title: Calafia

text: In the book "The Adventures of Esplandián", after many pages of battles and adventures, the story of Calafia is introduced as a curiosity, an interlude in the narrative. Calafia is introduced as a regal black woman, courageous, strong of limb and large of person, full in the bloom of womanhood, the most beautiful of a long line of queens who ruled over the mythical realm of California. She is said to be "desirous of achieving great things"; she wanted to see the world and plunder a portion of it with superior fighting ability, using her army of women warriors. She commanded a fleet of ships with which she demanded tribute from surrounding lands, and she kept an aerial defense force of griffins, fabulous animals which were native to California, trained to kill any man they found.


title: Calafia

text: Calafia meets Radiaro, a Muslim warrior who convinces her that she should join him in retaking Constantinople from the Christian armies holding it. Calafia, in turn, convinces her people to take their ships, weapons, armor, riding beasts, and 500 griffins, and sail with her to Constantinople to fight the Christians, though she has no concept of what it means to be Muslim or Christian. Her subjects arm themselves with weapons and armor made of gold, as there is no other metal in California. They fill their ships with supplies and hasten to sea.


title: Calafia

text: Landing near Constantinople, Calafia meets with other Muslim warrior leaders who were unable to remove King Amadis and his Christian allies from the city, and she tells them all to hold back and watch her manner of combat—she says they will be amazed. The next morning, she and her women warriors mount their "fierce beasts" wearing gold armor "adorned with the most precious stones", advancing to invest the city. Calafia orders the griffins forward and they, hungry from the long sea voyage, fly out and maul the city's defenders. Sating their hunger, the griffins continue to snatch Christian men in their claws and carry them high in air only to drop them to their deaths. The city's defenders cower and hide from the griffins. Seeing this, Calafia passes word to her Muslim allies that they are free to advance and take the city. The griffins, however, cannot tell Muslim from Christian; they can only tell man from woman. The griffins begin snatching Muslim soldiers and carrying them aloft, dropping and killing them. Calafia questions her pagan faith, saying, "O ye idols in whom I believe and worship, what is this which has happened as favorably to my enemies as to my friends?" She orders her woman warriors to take the city's battlements and they fight well, taking many injuries from arrows and quarrels piercing the soft gold metal of their armor. Calafia orders her allies forward to assist the Californians in battle, but the griffins pounce again, killing Muslim men. She directs the griffin trainers to call them off, and the griffins return to roost in the ships.


title: Calafia

text: This inauspicious beginning weighed heavily on Calafia. To restore their honor she directed her forces to fight alongside those of her allies, with the griffins kept in the ships. Terrific battles raged along the city's walls but the attackers were repulsed. Calafia led a picked group of women warriors to attack a city gate, one held by Norandel, the half-brother of King Amadis. Norandel charged out of the gate against Calafia; upon meeting their two lances were broken but the warriors remained standing. They struck at each other with sword and knife, and a general melee ensued, Calafia throwing knights from their horses and taking great blows on her shield. Two more knights charge forward from the city, nobles named Talanque (a nephew of King Amadis) and Maneli, a prince of Ireland. These men nearly swamp Calafia in blows, and she can only be pulled back to friendly forces by her sister Liota who attacks the two knights "like a mad lioness". The day's battle left many dead including 200 of Calafia's women.


title: Calafia

text: The story continues with the arrival of several more Christian princes and their armies. Radiaro and Calafia issue a challenge to two Christian warriors to engage them in single combat for the purpose of deciding the battle. King Amadis and his son Esplandián accept the challenge. The black-skinned warrior woman chosen as messenger tells Calafia that Esplandián is the most handsome and elegant man that has ever existed. Calafia determines that she must see the man herself before engaging him in combat. She stays awake all night wondering whether to wear royal robes or warrior's armor. Deciding in favor of a thick golden toga embroidered with jewels, topped by a golden hood, she rode to meet her enemies, escorted by 2,000 women warriors. After being seated among the Christian kings, she immediately recognized Esplandián from his great beauty, and fell in love with him. She tells him she will meet him on the field of battle and, if they should live, that she wishes to speak further with him. Esplandián considers Calafia an infidel, an abomination of the rightfully subservient position of woman in relation to man, and he makes no response.


title: Calafia

text: The next day, Calafia duels with King Amadis, and Radiaro duels with Esplandián. With Leonorina, his betrothed, looking on, Esplandián masters Radiaro with a flurry of weapon thrusts. Calafia and Amadis trade blows until he disarms her and knocks her helmet off. Both Calafia and Radario surrender to the Christians. While being held prisoner, Calafia acknowledges the astonishing beauty of Leonorina, daughter of the Constantinople emperor and the intended bride of Esplandián, and resolves not to interfere with their union. She accepts Christianity as the one true faith, saying, "I have seen the ordered order of your religion, and the great disorder of all others, I have seen that it is clear that the law which you follow must be the truth, while that which we follow is lying and falsehood." She marries Talanque, a large and handsome knight who fought with her outside the city gate; similarly, her sister Liota marries Maneli, Talanque's companion in arms. The women return to California with their husbands to establish a new dynasty complete with both sexes, as a Christian nation.


title: Calafia

text: The first voyage of Christopher Columbus in the late 15th century sparked a new interest in the search for "Terrestrial Paradise", a legendary land of ease and riches, with beautiful women wearing gold and pearls. Spanish author Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo drew upon reports from the New World to add interest to his fantasy world of chivalry and battle, of riches, victory, and loss, of an upside-down depiction of traditional sex roles. Around the year 1500 in his novel "The Adventures of Esplandián", he writes:


title: Calafia

text: The explorer Hernán Cortés and his men were familiar with the book; Cortés quoted it in 1524. As governor of Mexico he sent out an expedition of two ships, one guided by the famous pilot Fortún Ximénez who led a mutiny, killing the expedition's leader, Diego de Becerra, and a number of sailors faithful to Becerra. After the mutiny, Ximénez continued sailing north by northwest and, in early 1534, landed at what is known today as La Paz, Baja California Sur. Ximénez, who reported pearls found, believed the land was a large island. He and his escort of sailors were killed by natives when they went ashore for water. The few remaining sailors brought the ship and its story back to Cortés. There is some dispute whether the land was named at this time—no record exists of Ximénez giving it a name.


title: Calafia

text: In 1535, Cortés led an expedition back to the land, arriving on May 1, 1535, a day known as "Santa Cruz de Mayo", and in keeping with methods of contemporary discoverers, he named it "Santa Cruz". It is not known who first named the area "California" but between 1550 and 1556, the name appears three times in reports about Cortés written by Giovanni Battista Ramusio. However, the name "California" also appears in a 1542 journal kept by explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, who used it casually, as if it were already popular. In 1921, California historian Charles E. Chapman theorized that Ximénez named the new land "California" but the name was not accepted by Cortés because Ximénez was a mutineer who killed Becerra, a kinsman of Cortés. Despite this, the name became the one used popularly by Spaniards, the only name used by non-Spaniards, and by 1770, the entire Pacific coast controlled by Spain was officially known as California. The Spanish-speaking people who lived there were called Californios.


title: Calafia

text: For many years, the Rodríguez de Montalvo novel languished in obscurity, with no connection known between it and the name of California made by English speaking Americans. In 1864, a portion of the original was translated by Edward Everett Hale for The Antiquarian Society, and the story was printed in the "Atlantic Monthly" magazine. Hale supposed that in inventing the names, Rodríguez de Montalvo held in his mind the Spanish word "calif", the term for a leader of the Muslim people. Hale's joint derivation of "Calafia" and "California" was accepted by many, then questioned by a few scholars who sought further proof, and offered their own interpretations. George Davidson wrote in 1910 that Hale's theory was the best yet presented, but offered his own addition.


title: Calafia

text: In 1917, Ruth Putnam printed an exhaustive account of the work performed up to that time. She wrote that both "Calafia" and "California" most likely came from the Arabic word "khalifa" which means ruler or leader. The same word in Spanish was "califa", easily made into "California" to stand for "land of the caliph", or "Calafia" to stand for "female caliph". Putnam discussed Davidson's 1910 theory based on the Greek word "kalli" (meaning beautiful) but discounted it as exceedingly unlikely, a conclusion that Dora Beale Polk agreed with in 1995, calling the theory "far-fetched". Putnam also wrote that "The Song of Roland" held a passing mention of a place called "Califerne", perhaps named thus because it was the caliph's domain, a place of infidel rebellion. Chapman elaborated on this connection in 1921: "There can be no question but that a learned man like Ordóñez de Montalvo was familiar with the "Chanson de Roland" ...This derivation of the word 'California' can perhaps never be proved, but it is too plausible—and it may be added too interesting—to be overlooked." Polk characterized this theory as "imaginative speculation", adding that another scholar offered the "interestingly plausible" suggestion that Roland's "Califerne" is a corruption of the Persian "Kar-i-farn", a mythological "mountain of Paradise" where griffins lived.


title: Calafia

text: In 1923, Prosper Boissonnade, Dean of Literature at the University of Poitiers, wrote that a fortified capital city in 11th century Algeria was built and defended by the Beni-Iferne tribe of Berber people. This city was called Kalaa-Iferne or Kal-Iferne by the Arabs, and was certainly known at the time in Spain; today it is the ruins known as Beni Hammad Fort. Boissonnade said the Arab name of this fortress city likely inspired Roland and later Rodríguez de Montalvo, such that "Kal-Iferne" became first "Califerne" and then "California". John William Templeton describes how Hernán Cortés' expedition in search of California had Africans as a third of his crew, including his second-in-command, Juan Garrido. Templeton says that Calafia is exemplary of a genre of literature from the 14th to the 16th centuries that featured black women as powerful, wealthy and beautiful. Historian Jack Forbes wrote that the Spanish were quite experienced in being ruled by Africans given the Moorish occupation from 710 to 1490.


title: Calafia

text: Rodríguez de Montalvo's description of Calafia, her people and her country was based upon many centuries of stories of Amazons, groups of woman warriors who fought like men. As well, the story of an island paradise filled with gold and pearls was a recurring theme that Rodríguez de Montalvo was familiar with. In seeking new land, Spanish explorers were often led onward after hearing about a land of gold, or a land ruled by women. California historian Lynn Townsend White, Jr wrote that they considered the as-yet undiscovered California "a land of Orient with fantastic attributes". The novel about Esplandián and Calafia's domain had a strong influence on the searching Conquistadors, who believed they might find a nation of women and riches somewhere at the edge of the known world.


title: Calafia

text: In Greek mythology, Amazons are described as a nation of female warriors who live in kingdoms outside of recognized civilization, women who fight with Greek warriors. They appear in many Greek tales including those by Homer, and they are usually killed or otherwise subdued by male warriors. Male hostility to the woman warriors is expressed by Dictys of Crete who wrote that an Amazon queen "transgressed the boundaries of nature and of her sex." Niketas Choniates, a medieval Greek historian, wrote about women warriors who fought alongside men in the Second Crusade, riding horses "unashamedly astride" (rather than modestly sidesaddle), dressed as men and maintaining a very warlike appearance. Jacques de Vitry, a Bishop of Acre, and a historian of the Crusades, wrote about Amazons who fought who were stronger than men because their vitality was not "consumed in frequent copulation." In some stories, women warriors fought alongside Muslim men and in others they allied themselves to Christian armies.


title: Calafia

text: Some of the tales of Amazons describe them as having dark skin. In Africa, King Musa I of Mali was protected by black female Royal Guards on his famous and influential hajj to Mecca in 1332. Johann Schiltberger wrote in 1440 about a group of non-Caucasian Tatar Amazons, Mongol giantesses led by a vengeful princess. Columbus returned to Spain with the story of an island in the Lesser Antilles called "Matinino" (perhaps modern Martinique) that was inhabited only by women, a tale told to him by many of the natives of the West Indies. Columbus did not call the Matinino women "Amazons", but the comparison was drawn by his contemporaries.


title: Calafia

text: When encountering natives in the New World, Spanish explorers were occasionally told of a tribe composed entirely of women. One such tale was related to Cortés about a group of Amazons supposedly living in a province called Ciguatán. Juan de Grijalva was told of Amazons during his 1518 expedition through the Tabasco region of Mexico. Nuño de Guzmán followed tales of a nation of women who lived in riches on or near the sea, women with whiter skin who were accounted goddesses by the natives. He described how they used bows and arrows, and lived in many towns. Polk characterized Guzmán as driven by lust for sex and riches—his greed and sadism were well known.


title: Calafia

text: Spanish novelist Vicente Blasco Ibáñez wrote a book entitled "La reina Calafia" ("Queen Calafia") in 1924.


title: Calafia

text: A 1926 portrayal of Queen Calafia and her Amazons is found in a mural in the Room of the Dons at the Mark Hopkins Hotel in San Francisco. It was created for the opening of the hotel in 1926 by Maynard Dixon and Frank Van Sloun, and has been called "the first embodiment of Queen Califia" though criticized as showing her "haughty and aloof".


title: Calafia

text: In 1937, Lucile Lloyd unveiled her triptych mural "Origin and Development of the Name of the State of California", also known as "California Allegory", which was displayed at the State Building in Los Angeles until 1975 when the building was demolished for safety reasons. The paintings were archived, and in 1991 they were restored and mounted in the California Room of the state capitol, room 4203, renamed the John L. Burton Hearing Room. The regal central figure shows Califia dressed in proto-Mexican finery, holding a spear in her left hand and examining a gyroscope in her right.


title: Calafia

text: In 1931, Diego Rivera finished his first U.S. mural, "The Allegory of California," for the Pacific Coast Stock Exchange building (now the City Club of San Francisco).


title: Calafia

text: The publication of Our Roots Run Deep, the Black Experience in California, Vol. 1 was the lead story in the Sunday Examiner and Chronicle on Feb. 1, 1992 as reporter Greg Lewis pointed out the book's depiction of the Queen Calafia story as particularly noteworthy. An exhibition featuring Queen Calafia followed in 1995 at the Historic State Capital Museum in Sacramento with subsequent showings in the sixth Floor Gallery of the San Francisco Main Library and the Los Angeles Central Library. In 1998, the California Council on Humanities funded the seminar The Black Queen: Primary Sources in California History to promote additional primary source research in California African-American history.


title: Calafia

text: The mural of Queen Calafia is featured at the top of the new African-American Freedom Trail brochure produced by ReUNION: Education-Arts-Heritage and San Francisco Travel in November 2013.


title: Calafia

text: Within the Society for Creative Anachronism, the San Diego, CA local chapter is the Barony of Calafia, established in 1972.


title: Calafia

text: Los Angeles Times columnist Jack Smith owned a sailboat that he named "Calafia." The sailboat would occasionally be written about in his columns.


title: Calafia

text: In November 1975, the 11,000-capacity "Plaza de Toros Calafia" was completed, a bullfighting arena in the city of Mexicali, the capital of the Mexican state of Baja California. The arena is also known as "la reina Calafia" (Queen Calafia).


title: Calafia

text: "Queen Califia's Magical Circle", an outdoor sculpture garden in Escondido, California, opened in 2003, designed by famed French-American designer and artist Niki de Saint Phalle. The central character of Queen Califia is presented wearing gold glass armor atop a stylized giant bird. The final work on the sculpture garden was overseen by de Saint Phalle's granddaughter and by her assistants and technical advisers.


title: Calafia

text: In 2004, the African American Historical and Cultural Society Museum in San Francisco assembled a Queen Califia exhibit, curated by John William Templeton, featuring works by artists such as TheArthur Wright and James Gayles; artistic interpretations of Calafia. The show displayed a 1936 treatment of Lucile Lloyd's "California Allegory" triptych, with Queen Califia as the central figure. Templeton said that "Califia is a part of California history, and she also reinforces the fact that when Cortes named this place California, he had 300 black people with him." Templeton pointed out that Columbus had a black navigator and that Africans were seen by Europeans as being culturally advanced in the 15th century. William E. Hoskins, director of the museum, said that very few people know the story of Queen Califia. He said, "One of the things we're trying to do is let people have the additional insight and appreciation for the contributions of African Americans to this wonderful country and more specifically to the state of California", adding that "the Queen Califia exhibit is particularly poignant."


title: Calafia

text: Califia makes an appearance in the 2015 video game "", appearing as a member of Abraham Lincoln's strike force.


title: Calafia

text: In 2018, Queen Calafia and the mythical island of California will be the inspiration for the Mexicali Biennial, an arts program focusing on art from Mexico and California. Entitled "Calafia: Manifesting the Terrestrial Paradise", it will showcase performance, visual arts and mixed media events to interrogate the concept of myth in California's origin story.


title: Calafia

text: "Golden Dreams" was a 23-minute film and multimedia experience showing the history of California through several recreated scenes, narrated by Whoopi Goldberg as Califia, the Queen of California. A bust of Goldberg attired in queenly raiment was the target of a projected image showing Goldberg narrating the story—the sculpture appeared to come to life. The attraction, at Disney California Adventure Park at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, opened with the park on February 8, 2001. It closed to the general public on September 7, 2008, and was open only to school groups until March 2009. It was demolished in July 2009 to make way for the construction of a dark ride called .


title: Calafia

text: In 2021, the town of Sausalito, California staged the "Queen Calafia Welcoming Event", in which the Sausalito Historical Society and


title: Calafia

text: local actors depicted the fictional return of Queen Calafia to present-day California, in celebration of the legendary queen and the etymology of California.


title: Rod (optical phenomenon)

text: In cryptozoology and ufology, "rods" (also known as "skyfish", "air rods", or "solar entities") are elongated visual artifacts appearing in photographic images and video recordings.


title: Rod (optical phenomenon)

text: Some paranormal proponents claim them to be extraterrestrial lifeforms, extradimensional creatures, or very small UFOs. However, these artifacts appear naturally in video and outdoor photography as the result of an optical illusion due to motion blur, especially in interlaced video recording, and are typically afterimage trails of flying insects and their wingbeats.


title: Rod (optical phenomenon)

text: Robert Todd Carroll (2003), having consulted an entomologist (Doug Yanega), identified rods as images of flying insects recorded over several cycles of wing-beating on video recording devices. The insect captured on image a number of times, while propelling itself forward, gives the illusion of a single elongated rod-like body, with bulges.


title: Rod (optical phenomenon)

text: "The Straight Dope" columnist Cecil Adams (2020) also explained rods as such phenomena, namely tricks of light which result from how (primarily video images) of flying insects are recorded and played back. Adding that investigators have shown the rod-like bodies as resulting from motion blur, if the camera is shooting with relatively long exposure times.


title: Rod (optical phenomenon)

text: The claims of these being extraordinary creatures, possibly alien, have been advanced by either people with active imaginations, or hoaxers.


title: Rod (optical phenomenon)

text: In August 2005, China Central Television (CCTV) aired a two-part documentary about flying rods in China. It reported the events from May to June of the same year at Tonghua Zhenguo Pharmaceutical Company in Tonghua City, Jilin Province, which debunked the flying rods. Surveillance cameras in the facility's compound captured video footage of flying rods identical to those shown in Jose Escamilla's video. Getting no satisfactory answer to the phenomenon, curious scientists at the facility decided that they would try to solve the mystery by attempting to catch these airborne creatures. Huge nets were set up and the same surveillance cameras then captured images of rods flying into the trap. When the nets were inspected, the "rods" were no more than regular moths and other ordinary flying insects. Subsequent investigations proved that the appearance of flying rods on video was an optical illusion created by the slower recording speed of the camera.


title: Rod (optical phenomenon)

text: After attending a lecture by Jose Escamilla, UFO investigator Robert Sheaffer wrote that "some of his “rods” were obviously insects zipping across the field at a high angular rate" and others appeared to be “appendages” which were birds' wings blurred by the camera exposure.


title: Rod (optical phenomenon)

text: Various paranormal interpretations of this phenomenon appear in popular culture. One of the more outspoken proponents of rods as alien life forms was Jose Escamilla, who claimed to have been the first to film them on March 19, 1994 in Roswell, New Mexico, while attempting to film a UFO. Escamilla later made additional videos and embarked on lecture tours to promote his claims.


title: Daman, India

text: Daman (; Indo-Portuguese; Damao) is the capital city of the Indian union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. It is a municipal council situated in the Daman district of the union territory.


title: Daman, India

text: Daman Ganga River divides Daman into two parts — Nani-Daman (Nani meaning "small") and Moti-Daman (Moti meaning "big"). Despite its name, Nani-Daman is the larger of the two parts, while the old city is mainly in Moti-Daman. This holds most of the important entities like the major hospitals, supermarkets, and major residential areas. Vapi, Gujarat is the nearest city to Daman.


title: Daman, India

text: The Portuguese Captain-Major Diogo de Melo arrived at the Daman shore by chance in 1523 while sailing towards Ormuz. He was caught in a violent storm and had his boat blown towards the coast of Daman. Shortly after, it was acquired as a Portuguese colony for over 400 years. A larger fort was built in Moti Daman in the 16th century to guard against the Mughals, who ruled the area until the Portuguese arrived. It stands today, most of it preserved in its original form. Today the majority of the municipal government offices are inside the fort.


title: Daman, India

text: Daman was incorporated into the Republic of India in December 1961 after an attack and invasion by the Indian Army. A battle ensued with the hopelessly outnumbered (10:1) Portuguese garrison, who were forced to surrender. The battle left four Indians dead and 14 wounded; Portuguese casualties were 10 dead and two wounded.


title: Daman, India

text: According to the 2011 census Daman District, India has a population of 191,173. This gives it a ranking of 592nd in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 69.256%. Daman has a sex ratio of 533 females for every 1,000 males, and a literacy rate of 88.06%.


title: Daman, India

text: Daman has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen "Aw") with two distinct seasons: a long, sunny dry season from October to May and a hot, very humid, and extremely wet monsoon season from June to September. Almost no rain falls during the dry season. With milder mornings and lower humidity especially up to the middle of March, this is by far the most comfortable time of the year.


title: Daman, India

text: The monsoon season, though relatively short, is extremely wet. Along with the very high humidity and heavy rain every afternoon, travel is difficult and uncomfortable.


title: Daman, India

text: Indian Coast Guard Air Station, Daman is the premier air station of the Coast Guard with all the airfield facilities, air traffic control and other allied air traffic services. It is equipped with state-of-the-art airport surveillance radar (ASR), precision approach path indicator (PAPI), Doppler very high frequency omnidirectional radio range (DVOR) – distance measuring equipment (DME) and nondirectional beacon (NDB), as navigational aids. This air station provides ATC and parking facilities to defence as well as civil aircraft.


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: The Grateful Dead is the debut album of the Grateful Dead. It was released by Warner Bros. Records in March 1967. According to the biographies of both bassist Phil Lesh and drummer Bill Kreutzmann, the band released the album as San Francisco's Grateful Dead.


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: The album was primarily recorded at RCA's Studio A, in Los Angeles, in only four days. The band had wanted to record the tracks in their hometown of San Francisco, but no recording studios in the area had modernized equipment at the time. The group picked David Hassinger to produce because he had worked as an engineer on the Rolling Stones' "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" and Jefferson Airplane's "Surrealistic Pillow" album (on the latter of which Jerry Garcia had guested and suggested the album title). Due to demands by the band's label, Warner Brothers, four of the tracks were edited for length. Phil Lesh comments in his autobiography, "to my ear, the only track that sounds at all like we did at the time is "Viola Lee Blues". ...None of us had any experience with performing for recording...the whole process felt a bit rushed." Bill Kreutzmann, in his autobiography, says of the songs, "their recorded versions failed to capture the energy that we had when we performed them live. ...We weren’t that good yet. We were still learning how to be a band."


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: Though the album was considered "a big deal in San Francisco", it did not see much airplay on AM radio stations outside of the Bay Area. The freeform FM radio format that favored bands like the Dead was still developing. Warner Bros. held an album release party at the Fugazi Hall in North Beach. The label's A & R manager, Joe Smith, is noted for saying he "[is] proud that Warner Bros. is introducing the Grateful Dead to the world."


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: The band used the collective pseudonym "McGannahan Skjellyfetti" for their group-written originals and arrangements. The name was a misrendering of "Skujellifeddy", a character in Kenneth Patchen's comic novel "The Memoirs of a Shy Pornographer", plus the name of then-frontman Pigpen's cat. In an era where true authorship (or public domain status) was more difficult to ascertain, "Cold Rain and Snow" and "New, New Minglewood Blues" were originally credited as band compositions, though they were adaptations of existing songs.


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: A remastered version with the full versions of five album tracks, plus six bonus tracks, was released by Rhino as part of the box set "The Golden Road (1965–1973)" in 2001, and as a separate album in 2003. Album outtake "Alice D. Millionaire" was inspired by an autumn 1966 newspaper headline "LSD Millionaire", about the Dead's sound engineer and benefactor Owsley Stanley.


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: The album was reissued for Record Store Day 2011 on 180g vinyl cut from the original analog/mono masters from 1967 - the first time in over 40 years it had been released in this form. The 2013 high-definition digital, remastered release features the edited versions, as originally released, of the four tracks which were extended for the 2003 Rhino release.


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: This edition was given a new version for the album's 50th anniversary in 2017, including a second CD featuring live material from a pair of July 1966 concerts in the Garden Auditorium, Vancouver, Canada. The second CD was released on vinyl as a stand-alone double LP on Record Store Day 2017.


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: On the originally prepared artwork, the writing for the top of the album cover read "In the land of the dark, the ship of the sun is drawn by the Grateful Dead", a passage taken from the Egyptian Book of the Dead. As the book had become more widely read, some had mistakenly assumed that the band had taken their name from the quote:


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: "We now return our souls to the creator, as we stand on the edge of eternal darkness. Let our chant fill the void in order that others may know. In the land of the night, the ship of the sun is drawn by the grateful dead." They hadn't, and because Garcia worried that it seemed "pretentious", and the band were uneasy about being seen as beholden to any specific philosophy or doctrine, they asked the artist, Stanley Mouse, to stylize the script so that all but the band name were illegible. The central image depicts a 12th-century Chola sculpture of Yoga-Narasimha, an avatar of Vishnu. The sculpture is currently housed at the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: Reviewing in 1967 for "The Village Voice", Richard Goldstein called the album "straight, decent rhythm and blues" and "a perfect illustration" of "a GOOD ALBUM, like those long lasting cold remedies … filled with tiny time capsules which burst open at their own speed. Cuts that astound at first fade as subtle ballads emerge. Great blasts of noise vanish as haunting melodies appear. A line suddenly hits home... a phrase... a shade of meaning, and the whole album becomes something else again."


title: The Grateful Dead (album)

text: In 2007, "The Grateful Dead" was included on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 40 essential albums from 1967. In a piece accompanying the list, Robert Christgau wrote of the album:


title: Juni Taisen: Zodiac War

text: In a city of half a million people who have all been removed, twelve of the deadliest warriors with the names and attributes of the Chinese zodiac animals are pitted against each other in the twelfth Zodiac Tournament, which takes place every twelve years. During this rendition, each warrior is asked to swallow one of twelve crystallized poison jewels known as Beast Gems ("Juseki"), which will kill each of the warriors after twelve hours. To be granted any one wish of their choosing, the winner must retrieve all the crystals from the other eleven competitors before the deadline (midnight, December 12). It becomes a ruthless battle where survival is crucial by any means.


title: Juni Taisen: Zodiac War

text: Nisio Isin and Hikaru Nakamura wrote and illustrated the novel respectively, which was published by Shueisha on May 19, 2015. Viz Media have licensed the light novel for an English release in 2017. Its light novel sequel was released on December 12, 2017.


title: Juni Taisen: Zodiac War

text: A prequel short-story to "Jūni Taisen Tai Jūni Taisen" titled was included in the November 2017 issue of "Jump Square" bonus booklet released on October 4, 2017. It was later reprinted in the fourth volume of the manga adaptation.


title: Juni Taisen: Zodiac War

text: A manga adaptation by Akira Akatsuki has been announced and was serialized in Shueisha's "Shōnen Jump+" app and website on September 23, 2017. Viz Media started distributing the manga via "Weekly Shonen Jump" on September 23, 2017. It was published until May 12, 2018 and collected into four volumes.


title: Juni Taisen: Zodiac War

text: An anime adaptation is produced by Graphinica, with Naoto Hosoda directing, Sadayuki Murai writing scripts, Chikashi Kadekaru designing characters, and Go Shiina composing the music. It aired from October 3 to December 19, 2017. The opening theme is "Rapture" by Panorama Panama Town, while the ending theme is by Do as Infinity. It ran for 12 episodes. Crunchyroll streamed the series. Funimation streamed the series with a simuldub. In Australia and New Zealand, Madman Entertainment is distributing the series, on behalf of Funimation.


title: Roark Capital Group

text: Roark Capital Group is an American private equity firm with over $33 billion in assets under management. The firm is focused on leveraged buyout investments in middle-market companies, primarily in the franchise/multi-location, restaurant and food, health and wellness, and business services sectors. It is named for Howard Roark, the protagonist in Ayn Rand's novel "The Fountainhead". The firm claims that its name is not meant to connote any particular political philosophy but instead signify the firm's admiration for the iconoclastic qualities of independence and self-assurance embodied by the central figure in "The Fountainhead".


title: Roark Capital Group

text: The firm, which is based in Atlanta, Georgia, was founded in 2001 by the current Managing Partner, Neal K. Aronson. Senior team members include President Paul D. Ginsberg, Chief Investment Officer Erik O. Morris, and Managing Directors Timothy Armstrong, Stephen D. Aronson, Dennis Gies, Clay Harmon, Geoff Hill, Kevin Hofmann, Ian Picache, Gregory Smith, Sarah Spiegel, Michael Thompson, and David Wierman.


title: Roark Capital Group

text: Prior to founding Roark Capital Group in 2001, Aronson was a co-founder of U.S. Franchise Systems in 1995. Roark currently is investing out of its fifth institutional private equity fund.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: Miklós "Miki" Fehér (; 20 July 1979 – 25 January 2004) was a Hungarian professional footballer who played as a striker.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: He spent most of his nine-year career in Portugal, representing four clubs and amassing Primeira Liga totals of 80 games and 27 goals. On 25 January 2004, he died of a cardiac arrest during a match between Vitória de Guimarães and his team Benfica in Guimarães.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: Fehér represented Hungary national team at international level, making his debut in 1998 at the age of 19.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: Born in Tatabánya, Fehér started his playing career at Győri ETO FC, where he was spotted by FC Porto scouts. He was signed in 1998 but never really made a breakthrough onto the first team, being loaned to gain experience from ages 20 to 21 to another two northern sides, S.C. Salgueiros and S.C. Braga.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: At Braga, Fehér had his best professional season, scoring 14 Primeira Liga goals in 26 games in 2000–01. After Porto chairman Jorge Nuno Pinto da Costa quarrelled with his agent José Veiga, the player refused to part with the latter and left, joining Lisbon side S.L. Benfica and going on to net eight official goals over two seasons.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: On 25 January 2004, Fehér was in Guimarães with Benfica to play against Vitória de Guimarães. The game was being broadcast live on television, and Benfica were leading 1–0. Fehér had just come on as a substitute and assisted another player just off the bench, Fernando Aguiar, for the match's only goal, but received a yellow card in injury time and suddenly bent forward, seemingly in pain; he then fell backwards to the ground.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: Members of both teams rushed immediately to aid Fehér before medical personnel arrived on the pitch. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation was performed, an ambulance arrived on the pitch and he was rushed to the hospital. His condition was covered by the Portuguese media throughout the day and, before midnight, his death was confirmed, the cause of death being cardiac arrhythmia brought on by hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. In his memory Benfica retired the number 29 shirt, which he wore during his time at the club. He was remembered by many and his death caused a profound shock in Portuguese sports. Among others, Porto director of football Reinaldo Teles and manager José Mourinho paid their respects at the Estádio da Luz, where the player's body remained before his burial in his native Hungary.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: Benfica's delegation, which included president Luís Filipe Vieira, coach Giovanni Trapattoni and the entire first-team squad, travelled to Hungary, presenting Fehér's parents with the 2004–05 league championship medal, in respect for the player and his time with the club. They had previously dedicated the 2003–04 Taça de Portugal trophy to him.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: On 9 October 2009, the day before their 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Portugal in Lisbon, the Hungary national team squad laid a wreath next to a metal bust of Fehér at Benfica's homeground, in tribute to his memory. Before a UEFA Europa Conference League game at the ground where he died, Hungarian club Puskás Akadémia FC paid tribute to him on 20 July 2022, which would have been his 43rd birthday.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: Fehér earned his first cap for the Hungary national team on 10 October 1998, in a UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying match against Azerbaijan. He came on as a sixth-minute substitute for Ferenc Horváth at the Tofiq Bahramov Stadium in Baku, and scored the final goal of the 4–0 win.


title: Miklós Fehér

text: On 11 October 2000, Fehér netted a hat-trick in a 6–1 away rout of Lithuania for the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifiers. In total, he scored seven goals in 25 appearances.


title: Gandu (film)

text: Gandu is a 2010 Indian erotic black-and-white art drama film directed by Qaushiq Mukherjee. It features Anubrata, Joyraj, Kamalika, Silajit, and Rii in the lead roles. The film's music is by the alternative rock band Five Little Indians. "Gandu" previewed at Yale University before making its international premiere on 29 October 2010 at the 2010 South Asian International Film Festival in New York City. "Gandu" was an official selection at the 2011 Berlin International Film Festival and was also screened at the Slamdance Film Festival.


title: Gandu (film)

text: "Gandu" has received mainly positive reviews from critics. John Reis called it "a stunning visual and narrative feast" while "Variety" said it is "a happily transgressive rhyme-fueled romp". Gandu has caused some controversy because of language and scenes of nudity and sex. Many audiences left during the sex scenes. Because of the controversy the film did not have its first public screening in India until 2012 at the Osian Film Festival. The main star Anubrata Basu is shown with his penis fully erect in a sex scene with Rii Sen.


title: Gandu (film)

text: The movie is set on the life of an unnamed protagonist who is called Gandu by most who address him in the movie (an Indian slang/swear word that would literally translate to 'of the ass', the English translation running in the subtitle translates it to the English 'Asshole'). Gandu is portrayed as a frustrated teenager whose state of mind is shown by intercuts of him rapping in Bengali (it is later revealed in the movie that he is also the member of a rap band). Gandu's mother seemingly supports the family through the magnanimity of her 'lover' Dasbabu. Gandu's mother and Dasbabu are shown having graphic sex a number of times. Gandu himself is shown repeatedly sneaking into the room of the copulating couple to steal money from Dasbabu's wallet, which he uses to buy drugs and play games in Dasbabu's Internet Cafe. Gandu seemingly has complex emotions regarding this stealing and takes care to hide it from his mother .


title: Gandu (film)

text: Gandu is also apparently quite lonely. His choice of hairstyle (shaved nearly bald) and general proclivity to drugs and rap makes him an object of ridicule in front of most of his peers, who mock him as 'Egghead Gandu'. His loneliness is dispelled when he literally bumps into 'Ricksha', a cycle rickshaw driver, who slaps Gandu and then scares him off by a bizarre show of Kung Fu. That night Gandu has a dream of himself and Ricksha in a near naked embrace.


title: Gandu (film)

text: On one of his stealing missions, Gandu's mother sees him and hides him from Dasbabu and seemingly laughs in complicity. This causes Gandu great anguish and he curses in frustration. His mother then comes and knocks on his door. He is late in responding and she slaps him angrily and walks away.


title: Gandu (film)

text: Gandu urges Rickshaw to 'take him away'. Ricksha and Gandu then go off to consume Dhatura seeds which causes them both to go on a strange and extremely intense trip. When they come to their senses they find they have no money. In a meta narrativistic scene the director Q himself drives into the scene and Gandu is told by Ricksha how Gandu is a character in a movie being shot by Q. Gandu cannot quite comprehend this.


title: Gandu (film)

text: Gandu comes back to Kolkata to find that he has won the Bhutan State lottery of fifty thousand rupees; then he gives his mother some of the money and goes on a crack binge with Ricksha. Ricksha then admonishes him for never having actually slept with a woman despite incessantly rapping about cunt, pussy and sex. Gandu then has a surrealistic and very explicit sex with an unnamed hooker, who constantly meows and at the end of coitus whispers 'demo' to him. Gandu goes back to Ricksha telling him how he will now record a demo of his rap and show it to the Asian Dub Foundation. The movie closes with Gandu finally becoming successful.


title: Gandu (film)

text: "Gandu" was shot in Kolkata on a limited budget with only eight crew members. It was filmed in black and white with one scene in color and had no official script. Q. used a high-definition Canon EOS 7D Single-lens reflex camera to shoot the film. In order to prepare the cast for their nude scenes, Q. required them to undergo several workshops in which they used boal techniques. Rituparna, who plays several different roles in the film, is Q.'s real life girlfriend.


title: Gandu (film)

text: The film's soundtrack has garnered rave reviews as well, composed by the Calcutta-based alternative rock band Five Little Indians and mixed by London-based producer Miti Adhikari.


title: Still Over It

text: Still Over It is the second studio album by American singer and songwriter Summer Walker. It was released through LVRN and Interscope on November 5, 2021. The album contains guest appearances from Cardi B, JT from City Girls, SZA, Ari Lennox, Lil Durk, Pharrell Williams, Omarion, and Ciara. On the two-year anniversary of their debut studio album, Walker announced the release of "Still Over It" through a video teaser.


title: Still Over It

text: A direct follow-up to Walker's debut album, "Over It" (2019), "Still Over It" is considered a "story," exploring Walker's tumultuous relationship with producer London on da Track before, during, and after their pregnancy. Each song is aligned to a timeline starting from August 4, 2019 to October 7, 2021. The album shares a contemporary R&B appeal with 2000s R&B, neo soul, and trap elements throughout.


title: Still Over It

text: Upon release, "Still Over It" garnered widespread acclaim from music critics and appeared on numerous year-end lists. Critics particularly commended the album's cohesiveness and introspective lyrics and deemed it Walker's best album to date. Also a commercial success, the album broke the record for most album streams in a single day by a female artist on Apple Music. It debuted atop the US "Billboard" 200, becoming Walker's first number-one album, and the highest charting album from a female R&B artist since Beyoncé's "Lemonade" (2016). The lead single "Ex for a Reason" featuring JT from City Girls was released on October 15, 2021.


title: Still Over It

text: Following the release of "Over It", Walker released their EP, "Life on Earth" on July 20, 2020, and surprised fans after announcing their pregnancy with then-boyfriend and executive producer of "Over It", London on da Track. After giving birth to their daughter in March 2021, the singer hinted at new music on their social media platforms. In June, Walker shared photos in the studio with artists Omarion, SZA, and producer Pharrell Williams. In early October, Walker intended on appearing at the 2021 BET Hip Hop Awards' red carpet to announce their second album. However, due to COVID-19 restrictions (which Walker had been vocal about two months earlier), they were uninvited. Therefore, they shared the album announcement on social media, revealing the details outside on a projector.


title: Still Over It

text: "Still Over It" is a sequel, or direct follow-up, to Walker's "Over It" in 2019. Prior to Walker's publicized break-up with producer London on da Track and giving birth to their daughter, Walker became the face of social media controversy regarding their relationship. According to Walker, the album is considered a "story". The singer revealed the album's tracklist which is organized as a timeline, with its 20 tracks starting from August 4, 2019, to October 7, 2021. The dates hint at when the songs were either written, recorded, or developed, but symbolically represent the timeline after the success of Walker's debut album.


title: Still Over It

text: DeAsia Page of "Pitchfork" described "Still Over It" as a "journey through a messy and complicated breakup", which is directly based on Walker's relationship with the producer. According to an exclusive message Walker provided for Apple Music, Walker described the album as a reflection of their mistakes. Walker writes, "You don't have to guess if something is love. Love is shown through actions. Stop making excuses for people who don't show up for you. Don't ignore the red flags. And don't think you have to stay somewhere 'cause you can't find better—you can and you will. Don't settle for less—you don't deserve it and neither does your family."


title: Still Over It

text: On October 25, Walker revealed two official album covers on their social media platforms. The main artwork, which is for the physical release, displays the artist holding their daughter while on the phone in the kitchen. The digital artwork features Walker in a car with their hand towards the camera, fending off paparazzi. The physical artwork was photographed by Deun Ivory, while the digital artwork was taken by photographer Rolex, who notably shot the artwork for their 2020 EP, "Life on Earth" and singer Bryson Tiller's third album "Anniversary".


title: Still Over It

text: "Still Over It" opens with a "hazy stream of consciousness" as the track "Bitter" addresses Walker's social media feuds with the mothers of producer London on da Track's children, which they had addressed on their platforms months prior. At the end of the song, Cardi B expresses her support of Walker, encouraging them to address their pregnancy in their music. The album transitions into the second track and lead single "Ex for a Reason", an uptempo 2000s-inspired R&B track produced by Sean Garrett. The song conveys "emotions behind dating someone that's moved on from a past relationship."


title: Still Over It

text: On the third track "No Love", Walker and SZA declare emotional detachment in favor of sexual gratification. The fourth track "Throw It Away" samples Keke Wyatt and Avant's song "Nothing in This World" as Walker mourns about a broken relationship. "Reciprocate" and "You Don't Know Me" both tackle the need for communication as their lover does the "bare minimum" to keep the relationship going. "Circus" and "Insane" are both neo soul tracks about efforts in keeping a complicated relationship together, although it affects their mentally.


title: Still Over It

text: "Constant Bullshit" is another 2000s R&B-influenced track with layered harmonies reminiscent of singer Brandy. The song, along with "Switch a Nigga Out" continue the singer's grief of a fallen relationship, admitting their own flaws within it. "Unloyal" is a neo soul song with singer Ari Lennox and a saxophone solo, bringing both artists to a breaking point with their past lovers. Before the album's release, Walker revealed "Unloyal" is their favorite song on the album and commended Lennox's contributions to the track.


title: Still Over It

text: On the twelfth track "Closure", Walker sings about ending an unhealthy relationship over a nostalgic R&B beat. The song transitions into "Toxic" with rapper Lil Durk, a song about a complicated relationship that comes with benefits. The fourteenth track "Dat Right There" is a Neptunes-produced track, described as an upbeat, petty anthem similar to the second track, where Walker "emphasizes [their] sexual prowess" and boasts about taking other women's boyfriends. "Screwin" is a slow R&B track where Walker and Omarion exchange sexually explicit banter. "Broken Promises" is another slow track where the singer confronts their past lover for not living up to his standards. The seventeenth track "Session 33" is a follow-up to Walker's 2018 debut single "Session 32", as Walker confronts London on da Track for infidelity after their pregnancy. The nineteenth track "4th Baby Mama" starts with a sample of Profyle's "Liar", and Walker begins with "I wanna start with your mama, she should've whooped your ass" to address London on da Track's infidelity and lack of support for their pregnancy. The album closes with a narration from singer Ciara, delivering "an earnest appeal to Jesus to send her a deserving partner."


title: Still Over It

text: On October 2, Walker shared a photo of a jewel-encrusted hard drive with "Album #2" taped on the bottom; the post's caption linked fans to a separate Instagram account (of the hard drive) further promoting the album. On October 4, the two-year anniversary of "Over It", Walker released a teaser via social media, sharing a skit featuring themself and City Girls member, JT. The skit involves a phone conversation between Walker, in the same attire from their first album's artwork, and JT, who appears in jail (similar to


title: Still Over It

text: the artist's incarceration around the time of the debut album's release). On October 17, Walker announced a challenge in select cities New York City, Chicago, and Atlanta, where fans can listen to the album early by attempting to break a glass case with the album's hard drive inside. The challenge has been featured heavily on TikTok.


title: Still Over It

text: The album was released on November 5, 2021, and available in both digital and physical formats, including a Target-exclusive, with an alternative black-and-white artwork and an additional a cappella bonus track of "Broken Promises". Also, Walker released limited copies of physically-written autographed CDs on their official website. After an instant sell-out, the singer released limited autographed copies in digital format, solely for fans who were not able to purchase an autographed CD. The digital version featured two bonus tracks: a cappella versions of "Circus" and "Constant Bullshit".


title: Still Over It

text: On November 8, Walker performed a solo version of "Unloyal" on "The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon", making it their second appearance on the show and their first live performance promoting "Still Over It". A day after, Walker performed songs from "Still Over It" as well as their past songs during a livestream performance exclusively for YouTube Premium subscribers. On November 28, Walker performed "Unloyal" alongside Ari Lennox at the 2021 Soul Train Music Awards, making it their second appearance at the annual ceremony after winning Best New Artist in 2019.


title: Still Over It

text: "Still Over It" was met with widespread acclaim upon release. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 85, based on eight reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Still Over It

text: Josh Abraham of "Clash" wrote the album "serves up Summer Walker's best work yet. It's brutal, yet romantic, it's fun, yet flirty, it's everything any listener could be wanting. A rollercoaster of emotions and [they're] not even finished yet." "NME"s Kyann-Sian Williams stated that "Walker has a song here for every feeling following a crushing break-up, from confusion to anger to outright pettiness – and it's the kind of unwavering quality that we all love [them] for." Megan Jordan of "Rolling Stone" opined that "Musically, "Over It" nodded to R&B icons of the Nineties and early 2000s like 702 and Usher. "Still Over It" builds on that sound, with poppier moments like 'Dat Right There,' and 'Ex for a Reason,' which features a hard-hitting rap from JT of City Girls. The sultry 'No Love,' featuring SZA, is a sex anthem about the need to sometimes 'fuck, get drunk,' without the messy emotions that could come with attachment. The album moves smoothly and slowly on songs like 'You Don't Know Me,' the Ari Lennox feature 'Unloyal,' and the sexy ballad 'Screwin,' showcasing both Walker's multifaceted voice and the excellent range of duet partner Omarion." Luke Ballance of "The Line of Best Fit" said although the album is "Littered with a variety of appearances from A-listers like Cardi B, SZA and Ciara over the course of its twenty tracks, it still finds Walker front and centre, with [their] characteristically introspective lyrics feeling more gripping than ever."


title: Still Over It

text: "Still Over It" debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 dated November 20, 2021, with 166,000 album-equivalent units, becoming Summer Walker's first number-one album and the first number-one R&B album by a woman since Beyoncé's "Lemonade" in 2016. It also had the biggest opening week of 2021 for an R&B album and the largest streaming figures for a female R&B album, with over 201.1 million streams of the album's tracks. The album broke the record for the most concurrent songs on the South African Music Chart, with all 20 songs debuting within the chart's top 100 in the week ending November 18, 2021.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: Clayton Magleby Christensen (April 6, 1952January 23, 2020) was an American academic and business consultant who developed the theory of "disruptive innovation", which has been called the most influential business idea of the early 21st century. Christensen introduced "disruption" in his 1997 book "The Innovator's Dilemma", and it led "The Economist" to term him "the most influential management thinker of his time." He served as the Kim B. Clark Professor of Business Administration at the Harvard Business School (HBS), and was also a leader and writer in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). One of the founders of the Jobs to Be Done development methodology.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: Christensen was also a co-founder of Rose Park Advisors, a venture capital firm, and Innosight, a management consulting and investment firm specializing in innovation.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: Clayton Christensen was born on April 6, 1952, in Salt Lake City, Utah, the second of eight children born to Robert M. Christensen (1926–1976) and his wife, Verda Mae Christensen ("née" Fuller; 1922–2004). He grew up in the Rose Park neighborhood of Salt Lake City and attended West High School, where he was student body president. Christensen and his siblings were raised as members of the LDS Church. Christensen was an avid basketball player who stood tall, and later became the starting center on the men's basketball team during his time at the University of Oxford.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: After graduating from high school in 1970, Christensen was accepted to Harvard University, Yale University, and Brigham Young University (BYU). He "decided to make the decision a matter of prayer" and felt a "clear impression" to attend BYU, which had awarded him a full scholarship. Christensen majored in economics, and was classmates in his first-year economics course with future U.S. presidential candidate Mitt Romney and future Harvard Business School dean Kim B. Clark. While at BYU, he took a two-year leave of absence from 1971 to 1973 to serve as a volunteer full-time missionary for the LDS Church. He was assigned to serve in South Korea and became a fluent speaker of Korean. Christensen returned to BYU after completing his missionary service, and in 1975 graduated with an Honors B.A. "summa cum laude" in economics.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: After graduating from BYU, Christensen won a Rhodes Scholarship and spent two years studying applied econometrics at Oxford University's Queen's College, receiving an M.Phil. in 1977. While at Oxford, Christensen was a member of the men's basketball team, winning back-to-back British University Sports Federation championships in 1975 and 1976 and the English Basketball Association's national championship for non-league teams in 1977. Christensen then returned to the United States to attend the Harvard Business School, receiving an MBA with high distinction in 1979.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: After receiving his MBA in 1979, Christensen began working for Boston Consulting Group (BCG) as a consultant and project manager. In 1982, he was named a White House Fellow and took a one-year leave of absence from BCG to work in Washington, D.C. as an assistant to the U.S. Secretary of Transportation, serving under both Drew Lewis and Elizabeth Dole. In 1984, he and several professors from Massachusetts Institute of Technology founded an advanced ceramics company called Ceramics Process Systems Corporation (now known as CPS Technologies). Christensen served as its president and CEO through the late 1980s, then decided to leave the company and become a university professor. He returned to Harvard for doctoral study in business, receiving a Doctor of Business Administration degree in 1992. After completing his doctorate, Christensen joined the Harvard Business School's faculty and set a record by achieving the rank of "full" professor in only six years.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: In 2000, he founded Innosight LLC, a consulting and training firm. In 2005, together with his colleagues at Innosight, he launched Innosight Ventures, a venture firm focused on investing in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. In 2007, he co-founded Rose Park Advisors LLC (named after the neighborhood in Salt Lake City where he grew up), an investment company that applies his research as an investment strategy.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: He served on the board of directors of Tata Consultancy Services (NSE: TCS), Franklin Covey (NYSE: FC), and the Becket Fund for Religious Liberty. He also served for a time on the editorial board of the "Deseret News".


title: Clayton Christensen

text: At HBS, he taught an elective course he designed called "Building and Sustaining a Successful Enterprise", which teaches how to build and manage an enduring, successful company or transform an existing organization, and also in many of the school's executive education programs. Christensen was awarded a full professorship with tenure in 1998, and held eight honorary doctorates and an honorary chaired professorship at the National Tsinghua University in Taiwan.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: Christensen was the best-selling author of ten books, including his seminal work "The Innovator's Dilemma" (1997), which received the Global Business Book Award for the best business book of the year. One of the main concepts depicted in this book is also his most disseminated and famous one: disruptive innovation. The concept has been growing in interest over time since 2004, according to Google Trends data. However, due to constant misinterpretation, Christensen often wrote articles trying to explain the concept even further. Some of his other books are focused on specific industries and discuss social issues such as education and health care. "Disrupting Class" (2008) looks at the root causes of why schools struggle and offers solutions, while "The Innovator's Prescription" (2009) examines how to fix the American healthcare system. The latter two books have received numerous awards as the best books on education and health care in their respective years of publication. "The Innovator's Prescription" was also awarded the 2010 James A. Hamilton Award, by the College of Healthcare Executives.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: In 2017, Christensen predicted that “50 percent of the 4,000 colleges and universities in the U.S. will be bankrupt in 10 to 15 years.”


title: Clayton Christensen

text: Christensen and his wife Christine ("née" Quinn) married in 1976. They had three sons, Matthew, Michael, and Spencer, and two daughters, Ann and Catherine. Their eldest son, Matthew Christensen (b. 1977), was a member of Duke University's 2001 National Championship basketball team.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: As a member of the LDS Church, Christensen served from 1971 to 1973 as a missionary in Korea and spoke fluent Korean. He served in several leadership positions in the church, including as an area seventy from 2002 to 2009, a counselor in the presidency of the Massachusetts Boston Mission, and as a bishop. His book, "The Power of Everyday Missionaries", was a leading work in the LDS Church on how all people could be involved in sharing the gospel no matter their position in the church. He was also a moving force behind the creation of "For All The Saints", a book by Kristen Smith Dayley on the history of the LDS Church in New England, published in 2012 to which Christensen wrote the foreword.


title: Clayton Christensen

text: In February 2010, Christensen was diagnosed with follicular lymphoma, and in July 2010 he had an ischemic stroke that damaged his speech and required him to undergo speech therapy. In 2011, Christensen published two books: "The Innovative University" and "The Innovator’s DNA" (Harvard Business Press). Christensen died from complications of leukemia on January 23, 2020, aged 67.


title: Ceolwulf of Wessex

text: Ceolwulf (died 611) was a King of Wessex. At that early date the West Saxons were called the Gewisse, and in his "Dictionary of National Biography" entry he is given the title "king of the Gewisse". According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" he reigned fourteen years and the Annals of St Neots also allot him fourteen years. The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List gives him a reign of seventeen years.


title: Ceolwulf of Wessex

text: Ceolwulf was the son of Cutha (probably Cuthwulf) and the grandson of Cynric, and succeeded his older brother Ceol. According to the "Chronicle" he was a powerful ruler who "continually fought and contended either against the English, or the Britons, or the Picts, or the Scots", but it is unlikely that he fought against the Picts or the Scots. His only recorded battle was against the South Saxons in 607, perhaps for control of the Isle of Wight and south Hampshire, but he probably laid the foundations for West Saxon expansion against the British and Saxon peoples of the south and west. He may have begun to construct a regional overlordship among the groups who comprised the West Saxons.


title: Igor Štimac

text: Igor Štimac (; born 6 September 1967) is a Croatian football coach and former player who played as a centre back. He is the current head coach of the Indian national team.


title: Igor Štimac

text: In his playing career, Štimac had three spells with Hajduk Split and also played for Cádiz in Spain, and for Derby County and West Ham United in England. He represented the Croatia national team 53 times, playing at Euro 1996 and at the 1998 World Cup, when Croatia finished third. He also represented Yugoslavia when they won the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship.


title: Igor Štimac

text: As a manager, Štimac was in charge of the Croatia national team from 2012 to 2013. In club football, he has had brief spells in charge of Hajduk Split, Cibalia, NK Zagreb, Zadar, Iranian club Sepahan and Qatari club Al-Shahania. On 15 May 2019, Štimac was appointed as the head coach of India national team on a two-year contract.


title: Igor Štimac

text: At the club level Štimac played for his local Croatian club Hajduk Split and, most notably, the English club Derby County. Štimac arrived at the Baseball Ground on 31 October 1995 for a fee of £1.5 million from Hajduk Split. He scored a goal on his debut for the Rams away at Tranmere, but the Rams fell to a heavy 5–1 defeat. The rest of the season was more successful, as Derby gained promotion and remained unbeaten in 20 consecutive matches.


title: Igor Štimac

text: Štimac played nearly four years with the Rams, and made 84 league appearances for the Rams, in addition to seven FA Cup appearances and two League Cup appearances. He was sold on 29 August 1999 to West Ham United for £600,000, where he scored once, against Newcastle United.


title: Igor Štimac

text: Štimac played for the Croatia national team, winning 53 caps and scoring two goals, and formed part of a Croatia squad that won the bronze medal at the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Previously, Štimac was a member of the highly talented Yugoslavia under-20 team that won the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship in Chile, playing four games and scoring two goals in the tournament.


title: Igor Štimac

text: Štimac started his managerial career in 2001, taking charge of the Hajduk Split football academy and also acting as the club's sport director. Hajduk won two championships during this time (2003–04 and 2004–05). In 2004–05 season he took managerial position for the last 10 games after replacing Blaž Slišković. With many difficulties he managed to win championship but lost the cup final to HNK Rijeka. In the spring of 2006, he also spent a few months coaching Croatian first division side Cibalia, saving them from relegation. On 14 September 2009, he was appointed as the new NK Zagreb manager after they lost the first seven games of the season, replacing Luka Pavlović. However Štimac managed to save NK Zagreb from relegation and left the club at the end of the season.


title: Igor Štimac

text: On 5 July 2012, Štimac was appointed as the new Croatia national football team manager, after the departure of his former national team teammate Slaven Bilić. His first match as Croatia manager came in a friendly game against Switzerland at Poljud Stadium, which ended in a disappointing 2–4 loss. Despite that loss, Croatia entered the 2014 World Cup qualifies in decent fashion, taking 16 points from first six games. However, the results were not representative of Croatia's form on the pitch, as the team only had a goal difference of +7 from those six matches and scored the majority of their goals from set pieces, counterattacks, and defensive errors by their opponents. Then started a period of very poor results starting with a 0–1 loss to Scotland at Maksimir on 7 June 2013. Following this Croatia lost 0–1 in a friendly match to Portugal on 10 June 2013 and then barely beat 148th ranked Liechtenstein 3–2 in a friendly match thanks to an 86th-minute goal by Eduardo on 14 August 2013.


title: Igor Štimac

text: In their next world cup qualifying match, Croatia drew 1–1 against rivals Serbia in Belgrade, despite only having one shot on target and two shots overall. This was followed by another loss at home at Maksimir, this time to eventual group winners Belgium with a result of 1–2. With only one World Cup qualifying match to go, Štimac had become widely unpopular in Croatia with one poll conducted by popular domestic newspaper "24sata" resulting in 98% of voters in favor of sacking Štimac. On 15 October 2013, Croatia lost their final World Cup qualifying match 0–2 against Scotland. After the 0–2 loss to Scotland, Štimac tendered his resignation to the HNS president, former star footballer and national team teammate of Štimac, Davor Šuker. The following day, Šuker accepted his resignation. Croatia ending qualifying as the second to last ranked second place team, having only one more point than last placed Denmark, thus taking the final play-off round spot.


title: Igor Štimac

text: Despite some criticism Štimac managed to take the FIFA Ranking of Croatia to 4th position just behind Spain, Germany and Argentina, respectively. Players like Mateo Kovačić and Alen Halilović also made their debuts for the Croatia national team during Štimac's stint.


title: Igor Štimac

text: In the beginning of 2015, Štimac was named as new manager at Prva HNL club Zadar. Štimac quit after only six months in charge, as club was administratively relegated to second division by the licensing board of the HNS due to financial irregularities 3 games before the league ended. Following Štimac's resignation, Zadar club president Josip Bajlo said, "I would like to thank Mr. Štimac for the five months that he has worked in Zadar, and he has still done the best in such situation".


title: Igor Štimac

text: On 12 November 2015, he became head coach of Sepahan, replacing Hossein Faraki. He resigned as Sepahan head coach on 20 April 2016, after a run of unsuccessful results which led Sepahan in the 11th place and out of both season's cups, Hazfi Cup and AFC Champions League.


title: Igor Štimac

text: On 15 May 2019, the All India Football Federation announced him as the country's head coach after the departure of Stephen Constantine. His first campaign with India was 2019 King's Cup where his first match as head coach was against Curaçao, which ended up as 3−1 loss where he has given six players their international debut but in the next match against the host Thailand he managed the team to a 1−0 victory acquiring the third place in the tournament and his first win after his appointment as the head coach.


title: Igor Štimac

text: For 2022 World Cup qualification, his campaign with India started with a 1–2 home loss to Oman, but steered the team to earn a respectable point after managing a draw against the 2019 Asian Champion and 2022 FIFA World Cup hosts Qatar. Despite this, India only managed draws against much lower ranked teams, Bangladesh at home and Afghanistan in away. India went on to be beaten by Oman and Qatar, as well as gaining only a draw over Afghanistan with their only win in the qualification being, a 2–0 win against neighbour Bangladesh, to finish in third place with only six points gained, thus not qualifying for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, even though it was the highest position India gained since the 2002 qualification that guaranteed India a place in the upcoming 2023 AFC Asian Cup qualification.


title: Igor Štimac

text: Stimac took charge of the India national under-23 football team at the start of their qualification campaign for the 2022 AFC Under 23 Cup in Uzbekistan, by playing three games for Group E in the centralised venue at the Fujairah Stadium, Fujairah, UAE.


title: Igor Štimac

text: On 24 October 2021, he started his tenure with a 2 to 1 victory over the Oman U23 team in Group E encounter in Fujairah.


title: Alice Waters

text: Alice Louise Waters (born April 28, 1944) is an American chef, restaurateur, and author. In 1971 she opened Chez Panisse, a Berkeley, California restaurant famous for its role in creating the farm-to-table movement and for pioneering California cuisine.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters has authored the books "Chez Panisse Cooking" (with Paul Bertolli), "The Art of Simple Food I" and "II", and "40 Years of Chez Panisse". Her memoir, "Coming to my Senses: The Making of a Counterculture Cook" was published in September 2017 and released in paperback in May 2018.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters created the Chez Panisse Foundation in 1996, and the Edible Schoolyard program at the Martin Luther King Middle School in Berkeley. She is a national public policy advocate for universal access to healthy, organic foods. Her influence in the fields of organic foods and nutrition inspired Michelle Obama's White House organic vegetable garden program.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters was born in Chatham Borough, New Jersey, on April 28, 1944, to Charles Allen Waters, a Rutgers University graduate who was a management consultant, and Margaret Waters, a homemaker. Alice graduated from the University of California, Berkeley, receiving a degree in French cultural studies in 1967. While at Berkeley, she studied abroad in France, where she shopped for local produce and prepared fresh, simple foods to enhance the table experience. During her time in France, she says she "lived at the bottom of a market street" and "took everything in by osmosis".


title: Alice Waters

text: She brought this style of food preparation back to Berkeley, where she popularized the concept of market-fresh cooking, using the local products available in Northern California. She claims that food is a way of life and not just something to eat.


title: Alice Waters

text: During her time at Berkeley, Waters became active in the Free Speech Movement, which was sweeping across the campus.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters worked on the congressional campaign of Robert Scheer, an anti-Vietnam War politician. She often cooked for and entertained her fellow campaigners.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters eventually returned to Europe, where she first trained at a Montessori school in London. Principles of the Montessori method, which emphasize practical and hands-on activities for children, are evident in Waters's idea of "edible education" and her Edible Schoolyard, which engages children in the preparation of fruits and vegetables that they tend to with the supervision of their teachers.


title: Alice Waters

text: After training in London, Waters next traveled to Turkey, which she credits with influencing her approach to hospitality and deepening her respect for local communities. In his book "Alice Waters and Chez Panisse", Thomas McNamee recounts Waters's experience in Turkey, where a young Turkish boy shared tea and a small bit of cheese with Waters and her traveling companions, even though he had very little. This small act of kindness had an effect on Waters's approach to hospitality and generosity in her own restaurant.


title: Alice Waters

text: From Turkey, Waters then returned to France, where she embarked upon a year-long journey. Her travels solidified her love of all things food and French and inspired her to return to California and open Chez Panisse.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters counts Elizabeth David, the English cookbook author and writer, as one of her influences. She also credits Richard Olney, an American authority on French food who spent much of his life living in France, with influencing her simple, rustic cuisine.


title: Alice Waters

text: Olney introduced Waters to Lucien and Lulu Peyraud, owners of the Domaine Tempier vineyard in Provence. Lulu Peyraud's vineyard cooking significantly influenced Waters's cooking and her menus at Chez Panisse. In her foreword to Olney's book, "Lulu's Provençal Table", Waters wrote: "Lucien and Lulu's warmhearted enthusiasm for life, their love for the pleasures of the table, their deep connection to the beautiful earth of the South of France – these were things I had seen at the movies. But this was for real. I felt immediately as if I had come home to second family."


title: Alice Waters

text: In addition, Waters has said that she learned Chinese cooking from Cecilia Chiang, and the two became lifelong friends. Waters has said that what Chiang did to popularize Chinese cuisine in America is what Julia Child did for French cuisine.


title: Alice Waters

text: In 1971, Waters opened Chez Panisse, which she named for a favorite character in a trilogy of Marcel Pagnol films. From the beginning, the restaurant was a collaborative effort. One notable collaboration was with Jeremiah Tower, who helped create some of the recipes that she later published under her name. Tower took the organic ingredients and melded them into a more refined menu. Chez Panisse was intended to serve primarily as a place where Waters could entertain her friends. Realizing the difficulty in sourcing fresh, high-quality ingredients, Waters began building a network of local farmers, artisans, and producers, and continues to source the restaurant's ingredients through her local network. Waters opened the upstairs Chez Panisse Café, a concept championed by Tower, in 1980. Café serves an a la carte menu for lunch and dinner. In 1984, Waters opened Café Fanny, named after her daughter, between the wine shop of Kermit Lynch and Acme Bread. Café Fanny, which served breakfast and lunch in a casual, European-café setting, closed in 2012.


title: Alice Waters

text: Then Waters mainly focused on the importance of organic farmers. Through Chez Panisse foundation, the project called Edible Schoolyard was organized in order to make an environment for the students to learn how to grow their own food and prepare it.


title: Alice Waters

text: Central to the operations and philosophy of Chez Panisse is Waters's and the restaurant's dedication to using organic ingredients. Waters has become a crusader for organic foods, believing that they are both better for the environment and for people's health in addition to tasting superior to commercially grown, non-organic foods.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters became an organic devotee almost by accident, claiming that what she was originally after was taste. She says: "When I opened up Chez Panisse, I was only thinking about taste. And in doing that, I ended up at the doorstep of [organic farmers]."


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters's current organic food agenda includes reforming the USDA school lunch program to include organic, local fruits and vegetables and changing the way America eats, but her passion for organics started at her restaurant, where she discovered that organic ingredients were the essential element necessary to create delicious food.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters's effort to promote fresh, sustainable food grown by local farms has extended into her work as a food activist and humanitarian. Waters has always been an outspoken supporter of the restaurant's approach to food, cooking, and supporting the local community, but has more recently formalized her efforts through the Chez Panisse Foundation.


title: Alice Waters

text: In celebration of the restaurant's 25th anniversary in 1996, Waters founded the Chez Panisse Foundation, whose mission is to transform public education by using food to teach, nurture, and empower young people. In particular, the foundation has worked with the Berkeley Unified School District to develop a public school curriculum that is integrated with the school dining services and incorporates growing, cooking, and sharing food at the table into the school day in order to build a humane and sustainable future for the school's students.


title: Alice Waters

text: The primary work of the Chez Panisse Foundation has been to establish and sustain the Edible Schoolyard program at Berkeley's Martin Luther King Jr. Middle School. The Edible Schoolyard was established in 1995 and is a organic garden and kitchen classroom. Students at the middle school are involved in growing, harvesting, and preparing the foods from the garden, with the aim of promoting the environmental and social well-being of the school community.


title: Alice Waters

text: Waters's work at the Edible Schoolyard has also developed into her School Lunch Initiative, which has the broader goal of bringing school children into a new relationship with food by making a healthy, fresh, sustainable meal a part of the school day. The School Lunch Initiative is a collaborative project with the Center for Ecoliteracy, also in Berkeley, and is also the topic of a series of studies through the Center for Weight and Health, at UC Berkeley.


title: Alice Waters

text: The School Lunch Initiative is focused on bringing wholesome school lunch to the 10,000 students in the Berkeley Unified School District. In 2005, the Chez Panisse Foundation provided a grant to Berkeley schools to hire Ann Cooper as the director of Nutrition Services for the district. Cooper and the foundation eliminated almost all processed foods from the district and introduced organic fruits and vegetables to the daily menu, all while staying within the district's budget. Waters's vision is to teach subjects such as history, science, and art through the vehicle of food.


title: Alice Waters

text: In September 2010, the Center for Weight and Health at UC Berkeley, Center for Ecoliteracy, and Chez Panisse Foundation released an evaluation report on the School Lunch Initiative. The report tracked elementary and middle school students over three years to determine the effects of the School Lunch Initiative on children's eating habits and knowledge. The report found that students in schools with highly developed School Lunch Initiative components ate more daily servings of fruit and vegetables than students in schools with lesser developed programs, and that they scored higher on food knowledge assessments. Schools with highly developed School Lunch Initiative components integrated kitchen and garden classes into the school curriculum, in addition to overhauling the school lunch program.


title: Alice Waters

text: Although the work of the Chez Panisse Foundation has focused primarily on the Berkeley Unified School District, Waters has become a vocal and familiar advocate for school lunch reform and activism at the national level, as well. She encouraged President Bill Clinton to plant a White House garden. In 2009, she appeared on the CBS television program "60 Minutes", and made a public call for President Obama to plant an organic garden at the White House to catalyze change in the US food system. Michelle Obama, in conjunction with her anti-obesity campaign Let's Move!, planted the White House organic vegetable garden that year. An article in the "San Francisco Chronicle" states that:


title: Alice Waters

text: In addition to the Edible Schoolyard in Berkeley, there are five affiliate Edible Schoolyard programs around the country. These include Edible Schoolyards in New Orleans, New York City, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Greensboro, North Carolina.


title: Alice Waters

text: , Waters is working to extend free school meals to all public school children in the United States. She hopes to expand programs like the Edible Schoolyard and the School Lunch Initiative in order to reach schools across the US. She supported the 2010 Child Nutrition Reauthorization Act, and believes that providing all public school students with free food in school would build the foundation for a healthier and more sustainable food culture in the US.


title: Alice Waters

text: In 2003, Waters helped create the Yale Sustainable Food Project, which aims to make sustainable food an important part of university-level education. The project maintains an on-campus organic farm and integrates organic, local products into the university's dining program


title: Alice Waters

text: In 2006, Waters oversaw the creation of the Rome Sustainable Food Project at the American Academy in Rome, which aims to provide a replicable model of simple, sustainable and seasonal food for other like-minded institutions, and which operates an internship program.


title: Alice Waters

text: Since 2002, Waters has served as a vice president of Slow Food International, an organization dedicated to preserving local food traditions, protecting biodiversity, promoting small-scale quality products around the world. She was drawn to the Slow Food movement because of its work in passing food knowledge and traditions to future generations.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: The Algerian People's National Army (; ) is the military force of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria. It is the direct successor of the National Liberation Army (ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front, which fought French colonial rule during the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962).


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: The People's National Army include the Algerian Land Forces, the Algerian Air Force, the Navy (the "Marine de la République Algérienne"), and the Algerian Air Defence Force. The antecedents of the army were the conventional military units formed in neighbouring Morocco and Tunisia during the war of independence from France. Except for clashes with Morocco in 1963 and 1976, the armed forces have not been involved in hostilities against a foreign power. Their combat capabilities in defence of the country has thus remained untested, however the Algerian military is arguably recognized to be one of the most professional and well-trained militaries in both Africa and the Arab world.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: The Algerian military élite has played a dominating role in Algerian politics ever since independence in 1962, when the army emerged as the only effective powerbroker in a shattered political landscape dominated by weak and competing political factions. At the end of the war of independence, a split developed between the National Liberation Army and the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (GPRA). The GPRA was set up in 1958 to represent the National Liberation Front abroad, mobilise the funds needed to organise the underground movement and support the refugees who had fled to Morocco and Tunisia. But it was the general staff of the ALN that was actually in charge of the revolution. When the war ended, it "dismissed" the GPRA and took over the running of the new state.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: After independence in 1962, the Army, led by Houari Boumediène, backed Ahmed Ben Bella to become president. Recognizing the role that the military played in bringing him to power, Ben Bella appointed senior officers as ministers and other important positions within the new state, including naming Boumediène as the defence minister.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: Just three years later, Boumediène deposed Ben Bella in a coup, which also saw the former take power and the National Assembly replaced by the Revolutionary Council to oversee the development of state structures. The Council was set up by 26 military officers, including Chadli Bendjedid and Abdelaziz Bouteflika, and it gradually entrenched the military establishment as the founders and the backbone of the Algerian regime. Despite the influence of the army that time was limited due to state and army leadership were joined under Boumediène's highly authoritarian presidency, after his death in 1978, the role of the military in politics started to grow from the late 1970s. The Ministry of Defence took over administrative control of the government after Boumediène fell ill. After Boumediène's death in 1978,


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: the military ensured the continuation of its influence in politics by choosing Colonel Chadli Benjedid to succeed as the President, as he increasingly relied on the a small number of military advisers for advice. Despite this, factionalization and rivalries within the military and political élites remains a major factor in Algerian politics.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: After being structured as a politicized "people's army" in the Boumédiène era, and retaining its allegiance to the FLN during the one-party state years of Algerian history, the military forces were formally depoliticized in 1988, as a multi-party system was introduced. This, however, did not end military influence over Algerian politics. It was extremely suspicious of Islamist parties, such as the Islamic Salvation Front "(Front Islamique du Salut, FIS)", and opposed the FIS's legal recognition in 1989. Since most of the officers were trained overseas in states practicing secular laws, such as France and the Soviet Union, they believe Islamism was a threat to state foundations and a threat to the military's interests. This was reflected in decisions by army chiefs to ban the hijab and its reluctance to support Iraq during its invasion of Kuwait.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: In 1991, fearing the installation of Sharia Law, which would result in Algeria becoming an Islamic state, the Algerian Army cancelled free elections that were likely to bring an Islamist party, the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) ("Front Islamique du Salut") to power. They also launched a coup d'etat in January 1991 and forced Bendjedid to resign the presidency. For many officers, the election of an Islamist Algerian government would be a disaster as they believed it would be catastrophic for the economy through capital flight and foreign petrol companies cancelling their agreements to extract oil and gas in Algeria. Politically, the military believed the election of the FIS could bring instability to the country, as there were indications that the FIS's opponents are preparing to start armed conflicts against any future Islamist governments. Despite Benjedid assured the officers that he could keep the FIS in check with his constitutional and institutional powers, the military were still suspicious, as they doubted Benjedid's ability to exercise such powers and feared he might compromise with the FIS to maintain his position, including sacking senior personnel.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: The coup and the cancellation of elections triggered the Algerian Civil War in December 1991, a conflict which is believed to have claimed 100-350,000 lives during the 1990s. During the war, both the armed forces and Islamist insurgents have been severely criticized by outside observers for their conduct of the war on humanitarian and human rights grounds. The state and army Islamist resistance in the late 1990s, but local and sporadic fighting persists in 2009, along with occasional bomb attacks against government targets in major cities. The most active insurgent group is al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, formerly known as GSPC. Since major fighting subsided in about 1997, the army has been engaged in refitting itself for the tasks of a conventional army, after more than a decade of anti-guerrilla action.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: Over Boutiflika's 20-year-presidency, the military's influence over politics decreased, as commanders who once held strong political power started to retire, and Boutiflika himself secured more mandate from the people, as his foreign policies rejuvenated Algeria's international status and domestic policies were successful in achieving reconciliation between different sides of the civil war and achieving peace.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: However, the military still has a role in Algerian politics. This was displayed during the Algerian protests that forced Bouteflika to resign from office in 2019, after losing support of the military, which Chief of Staff of the military, General Ahmed Gaid Salah, demanded that he be declared unfit for office and be removed immediately.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: The major part of Algeria's armed forces are directed towards the country's western border with Morocco and Western Sahara. Algeria supported the guerrilla Western Sahara War (1975–1991) against Moroccan control of Western Sahara by the Polisario Front, a national liberation movement of Sahrawi Bedouin exiled in Algeria's Tindouf Province. Algeria has had longstanding border disagreements with Morocco, due to the non-recognition of the colonial borders by the Moroccan regime. Although now basically resolved, these continue to linger as a factor in the consistently troubled but generally non-violent relations between the two neighboring states. The Algeria-Morocco border has been closed since 1994. Both countries' armed forces have engaged in costly equipment upgrades in recent years, clearly viewing each other as the principal threat to their sovereignty, and equally reluctant to let the other nation gain the upper hand militarily.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: By contrast, Algeria's post-independence border disagreements with Tunisia and Libya, which were at times a cause for poor relations, both appear to have been peacefully resolved (to its advantage). The Algerian army has also, especially in later years, been very active along the Algeria-Mali border, where various insurgent movements are based. Algeria has fought only two brief wars and battles after independence (the Sand War, a border conflict with Morocco in 1963 and the First battle of Amgala in 1976), but the country is also, like most Arab nations, formally at war with Israel since 1948.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: In 1984, after promoting eight colonels to become the first generals in independent Algeria, Chadli Benjedid announced the establishment of an ANP general staff. Previously, the armed forces had relied on the secretary general of the Ministry of National Defence to coordinate staff activities. The previous secretary general of the ministry, Major General Moustafa Benloucif, was named the first chief of staff. Benloucif had risen quickly in the ANP and was also an alternate member of the FLN Political Bureau. However, he was dismissed in 1986 without explanation; in 1992 the regime announced that Benloucif would be tried for corruption and the embezzlement of US$11 million, which had been transferred to European accounts.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: Bouteflika sought to reassert the power of the presidency over the largely autonomous armed forces. As Minister of Defence, he nominated new commanders for military regions in August 2004. He also issued a presidential decree creating the position of General Secretary within the Ministry of Defence. Nevertheless, current and retired officers—"le pouvoir"—remain important decision-makers. In order to encourage Algerian military reforms, the U.S. decided to allow Algeria to receive International Military Education and Training (IMET) funds.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: Algeria has the largest defence budget in Africa. Historically, Algeria bought weapons and military equipment from the Soviet Union. United Press International reported in March 2013 that Algeria was undergoing a process of military modernization, which includes the introduction of new, more modern warships, aircraft, and tanks.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: On 19 January 2013, Algerian troops killed 32 militant hostage-takers and freed more than 650 hostages held at the Tigantourine gas facility, situated near in Amenas in the Illizi Province. Nearly 48 hostages are confirmed to be dead. The kidnappers said the assault on the gas plant was launched in retaliation for French intervention against Islamist groups in neighboring Mali.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: The army is under the control of the president, who also is the minister of National Defence. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency estimated that military expenditures accounted for some 6% of GDP in 2019.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: Before 1984, the armed forces had relied on the secretary general of the Ministry of National Defence to coordinate staff activities. That year, Chadli Bendjedid announced the establishment of an ANP general staff. The general staff had responsibility for operational planning for the integrated armed forces, budgeting, information and communications, logistics and administrative support, mobilization, and recruiting. It was not, however, part of the regular chain of command. In practice, the armed forces chief of staff dealt directly with the chiefs of the service branches and with the commanders of the six military regions. Along with the minister of defence (Nezzar in 1993), Metz wrote in 1993 that the senior hierarchy of the armed forces included the Chief of Staff of the People's National Army, Abdelmalek Guénaizia; the commander of the National Gendarmerie, Abbas Ghezaiel; the chief of the DRS, Mohamed Médiène; and the inspector general of the land forces, Tayeb Derradji.


title: Algerian People's National Army

text: In October 2013 "Jeune Afrique" predicted the recreation of an inspectorate of the armed forces, possibly to be headed by General Ben Ali Ben Ali.