, or uprooting or burial of established seedlings. However, bioturbation by crabs may also have a positive effect. In New Zealand, the tunnelling mud crab "Helice crassa" has been given the stately name of an 'ecosystem engineer' for its ability to construct new habitats and alter the access of nutrients to other species. Their burrows provide an avenue for the transport of dissolved oxygen in the burrow water through the oxic sediment of the burrow walls and into the surrounding anoxic sediment, which creates the perfect habitat for special nitrogen cycling bacteria. These nitrate reducing (denitrifying) bacteria quickly consume the dissolved oxygen entering into the burrow walls to create the oxic mud layer that is thinner than that at the mud surface. This allows a more direct diffusion path for the export of nitrogen (in the form of gaseous nitrogen (N)) into the flushing tidal water.


title: Salt marsh

text: The perception of bay salt marshes as a coastal 'wasteland' has since changed, acknowledging that they are one of the most biologically productive habitats on earth, rivalling tropical rainforests. Salt marshes are ecologically important, providing habitats for native migratory fish and acting as sheltered feeding and nursery grounds. They are now protected by legislation in many countries to prevent the loss of these ecologically important habitats. In the United States and Europe, they are now accorded a high level of protection by the Clean Water Act and the Habitats Directive respectively. With the impacts of this habitats and their importance now realised, a growing interest in restoring salt marshes through managed retreat or the reclamation of land has been established. However, many Asian countries such as China still need to recognise the value of marshlands. With their ever-growing populations and intense development along the coast, the value of salt marshes tends to be ignored and the land continues to be reclaimed.


title: Salt marsh

text: Bakker et al. (1997) suggests two options available for restoring salt marshes. The first is to abandon all human interference and leave the salt marsh to complete its natural development. These types of restoration projects are often unsuccessful as vegetation tends to struggle to revert to its original structure and the natural tidal cycles are shifted due to land changes. The second option suggested by Bakker et al. (1997) is to restore the destroyed habitat into its natural state either at the original site or as a replacement at a different site. Under natural conditions, recovery can take 2–10 years or even longer depending on the nature and degree of the disturbance and the relative maturity of the marsh involved. Marshes in their pioneer stages of development will recover more rapidly than mature marshes as they are often first to colonize the land. It is important to note that restoration can often be sped up through the replanting of native vegetation.


title: Salt marsh

text: This last approach is often the most practiced and generally more successful than allowing the area to naturally recover on its own. The salt marshes in the state of Connecticut in the United States have long been an area lost to fill and dredging. As of 1969, the Tidal Wetland Act was introduced that ceased this practice, but despite the introduction of the act, the system was still degrading due to alterations in tidal flow. One area in Connecticut is the marshes on Barn Island. These marshes were diked then impounded with salt and brackish marsh during 1946–1966. As a result, the marsh shifted to a freshwater state and became dominated by the invasive species "P. australis", "Typha angustifolia" and "T. latifolia" that have little ecological connection to the area.


title: Salt marsh

text: By 1980, a restoration programme was put in place that has now been running for over 20 years. This programme has aimed to reconnect the marshes by returning tidal flow along with the ecological functions and characteristics of the marshes back to their original state. In the case of Barn Island, reduction of the invasive species has been initiated, re-establishing the tidal-marsh vegetation along with animal species such as fish and insects. This example highlights that considerable time and effort is needed to effectively restore salt marsh systems. The timescale for salt marsh recovery is dependent on the development stage of the marsh, type and extent of the disturbance, geographical location and the environmental and physiological stress factors to the marsh-associated flora and fauna.


title: Salt marsh

text: Although much effort has gone into restoring salt marshes worldwide, further research is needed. There are many setbacks and problems associated with marsh restoration that require careful long-term monitoring. Information on all components of the salt marsh ecosystem should be understood and monitored from sedimentation, nutrient, and tidal influences, to behaviour patterns and tolerances of both flora and fauna species. Once a better understanding of these processes is acquired, and not just locally, but over a global scale, then more sound and practical management and restoration efforts can be implemented to preserve these valuable marshes and restore them to their original state.


title: Salt marsh

text: While humans are situated along coastlines, there will always be the possibility of human-induced disturbances despite the number of restoration efforts we plan to implement. Dredging, pipelines for offshore petroleum resources, highway construction, accidental toxic spills or just plain carelessness are examples that will for some time now and into the future be the major influences of salt marsh degradation.


title: Salt marsh

text: In addition to restoring and managing salt marsh systems based on scientific principles, the opportunity should be taken to educate public audiences of their importance biologically and their purpose as serving as a natural buffer for flood protection. Because salt marshes are often located next to urban areas, they are likely to receive more visitors than remote wetlands. By physically seeing the marsh, people are more likely to take notice and be more aware of the environment around them. An example of public involvement occurred at the Famosa Slough State Marine Conservation Area in San Diego, where a "friends" group worked for over a decade in trying to prevent the area from being developed. Eventually, the site was bought by the city and the group worked together to restore the area. The project involved removing of invasive species and replanting with native ones, along with public talks to other locals, frequent bird walks and clean-up events.


title: Salt marsh

text: There is a diverse range and combination of methodologies employed to understand the hydrological dynamics in salt marshes and their ability to trap and accrete sediment. Sediment traps are often used to measure rates of marsh surface accretion when short term deployments (e.g. less than one month) are required. These circular traps consist of pre-weighed filters that are anchored to the marsh surface, then dried in a laboratory and re-weighed to determine the total deposited sediment.


title: Salt marsh

text: For longer term studies (e.g. more than one year) researchers may prefer to measure sediment accretion with marker horizon plots. Marker horizons consist of a mineral such as feldspar that is buried at a known depth within wetland substrates to record the increase in overlying substrate over long time periods. In order to gauge the amount of sediment suspended in the water column, manual or automated samples of tidal water can be poured through pre-weighed filters in a laboratory then dried to determine the amount of sediment per volume of water.


title: Salt marsh

text: Another method for estimating suspended sediment concentrations is by measuring the turbidity of the water using optical backscatter probes, which can be calibrated against water samples containing a known suspended sediment concentration to establish a regression relationship between the two. Marsh surface elevations may be measured with a stadia rod and transit, electronic theodolite, Real-Time Kinematic Global Positioning System, laser level or electronic distance meter (total station). Hydrological dynamics include water depth, measured automatically with a pressure transducer, or with a marked wooden stake, and water velocity, often using electromagnetic current meters.


title: Sarah Hudson (singer)

text: Sarah Theresa Hudson is an American pop singer-songwriter, and creator of the club-pop music project Ultraviolet Sound.


title: Sarah Hudson (singer)

text: Hudson's previous record label, S-Curve Records, folded before her debut album, "Naked Truth" (2004), was officially released. Collaborators include Desmond Child, Eric Bazilian, Billy Mann, Ozzy Osbourne and Aerosmith vocalist Steven Tyler. In conjunction with the album, Hudson was featured in "Interview", "Women's Wear Daily", "YM", "Seventeen", "Teen Vogue" and "Elle".


title: Sarah Hudson (singer)

text: Work began in early 2007 on Hudson's new "club pop" music project under the name Ultraviolet Sound. The group, also known as UVS, released their first full-length record, "O.C.D. (Obsessive Compulsive Dancing)", in April 2009 independently. The band secured sponsorship of O.C.D from Adidas Originals and garnered a total of 135,000 downloads. UVS released another album worldwide in 2011 entitled "Ultraviolet Sound". Their first single "Suck My Kiss" was released digitally on iTunes along with three remixes. Followed by the release of their second single "Girl Talk" which was the #1 release at Top 40 radio from an independent label in 2011, playing on over 50 Top 40 stations. In 2012, they released a collaboration with DJ Kill The Noise called "Dying". UVS played a 35-city US tour with Family Force 5, shows with DJs Kill The Noise, Treasure Fingers, Ludachrist, SebastiAn, Kavinsky and more. They also played several one-off shows with Lady Gaga, a SXSW performance on a bill with Robyn, N.E.R.D, Katy Perry and shows with many other top artists. They received multiple posts from celebrity blogger Perez Hilton, and heard their cover of "Two of Hearts" in rotation on top dance stations around the country. Ultraviolet Sound took their music international in March 2010 with a 20-date U.K. tour. Sarah had a featuring and co-write on EDM artist Brillz's record called "Fuzzy Peach" and EDM artists Kill The Noise and Brillz's record "Saturn" which was released on Skrillex's label OWSLA, featured in Rolling Stone and continues to be played by high-profile DJs around the world.


title: Sarah Hudson (singer)

text: Sarah Hudson is currently signed to Prescription Songs/AAM as a songwriter. A song she co-wrote with Katy Perry, Dr. Luke, Max Martin and Cirkut entitled "Dark Horse" became Perry's third single off her album, Prism. "Dark Horse" has been a commercial success, charting at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100. The song topped the charts for four weeks straight and has sold 7.9 million copies so far, making it one of the top-selling digital singles of all time. Sarah also co-wrote "Black Widow" by Iggy Azalea and Rita Ora which has recently been certified 2× platinum by the RIAA and peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 charts. Hudson has currently penned "Get On Your Knees" by Nicki Minaj featuring Ariana Grande, "Swish Swish" by Katy Perry & Nicki Minaj, "The Feeling" by Justin Bieber featuring Halsey, "Banshee" by Santigold, "San Francisco" by 5 Seconds of Summer and many more cuts on the hit records of today. On April 7, 2017, Hudson released a solo EP entitled, "Songs from the Sea".


title: Sarah Hudson (singer)

text: Hudson was featured on "Frontline" in its report "The Way The Music Died." She has also appeared on a Season 1 episode of "Project Runway", during a challenge where the contestants had to design a rocker fashion with which she would portray her image. She was touted as an "up and coming rock star".


title: Legends of Tomorrow (season 6)

text: The sixth season of the American television series "Legends of Tomorrow", which is based on characters from DC Comics, premiered on The CW on May 2, 2021, and consisted of 15 episodes. It is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the universe, and is a spin-off of "Arrow" and "The Flash". The season was produced by Berlanti Productions, Warner Bros. Television, and DC Entertainment, with Phil Klemmer and Keto Shimizu serving as showrunners.


title: Legends of Tomorrow (season 6)

text: The season was ordered in January 2020. Production began that October and concluded in May 2021. Principal cast members Caity Lotz, Tala Ashe, Jes Macallan, Olivia Swann, Amy Louise Pemberton, Nick Zano, Dominic Purcell and Matt Ryan return from previous seasons, while Adam Tsekhman and Shayan Sobhian were promoted to the main cast from their recurring status in previous seasons. They are joined by new cast member Lisseth Chavez.


title: Legends of Tomorrow (season 6)

text: In January 2020, The CW renewed the series for a sixth season. Keto Shimizu and Phil Klemmer return as showrunners.


title: Legends of Tomorrow (season 6)

text: In February 2020, Klemmer said the theme of season six would be one that the writers had since the first season, but declined to reveal what it was. It was later revealed that the season would involve aliens. Regarding the decision to make aliens the villains of the season, Klemmer said this was to differentiate them from previous villains. He added, "To think about little green men with laser guns who just want to rule the world, you know, Marvin the Martian kinda shape, you're like, "Yes, that's what we need!" Not having to understand who our villains are on any kind of emotional scale means we can focus on the emotional stories of our characters". The fifth season ended with Sara Lance being abducted by aliens. According to an interview with Klemmer, the season will feature a "motley assortment" of aliens, and will focus on the team attempting to rescue Sara, as well as Sara's experiences in outer space.


title: Legends of Tomorrow (season 6)

text: Main cast members Caity Lotz, Tala Ashe, Jes Macallan, Olivia Swann, Amy Louise Pemberton, Nick Zano, Dominic Purcell, and Matt Ryan return as Sara Lance / White Canary, Zari Tarazi, Ava Sharpe, Astra Logue, Gideon, Nate Heywood / Steel, Mick Rory / Heat Wave, and John Constantine. Shayan Sobhian, who recurred as Behrad Tarazi in season five, was promoted to series regular with this season. Maisie Richardson-Sellers, who had been a regular since season two, left the series ahead of season six in order to "make her mark as a filmmaker on her own", though she does appear through archive footage in the seventh episode. In September 2020, Lisseth Chavez joined the main cast as an original character named Esperanza "Spooner" Cruz. The following month, Adam Tsekhman, who recurred as Gary Green since the third season, was promoted to the main cast. In December 2020, David Ramsey, who portrayed John Diggle in the Arrowverse, was revealed to be appearing in the season in an undisclosed role. In January 2021, Aliyah O'Brien was cast in a recurring role for the sixth season. On April 17, 2021, Purcell announced he would be leaving the series after the sixth season, but will return periodically in the seventh season. On July 25, 2021, it was announced that the sixth season would be the last for Ryan to portray John Constantine (though he will portray a new character in the seventh season). Tala Ashe also portrayed Zari Tomaz who returned in a recurring capacity.


title: Legends of Tomorrow (season 6)

text: Principal photography for the sixth season was scheduled to begin on October 5, 2020, in Burnaby, British Columbia. However, by September 29, the start of filming was temporarily postponed, because of delays in receiving COVID-19 test results for the cast and crew. Filming ultimately began on October 8, and concluded on May 8, 2021.


title: Legends of Tomorrow (season 6)

text: In early August 2020, The CW released several posters of the Arrowverse superheroes wearing face masks, including White Canary and Beebo, with all posters having the caption "Real Heroes Wear Masks". This marketing tactic was used to "raise public awareness on the efficacy of facial coverings preventing the spread of COVID-19".


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Moïse Kapenda Tshombe (sometimes written Tshombé) (10 November 1919 – 29 June 1969) was a Congolese businessman and politician. He served as the president of the secessionist State of Katanga from 1960 to 1963 and as prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1964 to 1965.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: A member of the Lunda ethnic group, Tshombe was born near Musumba, Belgian Congo, the son of a successful businessman. The Tshombe family were Lunda royalty and a number of Tshombes had reigned as the Mwaant Yav, the traditional king of the Lunda people. He received his education from an American missionary school and later trained as an accountant. In the 1950s, he took over a chain of stores in Katanga Province, which failed. Tshombe ran a number of businesses, which all failed, requiring his wealthy family to bail him out. Tshombe later involved in politics.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Katanga was different from the other provinces of the Belgian Congo, being rich in copper, tin and uranium, all of which were mined by the "Union Minière" company. The wealth generated by its minerals led to 32, 000 Belgians settling in Katanga by the 1950s, which had more white settlers than any other province of the Belgian Congo. The mining industry provided, by the standards of Africa, well paying jobs, and as such Katanga province attracted "immigrants" from the other provinces of the Belgian Congo. Tshombe, like many members of the Lunda royalty, was close to the settler elite, and felt threatened by the flood of Kasai Baluba moving into Katanga. In the late 1950s, the Belgians allowed a limited degree of democracy in the Belgian Congo and in the first municipal elections in 1957, the majority of the mayors elected were Baluba, which sparked fears that the Lunda would be a marginalized group in their own province. Tshombe's political involvement started in 1957 in response to the perceived threat of Baluba domination.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Along with Godefroid Munongo, he founded the Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) party. CONAKAT promoted a federal Congo independent of the Belgian colonial empire. CONAKAT was founded in October 1958 to address the perceived problems of "immigration" into Katanga from the other provinces of the Belgian Congo, and its platform called for upholding the rights of the "indigenous" peoples of Katanga by ending the "immigration". The majority of the CONAKAT supporters were Lunda, Batabwa, Tshowke and Bayeke, most of whom lived in southern Katanga. In common with the other members of the Lunda elite, the aristocratic Tshombe looked back nostalgically to the Kingdom of Lunda that once covered much of northern Angola, the southern Belgian Congo and Northern Rhodesia (modern Zambia) in the 17th and 18th centuries. CONAKAT formed an electoral alliance with the "Union Katangaise" party that represented the white Belgian settlers of Katanga. Both CONAKAT and the "Union Katangaise" wanted very broad autonomy for Katanga within an independent Congo in order to keep the wealth generated by the mining industry within Katanga. In contrast to CONAKAT with its calls for autonomy and curbs on "immigration", the "immigrants" in Katanga tended to favor the parties that called for a more centralized state.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: CONAKAT won control of the Katanga provincial legislature in the May 1960 general elections. One month later, the Congo became an independent republic. Tshombe became President of the autonomous province of Katanga. Patrice Lumumba was tasked with forming a national government. Members of his party, the Mouvement National Congolais, were given charge of the portfolios of national defence and interior, despite Tshombe's objections. The portfolio for economic affairs was awarded to a CONAKAT member, but this was undercut by the positioning of nationalists in control of the Ministry and Secretariat for Economic Coordination. Mines and land affairs were placed under separate portfolios. Tshombe declared that this diluting of CONAKAT's influence rendered his agreement to support the government "null and void".


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: On the evening of 11 July, Tshombe, accusing the central government of communist leanings and dictatorial rule, announced that Katanga was seceding from the Congo. Tshombe had the full support of both Belgium and the "Union Minière" in proclaiming Katanga independent. One American diplomat described Katanga as a sham, reporting to Washington that the State of Katanga was "designed mainly for the protection of European lives and property". Favoring continued ties with Belgium, Tshombe asked the Belgian government to send military officers to recruit and train a Katangese army. Tshombe's Belgian military adviser, Major Guy Weber, on 13 July 1960 appointed Major Jean-Marie Crèvecouer to train an army for Katanga. To disguise its lack of a military, the force being raised and trained was called the Katangese gendarmerie, but the name was highly misleading as the gendarmerie was in fact an army. The majority of the officers training the gendarmerie were Belgian. The Belgian historian Jules Gérard-Libois wrote: "During the entire month of August, a veritable race against the clock took place with the objective, for Tshombe and his advisers, of building a more or less efficient gendarmery before the eventual withdraw of the Belgian troops". Tshombe engaged in a successful bluff in the summer of 1960 as he maintained that Katanga had the military forces to repel an invasion while an army was being raised.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Tshombe demanded United Nations recognition for independent Katanga, and he announced that any intervention by UN troops would be met with force. Nonetheless, Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and his successor, Cyrille Adoula, successfully requested intervention from UN forces. UN forces were sent under the direction of UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: The British diplomat Brian Urquhart, who met Tshombe several times, wrote: "Tshombe was not stupid, but he desperately wanted to be liked and recognized. He tended to agree with the last person he had talked to and could be counted on to go back on any agreement as soon as he had seen his next visitor. He was also an accomplished hypochondriac, using feigned ill health to avoid answering awkward questions. “"J’ai mal à la gorge, Monsieur Urquhart"” ("I have a sore throat, Mr. Urquhart"), he would suddenly whisper. ""Je dois prendre immédiatement une piqûre"" ("I must immediately get a [medical] shot.") And that would be the end of the conversation. Tshombe was basically a weak person who was always being manipulated by others-the "Union Minière", right-wing politicians in Europe and the United States, mercenaries, arms dealers and other adventurers who were after his money."


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: France, wishing to take advantage of Katangese minerals, sent to Tshombe the reinforcement of the mercenary Bob Denard and his men. It was supported by the networks of Jacques Foccart, the "Mr. Africa" of the French government.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Lumumba's government was dissolved, and Lumumba taken prisoner by Mobutu and detained at Camp Hardy in Thysville. Harold Charles d'Aspremont Lynden (Belgian minister for African Affairs) sent a highly confidential telegram on 16 January 1961 to the government in Léopoldville (President Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu) to send Lumumba to Katanga. That would have stemmed from Lumumba's increasing popularity among soldiers, who might release him. Meanwhile, soldier mutinies and unrest increased by the day, at Prison Camp Hardy in Thysville. The telegram has still not been shown to exist.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Whilst being flown in a Sabena Douglas DC-4 plane to Katanga, Lumumba was beaten by the Congolese soldiers escorting him. In custody in Katanga, Lumumba was visited by Katangese notables and Belgian officers, who included Tshombe, Godefroid Munongo, Kibwe, Kitenge, Grandelet, Son, Gat, Huyghé, Tignée, Verscheure, Segers and Rougefort. Lumumba's execution, on 17 January, was carried out by a firing squad led by a Belgian mercenary, Julien Gat.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: In September 1961, the United Nations launched Operation Morthor with the aim of reintegrating Katanga into the Congo, causing Tshombe to flee into Northern Rhodesia for a time. However, the Katangese gendarmerie proved to be tougher than expected and in the siege of Jadotville, Irish troops serving under the United Nations flag were forced to surrender. The United Nations secretary-general, Dag Hammarskjöld, flew to meet Tshombe to discuss a ceasefire. After the meeting, Hammarskjöld, was killed in an airplane crash.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Tshombe become an iconic figure for American conservatives in the 1960s who saw him as an acceptable African leader. The American historian Kyle Burke wrote: "To them [American conservatives], Tshombe represented a comfortable kind of decolonization, in which elite Africans would manage the transition from colony to nation without altering the existing racial, political and economic order, thereby ensuring that communists would not gain a foothold in these countries". American conservatives presented the Belgian Congo as a place of racial harmony, which Tshombe had tried to preserve. The principle lobbying group for Tshombe was the American Committee for Aid to Katangan Freedom Fighters that portrayed the United Nations as a communist-dominated organization that was seeking to crush Katanga to achieve Soviet foreign policy goals in Africa. The support for Tshombe was at least in part related to American domestic politics as the Kennedy administration supported the United Nations against Katanga and the support for Tshombe in the United States came mostly from conservative Republicans and Democrats, who used Kennedy's opposition to Tshombe to argue that he was "soft on communism". By contrast, Afro-Americans loathed Tshombe, seeing him as an "Uncle Tom" figure, a black man who was submissive and docile towards whites.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: In 1963, UN forces succeeded in suppressing Katanga, driving Tshombe into exile in Northern Rhodesia and then Spain. Tshombe took with him into exile 890 suitcases full of one million gold pieces, which he placed into various European banks, allowing him to live in comfort and luxury. At the same time, the UN forces found that the Katangese treasury had been stripped bare as the entire vault contained only £10 British pounds together with one dead rat.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: In early 1964, the Simba rebellion broke out and the Congolese state rapidly lost control of the entire eastern half of the Congo. At the same time, Tshombe started to correspond with several of his former enemies such as the justice minister, Justin-Marie Bomboko; the police chief, Victor Nendaka; and most importantly, the commander of the army, General Joseph-Désiré Mobutu. As the "Armée Nationale Congolaise" could not handle the Simbas, Mobutu argued that the Congo needed Western help. Mobutu had been the king-maker of Conglese politics ever since he staged his first coup in 1960 and he pressured President Joseph Kasa-Vubu to appoint Tshombe premier under the grounds that he was the Congolese politician most likely to secure Western support.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Additionally, most of the economic concessions in the Belgian Congo were para-statal as the Belgian state had invested its own funds alongside those of European capitalists in developing the concessions. When Belgium granted independence to the Congo in 1960, the Belgians refused to transfer their shares in the concessions to the Congolese state under the grounds that the Congo refused to assume the debts that the Belgians had incurred when developing the concessions, which deprived the Congolese state of much needed revenue. In March 1964, the Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak visited Leopoldville and agreed to transfer the Belgian shares of the concessions. During the same visit, Spaak seems to have made appointing Tshombe premier the precondition of the share transfer. Finally, the administration of John F. Kennedy was very hostile towards Tshombe, but on 22 November 1963 Kennedy was assassinated. Kennedy's successor, Lyndon B. Johnson was more supportive of Tshombe, viewing him as a firmly pro-Western politician..


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: In July 1964, he returned to the Congo to serve as prime minister in a new coalition government. His cabinet was sworn in on 10 July. Tshombe's national support was derived from the backing of provincial political bosses, customary chiefs, and foreign financial interests. Among his first acts in office were the lifting of a curfew in Léopoldville, the release of 600 political prisoners—including Antoine Gizenga, and the ordering of Katangese gendarmes to return from their exile in Angola to the Congo and join the national army. Tshombe had made extensive use of white mercenaries to fight for Katanga, and as the Congolese premier, he hired the same mercenaries to fight for the Congo. The return of Tshombe to power was met with criticism. Malcolm X detested Tshombe as an "Uncle Tom", and in a 1964 speech in New York called him "the worse African ever born" and "the man who in cold blood, cold blood, committed an international crime-murdered Patrice Lumumba".


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: In a New Year's message at the beginning of 1965, Tshombe rejected conciliation with the Simba rebels and called for their total defeat. Tshombe formed the federalist Convention Nationale Congolaise (CONACO), a bloc of forty-nine parties for the 1965 general election. The party won comfortably gaining 38 seats with the alliance as a whole winning 122 seats. Despite this victory Tshombe was dismissed from his position as Prime Minister in October 1965 by President Kasa-Vubu and replaced by Évariste Kimba. In November, General Joseph Mobutu, who had just staged a successful coup against Kasa-Vubu, brought charges of treason against Tshombe, who again fled the country and settled in Francoist Spain.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: In 1965, Tshombe's brother, Daniel, became the Mwaant Yav, which greatly added to his appeal in Katanga. Traditionally, the title of Mwaant Yav alternated between different Lunda royal families, but since 1965 the office of Mwaant Yav has been held by members of the Tshomba family. In 1967, Tshombe was sentenced to death "in absentia".


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: On 30 June 1967, he was in a Hawker Siddeley jet aircraft that was hijacked by Francis Bodenan, an agent of the French SDECE. According to the Congolese government, Tshombe was travelling to Africa. He was taken to Algeria, jailed, and placed under house arrest. At his trial, he was represented by French lawyer René Floriot. The pilots of the plane, Britons Trevor Copleston and David Taylor, were released and returned to the United Kingdom. The Congolese government demanded his extradition to Congo and his Western supporters agitated for his release. The Algerians resisted both demands. A part of his supporters gathered to form the Tshombe Emergency Committee in the U.S., including Marvin Liebman and William F. Buckley, to press for his release and move to Spain. The Tshombe Emergency Committee filed a number of legal challenges to force the Algerians to release Tshombe to no avail. Long-time aide Michel Struelens travelled to different European cities to lobby for Tshombe, eventually to no avail.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Tshombe died in Algeria in 1969. The Algerian government called in eight Algerian physicians and three French doctors, who concluded that he died in his sleep. Later, an autopsy concluded a natural death. Tshombe's nephew Joseph Kayomb Tshombe stipulated that no medical doctor chosen by the Tshombe family was admitted at the autopsy. Further doubts have been raised regarding Tshombe's death by former governor of Katanga and political exile Daniel Monguya Mbenge, who accused French lawyer Jacques Vergès of poisoning Tshombe by order of Mobutu. Finally, in the context of a series of interviews regarding a conspiracy theory about the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy, Belgian mercenary Joseph Smal told author Stephen J. Rivele that Tshombe was killed by two injections with two different substances, prepared by the CIA.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Moïse Tshombe was buried in a Methodist service at Etterbeek Cemetery, near Brussels, Belgium. Owing to his role in the death of Lumumba and his association with Western interests, Tshombe's name became synonymous with "sellout" to black African nationalists.


title: Moïse Tshombe

text: Tshombe's nephew, Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond, later became an important politician and served as prime minister from 1980 to 1981. The plot of the 1978 war film "The Wild Geese" is based in part on speculation that Tshombe's plane had initially been diverted to Rhodesia before being sent to Algeria. The film's characters Colonel Allen Faulkner and President Julius Limbani were largely based on Tshombe and his military ally Maj. "Mad Mike" Hoare. Tshombe has been played twice by the French actor Pascal N'Zonzi, first in the 2000 film "Lumumba" and again in the 2011 film "Mister Bob". He was portrayed by Danny Sapani in the 2016 film "The Siege of Jadotville".


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Stade Roland Garros (; "Roland Garros Stadium") is a complex of tennis courts, including stadiums, located in Paris that hosts the French Open. That tournament, also known as "Roland Garros", is a Grand Slam tennis championship played annually in late May and early June. The complex is named after Roland Garros (1888–1918), a pioneering French aviator, and was constructed in 1928 to host France's first defence of the Davis Cup.The 13.5-hectare (34-acre) complex contains twenty courts, including three large-capacity stadiums; "Les Jardins de Roland Garros", a large restaurant and bar complex; "Le Village", the press and VIP area; France's National Training Centre (CNE); and the Tenniseum, a bilingual, multimedia museum of the history of tennis.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: The facility is named after Roland Garros, a pilot who completed the first solo flight across the Mediterranean Sea, engineer (inventor of the first forward-firing aircraft machine gun), and World War I hero who shot down four enemy aircraft (though popularly believed to be five). Garros was killed in aerial combat in October 1918.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: France was an important power in tennis during the first half of the 20th century due to the dominance of Suzanne Lenglen during the 1910s and 1920s, and "les Quatre Mousquetaires" ("the Four Musketeers")—Jacques "Toto" Brugnon, Jean Borotra (the "Bouncing Basque"), Henri Cochet (the "Magician"), and René Lacoste (the "Crocodile")—in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1927, France defeated the United States to win the Davis Cup, due largely to the Musketeers' efforts. Stade Roland Garros was constructed as a venue for France's successful defense the following year. France retained the Cup until 1933, again largely because of the Musketeers. A monument to France's six Cup championships stands at the center of "Place des Mousquetaires", a circular courtyard near the venue's entrance.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: In October 1939, shortly after the outbreak of World War II, the facility was used as a detention centre where "indésirables"—mostly Hungarians, Russians, Italians, Poles, and citizens suspected of being communists—were held pending imprisonment. Journalist and former communist Arthur Koestler reported that at the time of his detention, posters advertising the last match prior to the outbreak of war, between Cochet and Borotra, were still in place.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: While the Stade Roland Garros surface is invariably characterized as "red clay", the courts are in fact surfaced with white limestone covered with a few millimeters of powdered red brick dust. Beneath the layer of porous limestone is of volcanic rock, followed by of sand, all of which rests on a slab of concrete. Crushed brick is pressed onto the limestone surface with rollers, then drenched in water. The process is repeated several times until a thin, compact layer coats each court. The crushed brick is deep enough to allow footprints and ball marks, but shallow enough to avoid making the court spongy or slippery. In tournament situations workers smooth the surface before matches and between sets by dragging rectangular lengths of chain-link across it. The red brick dust is replenished as needed (daily during major tournaments).


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: The surface was a state-of-the art solution, in 1928, to the biggest problem with natural clay courts: poor drainage. At the time it was not unusual for clay surfaces to be unplayable for two to three days after even short periods of precipitation. The limestone/crushed brick combination, originally developed in Great Britain, played and looked similar to clay without clay's drainage issues, thus rendering natural clay obsolete as a tennis court surface. Since then a multitude of other "fast-dry" and synthetic clay surfaces have been developed. Courts surfaced with these materials play much like natural clay surfaces and are collectively classified as "clay courts", despite the fact that few if any true clay courts have been built for almost a century. The diversity in composition of various "clay" surfaces around the world explains the extraordinary variability in their playing characteristics. “All clay courts are different”, Venus Williams has said. “None play the same. [Roland Garros] plays the best”.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Court Philippe Chatrier was built in 1928 as Stade Roland Garros's centerpiece and remains its principal venue. It seats 15,225 spectators as of a 2019 renovation. The stadium was known simply as "Court Central" until 2001, when it was renamed for the long-time president of the Fédération Française de Tennis (FFT) who helped restore tennis as a Summer Olympics sport in 1988.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: The four main spectator grandstands are named for "les Quatre Mousquetaires"—Brugnon, Borotra, Cochet, and Lacoste—in honor of their Davis Cup success, which prompted construction of the facility, and the stadium. As a further tribute, the trophy awarded each year to the French Open men's singles champion is known as "La Coupe des Mousquetaires."


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: After the completion of the 2018 tournament, the stadium was demolished down to its foundations and rebuilt with steeper grandstands in time for the 2019 tournament. A retractable roof and floodlights were added in time for the 2020 tournament, which was delayed to September of that year due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Built in 1994 and originally designated "Court A", Court Suzanne Lenglen is the secondary stadium with a capacity of 10,068 spectators. Its namesake, an international celebrity and the first true star of women's tennis, won 31 major tournaments, including six French Open titles and six Wimbledon championships, between 1914 and 1926. Known as" La Divine" ("Divine One") and "La Grand Dame" ("Great Lady") of French tennis, she also won two Olympic gold medals in Antwerp in 1920. A bronze bas relief of Lenglen by the Italian sculptor Vito Tongiani stands over the east tunnel-entrance to the stadium. The trophy awarded each year to the French Open women's singles champion is named "La Coupe Suzanne Lenglen" in her honor. The court has an underground irrigation system, the first of its kind, to control moisture levels within its surface.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: In 1994, the walkway between Court Chatrier and Court Lenglen was named "Allée Marcel Bernard", in honor of the 1940s-era French champion who died that year.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Stade Roland Garros's new 5,000-seat tertiary venue was completed in March 2019 on the grounds of the Jardin des Serres d'Auteuil. Its namesake was the 1938 and 1939 women's singles champion who is also remembered as a leader of the French Resistance during the Second World War. The court was constructed four meters below ground level with greenhouses on all four sides. It was built to replace Court 1, which was demolished.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Court 1, once the facility's tertiary venue and nicknamed the "Bullring" because of its circular shape, was demolished in 2019. Its architect, Jean Lovera, a former French junior champion, designed the 3,800-seat structure as a deliberate contrast to the adjacent, angular Court Philippe Chatrier. Built in 1980, the Bullring was a favorite among serious tennis fans because of its relatively small size and feeling of close proximity to the action. An unusual design feature was its press seating in the first row at court level behind the south baseline.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Court 1 was the scene of several memorable French Open upsets, such as unseeded Gustavo Kuerten's third-round victory over fifth-seeded former champion Thomas Muster in 1997, on his way to his first of three Open titles; and third-seeded Gabriela Sabatini's defeat — after a 6–1, 5–1 lead and five match points — to Mary Joe Fernandez in the 1993 quarterfinals. It was also the site of Marat Safin's famous "dropped pants" match against Félix Mantilla in 2004.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Demolition of Court 1 began shortly after conclusion of the 2019 tournament and inauguration of the new tertiary venue, Court Simonne Mathieu. In its place, a greatly enlarged "Place des Mousquetaires" was constructed, where spectators can watch matches on a large video screen.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Known officially as the Museum of the French Federation of Tennis, the Tenniseum was designed by the French architect Bruno Moinard and opened in May 2003. It is housed in a former groundsman's cottage, and comprises a multimedia center, media library, and permanent and temporary exhibits dedicated to the history of tennis in general, and the French Open in particular.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Permanent exhibits include a display of the French Open perpetual trophies, including "La Coupe des Mousquetaires" and "La Coupe Suzanne Lenglen"; a narrative and photographic history of Stade Roland Garros; displays documenting the evolution of tennis attire through the years; a comprehensive collection of tennis racquets dating back to the mid-19th century; and a large exhibition of tennis-related photographs and paintings.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: The media library houses a diverse collection of documents, posters, books, and magazines, as well as a database of tennis information, statistics, trivia, and match summaries of all French Open tournament matches since 1928. The bilingual (French/English) multimedia center contains over 4,000 hours of digitized video including documentaries, interviews with many of the sport's legendary players, and film archives dating from 1897 to the present. Tours are conducted daily. (Two per day, at 11:00am and 3:00pm, are in English.) During the French Open the normal entry fee is waived for tournament ticket-holders.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: In 2009 the FFT announced that it had commissioned the French architect Marc Mimram to design a significant expansion of Stade Roland Garros. On the current property, the proposal called for the addition of lights and a retractable roof over Court Philippe Chatrier. At the nearby Georges Hébert municipal recreation area, east of Stade Roland Garros at Porte d'Auteuil, a fourth stadium was planned with a retractable roof and 14,600 seating capacity, along with two smaller show courts with seating for 1,500 and 750.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: In 2010, faced with opposition to the proposed expansion from factions within the Paris City Council, the FFT announced that it was considering an alternate plan to move the French Open to a new, 55-court venue outside of Paris city limits. The three sites under consideration were Marne-la-Vallée, the northern Paris suburb of Gonesse, and a vacant army base near Versailles. Amid charges of bluffing and brinkmanship, a spokesman explained that because Stade Roland Garros was less than half the size of the other three Grand Slam venues and had no covered courts, the French Open was at risk of losing its Grand Slam status to Madrid—which has a long clay court tradition and larger facilities—or the Gulf countries.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: In February 2011, the FFT voted to keep the tournament at Stade Roland Garros, citing the prohibitive expense ($630 million to $1 billion) of building a new venue from scratch versus a projected $370 million to carry out the proposed expansion. Further details of the plan were announced in May 2013, including a complete rebuild of the Chatrier court on its existing foundations in addition to the new roof and lights, and a larger "Place des Mousquetaires" in the area occupied by Court 1. The new stadium at Porte d'Auteuil would be built below ground level, with greenhouses surrounding it on all four sides. Project deadlines were pushed back from 2016 to 2018. Local residents, wildlife enthusiasts and municipal authorities continued to voice opposition to the plan, which would increase the Stade Roland Garros grounds from 21 acres (8.5 hectares) to about 33.8 acres (13.5 hectares).


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: In February 2015 the Ministry of Ecology issued a negative report, and the project was placed on hold pending completion of a new land use study for the City Council. In June Paris Mayor Anne Hidalgo announced that construction permits had been signed, with a new cost estimate of $450 million and completion further delayed to 2019. Opponents, who objected to the demolition of 2.5 acres (1 hectare) of greenhouses and biological gardens at the Jardin des Serres d'Auteuil on the eastern border of the current ground, proposed an alternate, northward expansion into the Bois de Boulogne that would require covering a portion of the A13 highway. Proponents of the eastward expansion argued that further delays would jeopardize Paris's bid for the 2024 Olympic games.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: In December 2015, the Paris Administrative Court ordered suspension of reclamation work involving the Auteuil botanical garden greenhouses. In a statement, the FFT responded that the greenhouses would not be destroyed, and would, in fact, be embellished. FFT also noted that opponents of the eastward expansion "[did] not have good alternatives from the operational, legal and environmental point of view", and added that expansion into the Bois de Boulogne was impossible. In February 2017, the last of the legal challenges were resolved and work resumed on the original eastward expansion plan.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: The new tournament organization building and "Village", new courts 7 and 9, the expanded "Place des Mousquetaires", and a new show court in the Fond des Princes area west of Court Lenglen were completed in time for the 2018 Open. The Court des Serres, renamed Court Simonne Mathieu, was opened in March 2019, ready for the 2019 tournament, as was the rebuilt Court Chatrier, with the retractable roof completed in time for the 2020 tournament.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: In 2021, the redevelopment of courts 2 and 3 and the renovation work at the Place des Mousquetaires were finished. This included the inauguration of statues to Rafael Nadal (who has won the French Open singles title a record 14 times), Roland Garros, and the "Four Musketeers" (Borotra, Brugnon, Cochet, and Lacoste). In the same year, the tournament introduced night sessions on Court Philippe Chatrier for the first time in its history. Court Suzanne Lenglen will have a retractable roof completed on time for the 2024 Summer Olympics.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: Stade Roland Garros is located at the western side of Paris, at the southern boundary of the Bois de Boulogne in Paris's 16th arrondissement. The triangular property is bounded by Avenue Porte d'Auteuil and A13 autoroute on the north and Boulevard d'Auteuil on the south. The eastern boundary is Avenue Gordon Bennett and the adjacent Jardin des Serres d'Auteuil.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: The closest Métro stations are Porte d'Auteuil (Line 10) and Michel-Ange–Molitor (Line 9, Line 10), to the north- and southeast respectively.


title: Stade Roland Garros

text: A special Stade Roland Garros taxi stand operates in May and June during the French Open on the southeast corner of the venue grounds, at the corner of Robert Schuman Avenue and Auteuil Boulevard.


title: Morgan Lily

text: Morgan Lily Gross is an American actress and fashion model. She started modeling internationally at the age of four years and appeared in more than 21 television commercials, and many photoshoots before her role in "Henry Poole Is Here" as Millie Stupek. Lily had supporting roles in "He's Just Not That Into You", as Matthew Gray Gubler's daughter in "The Ugly Life of a Beautiful Girl". Her most notable role has been as Lilly Curtis in the apocalyptic film "2012". She acted as young Julianna Baker in the film "Flipped" based on the novel with the same name by Wendelin van Draanen and as young Raven Darkhölme in "". Morgan co-starred as Missy in the Hallmark Channel's film "Love's Everlasting Courage". Her most recent work includes "Joe Bell", where she starred alongside Mark Wahlberg.


title: Morgan Lily

text: Lily began her acting career at an early age. Her early work includes the 2005 drama film "Shards" where she played Morgan, and a TV movie, "Welcome to the Jungle Gym" (2006) where she played Kylie. In 2007, she guest-starred in "" as Chloe, which led her to more opportunities such as a co-starring role at the age of 8 years. In her first theatrical film "Henry Poole Is Here" she portrayed Millie Stupek. Morgan's most notable role so far has been in the 2009 disaster film "2012" as Lilly Curtis alongside young actor Liam James. She has also recurred as Bonnie on "Shameless". Morgan's current projects up-to-date include "Love's Everlasting Courage" alongside high-profile actors Wes Brown (actor) and Cheryl Ladd.


title: Paul Schulze

text: Paul Schulze (born June 12, 1962) is an American actor. He is known for appearing in "The Sopranos", "Nurse Jackie", "24" (2002–2004), and "The Punisher" (2017), and his films roles in "Panic Room" (2002), and "Rambo" (2008).


title: Paul Schulze

text: He is best known for portraying Ryan Chappelle on the Fox series "24" from 2001 to 2004 and Father Phil Intintola on the HBO series "The Sopranos" from 1999 to 2006.


title: Paul Schulze

text: Schulze was featured on Fox's legal drama, "Justice" and has guest-starred on "Law & Order", "Rizzoli & Isles", "JAG", "", "The West Wing", "NCIS", "Oz", "Frasier", "NYPD Blue", "Boston Legal", "Cold Case", "Numb3rs", "Mad Men", "Criminal Minds", "The Closer", "", "Suits", "Z Nation", and "Journeyman".


title: Paul Schulze

text: Film appearances include "New Jersey Drive" (1995), "Clockers" (1995), "Don't Say a Word" (2001), and the David Fincher films "Panic Room" (2002) and "Zodiac" (2007). He appeared as Michael Burnett in "Rambo", the 2008 fourth installment of the "Rambo" film saga. He co-starred as Eddie Walzer in the Showtime dark comedy series "Nurse Jackie", which premiered in June 2009.


title: Dr. Alban

text: Alban Uzoma Nwapa (born 26 August 1957), better known by his stage name Dr. Alban, is a Nigerian-Swedish recording artist and producer with his own record label, Dr. Records. His music can best be described as Eurodance/hip-hop reggae in a dancehall style. He has sold an estimated 16 million records worldwide and is most famous for his worldwide 1992 hit "It's My Life", from the album "One Love".


title: Dr. Alban

text: Alban was born Alban Uzoma Nwapa into a middle-class family of 10 children in Oguta, Imo state, Nigeria. He is Igbo.


title: Dr. Alban

text: He got his secondary education at Christ The King College and spent most of his youth in his hometown of Oguta. At age 23, he travelled to Sweden to study dentistry. To finance his studies, Dr. Alban became a DJ at the Stockholm club "Alphabet Street". Very quickly, his name became widely known, especially since he often sang to the records he put on turntables. DJ René Hedemyr discovered him. Alban finished his studies and opened his own dentistry practice, keeping his DJ-ing as a lucrative sideline.


title: Dr. Alban

text: In 1990, he met Denniz Pop from the SweMix label and, together with Denniz and rap artist Leila K, released his first record "Hello Afrika". At this point, he took the stage name Dr. Alban, a nod to his dental studies. His debut album included hits like "Hello Afrika" and "No Coke", both of which ended up being million-selling singles. The album itself was quite successful and earned him gold certification awards in numerous markets including Germany (for sales of over 250,000 units), Austria (25,000), and Switzerland (25,000).


title: Dr. Alban

text: One year later, this success was surpassed by his second album "One Love". The album included European hit singles such as "It's My Life" (which was used as background music for a Tampax advert) and "Sing Hallelujah". The single "It's My Life" reached No.1 in Israel, Austria, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Germany, and No.2 in Norway, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. The song "It's My Life" went platinum in Germany (for sales of over 500,000 units), in the Netherlands (75,000), and it sold over two million copies overall in Europe. The album in turn reached the top of the album chart in Austria and entered the top five in Switzerland, also reaching No.6 in Germany. It went gold in Germany (for sales of over 250,000 units) and platinum both in Austria and Switzerland (both 50,000).


title: Dr. Alban

text: Alban's third album "Look Who's Talking!", released in 1994, hit the top 10 in numerous markets including Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. The album was the first to earn Alban a gold certification award in his home country of Sweden for sales of over 50,000 units.