title: John Shakespeare

text: In 1568, Shakespeare was appointed High Bailiff, the present-day equivalent of mayor, elected by the common council of burgesses and aldermen, which entitled him to be referred to as Master John Shakespeare. In that capacity he presided at the sessions of the Court of Record and at council meetings. For his borough the bailiff was almoner, coroner, escheator, and clerk of the market, and served as justice of the peace issuing warrants and negotiating with the lord of the manor on behalf of the corporation.


title: John Shakespeare

text: In 1569, Shakespeare had applied for a coat of arms; the application—subsequently withdrawn—included a vague claim of an ancestor having been honoured by King Henry VII, a draft of which application (with parenthetical additions representing amendments to be made in a successive draft) read: "John Shakespeare ... whose parentes and late antecessors [grandfather] were for there [his] valeant and faithefull service advaunced and rewarded by the most prudent prince king Henry the Seventh of famous memorie, sythence whiche tyme they have continewed ... in good reputation and credit ...". After a long period of dormancy, arms were granted by William Dethick of the College of Arms on 20 October 1596. Most historians believe that his son, William, re-opened the application following his literary and financial success in London. This application additionally made reference to John Shakespeare having married "the daughter and heir of Arden, a gentleman of worship".


title: John Shakespeare

text: He married Mary Arden, one of the Ardens of Warwickshire, a local gentry family and reportedly a niece of John Shakespeare's father Richard Shakespeare. It is not known when they married, but a date around 1557 is assumed as there is a baptismal record for a "Joan Shakespeare, daughter to John Shakespeare" dated 15 September 1558.


title: John Shakespeare

text: Shakespeare fell on hard times in the late 1570s that would last until the early 1590s. He failed to attend council meetings, attending just once (on 5 September 1582) between January 1577 and 6 September 1586 when he lost his position as an alderman for non-attendance. In 1592, he was recorded as among several local men who stayed away from Church services for fear of being arrested for debt. Records indicate that he was also prosecuted in the 1570s for usury and for illegal dealing in wool. Such illicit trade would have been profitable to his glove business by avoiding the middleman. In 1570, he was accused of making loans to a Walter Mussum, worth £220 (equivalent to over £50,000 in 2007), including interest. Mussum was not a good risk; at his death, his whole estate was worth £114, or barely half what Shakespeare had lent him. The financial risk was just one side of his potentially problematic business activity. The law described usury as "a vice most odious and detestable" and levied severe penalties for those caught in such practices, even in a small way. The law stated that anyone caught lending money with interest illegally would forfeit all the money lent, plus forfeiture of any interest due, face a fine on top and also possible imprisonment. He was also engaged in trading wool illegally in 1571, when he acquired 300 tods (or ) of wool, a large consignment.


title: John Shakespeare

text: In 1576, Shakespeare withdrew from public life in Stratford. He had been excused levies that he was supposed to pay by supportive townsmen and business associates and they kept his name on the rolls for a decade, perhaps hoping that in that time he would be able to return to public life and recover his financial situation, but he never did so. He is mentioned in the local records in 1597 when he sold some property to George Badger, a draper.


title: John Shakespeare

text: The only record that survives of Shakespeare's personality is a note written by Thomas Plume fifty years after his death. Plume records a conversation with Sir John Mennes (1599–1671), who stated that he had once met him in his shop and described him as a "merry cheeked old man" who said of his son that "Will was a good honest fellow, but he durst have cracked a jest with him at any time." As Katherine Duncan-Jones points out, this is impossible, since Mennes was two years old when John Shakespeare died. She thinks Plume may have been recording an anecdote related by Mennes taken from his father.


title: John Shakespeare

text: Shakespeare and his immediate family were conforming members of the established Church of England. John Shakespeare was elected to several municipal offices, which required being a church member in good standing. William Shakespeare's baptism and that of his siblings were entered into the parish church register, as were the burials of family members. Shakespeare, acting as town chamberlain and in accordance with Elizabeth I's injunction of 1559 to remove "all signs of superstition and idolatry from places of worship", covered over the wall-paintings of the Chapel of the Guild of the Holy Cross some time in the 1560s or 1570s; his contemporary record detailed paying two shillings for "defasyng ymages in ye chapel".


title: John Shakespeare

text: However, some scholars believe there is evidence that several members of Shakespeare's family were secretly recusant Roman Catholics. Mary Arden was from a Catholic family. A tract, apparently signed by John Shakespeare, in which he pledged to remain a Catholic in his heart, was found in the 18th century in the rafters of a house on Henley Street. It was seen and described by scholar Edmond Malone but apparently was subsequently lost. Anthony Holden writes that Malone's reported wording of the tract is linked to a testament written by Charles Borromeo and circulated in England by Edmund Campion, copies of which still exist in Italian and English. Other research suggests the Borromeo testament dated from 1638 at the earliest and could never have been in the possession of John Shakespeare. The first leaf of the document had been forged by John Jordan who acquired the manuscript and attempted to have it published.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: The Stranger is a 1946 American thriller film noir directed and co-written by Orson Welles, starring Edward G. Robinson, Loretta Young and Orson Welles. Welles's third completed feature film as director and his first film noir, it centers on a war crimes investigator tracking a high-ranking Nazi fugitive to a Connecticut town. It is the first Hollywood film to present documentary footage of the Holocaust.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: The film was nominated for the Golden Lion (then-called the ‘Grand International Prize’) at the 8th Venice International Film Festival. Screenwriter Victor Trivas received an Oscar nomination for Best Story. The film entered the public domain when its copyright was not renewed.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Mr. Wilson is an agent of the United Nations War Crimes Commission who is hunting for Nazi fugitive Franz Kindler, a war criminal who has erased all evidence which might identify him. He has left no clue to his identity except "a hobby that almost amounts to a mania—clocks."


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Wilson releases Kindler's former associate Meinike, hoping the man will lead him to Kindler. Wilson follows Meinike to a small town in Connecticut, but loses him before he meets with Kindler. Kindler has assumed a new identity as "Charles Rankin", and has become a teacher at a local prep school. He is about to marry Mary Longstreet, daughter of Supreme Court Justice Adam Longstreet, and is involved in repairing the town's 400-year-old Habrecht-style clock mechanism with religious automata that crowns the belfry of a church in the town square.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Meinike attacks Wilson, leaving him for dead, and meets Kindler. Meinike is repentant and has become a Christian, and begs Kindler to confess his own crimes. Instead, Kindler strangles Meinike, who might expose him.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Wilson begins investigating newcomers to the small town. Due to Rankin and Mary's marriage, he does not suspect Rankin—until Rankin says conversationally that since Karl Marx was a Jew, he was not a German. Even so, not having witnessed the meeting with Meinike, he still has no proof. Only Mary knows that Meinike came to meet her husband. To get her to admit this, Wilson must convince her that her husband is a criminal—before Kindler decides to eliminate the threat to him by killing her. Kindler's facade begins to unravel when Red, the family dog, discovers Meinike's body. To further protect his secret, Kindler poisons Red.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Meanwhile, Mary begins to suspect her husband is not being honest with her. He admits to killing Meinike and Red, but claims Meinike was in town to blackmail her and her father. Mary still loves him and wants to protect him in any way she can; she helps by lying about Meinike. Then Wilson shows her graphic footage of Nazi concentration camps and explains how Kindler developed the idea of genocide. She is torn between her love and her desire to learn the truth. Meanwhile, Kindler tries to arrange a fatal "accident" for Mary, but she discovers the plot. Finally accepting the truth, she dares her husband to kill her face to face. Kindler tries, but is prevented by the arrival of Wilson and Mary's brother, and escapes from the house.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Kindler flees into the church belfry, followed by Mary and then Wilson. Meanwhile most of the town, hearing the repaired clock bell, has arrived outside the building. At the top of the tower, Kindler pulls a gun and a struggle ensues. Mary ends up with the gun and fires. The clock is damaged and begins running away; Kindler is shot. He staggers outside to the belfry's clock face, and is impaled by the sword of one of the moving clock figures. Weakened by his injuries, he falls to his death.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Contemporary news items about the production add uncredited and unconfirmed cast members Neal Dodd, Nancy Evans, Fred Godoy, Joseph Granby, Ruth Lee, Lillian Molieri, Gabriel Peralta, Gerald Pierce, Robert Raison, Rebel Randall, Johnny Sands, and Josephine Victor.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Produced by Sam Spiegel (who then billed himself as S. P. Eagle), "The Stranger" was the last International Pictures Production distributed by RKO Pictures. Filming took place from late September to November 21, 1945, at Samuel Goldwyn Studios and Universal Studios. The film's musical score is by Bronisław Kaper.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Spiegel initially planned to hire John Huston to direct "The Stranger". When Huston entered the military, Welles was given the chance to direct the film and prove himself able to make a film on schedule and under budget—something he was so eager to do that he accepted a disadvantageous contract. In September 1945 Welles and his wife Rita Hayworth signed a guarantee that Welles would owe International Pictures any of his earnings, from any source, above $50,000 a year if he did not meet his contractual obligations. He also agreed to defer to the studio in any creative dispute. "The Stranger" was Welles's first job as a film director in four years.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Editor Ernest J. Nims was given the power to cut any material he considered extraneous from the script before shooting began. "He was the great supercutter," Welles said, "who believed that nothing should be in a movie that did not advance the story. And since most of the good stuff in my movies doesn't advance the story "at all", you can imagine what a nemesis he was to me."


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: For directing and acting in "The Stranger", Welles was to receive $2,000 a week plus $50,000 when the film was completed, and a chance to sign a four-picture deal with International Pictures, making films of his own choosing.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Welles was given some degree of creative control. He worked on the general rewrite of the script, wrote all of the scenes in the drugstore, and wrote scenes at the beginning of the picture that were shot but subsequently cut by Spiegel and executive producer William Goetz. Welles had endeavored to personalize the film and develop a nightmarish tone. There is uncertainty about how much of this material was actually shot and how much was removed. Some scenes elaborated on Meinike's flight through Latin America, shadowed by an agent named Marvales and his wife, a woman in distinctive gold earrings who is murdered by savage dogs kept by the Nazis-in-exile. A brief vestige of the sequence remains in the final release version. In a 1982 interview, Nims said 32 pages of the script were eliminated at his suggestion, including the first 16 pages.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: An early scene showing a meeting of Mary and Rankin was filmed but removed. She finds him in the woods, looking at the incongruous 16th-century Gothic clock in the town square, and tells him it was "brought by sailing ship from the shores of the Mediterranean" by one of her ancestors. Rankin is familiar with the clock and her family's history, and as they walk through the cemetery he notes the many Longstreets who are buried there and their patriotic service.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: "Character development suffers from the loss of these scenes," wrote film historian Bret Wood, who also observes that inclusion of the Latin American pursuit would have increased the sense of foreboding before the story enters the idyllic town of Harper. A sense of mystery would also have been set up by an imaginative but unrealized pre-title sequence in the Welles version; instead, the titles are simply superimposed over the image of the clock.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Welles wanted Agnes Moorehead to portray the investigator. "I thought it would be much more interesting to have a spinster lady on the heels of this Nazi," Welles said. Edward G. Robinson was cast instead.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Welles planned to use the campus of his alma mater, the Todd School for Boys in Woodstock, Illinois, as the setting for "The Stranger". The idea was ruled out by budget restrictions, but a few artifacts are seen in the film. A sign in the gymnasium reads "Harper vs. Todd" and refers to Clover Hall, a building on the Todd campus, and "Mrs. Collins"—Annetta Collins, teacher, housemother, and director of kitchen services. It was Collins who had recruited Welles for Todd in 1926, after meeting the boy at his father's hotel in Grand Detour. A note on a blackboard, in Welles's handwriting, refers to Wallingford Hall, another building at Todd. A notice on the wall is signed "Coach Roskie"—Anthony C. Roskie, Todd's longtime athletic director.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Perry Ferguson, production designer for "Citizen Kane", was borrowed from Samuel Goldwyn Productions. For Welles, Ferguson created a complete town square, an interlocking series of sets in related proximity to each other. Scenes could be filmed that provided deep views of adjacent buildings through windows or reflected in their glass, adding richness and dimension.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: "When we're filming inside the drug store, we get a sense of depth that is extremely rare in a Hollywood movie," said film historian Bret Wood:


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: In the shot where Wilson plays checkers with Potter, you can look behind Potter and see a mirror behind him, and through the mirror see Potter and Wilson again, and then see the window behind the camera, and see through that window to cars, buildings and natural sunlight. It's truly radical. If it were deep focus the way Gregg Toland had shot "Citizen Kane", maybe it would have been noticed or written about in the last 70-odd years.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: The set facilitated long takes in which conversations begin indoors, move outside to actual storefronts, and continue across the town square. Welles used long takes as a way to protect the integrity of his film, giving "the great supercutter" nothing to cut away to. The long takes are so subtle that they go unnoticed. At a time when a one-minute take was a rarity, Welles presents one unbroken scene between Kindler and Meinike in the woods that is four minutes long—longer than the bravura opening of "Touch of Evil" (1958).


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: The character of Potter—a comic druggist who plays checkers—was played by actor Billy House, a burlesque star who became a particular favorite of Welles. The character was not initially a major part of the film, but Welles expanded the role as filming progressed. Feeling that these revisions came at his expense, Edward G. Robinson complained ineffectually to studio executives.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Welles recalled Loretta Young's support in a dispute with Spiegel, when the producer ordered a closeup of Young during a medium-full shot of Mary's fight with Kindler. "It would have been fatal," Welles said. "I told that to Loretta, and she said, 'Well then, we're not going to make it.'" When Spiegel continued to insist on the closeup, Young brought in her agent. "Imagine getting a star's agent in to ensure that she "wouldn't" get a closeup!" Welles said. "She was wonderful."


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: "No one who worked on the film can remember any special anecdotes or problems concerning it," wrote biographer Frank Brady. "Welles has said, since the making of "The Stranger"—which he completed one day "before" schedule and "under" budget—that nothing in the film was his, this despite the fact that the unmistakable Wellesian moods, shadows, acute angles, and depth-of-focus shots are pervasive. Within the film is a second film, another Wellesian touch, consisting of snatches of documentary footage showing Nazi atrocities." "The Stranger" was the first commercial film to use documentary footage from the Nazi concentration camps.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: "What we tend to forget today is that in the 1940s a large percentage of the population could not believe that the Nazi death camps were real," said Bret Wood. Welles had seen the footage in early May 1945 in San Francisco, as a correspondent and discussion moderator at the United Nations Conference on International Organization. Welles wrote of the Holocaust footage in his syndicated column for the "New York Post" (May 7, 1945).


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: No, you must not miss the newsreels. They make a point this week no man can miss: The war has strewn the world with corpses, none of them very nice to look at. The thought of death is never pretty but the newsreels testify to the fact of quite another sort of death, quite another level of decay. This is a putrefaction of the soul, a perfect spiritual garbage. For some years now we have been calling it Fascism. The stench is unendurable.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: "It is clear that the visual power of the newsreels had struck him deeply, and it is no surprise that clips from them would be included only a few months later in "The Stranger"," wrote film scholar Jennifer L. Barker.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Three of the four post-liberation scenes included in "The Stranger" are from "Nazi Concentration Camps" (1945), a film assembled by George Stevens, James B. Donovan and Ray Kellogg and used as evidence in the Nuremberg Trials.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: Within weeks of the completion of "The Stranger", International Pictures backed out of its promised four-picture deal with Welles. No reason was given, but the impression was left that "The Stranger" would not make money.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: "The Stranger" was the only film made by Welles to have been a "bona fide" box office success upon its release. Its cost was $1.034 million; it earned $2.25 million in U.S. rentals in its first six months, and 15 months after its release it had grossed $3.216 million.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: ""The Stranger" exists as an answer to the critics who complained that Welles could not make a 'program' picture," wrote film noir scholar Carl Macek. "He did, and it has found a niche in the canon of the film noir."


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: At the 19th Academy Awards, Victor Trivas received an Oscar nomination for Writing (Original Motion Picture Story). The award went to Clemence Dane, for "Vacation from Marriage".


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: "The Stranger" holds a 97% rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 29 critic reviews, including two contemporaneous reviews. The sole negative review is that of "New York Times" critic Bosley Crowther, published in July 1946. Crowther called the film a "bloodless, manufactured show" in which Welles "gave no illusion of the sort of depraved and heartless creatures that the Nazi mass-murderers were. He is just Mr. Welles, a young actor, doing a boyishly bad acting job in a role which is highly incredible—another weak feature of the film. As a matter of fact, the writing of "The Stranger", by Anthony Veiller, is the weakest thing about it—and that estimation includes another silly performance by Loretta Young as the killer's wife. For the premise is not only farfetched, but the whole construction of the tale relieves very soon all the mystery and suspense that such a story should have."


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: More favorable coverage was found in "Variety", which called the film "a socko melodrama, spinning an intriguing web of thrills and chills. Director Orson Welles gives the production a fast, suspenseful development, drawing every advantage from the hard-hitting script from the Victor Trivas story. … A uniformly excellent cast gives reality to events that transpire. The three stars, Robinson, Young and Welles, turn in some of their best work, the actress being particularly effective as the misled bride."


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: "Life" magazine featured "The Stranger" as Movie of the Week in its issue dated June 3, 1946. The film was screened in competition at the 1947 Venice Film Festival.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: On its release, "The Stranger" was unfavorably compared to Alfred Hitchcock's "Shadow of a Doubt" (1943). "One reason for the similarities is the recutting, supervised by Ernest Nims," wrote film historian Bret Wood. "By removing the Latin American sequence and many of the political elements (such as the clock/fascist analogy),"The Stranger" is transformed from a socially relevant drama to a small town murder story, with the villain more a psychopath than a political fugitive. Nims cut the film to play like a conventional thriller with little regard to Welles's subtextual purposes."


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: In his audio commentary for the 2013 Blu-ray release of "The Stranger", Wood calls it "an undervalued film" due to the absence of the "stylistic swagger" of "Citizen Kane" and "The Magnificent Ambersons". He regards Welles's third completed film as "deceptive and much more complex stylistically and thematically" than has so far been appreciated.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: The debut issue (July–August 1946) of the short-lived pulp digest "Movie Mystery Magazine" presented a novelized condensation of the screenplay for "The Stranger".


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: A half-hour adaptation of "The Stranger" aired on CBS Radio's "This Is Hollywood" on December 7, 1946. Robinson re-created his role from the film, performing with Ruth Hussey, Roland Morris, and Gerald Mohr.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: The copyright on the film originally belonged to The Haig Corporation, but the film is in the public domain because the producers did not renew the copyright in 1973.


title: The Stranger (1946 film)

text: After the film fell into the public domain, a number of poor-quality versions of "The Stranger" were released by various sources. Some versions were duplicated from second- or third-generation releases, and were severely and badly edited, until MGM Home Entertainment (the owners of most of the International Pictures catalog) edited the film in DVD in 2004. An archival restoration was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc by Kino Classics in October 2013. Kino's release was mastered from a 35mm print at the Library of Congress. The release includes audio commentary by Bret Wood. The DVD includes excerpts of "Death Mills" (1945), a U.S. War Department documentary on the Nazi death camps directed by Billy Wilder. Other extras include four of Welles's World War II radio broadcasts: "Alameda" ("Nazi Eyes on Canada", 1942), "War Workers" ("Ceiling Unlimited", 1942), "Brazil" ("Hello Americans", 1942), and "Bikini Atomic Test" ("Orson Welles Commentaries", 1946). The disc is not captioned for the hearing impaired. Olive Films also put out a Blu-Ray of the film sanctioned from MGM in 2017. The film is also available on the Netflix and Amazon Prime streaming services, and the Daily Motion and Youtube video-sharing platforms.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Swordsmanship or sword fighting refers to the skills and techniques used in combat and training with any type of sword. The term is modern, and as such was mainly used to refer to smallsword fencing, but by extension it can also be applied to any martial art involving the use of a sword. The formation of the English word "swordsman" is parallel to the Latin word "gladiator", a term for the professional fighters who fought against each other and a variety of other foes for the entertainment of spectators in the Roman Empire. The word "gladiator" itself comes from the Latin word "gladius", which is a type of sword.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The Roman legionaries and other forces of the Roman military, until the 2nd century A.D., used the gladius as a short thrusting sword effectively with the "scutum", a type of shield, in battle. According to Vegetius the Romans mainly used underhanded stabs and thrusts because one thrust into the gut would kill an enemy faster than slashes or cutting. Although, some depictions of Roman soldiers show them using slashing and cuts. Gladiators used a shorter gladius than the military. The spatha was a longer double-edged sword initially used only by Celtic soldiers, later incorporated as auxilia into Roman Cavalry units; however by the 2nd century A.D. the spatha was used throughout much of the Roman Empire. The Empire's legionary soldiers were heavily trained and prided themselves on their disciplinary skills. This probably carried over to their training with weaponry, but we have no Roman manuals of swordsmanship. One translation of Juvenal's poetry by Barten Holyday in 1661 makes note that the Roman trainees learned to fight with the wooden wasters before moving on to the use of sharpened steel. In fact, it is also found that Roman gladiators trained with a wooden sword, which was weighted with lead, against a straw man or a wooden pole known as a "palus" (an early relative of the later wooden "pell"). This training would have provided the Roman soldier with a good foundation of skill, to be improved upon from practical experience or further advanced training.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Little is known about early medieval fencing techniques save for what may be concluded from archaeological evidence and artistic depiction (see Viking Age arms and armour). What little has been found, however, shows the use of the sword was limited during the Viking age, especially among the Vikings themselves and other northern Germanic tribes. Here, the spear, axe and shield were prominent weapons, with only wealthy individuals owning swords. These weapons, based on the early Germanic "spatha", were made very well. The technique of pattern welding of composite metals, invented in the Roman Empire around the end of the 2nd century A.D., provided some of these northern weapons superior properties in strength and resilience to the iron gladius of early Rome.


title: Swordsmanship

text: As time passed, the "spatha" evolved into the arming sword, a weapon with a notable cruciform hilt common among knights in the Medieval Age. Some time after this evolution, the earliest known treatises "(Fechtbücher") were written, dealing primarily with arming sword and buckler combat. Among these examples is the I.33, the earliest known "Fechtbuch". The German school of swordsmanship can trace itself most closely to Johannes Liechtenauer and his students, who later became the German masters of the 15th century, including Sigmund Ringeck, Hans Talhoffer, Peter von Danzig and Paulus Kal. It is possible that the Italian fencing treatise Flos Duellatorum, written by the Italian swordmaster Fiore dei Liberi around 1410, has ties to the German school. During this period of time, the longsword grew out of the arming sword, eventually resulting in a blade comfortably wielded in both hands at once. Armour technology also evolved, leading to the advent of plate armour, and thus swordsmanship was further pressed to meet the demands of killing a very well protected enemy.


title: Swordsmanship

text: For much of the early medieval period, the sword continued to remain a symbol of status. During later years, production techniques became more efficient, and so, while the sword remained a privilege, it was not so heavily confined to only the richest individuals, but rather to the richest classes.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The military importance of swordsmanship rapidly diminished with the advent of firearms. The last prominent battlefield sword to be used was the backsword. Although it was not a new invention, it managed to outlast other forms of war swords, being used by cavalry units and officers.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The power, accuracy, and reliability of firearms continued to improve, however, and soon swords had little place on the battlefield aside from ceremonial purposes. The preferred civilian dueling weapon shifted from the rapier to the faster but shorter smallsword, and eventually shifted totally away from swords to the pistol, following developments in firearm technology. The civilian affair of dueling was banned in most areas, but persisted to some degree regardless of law until well into the 20th century.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The German school of swordsmanship, in general, faced a decline during the Renaissance as the Italian and Spanish schools, which tilted more toward the rapier and civilian dueling, took the forefront. The compendium compiled by Paulus Hector Mair in the 1540s looks back to the preceding century of work and attempts to reconstruct and preserve a failing art. The treatise by Joachim Meyer, dating to the 1570s and notable for its scientific and complete approach to the style (it is suggested that Meyer's students came to him with less military knowledge and therefore required more basic instruction), is the last major account of the German school, and its context is now almost entirely sportive.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The use of the longsword continued to decline throughout the Renaissance period, marked by the increased effectiveness of the arquebus (a firearm) and the use of pike squares as a powerful implement of battle. During this time, civilian swords evolved to side-swords, also known as "cut and thrust" swords, and progressed towards the thicker, tapering sword that eventually became the 17th century rapier. This new weapon was popular for both protection on the street and as a tool in the duel, but found little success on the battlefield. The Italian, French, and Spanish schools embraced this change in civilian armament and developed systems of rapier fencing. The German school, however, provides little on this weapon and ceases its prevalence thereafter.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The need to train swordsmen for combat in a nonlethal manner led fencing and swordsmanship to include a sport aspect from its beginnings, from before the medieval tournament right up to the modern age.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The shift towards fencing as a sport rather than as military training happened from the mid-18th century, and was led by Domenico Angelo, who established a fencing academy, Angelo's School of Arms, in Carlisle House, Soho, London in 1763. There, he taught the aristocracy the fashionable art of swordsmanship which they had previously had to go the continent to learn, and also set up a riding school in the former rear garden of the house. He was fencing instructor to the Royal Family. With the help of artist Gwyn Delin, he had an instruction book published in England in 1763 which had 25 engraved plates demonstrating classic positions from the old schools of fencing. His school was run by three generations of his family and dominated the art of European fencing for almost a century.


title: Swordsmanship

text: He established the essential rules of posture and footwork that still govern modern sport fencing, although his attacking and parrying methods were still much different from current practice. Although he intended to prepare his students for real combat, he was the first fencing master yet to emphasize the health and sporting benefits of fencing more than its use as a killing art, particularly in his influential book 'L'École des armes" ("The School of Fencing"), published in 1763. According to the "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Angelo was the first to emphasize fencing as a means of developing health, poise, and grace. As a result of his insight and influence, fencing changed from an art of war to a sport."


title: Swordsmanship

text: As fencing progressed, the combat aspect slowly faded until only the rules of the sport remained. While the fencing taught in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was intended to serve both for competition and the duel (while understanding the differences between the two situations), the type of fencing taught in a modern sport fencing salle is intended only to train the student to compete in the most effective manner within the rules of the sport.


title: Swordsmanship

text: As this evolution has continued, the training and techniques have become increasingly further removed from their martial roots. One driving force behind this evolution is sport fencing's award of a point to the fencer who scores the first touch with right of way; this encourages the competitors to use scoring techniques that result in a first touch in a sporting encounter but would leave them defenseless against a counterthrust, even from a mortally wounded opponent, in a duel with lethal weapons. The development of the first touch rule itself was, in turn, driven by the increasing tendency of duels to be fought to first blood rather than the death, with the result that training for a first touch could result in victory in a duel as well as a sporting encounter, even without killing or disabling the opponent.


title: Swordsmanship

text: As early as 1880, attempts were made to recreate the older German, Italian, and Spanish schools of swordsmanship. The movement was led in England by the soldier, writer, antiquarian and swordsman, Alfred Hutton. In 1862, he organized in his regiment stationed in India the Cameron Fencing Club, for which he prepared his first work, a 12-page booklet entitled "Swordsmanship".


title: Swordsmanship

text: After returning from India in 1865, Hutton focused on the study and revival of older fencing systems and schools. He began tutoring groups of students in the art of 'ancient swordplay' at a club attached to the London Rifle Brigade School of Arms in the 1880s. In 1889 Hutton published his most influential work "Cold Steel: A Practical Treatise on the Sabre", which presented the historical method of military sabre use on foot, combining the 18th century English backsword with modern Italian duelling sabre.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Hutton's pioneering advocacy and practice of historical fencing included reconstructions of the fencing systems of several historical masters including George Silver and Achille Marozzo. He delivered numerous practical demonstrations with his colleague Egerton Castle of these systems during the 1890s, both in order to benefit various military charities and to encourage patronage of the contemporary methods of competitive fencing. Exhibitions were held at the Bath Club and a fund-raising event was arranged at Guy's Hospital.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Despite this revival, the practice died out soon after the death of Hutton in 1910. Interest in the physical application of historical fencing techniques remained largely dormant during the first half of the 20th century, and only revived near the end of the 20th century.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Practitioners of modern fencing, who were unsatisfied with the exclusive sports emphasis that modern fencing had, took steps to preserve the principles of dueling and fencing as practiced in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Classical fencing uses the foil, épée, and sabre according to these older practices.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Fencing and sword fighting have been incorporated into films as part of cinematic action sequences. Usually choreographed, these scenes are designed for entertainment but often demonstrate a high level of skill. Actor Errol Flynn became known for his sword-fighting scenes, such as in "The Adventures of Robin Hood" (1938). Other examples include "The Princess Bride" (1987), "Rob Roy" (1995), and "Die Another Day" (2002).


title: Swordsmanship

text: The sword in ancient Egypt was known by several names, but most are variations of the words , or . The earliest bronze swords in the country date back 4000 years. Four types of sword are known to have been used: the "ma" or boomerang-sword based on the hunting stick, the "kat" or knife-sword, the or falchion based on the sickle, and a fourth form of straight longsword. The was used region-wide and is depicted as early as the Sixth Dynasty (3000 BC). It was thick-backed and weighted with bronze, sometimes even with gold hilts in the case of pharaohs. The blade may be edged on one or both sides, and was made from copper alloy, bronze, iron, or blue steel. The double-edge grip-tongue sword is believed to have been introduced by the Sherden and became widely dispersed throughout the Near East. These swords are of various lengths, and were paired with shields. They had a leaf-shaped blade, and a handle which hollows away at the centre and thickens at each end. Middle Eastern swords became dominant throughout North Africa after the introduction of Islam, after which point swordsmanship in the region becomes that of Arabian or Middle Eastern fencing.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Among some communities, swords were restricted to royalty or tribal leaders. Forms vary from one area to another, such as the billao of Somalia, boomerang-sword in Niger or the single-edge swords of the Gold Coast. The Abyssinian shotel took the form of a large sickle, like the Egyptian khopesh, with a small 4 inch wooden handle. The edge was on the inside of the blade, which has a mid-rib running along its entire length. Double-edge swords similar to those of Europe and ancient Arabia occurred in some areas such as the takoba and kaskara. Two types of sword existed in Zanzibar: the foot-long shortsword and the standard sword with a blade measuring 3–3.5 feet and a cylindrical pommel. The latter weapon was wielded with both hands like a quarterstaff.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Chinese speakers make a clear distinction between a "sword" (double-edged) and a "knife" (single-edged). In Chinese culture the double-edged sword or jian is considered a master's weapon or gentlemen's weapon, both from the considerable skill required to fight with this weapon and from the fact that commanders of armies favored the jian in order to move easily amongst the troops. It is described in Chinese as the "delicate lady" of weapons, and is traditionally considered the weapon most suitable for women. A single edged sword is referred to as a dao. The jian and dao are among the four main weapons taught in the Chinese, the others being the staff and spear. The order in which these weapons is taught may vary between schools and styles, but the jian is generally taught last among the four.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The sword has long held a significance in Japanese culture from the reverence and care that the samurai placed in their weapons. The earliest swords in Japan were straight, based on early Chinese "jian". Curved blades became more common at the end of the 8th century, with the importation of the curved forging techniques of that time. The shape was more efficient when fighting from horseback. Japanese swordsmanship is primarily two-handed wherein the front hand pushes down and the back hand pulls up while delivering a basic vertical cut. The samurai often carried two swords, the longer "katana" and the shorter "wakizashi", and these were normally wielded individually, though use of both as a pair did occur.


title: Swordsmanship

text: While earlier "tachi" were worn with the edge facing down, the later "katana" was worn with the edge facing upwards. This facilitated a quicker draw. Entire systems have been based on this technique and are known as iaido, iaijutsu, battodo or battojutsu. Because of the danger in training with real swords, practitioners since the 18th century have trained with wooden swords ("bokken" or "bokutō") or bamboo swords ("shinai") while wearing body armour. After the carrying of swords in public became illegal, this resulted in the modern sport of kendo. Some ancient schools still exist along with some more modern schools. Many schools also focus almost exclusively on swordsmanship which grew from the noble families' patronage of certain teachers.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The earliest Korean swords were straight double-edge blades derived from the Chinese jian. As Korean warfare favoured mounted combat, the curved single-edge sword was found to be more effective from horseback. Joseon's centralised government and the need to fend off frequent foreign invasions were conducive to the development of swordsmanship as a standardised military discipline. Along with other martial systems, forms of swordsmanship were formalised in the military manual Muyejebo (1610) based on Qi Jiguang's Ji Xiao Xin Shu, and in the revisions, Muyesinbo (1759) and Muyedobotongji (1790). The Muyedobotongji also describes standard lengths and weights of the swords used; while not exclusive to swordsmanship, 8 of the 23 chapters are devoted to it, reflecting the needs of the era when guns had not yet matured enough for short-range combat.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Swords in the Philippines come in a variety of forms but are traditionally consistent with the straight or lightly curved cutting type used by the tribes of neighbouring Borneo and Taiwan. This is preserved in the design of the kampilan and the dahong palay, though other forms also existed. They were typically paired with a rectangular shield called the kalasag. During the Battle of Mactan, Lapu-Lapu's tribe used native swords and spears to defeat Ferdinand Magellan's troops who were armed with guns and cannons.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The arrival of European colonists brought the influence of western swords, which is likely the origin of the pinuti's hand-guard and sabre-like blade. When the Philippines was colonized by the Spaniards, the use of traditional swords and weapons was immediately banned. Because of this, the Filipinos were forced to use their own farm tools to fight in rebellions. And in the following insurgencies against other foreign colonists like America and Japan, they were again forced to use these improvised weapons. During the Japanese occupation, because of scarce ammunition to fight the Japanese, the Filipinos used guerrilla attacks with their melee weapons and swords in raiding Japanese camps. Filipino swordplay relies heavily on speed, and even today Filipino marines train in a form of eskrima using a curved single-edge sword.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Soldiers in ancient Indian subcontinent are recorded as carrying a shield and spear in their hands while a sword, dagger, and battle-axe were held at the waist. These included both straight swords and slightly curved sabres. The stout, straight sword appears to have been common and can be seen in early sculptural depictions of the epics. The hero Arjuna, for instance, is made to wield a one-handed sword with a bevelled point, a small handguard, and a large round pommel. Two-handed swords naturally had longer handles and were broad at the hilt. Curved swords are also known to have been in common use since at least the Buddhist era, including large kukri-like falchions. The most common type of curved sword is the "katti", which still occurs under various names everywhere from the deep south to the far northeast. The handle, in particular, has changed over time, eventually incorporating a crossguard. The 16th-century Mughal conquests spread the talwar and similar weapons throughout the north, northwest and central regions. The talwar is still the most common form of sword in the martial arts of these areas, but the older "katti" is still used in some advanced forms.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The earliest extant manual on ancient Indian swordsmanship is the "Agni Purana", which gives 32 positions to be taken with the sword and shield. Indian swordplay is highly athletic, taking advantage of the weapon's lightweight. Techniques make extensive use of circular movements, often circling the weapon around the swordsman's head. Systems exist which focus on drawing the sword out of the opponent's body. The attacking weapon is rarely used for blocking, relying either on a shield as a parrying tool or a second sword. Dual-wielding is thus a common and valued skill in the Indian subcontinent. Sparring is done through an exercise called gatka, in which the practitioners fight with wooden sticks to simulate swords.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Swords in the Middle East evolved from daggers and sickles. They were originally made of copper, followed by bronze and finally iron. Among communities such as the Persians and Hebrews, the sword was short and equivalent to the Roman gladius. There did however exist longswords, slightly curved swords, and sickle-like swords similar to the Egyptian khopesh. Some blades were of such a size that it is difficult to classify them as either swords or daggers, and they are thus referred to by archaeologists as dagger-swords.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Among the Assyrians and Hittites, the sword or "namsaru" was long with a slender blade. In the ancient Middle East, swords were always a secondary weapon. Assyrians made extensive use of the sword and dagger in hand-to-hand combat; the primary weapons were the bow, spear, and sling.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Prior to the founding of Islam, swords were imported from Ubulla, a town along the Tigris river in Iraq.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Arabian swords retained their straight double-edge shape during the time of Muhammed. With the exception of their curved handles, they were nearly identical to medieval European arming swords in both function and design. They typically had a cruciform hilt and favoured cut and thrust techniques. Swords of this type were often paired with a shield or buckler but could also be wielded on their own.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Sword fencing and sword dances are still practiced in much of the Middle East. In countries like Oman the weapon is typically paired with a shield or sometimes a dagger, of which many varieties exist. In modern Iran, traditional Persian armed combat called "razmafzar" is currently being reconstructed. At present, sword training includes the single sword, two swords, and the sword with a shield.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The spread of Islam was a unifying force in the Middle East, easing trade routes across the region. Armouries flourished and Damascus became the capital for trade in swords from Syria, Persia and Spain. The 9th-century Muslim scholar Al-Kindi studied the craft of forging swords and found 25 sword-making techniques particular to their countries of origin, including Yemen, Iran, France and Russia.


title: Swordsmanship

text: The curved scimitar blade which has now come to typify Middle Eastern swords came about after the Turkish Seljuk migration from Central Asia to Anatolia, popularizing the pre-existing Byzantine sabre designs for cavalry use, which influenced the entire region. The curved blade was well-suited to the equestrian culture of the Turks. The scimitar gave primacy to hacking and slashing techniques rather than the thrust.


title: Swordsmanship

text: Amberger, J. Christoph. "The Secret History of the Sword: Adventures in Ancient Martial Arts" (1999).


title: Swordsmanship

text: Alfred Hutton. "Cold Steel: A Practical Treatise on the Sabre" (1889). "Old Sword-play: The System of Fence" (1892).


title: Swordsmanship

text: Burton, Sir Richard Francis. "The Sentiment of the Sword: A Country-House Dialogue" (1911). "A New System of Sword Exercise for Infantry" (1923).


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: In a BDSM context, a collar is a device of any material worn by a person around the neck to indicate their submissive or slave status in a BDSM relationship. A person wearing a collar to symbolize their relationship with another is said to be collared. Some people conduct formal "collaring ceremonies", which are regarded as effectively solemnizing their relationship in a similar way as a marriage ceremony and the collar having similar significance as a wedding ring. The standard form of a collar is a black leather band around the neck, often with metal D-rings added to allow the attachment of a leash, rope or other restraints. Some people may wear an ordinary choker or jewellery necklace instead.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: Collars may be used in role-playing games involving erotic humiliation because they have connotations of control and pet-like status, especially when worn with a leash.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: The most common material for a collar is leather, and many people use actual dog collars with a buckle. Other materials include rubber, PVC, and metal (typically stainless steel). Many collars are constructed with several different materials, and may also be decorated in various ways. Collars often feature buckles, straps and hooks, padlocks and other attachments.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: A wolf collar is a collar fitted with spikes, studs, or nails, which in the BDSM context are decorative. The name may originate from the use of such collars to protect dogs from wolves. The spikes are considered to be dangerous, and such collars are used with care. Some wolf collars have the spikes coated in plastic for added protection.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: A neck corset is a type of posture collar that incorporates stays. It is a corset-like device designed for the neck instead of the waist, but usually it is not used to compress the neck in the way that a normal corset compresses the waist, except in breathplay.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: Stays incorporated in a neck corset are specially made shorter, used to support the weight of the head on the shoulders, while its corset structure helps in maintaining posture by keeping the chin high and the neck extended. It is often combined with a traditional corset in order to achieve better posture.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: Some neck corsets and posture collars are designed to also cover the mouth. These devices, often called mouth corsets, are primarily used in BDSM because they can be used as a gag.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: Collars can have varying degrees of significance for people in the BDSM community. A person wearing a collar may wish by doing so to make it known that they are submissive. Wearing a collar may similarly be a signal to others that the submissive is "owned" by or is in a relationship with a dominant. It may also be a potently tangible symbol of the relationship itself or of the ownership the submissive is held in. A lockable collar may further symbolize a transfer of power from the submissive to the dominant holding the key.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: Some submissives may not wear their collars all the time. Many choose to wear a collar only when in private with their partners, or with other members of the BDSM community.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: Collars can be made from lighter materials such as cotton, or heavier materials such as leather. Steel collars are also worn by some and lockable (metal) necklaces are also regarded as a form of collar.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: Although in many instances collars are worn solely by a submissive partner in a relationship with a dominant, in some cases the dominant partner or an unattached person may also wear a collar. People often wear casual collars, purely for fashion. Collars used for fashion are worn by both men and women, and made from various materials such as soft leather, cotton, neoprene, nylon etc. often in bright friendly colors but varying from bright, neutral into darker colors. The lining ranges from bare leather to lambskin, to faux fur. The collar most often has a buckle either in black, nickel, or brass design, but snaps and velcro closures are also found.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: In more mainstream culture and especially in pornography, images depicting women wearing collars are common regardless of whether these women are intended to be depicted as submissive or dominant.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: Collars and other alternative clothing can also be found in certain subcultures such as goth, punk, heavy metal, Japanese anime and manga culture, otherkin or the furry fandom. These collars can vary wildly.


title: Collar (BDSM)

text: In some social groups, one may be expected to follow certain rules regarding a collared person. A dominant may ask if the submissive wants to be collared. Contrarily, the submissive may be asked to "earn" the collar by proving themselves worthy of wearing it. The collar itself is often affixed by the dominant and treated as a symbol of highest care. In those social groups, only the "dominant" is supposed to affix and remove the collar.


title: Sleep disorder

text: A sleep disorder, or somnipathy, is a medical disorder of an individual's sleep patterns. Some sleep disorders are severe enough to interfere with normal physical, mental, social and emotional functioning. Polysomnography and actigraphy are tests commonly ordered for diagnosing sleep disorders.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Sleep disorders are broadly classified into dyssomnias, parasomnias, circadian rhythm sleep disorders involving the timing of sleep, and other disorders including ones caused by medical or psychological conditions. When a person struggles to fall asleep and/or stay asleep with no obvious cause, it is referred to as insomnia, the most common sleep disorder. Others include sleep apnea, narcolepsy and hypersomnia (excessive sleepiness at inappropriate times), sleeping sickness (disruption of sleep cycle due to infection), sleepwalking, and night terrors.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Sleep disruptions can be caused by various issues, including teeth grinding (bruxism) and night terrors. Management of sleep disturbances that are secondary to mental, medical or substance abuse disorders should focus on the underlying conditions.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Primary sleep disorders are common in both children and adults. However, there is a significant lack of awareness in children with sleep disorders, due to most cases being unidentified. Several common factors involved in the onset of a sleep disorder include increased medication use, age-related changes in circadian rhythms, environmental changes, lifestyle changes, pre-diagnosed physiological problems, or stress. Among the elderly, the risk of developing sleep disordered breathing, periodic limb movements, restless legs syndrome, REM sleep behavior disorders, insomnia, and circadian rhythm disturbances is especially increased.


title: Sleep disorder

text: A systematic review found that traumatic childhood experiences (such as family conflict or sexual trauma) significantly increases the risk for a number of sleep disorders in adulthood, including sleep apnea, narcolepsy, and insomnia.


title: Sleep disorder

text: In addition, an evidence-based synopsis suggests that idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder (iRBD) may have a hereditary component. A total of 632 participants, half with iRBD and half without, completed self-report questionnaires. The results of the study suggest that people with iRBD are more likely to report having a first-degree relative with the same sleep disorder than people of the same age and sex that do not have the disorder. More research needs to be conducted to further understand the hereditary nature of sleep disorders.


title: Sleep disorder

text: A population susceptible to the development of sleep disorders includes people who have experienced a traumatic brain injury (TBI). Because many researchers have focused on this issue, a systematic review was conducted to synthesize their findings. The results indicate that individuals who experienced a TBI are most disproportionately at risk for developing narcolepsy, obstructive sleep apnea, excessive daytime sleepiness, and insomnia. The study's complete findings can be found in the table below:


title: Sleep disorder

text: Neurodegenerative diseases have often been associated with sleep disorders, mainly when they are characterized by abnormal accumulation of alpha-synuclein, such as multiple system atrophy (MSA), Parkinson's disease (PD) and Lewy body disease (LBD). For instance, people diagnosed with PD have often presented different kinds of sleep concerns, commonly in regard to insomnia (around 70% of the PD population), hypersomnia (more than 50% of the PD population), and REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) - that may affect around 40% of the PD population and it is associated with increased motor symptoms. Furthermore, RBD has been highlighted as a strong precursor for future development of those neurodegenerative diseases over several years in prior, which seems to be a great opportunity for improving the treatments of the disease.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Sleep disturbances have been also observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD), affecting about 45% of its population. When based on caregiver reports, this percentage increases to about 70%. As well as in PD population, insomnia and hypersomnia are frequently recognized in AD patients, which have been associated with accumulation of beta-amyloid, circadian rhythm sleep disorders (CRSD) and melatonin alteration. Additionally, changes in sleep architecture are observed in AD. Although sleep architecture seems to naturally change with age, its development appears aggravated in AD patients. SWS potentially decreases (and is sometimes absent), spindles and the length of time spent in REM sleep are also reduced, while its latency increases. Poor sleep onset in AD has been associated with dream-related hallucination, increased restlessness, wandering and agitation that seem related to sundowning - a typical chronobiological phenomenon presented in the disease.


title: Sleep disorder

text: The neurodegenerative conditions are commonly related to structural brain impairment, which might disrupt the states of sleep and wakefulness, circadian rhythm, motor or non motor functioning. On the other hand, sleep disturbances are frequently related to worsening patient's cognitive functioning, emotional state and quality of life. Furthermore, these abnormal behavioral symptoms negatively contribute to overwhelming their relatives and caregivers. The limited research related to it and the increasing life expectancy calls for a deeper understanding of the relationship between sleep disorders and neurodegenerative disease.


title: Sleep disorder

text: More than 70% of people with dementia are affected by Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite this high number, our understanding of the underlying mechanisms for disease progression remains very limited. However, recent studies have highlighted a link between sleep disturbances and Alzheimer's disease.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Sleep changes with normal aging. Over time, a decrease in time sleeping and a decrease in the quantity of NREM sleep can be observed, specifically in NREM SWS (less than 10% of the SWS is maintained). Older people also are more prone to insomnia or sleep apnea.


title: Sleep disorder

text: In Alzheimer's disease, in addition to cognitive decline and memory impairment, there are also significant sleep disturbances with modified sleep architecture. The latter may consist in sleep fragmentation, reduced sleep duration, insomnia, increased daytime napping, decreased quantity of some sleep stages, and a growing resemblance between some sleep stages (N1 and N2). More than 65% of people with Alzheimer's disease have this type of sleep disturbance.


title: Sleep disorder

text: One factor that could explain this change in sleep architecture is a change in circadian rhythm, which regulates sleep. A disruption of the circadian rhythm would generate sleep disturbances. Some studies show that people with AD have a delayed circadian rhythm, whereas in normal aging, an advanced circadian rhythm is present.


title: Sleep disorder

text: In addition to these psychological symptoms, at a neurological level there are two main symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. The first is an accumulation of beta-amyloid waste forming aggregate "plaques". The second is an accumulation of tau protein.


title: Sleep disorder

text: It has been shown that the sleep-wake cycle acts on the beta-amyloid burden, which is a central component found in AD. As individuals awaken, the production of beta-amyloid protein will be more consistent than its production during sleep. This is explained by two phenomena. The first is that the metabolic activity will be higher during waking, thus resulting in greater secretion of beta-amyloid protein. The second is that oxidative stress will also increase, which leads to greater AB production.


title: Sleep disorder

text: On the other hand, it is during sleep that beta-amyloid residues are degraded to prevent plaque formation. The glymphatic system is responsible for this through the phenomenon of glymphatic clearance. Thus, during wakefulness, the AB burden is greater because the metabolic activity and oxidative stress are higher, and there is no protein degradation by the glymphatic clearance. During sleep, the burden is reduced as there is less metabolic activity and oxidative stress (in addition to the glymphatic clearance that occurs).


title: Sleep disorder

text: Glymphatic clearance occurs during the NREM SWS sleep. This sleep stage decreases in normal aging, resulting in less glymphatic clearance and increased AB burden that will form AB plaques. Therefore, sleep disturbances in individuals with AD will amplify this phenomenon.


title: Sleep disorder

text: The decrease in the quantity and quality of the NREM SWS, as well as the disturbances of sleep will therefore increase the AB plaques. This initially occurs in the hippocampus, which is a brain structure integral in long-term memory formation. Hippocampus cell death occurs, which contributes to diminished memory performance and cognitive decline found in AD.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Although the causal relationship is unclear, the development of AD correlates with the development of prominent sleep disorders. In the same way, sleep disorders exacerbate disease progression, forming a positive feedback relationship. As a result, sleep disturbances are no longer only a symptom of AD; the relationship between sleep disturbances and AD is bidirectional.


title: Sleep disorder

text: At the same time, it has been shown that memory consolidation in long-term memory (which depends on the hippocampus) occurs during NREM sleep. This indicates that a decrease in the NREM sleep will result in less consolidation, resulting in poorer memory performances in hippocampal-dependent long-term memory. This drop in performance is one of the central symptoms of AD.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Recent studies have also linked sleep disturbances, neurogenesis and AD. The subgranular zone and the subventricular zone continued to produce new neurons in adult brains. These new cells are then incorporated into neuronal circuits and the subragranular zone, which is found in the hippocampus. These new cells contribute to learning and memory, playing an essential role in hippocampal-dependent memory.


title: Sleep disorder

text: However, recent studies have shown that several factors can interrupt neurogenesis, including stress and prolonged sleep deprivation (more than one day). The sleep disturbances encountered in AD could therefore suppress neurogenesis—and thus impair hippocampal functions. This would contribute to diminished memory performances and the progression of AD, and the progression of AD would aggravate sleep disturbances.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Changes in sleep architecture found in patients with AD occur during the preclinical phase of AD. These changes could be used to detect those most at risk of developing AD. However, this is still only theoretical.


title: Sleep disorder

text: While the exact mechanisms and the causal relationship between sleep disturbances and AD remains unclear, these findings already provide a better understanding and offer possibilities to improve targeting of at-risk populations—and the implementation of treatments to curb the cognitive decline of AD patients.


title: Sleep disorder

text: In individuals with psychiatric illnesses sleep disorders may include a variety of clinical symptoms, including but not limited to: excessive daytime sleepiness, difficulty falling asleep, difficulty staying asleep, nightmares, sleep talking, sleepwalking, and poor sleep quality. Sleep disturbances - insomnia, hypersomnia and delayed sleep-phase disorder - are quite prevalent in severe mental illnesses such as psychotic disorders. In those with schizophrenia, sleep disorders contribute to cognitive deficits in learning and memory. Sleep disturbances often occur before the onset of psychosis.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Sleep deprivation can also produce hallucinations, delusions and depression. A 2019 study investigated the three above-mentioned sleep disturbances in schizophrenia-spectrum (SCZ) and bipolar (BP) disorders in 617 SCZ individuals, 440 BP individuals, and 173 healthy controls (HC). Sleep disturbances were identified using the Inventory for Depressive Symptoms - clinician rated scale (IDS-C). Results suggested that at least one type of sleep disturbance was reported in 78% of the SCZ population, in 69% individuals with BD, and in 39% of healthy controls. The SCZ group reported the most number of sleep disturbances compared to the BD and HC groups; specifically, hypersomnia was more frequent among individuals with SCZ, and delayed sleep phase disorder was three times more common in the SCZ group compared to the BD group. Insomnias were the most frequently reported sleep disturbance across all three groups.


title: Sleep disorder

text: One of the main behavioral symptoms of bipolar disorder is abnormal sleep. Studies have suggested that 23-78% of individuals with bipolar disorders consistently report symptoms of excessive time spent sleeping, or hypersomnia. The pathogenesis of bipolar disorder, including the higher risk of suicidal ideation, could possibly be linked to circadian rhythm variability, and sleep disturbances are a good predictor of mood swings. The most common sleep-related symptom of bipolar disorder is insomnia, in addition to hypersomnia, nightmares, poor sleep quality, OSA, extreme daytime sleepiness, etc. Moreover, animal models have shown that sleep debt can induce episodes of bipolar mania in laboratory mice, but these models are still limited in their potential to explain bipolar disease in humans with all its multifaceted symptoms, including those related to sleep disturbances.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Sleep disturbances (insomnia or hypersomnia) are not a necessary diagnostic criterion—but one of the most frequent symptoms of individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD). Among individuals with MDD, insomnia and hypersomnia have prevalence estimates of 88% and 27%, respectively, whereas individuals with insomnia have a threefold increased risk of developing MDD. Depressed mood and sleep efficiency strongly co-vary, and while sleep regulation problems may precede depressive episodes, such depressive episodes may also precipitate sleep deprivation. Fatigue, as well as sleep disturbances such as irregular and excessive sleepiness, are linked to symptoms of depression. Recent research has even pointed to sleep problems and fatigues as potential driving forces bridging MDD symptoms to those of co-occurring generalized anxiety disorder.


title: Sleep disorder

text: None of these general approaches are sufficient for all patients with sleep disorders. Rather, the choice of a specific treatment depends on the patient's diagnosis, medical and psychiatric history, and preferences, as well as the expertise of the treating clinician. Often, behavioral/psychotherapeutic and pharmacological approaches may be compatible, and can effectively be combined to maximize therapeutic benefits.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Management of sleep disturbances that are secondary to mental, medical, or substance abuse disorders should focus on the underlying conditions. Medications and somatic treatments may provide the most rapid symptomatic relief from certain disorders, such as narcolepsy, which is best treated with prescription drugs such as modafinil. Others, such as chronic and primary insomnia, may be more amenable to behavioral interventions—with more durable results.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Chronic sleep disorders in childhood, which affect some 70% of children with developmental or psychological disorders, are under-reported and under-treated. Sleep-phase disruption is also common among adolescents, whose school schedules are often incompatible with their natural circadian rhythm. Effective treatment begins with careful diagnosis using sleep diaries and perhaps sleep studies. Modifications in sleep hygiene may resolve the problem, but medical treatment is often warranted.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Special equipment may be required for treatment of several disorders such as obstructive apnea, circadian rhythm disorders and bruxism. In severe cases, it may be necessary for individuals to accept living with the disorder, however well managed.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Histamine plays a role in wakefulness in the brain. An allergic reaction over produces histamine, causing wakefulness and inhibiting sleep. Sleep problems are common in people with allergic rhinitis. A study from the N.I.H. found that sleep is dramatically impaired by allergic symptoms, and that the degree of impairment is related to the severity of those symptoms. Treatment of allergies has also been shown to help sleep apnea.


title: Sleep disorder

text: A review of the evidence in 2012 concluded that current research is not rigorous enough to make recommendations around the use of acupuncture for insomnia. The pooled results of two trials on acupuncture showed a moderate likelihood that there may be some improvement to sleep quality for individuals with insomnia. This form of treatment for sleep disorders is generally studied in adults, rather than children. Further research would be needed to study the effects of acupuncture on sleep disorders in children.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Research suggests that hypnosis may be helpful in alleviating some types and manifestations of sleep disorders in some patients. "Acute and chronic insomnia often respond to relaxation and hypnotherapy approaches, along with sleep hygiene instructions." Hypnotherapy has also helped with nightmares and sleep terrors. There are several reports of successful use of hypnotherapy for parasomnias specifically for head and body rocking, bedwetting and sleepwalking.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Although more research should be done to increase the reliability of this method of treatment, research suggests that music therapy can improve sleep quality in acute and chronic sleep disorders. In one particular study, participants (18 years or older) who had experienced acute or chronic sleep disorders were put in a randomly controlled trial, and their sleep efficiency, in the form of overall time asleep, was observed. In order to assess sleep quality, researchers used subjective measures (i.e. questionnaires) and objective measures (i.e. polysomnography). The results of the study suggest that music therapy did improve sleep quality in subjects with acute or chronic sleep disorders, though only when tested subjectively. Although these results are not fully conclusive and more research should be conducted, it still provides evidence that music therapy can be an effective treatment for sleep disorders.


title: Sleep disorder

text: In another study specifically looking to help people with insomnia, similar results were seen. The participants that listened to music experienced better sleep quality than those who did not listen to music. Listening to slower pace music before bed can help decrease the heart rate, making it easier to transition into sleep. Studies have indicated that music helps induce a state of relaxation that shifts an individual's internal clock towards the sleep cycle. This is said to have an effect on children and adults with various cases of sleep disorders. Music is most effective before bed once the brain has been conditioned to it, helping to achieve sleep much faster.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Research suggests that melatonin is useful in helping people fall asleep faster (decreased sleep latency), stay asleep longer, and experience improved sleep quality. To test this, a study was conducted that compared subjects who had taken melatonin to subjects with primary sleep disorders who had taken a placebo. Researchers assessed sleep onset latency, total minutes slept, and overall sleep quality in the melatonin and placebo groups to note the differences. In the end, researchers found that melatonin decreased sleep onset latency and increased total sleep time but had an insignificant and inconclusive impact on the quality of sleep compared to the placebo group.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Due to rapidly increasing knowledge and understanding of sleep in the 20th century, including the discovery of REM sleep in the 1950s and circadian rhythm disorders in the 70s and 80s, the medical importance of sleep was recognized. By the 1970s in the US, clinics and laboratories devoted to the study of sleep and sleep disorders had been founded, and a need for standards arose. The medical community began paying more attention to primary sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea, as well as the role and quality of sleep in other conditions.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Specialists in sleep medicine were originally and continue to be certified by the American Board of Sleep Medicine. Those passing the Sleep Medicine Specialty Exam received the designation "diplomate of the ABSM." Sleep medicine is now a recognized subspecialty within internal medicine, family medicine, pediatrics, otolaryngology, psychiatry and neurology in the United States. Certification in Sleep medicine shows that the specialist:


title: Sleep disorder

text: Competence in sleep medicine requires an understanding of a myriad of very diverse disorders. Many of which present with similar symptoms such as excessive daytime sleepiness, which, in the absence of volitional sleep deprivation, "is almost inevitably caused by an identifiable and treatable sleep disorder", such as sleep apnea, narcolepsy, idiopathic hypersomnia, Kleine–Levin syndrome, menstrual-related hypersomnia, idiopathic recurrent stupor, or circadian rhythm disturbances. Another common complaint is insomnia, a set of symptoms which can have a great many different causes, physical and mental. Management in the varying situations differs greatly and cannot be undertaken without a correct diagnosis.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Sleep dentistry (bruxism, snoring and sleep apnea), while not recognized as one of the nine dental specialties, qualifies for board-certification by the American Board of Dental Sleep Medicine (ABDSM). The qualified dentists collaborate with sleep physicians at accredited sleep centers, and can provide oral appliance therapy and upper airway surgery to treat or manage sleep-related breathing disorders. The resulting diplomate status is recognized by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM), and these dentists are organized in the Academy of Dental Sleep Medicine (USA).


title: Sleep disorder

text: Occupational therapy is an area of medicine that can also address a diagnosis of sleep disorder, as rest and sleep is listed in the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework (OTPF) as its own occupation of daily living. Rest and sleep are described as restorative in order to support engagement in other occupational therapy occupations.  In the OTPF, the occupation of rest and sleep is broken down into rest, sleep preparation, and sleep participation.  Occupational therapists have been shown to help improve restorative sleep through the use of assistive devices/equipment, cognitive behavioral therapy for Insomnia, therapeutic activities, and/or lifestyle interventions.


title: Sleep disorder

text: In the UK, knowledge of sleep medicine and possibilities for diagnosis and treatment seem to lag. The Imperial College Healthcare shows attention to obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSA) and very few other sleep disorders. Some NHS trusts have specialist clinics for respiratory and/or neurological sleep medicine.


title: Sleep disorder

text: According to one meta-analysis of sleep disorders in children, confusional arousals and sleepwalking are the two most common sleep disorders among children. An estimated 17.3% of kids between 3 and 13 years old experience confusional arousals. About 17% of children sleepwalk, with the disorder being more common among boys than girls, the peak ages of sleepwalking are from 8 to 12 years old.


title: Sleep disorder

text: A different systematic review offers a high range of prevalence rates of sleep bruxism for children. Parasomnias like sleepwalking and talking typically occur during the first part of an individual's sleep cycle, the first slow wave of sleep During the first slow wave of sleep period of the sleep cycle the mind and body slow down causing one to feel drowsy and relaxed. At this stage it is the easiest to wake up, therefore many children do not remember what happened during this time.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Nightmares are also considered a parasomnia among children, who typically remember what took place during the nightmare. However, nightmares only occur during the last stage of sleep - Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep. REM is the deepest stage of sleep, it is named for the host of neurological and physiological responses an individual can display during this period of the sleep cycle which are similar to being awake.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Between 15.29% and 38.6% of preschoolers grind their teeth at least one night a week. All but one of the included studies reports decreasing bruxist prevalence as age increased, as well as a higher prevalence among boys than girls.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Another systematic review noted 7-16% of young adults have delayed sleep phase disorder. This disorder reaches peak prevalence when people are in their 20s. Between 20 and 26% of adolescents report a sleep onset latency of greater than 30 minutes. Also, 7-36% have difficulty initiating sleep. Asian teens tend to have a higher prevalence of all of these adverse sleep outcomes—than their North American and European counterparts.


title: Sleep disorder

text: By adulthood, parasomnias can normally be resolved due to a person's growth; however, 4% of people have recurring symptoms.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Children and young adults who do not get enough sleep due to sleep disorders also have many other health problems such as obesity and physical problems where it could interfere with everyday life. It is recommended that children and young adults stick to the hours of sleep recommended by the CDC, as it helps increase mental health, physical health, and more.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Insomnia is a prevalent form of sleep deprivation. Individuals with insomnia may have problems falling asleep, staying asleep, or a combination of both resulting in hyposomnia - i.e. insufficient quantity and poor quality of sleep.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Combining results from 17 studies on insomnia in China, a pooled prevalence of 15.0% is reported for the country. This result is consistent among other East Asian countries; however, this is considerably lower than a series of Western countries (50.5% in Poland, 37.2% in France and Italy, 27.1% in USA). Men and women residing in China experience insomnia at similar rates.


title: Sleep disorder

text: A separate meta-analysis focusing on this sleeping disorder in the elderly mentions that those with more than one physical or psychiatric malady experience it at a 60% higher rate than those with one condition or less. It also notes a higher prevalence of insomnia in women over the age of 50 than their male counterparts.


title: Sleep disorder

text: A study that was resulted from a collaboration between Massachusetts General Hospital and Merck describes the development of an algorithm to identify patients with sleep disorders using electronic medical records. The algorithm that incorporated a combination of structured and unstructured variables identified more than 36,000 individuals with physician-documented insomnia.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Insomnia can start off at the basic level but about 40% of people who struggle with insomnia have worse symptoms. There are treatments that can help with insomnia and that includes medication, planning out a sleep schedule, limiting oneself from caffeine intake, and cognitive behavioral therapy.


title: Sleep disorder

text: Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) affects around 4% of men and 2% of women in the United States. In general, this disorder is more prevalent among men. However, this difference tends to diminish with age. Women experience the highest risk for OSA during pregnancy, and tend to report experiencing depression and insomnia in conjunction with obstructive sleep apnea.


title: Sleep disorder

text: In a meta-analysis of the various Asian countries, India and China present the highest prevalence of the disorder. Specifically, about 13.7% of the Indian population and 7% of Hong Kong's population is estimated to have OSA. The two groups in the study experience daytime OSA symptoms such as difficulties concentrating, mood swings, or high blood pressure, at similar rates (prevalence of 3.5% and 3.57%, respectively).


title: Sleep disorder

text: A systematic review states 7.6% of the general population experiences sleep paralysis at least once in their lifetime. Its prevalence among men is 15.9%, while 18.9% of women experience it.


title: Sleep disorder

text: When considering specific populations, 28.3% of students and 31.9% of psychiatric patients have experienced this phenomenon at least once in their lifetime. Of those psychiatric patients, 34.6% have panic disorder. Sleep paralysis in students is slightly more prevalent for those of Asian descent (39.9%) than other ethnicities (Hispanic: 34.5%, African descent: 31.4%, Caucasian 30.8%).


title: Sleep disorder

text: According to one meta-analysis, the average prevalence rate for North America and Western Europe is estimated to be 14.5±8.0%. Specifically in the United States, the prevalence of restless leg syndrome is estimated to be between 5% and 15.7% when using strict diagnostic criteria. RLS is over 35% more prevalent in American women than their male counterparts.


title: Lou Llobell

text: She is known for her role as Zandie in the 2021 film "Voyagers". In 2021, she took the role of Gaal Dornick, a leading character in the Apple TV+ science fiction series "Foundation".


title: Lou Llobell

text: Lou Llobell was born in Zimbabwe to a Spanish father and Zimbabwean mother. She grew up in Spain and South Africa.


title: Lou Llobell

text: She moved to England in 2013 to study drama at the University of Birmingham where she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in Drama and Theatre Arts in 2016, before enrolling at the Drama Centre London in 2016 where she graduated with a Master of Arts in 2018.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Field Marshal Frederick Sleigh Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts, (30 September 1832 – 14 November 1914) was a British Victorian era general who became one of the most successful British military commanders of his time. Born in India to an Anglo-Irish family, Roberts joined the East India Company Army and served as a young officer in the Indian Rebellion during which he was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry. He was then transferred to the British Army and fought in the Expedition to Abyssinia and the Second Anglo-Afghan War, in which his exploits earned him widespread fame. Roberts would go on to serve as the Commander-in-Chief, India before leading British Forces for a year during the Second Boer War. He also became the last Commander-in-Chief of the Forces before the post was abolished in 1904.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: A man of small stature, Roberts was affectionately known to his troops and the wider British public as "Bobs" and revered as one of Britain's leading military figures at a time when the British Empire reached the height of its power. He became a symbol for the British Army and in later life became an influential proponent of stronger defence in response to the increasing threat that the German Empire posed to Britain in the lead up to the First World War.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Born at Cawnpore, India, on 30 September 1832, Roberts was the son of General Sir Abraham Roberts, who had been born into an Anglo-Irish family in County Waterford in the south-east of Ireland. At the time, Sir Abraham was commanding the 1st Bengal European Regiment. Roberts was named Sleigh in honour of the garrison commander, Major General William Sleigh. His mother was Edinburgh-born Isabella Bunbury, daughter of Major Abraham Bunbury from Kilfeacle in County Tipperary.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Roberts was educated at Eton, Sandhurst, and Addiscombe Military Seminary before entering the East India Company Army as a second lieutenant with the Bengal Artillery on 12 December 1851. He became Aide-de-Camp to his father in 1852, transferred to the Bengal Horse Artillery in 1854 and was promoted to lieutenant on 31 May 1857.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Roberts fought in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, seeing action during the siege and capture of Delhi where he was slightly wounded, and found a dying John Nicholson amidst the chaos of the battle. He was then present at the relief of Lucknow where, as Deputy Assistant Quartermaster-General, he was attached to the staff of Sir Colin Campbell, Commander-in-Chief, India. He was awarded the Victoria Cross for actions on 2 January 1858 at Khudaganj. The citation reads:


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: He was also mentioned in despatches for his service at Lucknow in March 1858. In common with other officers, he transferred from the East India Company Army to the Indian Army that year.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Having been promoted to second captain on 12 November 1860 and to brevet major on 13 November 1860, Roberts transferred to the British Army in 1861 and served in the Umbeyla and Abyssinian campaigns of 1863 and 1867–1868 respectively. Having been promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel on 15 August 1868 and to the substantive rank of captain on 18 November 1868, Roberts also fought in the Lushai campaign of 1871–1872.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: He was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 5 July 1872, appointed Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) on 10 September 1872 and promoted to brevet colonel on 30 January 1875. That year he became Quartermaster-General of the Bengal Army.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: He was given command of the Kurram Valley Field Force in October 1878 and took part in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. For his success at the Battle of Peiwar Kotal in December 1878, he received the thanks of Parliament, was promoted to the substantive rank of major general on 31 December 1878 and was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on 25 July 1879.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: The Treaty of Gandamak of May 1879 brought peace with Afghanistan. However, after the murder of Sir Louis Cavagnari, the British envoy in Kabul, in September 1879, the second phase of the war began. Roberts was put in command of the Kabul Field Force and despatched to Kabul to seek retribution. After victory at the Battle of Charasiab on 6 October 1879, Roberts occupied Kabul, and was given the local rank of lieutenant-general on 11 November 1879. In December 1879, Roberts' force was besieged in the Sherpur Cantonment outside Kabul until, on 23 December, he repulsed a mass attack and reoccupied the city. In May 1880, Lieutenant General Sir Donald Stewart arrived in Kabul from Kandahar with a further 7,200 troops, taking over the Kabul command from Roberts.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: After the defeat of a British brigade at Maiwand near Kandahar on 27 July 1880, Roberts was appointed commander of the Kabul and Kandahar Field Force. He led his 10,000 troops across 300 miles of rough terrain to relieve Kandahar and defeat Ayub Khan at the Battle of Kandahar on 1 September 1880. For his services, Roberts again received the thanks of Parliament, and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) on 21 September 1880 and appointed Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE) during 1880.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: After a very brief interval as Governor of Natal and Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Transvaal Province and High Commissioner for South Eastern Africa with effect from 7 March 1881, Roberts (having become a baronet on 11 June 1881) was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Madras Army on 16 November 1881. Promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 26 July 1883, he became Commander-in-Chief, India on 28 November 1885 and was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE) on 15 February 1887 and to Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE) on reorganisation of the Order on 21 June 1887. This was followed by his promotion to a supernumerary general on 28 November 1890 and to the substantive rank of general on 31 December 1891. On 23 February 1892 he was created Baron Roberts, of Kandahar in Afghanistan and of the City of Waterford.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: After relinquishing his Indian command and becoming Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India (GCSI) on 3 June 1893, Roberts was relocated to Ireland as Commander-in-Chief of British forces there from 1 October 1895. He was promoted field marshal on 25 May 1895 and created a knight of the Order of St Patrick in 1897.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: While in Ireland, Roberts completed a memoir of his years in India, which was published in 1897 as "Forty-one Years in India: from Subaltern to Commander-in-chief".


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: On 23 December 1899 Roberts left England to return to South Africa with his chief of staff Lord Kitchener on the RMS "Dunottar Castle" to take overall command of British forces in the Second Boer War, subordinating the previous commander, General Redvers Buller. He arrived in Cape Town on 10 January 1900. His appointment was a response to a string of defeats in the early weeks of the war and was accompanied by the despatch of huge reinforcements. For his headquarters staff, he appointed military men from far and wide: Kitchener (Chief of Staff) from the Sudan, Frederick Burnham (Chief of Scouts), the American scout, from the Klondike, George Henderson from the Staff College, Neville Chamberlain from Afghanistan and William Nicholson (Military Secretary) from Calcutta. Roberts launched a two-pronged offensive, personally leading the advance across the open veldt into the Orange Free State, while Buller sought to eject the Boers from the hills of Natal – during which Lord Roberts's son was killed, earning a posthumous V.C.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Having raised the Siege of Kimberley, at the Battle of Paardeberg on 27 February 1900 Roberts forced the Boer General Piet Cronjé to surrender with some 4,000 men. After another victory at Poplar Grove, Roberts captured the Free State capital Bloemfontein on 13 March. His further advance was delayed by his disastrous attempt to reorganise his army's logistic system on the Indian Army model in the midst of the war. The resulting chaos and shortage of supplies contributed to a severe typhoid epidemic that inflicted far heavier losses on the British forces than they suffered in combat.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: On 3 May, Roberts resumed his offensive towards the Transvaal, capturing its capital Pretoria on 31 May. Having defeated the Boers at Diamond Hill and linked up with Buller, he won the last victory of his career at Bergendal on 27 August.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Strategies devised by Roberts, to force the Boer commandos to submit, included concentration camps and the burning of farms. Conditions in the concentration camps, which had been conceived by Roberts as a form of control of the families whose farms he had destroyed, began to degenerate rapidly as the large influx of Boers outstripped the ability of the small British force to cope. The camps lacked space, food, sanitation, medicine, and medical care, leading to rampant disease and a very high death rate for those Boers who entered. By the war's end, 26,370 women and children (81% were children) had died in the concentration camps. For a brief period in 1900, Roberts also authorised the army's use of civilian hostages for the protection of trains from Boer guerrilla units.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: With the Boer republics' main towns occupied, and the war apparently effectively over, on 12 December 1900 Roberts handed over command to Lord Kitchener. Roberts returned to England to receive yet more honours: he was made a Knight of the Order of the Garter and also created Earl Roberts, of Kandahar in Afghanistan and Pretoria in the Transvaal Colony and of the City of Waterford, and Viscount St Pierre.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: He became a Knight of Grace of the Order of St John on 11 March 1901 and then a Knight of Justice of that order on 3 July 1901. He was also awarded the German Order of the Black Eagle during the Kaiser's visit to the United Kingdom in February 1901. He was among the original recipients of the Order of Merit in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and received the order from King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 8 August 1902.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Lord Roberts became the last Commander-in-Chief of the Forces on 3 January 1901. During his time in office he introduced the Short Magazine Lee Enfield Rifle and the 18-pounder Gun and provided improved education and training for soldiers. In September 1902, Lord Roberts and St John Brodrick, Secretary of State for War, visited Germany to attend the German army manoeuvres as guest of the Emperor Wilhelm. He served as Commander-in-Chief for three years before the post was abolished as recommended by Lord Esher in the Esher Report in February 1904.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: Following his return from the Boer War, he was instrumental in promoting the mass training of civilians in rifle shooting skills through membership of shooting clubs, and a facsimile of his signature appears to this day on all official targets of the National Smallbore Rifle Association.


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: In retirement he was a keen advocate of introducing compulsory military training in Britain, to prepare for a great European war. He campaigned for this as president of the National Service League, holding the post from 1905 until 1914. In 1907 a selection of his speeches was published under the title "A Nation in Arms". Roberts provided William Le Queux with information for his novel "The Invasion of 1910" and checked the proofs. In 1910 Roberts' friend Ian Hamilton, in co-operation with the Secretary of State for War, Richard Haldane, published "Compulsory Service" in which he attacked Roberts' advocacy of compulsory military training. This caused much hurt to Roberts. He replied, with the help of Leo Amery and J. A. Cramb, with "Fallacies and Facts" (1911).


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: In a speech in Manchester's Free Trade Hall on 22 October 1912 Roberts pointed out that Cobden and Bright's prediction that peace and universal disarmament would follow the adoption of free trade had not happened. He further warned of the threat posed by Germany:


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: He claimed that Germany was making enormous efforts to prepare for war and ended his speech by saying:


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: The historian A. J. A. Morris claimed that this speech caused a sensation due to Roberts' warnings about Germany. It was much criticised by the Liberal and Radical press. The "Manchester Guardian" condemned the


title: Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts

text: insinuation that the German Government's views of international policy are less scrupulous and more cynical than those of other Governments...Prussia's character among nations is, in fact, not very different from the character which Lancashire men give to themselves as compared with other Englishmen. It is blunt, straightforward, and unsentimental.