title: Copernican Revolution

text: Newton was a well known English physicist and mathematician who was known for his book "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica". He was a main figure in the Scientific Revolution for his laws of motion and universal gravitation. The laws of Newton are said to be the ending point of the Copernican Revolution.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Newton used Kepler's laws of planetary motion to derive his law of universal gravitation. Newton's law of universal gravitation was the first law he developed and proposed in his book "Principia". The law states that any two objects exert a gravitational force of attraction on each other. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the gravitational masses of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Along with Newton's law of universal gravitation, the "Principia" also presents his three laws of motion. These three laws explain inertia, acceleration, action and reaction when a net force is applied to an object.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Immanuel Kant in his "Critique of Pure Reason" (1787 edition) drew a parallel between the "Copernican revolution" and the epistemology of his new transcendental philosophy. Kant's comparison is made in the Preface to the second edition of the "Critique of Pure Reason" (published in 1787; a heavy revision of the first edition of 1781). Kant argues that, just as Copernicus moved from the supposition of heavenly bodies revolving around a stationary spectator to a moving spectator, so metaphysics, "proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis", should move from assuming that "knowledge must conform to objects" to the supposition that "objects must conform to our ["a priori"] knowledge".


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Much has been said on what Kant meant by referring to his philosophy as "proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis". There has been a long-standing discussion on the appropriateness of Kant's analogy because, as most commentators see it, Kant inverted Copernicus' primary move.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: According to Tom Rockmore, Kant himself never used the "Copernican revolution" phrase about himself, though it was "routinely" applied to his work by others.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Following Kant, the phrase "Copernican Revolution" in the 20th century came to be used for any (supposed) paradigm shift, for example in reference to Freudian psychoanalysis or postmodern critical theory.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown is a city in Texas and the county seat of Williamson County, Texas, United States. The population was 67,176 at the 2020 census. It is 30 miles (48 km) north of Austin.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Founded in 1875 from four existing colleges, the oldest of which had been founded 35 years earlier, Southwestern University is the oldest university in Texas. It is in Georgetown about one-half mile from the historic square.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown has a notable range of Victorian commercial and residential architecture. In 1976, a local historic ordinance was passed to recognize and protect the significance of the historic central business district. In 1977, the Williamson County Courthouse Historical District, containing some 46 contributing structures, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Georgetown is also known as the "Red Poppy" Capital of Texas for the red poppy "(Papaver rhoeas)" wildflowers planted throughout the city. Georgetown's Red Poppy Festival, which attracts tens of thousands of visitors annually, is held in April each year on the historic square.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown has been the site of human habitation since at least 9,000 BCE, and possibly considerably before that. The earliest-known inhabitants of the county, during the late Pleistocene (Ice Age), can be linked to the Clovis culture, a Paleo-Indian culture characterized by the manufacture of distinctive "Clovis points" for weapons. It first appeared around 9200 BCE, and possibly as early as 11,500 BCE, at the end of the last glacial period.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: One of the most important discoveries in recent times is that of the ancient skeletal remains dubbed the "Leanderthal Lady", because of its age and proximity to a nearby community Leander, Texas. The site is immediately southwest of Georgetown and was discovered by accident by Texas Department of Transportation workers while core samples for a new highway were being drilled. The site has been extensively studied for many years, and samples carbon date the findings to the Pleistocene period, about 10,500 years ago (8500 BCE). Archeological dig sites showing much greater evidence of Archaic period inhabitants have been found in burned rock middens at several sites along the San Gabriel River, which have since been inundated by the manmade Granger Lake, and at the confluence of the North and South San Gabriel rivers in Georgetown.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The earliest known historical occupants of the county, the Tonkawa, were a flint-working, hunting people who followed buffalo on foot and periodically set fire to the prairie to aid them in their hunts. During the 18th century, they made the transition to a horse culture and used firearms to a limited extent. Also, small numbers of Kiowa, Yojuane, Tawakoni, and Mayeye Indians apparently were living in the county at the time of the earliest Anglo settlements. As these native populations thinned under pressure from non-indigenous settlements, the Comanche continued to raid native peoples' settlements in the county until the 1860s.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown was named for George Washington Glasscock, who donated the land for the new town. Early American and Swedish pioneers were attracted to the area's abundance of timber and good, clear water. In addition, the land was inexpensive and fertile. Georgetown is the county seat of Williamson County, which was formed on March 13, 1848, after the early settlers petitioned the state legislature to create it from a portion of Milam County. The county was originally to have been named San Gabriel County, but was instead named after Robert McAlpin Williamson (known as "Three-legged Willie"), a Texas statesman and judge at the time.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown was an agrarian community for most of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Shawnee Trail, a cattle trail that led from Texas to the rail centers in Kansas and Missouri, crossed through Georgetown. The establishment of Southwestern University in 1873 and construction of a railroad in 1878 contributed to the town's growth and importance. A stable economy developed, based largely on agricultural activity. Cotton was the dominant crop in the area between the 1880s and the 1920s. In this period, Williamson County was once the top producer of cotton in Texas.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: At one time, Georgetown was served by two national railroads, the International-Great Northern Railroad, which eventually was merged into the Missouri Pacific, and the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad. Both supported the transport of commodities to market: beef cattle and cotton. The regional Georgetown and Granger Railroad (GGR) was completed to Austin in 1904. Georgetown is served today by the Georgetown Railroad, a 'short line' railroad that uses portions of the former M-K-T and the I-GN to connect with the Union Pacific Railroad at Round Rock and at Granger.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown was home to minor league baseball. The 1914 Georgetown Collegians began play as charter members of the Class D level Middle Texas League.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: In 1921 a low-pressure system from a hurricane settled in over Williamson County and brought more than 23 inches of rain in Taylor and more than 18 inches of rain in Georgetown. The flooding resulted in the deaths of 156 persons, many of them farm laborers. There was also extensive property damage, and Georgetown residents sought to begin flood control.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers completed construction of a dam more than 50 years later, on the north fork of the San Gabriel River, to create and impound Lake Georgetown, which opened officially on October 5, 1979. Both Georgetown and Round Rock own water rights to Lake Georgetown for municipal water use.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Population growth and industrial expansion continued modestly in the 20th century until about 1960, when residential, commercial, and industrial development, due to major growth and urban expansion of nearby Austin, greatly accelerated. In 2008, "Fortune Small Business" magazine ranked Georgetown as the second-best city in the nation to "live and launch" a new business.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: In March 2015, Georgetown announced that their municipal-owned utility, Georgetown Utility Systems, would begin buying 100% of power for its customers from wind and solar farms by 2017, effectively making the city 100% green-powered.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: A densely overgrown, 1908–1910 Victorian house was found in Round Rock, Texas. (The site was later redeveloped for the La Frontera project.) The historic house was cut into pieces, and moved to Georgetown in 2006. There it was restored by Don Martin and Bill Smalling (1953–2008). It is located on San Gabriel Village Blvd, prominently overlooking the South San Gabriel River, and is now used as an office. It is known locally as the Burkland-Frisk House, as it was built by Leonard Frisk, an early settler in Williamson County, and was later owned by Tony Burkland, a relative.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: In Round Rock, this house was originally across the street from an identical house, built in the same era. The latter was used in the filming of "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre." The houses were known as "pattern book" houses, ordered from a catalog and assembled on site from a package of materials brought by wagon from a local lumber company. They were likely built between 1908 and 1910. Later the filmed house was cut and relocated to Kingsland, Texas. There it was redeveloped as part of the Antlers Hotel.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: In the 1970s, Georgetown's downtown was bleak and featureless. In an effort to modernize and compete with suburban retail development, building owners in the 1950s and 1960s had obscured some of their historical retail buildings. The Texas-Victorian streetscape was plastered with stucco, aluminum covers, brick, and multiple layers of white paint. Community leaders began to reassess this retail stock, and work with the Main Street program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation to enhance the architectural heritage of the city.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: In this period, economics also began to favor the reuse of historic buildings, as the cost of borrowing money was soaring. In Georgetown, every bank offered significantly lower interest loans for the renewal of the town's grand Victorian buildings and facades. Rehabilitation tax credit programs in the 1980s made investing in historic property more profitable. By 1984, 40 rehabilitations were complete. Two years after Georgetown initiated its Main Street program, more than half the Main Street district had undergone some kind of positive transition.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The city was recently named one of the best places to purchase a historic house. Today, Georgetown is home to one of the best-preserved Victorian and pre-WW1 downtown historic districts, with the Beaux-Arts Williamson County Courthouse (1911) as its centerpiece. Due to its successful preservation efforts, Georgetown was named a national Main Street City in 1997, the first Texas city so designated. Georgetown has three National Register Historic Districts:


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown is located at (30.651187, −97.681333), 26 miles (42 km) north of Austin's central business district. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 24.9 square miles (64.6 km), of which 22.8 square miles (59.1 km) are land and 2.1 square miles (5.4 km) (8.42%) are covered by water.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Prior to the 2010 census, the city annexed part of the Serenada CDP, increasing its total area to , of which, of it is land and is water-covered.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The city is located on the northeastern edge of Texas Hill Country. Portions of Georgetown are located on either side of the Balcones Escarpment, a fault line in which the areas roughly east of IH-35 are flat and characterized by having black, fertile soils of the Blackland Prairie, and the west side of the escarpment which consists mostly of hilly, karst-like terrain with little topsoil and higher elevations and which is part of the Texas Hill Country. Inner Space Cavern, a large cave, is a major tourist attraction found on the south side of the city, just west of Interstate 35, and is a large-scale example of limestone karst formations.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The North and Middle Forks of the San Gabriel River both run through the city. More than 30 miles of hike and bike trails, several parks, and recreation for both residents and visitors are provided along their banks.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown is home to five endangered species. Two are songbirds protected by the Balcones Canyonlands Preserve in Travis and Williamson Counties. Invertebrate species found only in Williamson County live in the cave-like fissures on the west side of Georgetown. Karst topography is the name for the honeycomb-type limestone formations (including caves, sinkholes, and fissures) that are typical in the county's limestone geology west of I-35.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: In the 1990s, a small group of concerned landowners and developers formed the Northern Edwards Aquifer Resource Council. Their goal was to identify and preserve a sufficient number of caves with endangered species to ensure survival of the species. Ultimately they wanted to obtain a United States Fish and Wildlife Service 10-A permit (known as an Incidental Take Permit) for the entire county by such actions. By gaining the permit, these species would be preserved through voluntary donations of land rather than by the county or state requiring setbacks and other involuntary means. The group documented their successful work in an environmental impact statement to the county in 2002, and a county-wide 10-A permit was obtained in October 2008.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Georgetown has a humid subtropical climate, "Cfa" on climate maps.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown, like much of Central Texas, is characterized by its long, hot summers and cooler, mild winters. The average summer temperature typically reaches 100 °F for several days during July and August. It is common for highs to be near 90 °F well into October, but by this time, the nights are noticeably cooler.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Winters in Georgetown have highs in the 50s and 60s, with a few days dropping near freezing, causing one or two ice storms per season. A few days reach well above the average. The region may have temperatures in the 80s well into December and 70s in January.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Fall, winter, and spring all average about two to three inches of rain per month, while July and August are the driest, averaging only one to two inches and sometimes no precipitation at all. Most of what rain does fall during the long summer comes from the outflow of Gulf storms that are often pushed away from the region by a large summer high-pressure system.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown has more than 225 days classified as mostly sunny to sunny, among a total of more than 300 days of at least partly cloudy skies per year.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 67,176 people, 28,075 households, and 19,180 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,241.3 people per square mile (479.3/km). The 10,902 housing units averaged 477.5 per square mile (184.4/km). Of the 28,075 households, 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.6% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.8% were not families; 21.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 2.92.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: In the city, the population was distributed as 23.4% under the age of 18, 11.4% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 21.3% from 45 to 64, and 17.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.0 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 91.1 men.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The median income for a household in the city was $54,098, and for a family was $63,338. Males had a median income of $40,541 versus $27,082 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,287. About 4.4% of families and 7.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.3% of those under age 18 and 3.9% of those age 65 or over.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Without question, the single most important issue relating to economic development was the location of Interstate 35 through Georgetown. Originally, when first conceived, a Georgetown route was very much in doubt, as most alignments had the road going through or near Taylor. At the time, Taylor was the economic hub of Williamson County as the center for cotton and cattle. While the Taylor leadership supported the Taylor route, local farmers opposed it. The interstate required then-unheard-of 300 feet of right of way across the entire county and through nearby Taylor farms, and many farmers worried that their homes might get cut off from their fields. Also, concerns were expressed about noise relating to cattle and other farm animals. Meanwhile, Round Rock and Georgetown leadership strongly lobbied for a route along the Balcones Escarpment fault line, which would later become U.S. Highway 81 and then eventually I-35.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The second-largest economic development activity in Georgetown history was the selection in 1995 of Georgetown as the site for the first-ever Sun City location in Texas. Originally called Sun City Georgetown, the project today is called Sun City Texas due to its size and because it draws residents from all over the state. , about 15,700 people live in the massive, 4,700-acre (and expanding) community, with an average net worth over $1,000,000 per person. The economic stimulus, creation of sales tax, banking and investment, and the high rate of community support and volunteerism has had an enormous effect on Georgetown.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Opened in June 1995, Sun City Texas is a 5,300-acre (21 km) age-restricted community located in Georgetown, about 10 miles west of I-35 on Williams Drive (RM 2338). It is part of the chain of Sun City communities started by the Del E. Webb Construction Company (now a division of PulteGroup). Residency is restricted to persons over age 55 (at least one person in a couple has to be 55 or older). Sun City Texas is made up mostly of single-family dwellings, but also has duplexes. It is legal to drive golf carts on the streets in the development (under a special Texas license exemption with help from Del Webb), and most shopping and the community facilities all have special parking slots for them.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Opposition to the project has been vocal at times, especially at the start during the zoning process, with arguments against the size of the community, its effect on Georgetown as a family-oriented town, concerns about the costs of providing city utilities, concern about lowered property taxes fixed for retirees under Texas law, and the disproportionate effect of city voting.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown is considered to be one of the best places to retire in the nation because of its fairly warm climate year round, close proximity to both the countryside and Austin, excellent medical care including Alzheimer's care, and its increasing population of retirees. In 2007, Georgetown was named by Retirement Places Rated (seventh edition) as the Best Place in America to Retire. Part of this is because Sun City Texas, a large master-planned community for "active adults 55 and over", calls Georgetown home. Twenty-five years after the project groundbreaking, Sun City is now home to nearly 16,000 residents and has been a driving force behind growth, development, and the very shape of Georgetown since its inception.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Numerous other active adult communities are also found in Georgetown, including the well-respected Wesleyan at Estrella, the Oaks at Wildwood, Heritage Oaks, and many others. Various projects offer differing levels of care, including assisted living. The city, county, and churches also maintain compassionate-care facilities for the elderly at the Bluebonnet Community Residence.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown is the first Texas city to operate entirely on renewable energy. Georgetown's projected power expenditures were $33 million for 2016 (spent $40 million); $39 million for 2017 (spent $46 million) and $45 million for 2018 (spent $53 million). It made up the shortfall through lower capital investments, rate adjustments, and "higher revenue" (tax). The average home power bill in the city increased 22% in 2019 compared to 2018.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The City of Georgetown is a home rule city and adopted its initial home-rule charter on April 24, 1970. As provided by its charter, Georgetown has a council-manager form of government. Under this form of government, the city council provides leadership by establishing the city's goals and policies. The city council appoints a full-time city manager to achieve the desired end set by the city council. The manager oversees the day-to-day activities of the city and all city departments and executes council-established laws and policies. The city council is composed of seven council members elected by geographic districts:


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: A mayor is elected at-large. Each position is elected for a term of three years, with council districts with staggered election dates. Josh Schroeder was elected mayor in 2020 with 64.54% of the vote and will serve until May 2023. David Morgan was hired by the City Council as the City Manager in 2015.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: The City of Georgetown is served by the Georgetown Independent School District and Georgetown High School, a National Blue Ribbon Award school, serves the community. Georgetown opened a second high school, East View High, in 2008. The graduating class of 2014 was the first class of students to graduate from East View as a full high school. Up to that point, East View High School had started as a freshman-only campus and added on one grade at a time as those students moved up.


title: Georgetown, Texas

text: Georgetown is also the home of Southwestern University, a private, four-year, undergraduate, liberal arts college. Founded in 1875, Southwestern is the oldest university in Texas. The school is affiliated with the United Methodist Church, although the curriculum is nonsectarian. Southwestern offers 40 bachelor's degrees in the arts, sciences, fine arts, and music, as well as interdisciplinary and pre-professional programs. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and the National Association of Schools of Music.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: Diogenes syndrome, also known as senile squalor syndrome, is a disorder characterized by extreme self-neglect, domestic squalor, social withdrawal, apathy, compulsive hoarding of garbage or animals, and a lack of shame. Affected people may also display symptoms of catatonia.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: The condition was first recognized in 1966 and designated Diogenes syndrome by Clark et al. The name derives from Diogenes of Sinope, an ancient Greek philosopher, a Cynic and an ultimate minimalist, who allegedly lived in a large jar in Athens. Not only did he not hoard, but he actually sought human company by venturing daily to the Agora. Therefore, this eponym is considered to be a misnomer. Other possible terms are "senile breakdown", "Plyushkin's Syndrome" (after the Gogol character), "social breakdown" and "senile squalor syndrome". Frontal lobe impairment may play a part in the causation (Orrell et al., 1989).


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: Diogenes syndrome is a disorder that involves hoarding of rubbish and severe self-neglect. In addition, the syndrome is characterized by domestic squalor, syllogomania, social alienation, and refusal of help. It has been shown that the syndrome is caused as a reaction to stress that was experienced by the patient. The time span in which the syndrome develops is undefined, though it is most accurately distinguished as a reaction to stress that occurs late in life.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: In most instances, patients were observed to have an abnormal possessiveness and patterns of compilation in a disordered manner. These symptoms suggest damage to the prefrontal areas of the brain, due to its relation to decision making. In contrast, there have also been cases where the hoarded objects were arranged in a methodical manner, which may suggest a cause other than brain damage.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: Although most patients have been observed to come from homes with poor conditions, and many had been faced with poverty for a long period of time, these similarities are not considered a definite cause to the syndrome. Research showed that some of the participants with the condition had solid family backgrounds as well as successful professional lives. Half of the patients were of higher intelligence level. This indicates the "Diogenes syndrome" does not exclusively affect those experiencing poverty or those who had traumatic childhood experiences.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: The severe neglect that they bring on themselves usually results in physical collapse or mental breakdown. Most individuals with the syndrome do not get identified until they face this stage of collapse, due to their predilection to refuse help from others.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: Personality traits that can be seen frequently in patients diagnosed with Diogenes syndrome are aggressiveness, stubbornness, suspicion of others, unpredictable mood swings, emotional instability and deformed perception of reality. Secondary DS is related to mental disorders. The direct relation of the patients' personalities to the syndrome is unclear, though the similarities in character suggest potential avenues for investigation.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: Individuals with Diogenes syndrome generally display signs of collectionism, hoarding, or compulsive disorder. Individuals who have had damage to the brain, particularly the frontal lobe, may be at more risk to developing the syndrome. The frontal lobes are of particular interest, because they are known to be involved in higher order cognitive processes, such as reasoning, decision-making and conflict monitoring.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: Diogenes syndrome tends to occur among the elderly. People with this disorder tend to have significant functional problems correlated with morbidity and mortality.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: It is ethically difficult when it comes to dealing with diagnosed patients, for many of them deny their poor conditions and refuse to accept treatment. The main objectives of the doctors are to help improve the patient's lifestyle and wellbeing, so health care professionals must decide whether or not to force treatment onto their patient.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: In some cases, especially those including the inability to move, patients have to consent to help, since they cannot manage to look after themselves. Hospitals or nursing homes are often considered the best treatment under those conditions.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: When under care, patients must be treated in a way in which they can learn to trust the health care professionals. In order to do this, the patients should be restricted in the number of visitors they are allowed, and be limited to one nurse or social worker. Some patients respond better to psychotherapy, while others to behavioral treatment or terminal care.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: Results after hospitalization tend to be poor. Research on the mortality rate during hospitalization has shown that approximately half the patients die while in the hospital. A quarter of the patients are sent back home, while the other quarter are placed in long-term residential care. Patients under care in hospitals and nursing homes often slide back into relapse or face death.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: There are other approaches to improve the patient's condition. Day care facilities have often been successful with maturing the patient's physical and emotional state, as well as helping them with socialization. Other methods include services inside the patient's home, such as the delivery of food.


title: Diogenes syndrome

text: The origin of the syndrome is unknown, although the term “Diogenes” was coined by A. N. G. Clarke et al. in the mid‑1970s and has been commonly used since then. Diogenes syndrome was acknowledged more prominently as a media phenomenon in popular media rather than medical literature. The primary description of this syndrome has only been mentioned recently by geriatricians and psychiatrists.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: Stephen Eric Pearcy (born July 3, 1956) is an American musician. He is best known as the founder, singer, songwriter and sole remaining original member of the heavy metal band Ratt. He has also created the bands Firedome, Crystal Pystal, Arcade (band), Vicious Delite, and Vertex. He has also recorded seven albums as a solo artist.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: In his early teens, Pearcy aspired to be a top fuel race car driver and expressed no desire to pursue a career in music. He listened to music and occasionally went to concerts in the 1970s; however, he had not so much as played a note in his whole life. One night during the summer of 1970, a hit-and-run driver struck Pearcy while he was riding his bicycle. While he was in the hospital for six months recovering from his accident, someone gave him an acoustic guitar. After fiddling around with the guitar for a short time, Pearcy decided to shift his vocational focus from driving race cars to playing music. He created the bands Firedome and Crystal Pystal. Pearcy also wrote music for a band that he named Mickey Ratt (formed in San Diego in 1977). Pearcy moved his band to Los Angeles in 1980 after seeing a local band, Van Halen, at The Whisky a Go Go.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: After Pearcy and the band moved to Los Angeles in 1980, the band's name was shortened to Ratt in 1981 and the original lineup was solidified in 1983. Playing clubs like The Troubadour, The Roxy and The Whisky, Ratt amassed a large local following. After releasing an eponymous six-song EP in 1983 that sold 200,000 copies, Ratt released its breakthrough album, "Out of the Cellar", on Atlantic Records in 1984. The band opened arena shows and tours for ZZ Top, Ozzy Osbourne and Billy Squier. "Out of the Cellar" went five times multi-platinum, and the band headed its own arena tours around the world for the next ten years. After releasing four multi-platinum records and three gold albums with Ratt, Pearcy left the band in 1992.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: Pearcy and former Cinderella drummer Fred Coury formed the band Arcade in 1992. Arcade released a self-titled album in 1993 and another album the following year. In 1996, Pearcy dabbled in an industrial metal band called Vertex (with Megadeth's Al Pitrelli and drummer / electronic producer Hiro Kuretani).


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: Pearcy reunited with Ratt in 1996 (minus Robbin Crosby and Juan Croucier) only to leave the band for a second time in 2000 on the eve of a tour due to differences over financial allocation amongst band members.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: Pearcy rejoined Ratt in 2006 before leaving again on April 24, 2014, explaining he was "officially done with having anything to do with them due to the constant turmoil, unresolved business, personal attacks/threats in the public forum, and most of all, the disrespect to the fans".


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: A new Ratt lineup including Jordan Ziff (lead guitars) and drummer Pete Holmes (from the band Black and Blue) performed a handful of shows in late 2018 and embarked on a world tour starting in May 2019.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: In April 2020, Pearcy appeared with Ratt in a GEICO insurance commercial where new homeowners lament that they "have a Ratt problem."


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: Pearcy has recorded four solo records under his own indie label Top Fuel Records. The latest, "View to a Thrill", was released on Frontiers Music/Top Fuel Records in November 2018; the music from the album was written by Pearcy and guitarist Erik Ferentinos.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: Pearcy is divorced and lives with his fiancé, Kristi Adair. He has a daughter from his first marriage. She was born July 25, 1995.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: Pearcy underwent knee replacement surgery in 2019, three months after two Ratt shows that saw him incapacitated to the point where he had difficulty remembering the words to some of the band's songs.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: On July 29, 2021, Pearcy revealed that he had been diagnosed with liver cancer three years earlier. He explained that he found out about the cancer through a blood test, and that he also had hepatitis.


title: Stephen Pearcy

text: In the rockumentary "Nothing to Lose: A Stephen Pearcy Rockumentary" (2021), produced and directed by Kristi Adair, Pearcy confirmed that he beat his liver cancer after having had chemotherapy and an ablation procedure that removed his cancer completely. He was subsequently on a maintenance program to make certain that his cancer did not return. As of 2022, four years after having been diagnosed, he was still completely free of cancer.


title: Bryan P. Fenton

text: Bryan Patrick Fenton (born 1965) is a United States Army general who serves as the 13th commander of the United States Special Operations Command since 30 August 2022. He most recently served as the 16th commander of the Joint Special Operations Command from July 2021 to August 2022. and as the senior military assistant to the Secretary of Defense from 12 August 2019 to June 2021. He previously served as the deputy commander of United States Indo-Pacific Command. Fenton is a graduate of the University of Notre Dame.


title: Mohit Marwah

text: Mohit Marwah is an Indian actor who works in Bollywood films. He is best known for his debut feature film "Fugly" (2014), and "Raag Desh" (2017). He has also appeared in short films such as "Strangers in the Night" produced by Dharma Productions and directed by Shakun Batra, and in "Love Shots" produced by Yash Raj Films.


title: Mohit Marwah

text: Mohit Marwah is the elder son of Sandeep Marwah, founder of Noida Film City, and his wife Reena Marwah. Marwah has one younger brother named Akshay Marwah. His mother, Reena Marwah, is the daughter of Surinder Kapoor and sister of film personalities Boney Kapoor, Anil Kapoor and Sanjay Kapoor. He is a first cousin of Sonam Kapoor, Arjun Kapoor, Harshvardhan Kapoor, Rhea Kapoor, and Jahnvi Kapoor.


title: Mohit Marwah

text: In February 2018 in Al Jazirah Al Hamra, Marwah married Antara Motiwala, niece of former actress Tina Munim (wife of industrialist Anil Ambani).


title: Mohit Marwah

text: Mohit Marwah attended Don Bosco School and University of Delhi for his formal education. He joined Asian Academy of Film & Television following his inclination towards filmmaking. Thereafter, Mohit Marwah was accepted by Vikram Bhatt as his assistant director. After gathering field experience in movie production, Mohit Marwah decided to specialise in acting and proceed to New York City to join the Lee Strasberg Acting School.


title: Mohit Marwah

text: Mohit Marwah started out his career working as an assistant director to Vikram Bhatt, getting involved in activities of the production process of three films, namely "Elaan" (2005), "Jurm" (2005) and "Deewane Huye Pagal" (2005).


title: Mohit Marwah

text: He acted in a short film "The Audition", produced by his sibling Akshay Marwah, directed by Karan Boolani and music supervised by Amit Trivedi. He also did a short film produced by Karan Johar called "Strangers in the Night" presented by Dharma Productions and directed by Shakun Batra.


title: Mohit Marwah

text: Thereafter, he got his break into the mainstream when he was signed by Akshay Kumar for the feature film "Fugly" opposite Kiara Advani.


title: Mohit Marwah

text: He acted in a video featuring Anmoll Mallik, singer and music director Anu Malik's daughter's debut single, "Lamhein" - a recreation of Coldplay's 2011 hit, "Paradise".


title: Mohit Marwah

text: Mohit starred in a short film by Y-Films, the youth division of Yash Raj Films, "Love Shots" - a collection of six short films, starring him along with Farida Jalal, Kulbhushan Kharbanda, Nimrat Kaur, Shweta Tripathi, Tillotama Shome, Saqib Saleem, Tahir Raj Bhasin, Rhea Chakraborty, Saba Azad, Salim Merchant and Swanand Kirkire. He has also acted in the short film "The Big Date" and later appeared in "Raag Desh".


title: Mohit Marwah

text: He is the director of Marwah Studios group, a creative enterprise involved in Media and entertainment activities. In 2014, Mohit was named one of the Best Dressed Men in Bollywood by GQ India. He has also featured in GQ India’s spring spread showcasing standout collection from the Italian fashion label Gucci. Marwah has appeared on the ramp for famous fashion designer Tarun Tahiliani in New Delhi to mark his support for a social cause. The show was organized for raising awareness in communities to help autistic children. He was also signed as the brand ambassador for the famous lifestyle brand, Provogue.


title: Formentera

text: Formentera (, ) is the smallest and most southerly island of the Pityusic Islands group (comprising Ibiza and Formentera, as well as various small islets), which belongs to the Balearic Islands autonomous community (Spain). It covers an area of (including offshore islets) and had a population of 10,582 at the Census of 1 November 2011; the latest official estimate (as at 1 January 2019) was 12,111.


title: Formentera

text: The island's name is usually said to derive from the Latin word "frumentarium", meaning "granary". The island was occupied in prehistoric times, going back to 2,000–1,600 BC. Archaeological sites from that period remain in Ca na Costa, Cap de Barbaria (multiple sites) and Cova des Fum. The island had been occupied by the Carthaginians before passing to the ancient Romans. In succeeding centuries, it passed to the Visigoths, the Byzantines, the Vandals, and the Arabs. In 1109 it was the target of a devastating attack by the Norwegian king Sigurd I at the head of the "Norwegian Crusade". The island was conquered by the James I the Conqueror, added to the Crown of Aragon and later became part of the medieval Kingdom of Majorca.


title: Formentera

text: From 1403 to the early 18th century, the threat of Barbary pirate attacks rendered the island uninhabitable. On 17 June 1651, during the Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659), a squadron of Spanish galleys under John of Austria the Younger captured the French galleon "Lion Couronné" off this island.


title: Formentera

text: The island (along with its surrounding islets) became a separate insular council (with the same territory as the municipality of the same name) after 1977. Before that, it was administered in the former insular council of Ibiza and Formentera (covering the whole group of the Pityusic Islands), but in a separate comarca (which already covered the current municipality of Formentera). This reform allowed Ibiza to unify its comarca (of five municipalities) with its new insular council (no longer administrating Formentera).


title: Formentera

text: The main island of Formentera is long and is located about south of Ibiza in the Mediterranean Sea. More specifically Formentera is part of the delimitation of the Balearic Sea which is a northwestern element of the Mediterranean Sea. Its major villages are Sant Francesc Xavier, Sant Ferran de ses Roques, El Pilar de la Mola (on the La Mola peninsula) and La Savina.


title: Formentera

text: Formentera comprises one municipality, also called Formentera, and has a population of 9,962 (as at 1 January 2010). Its land area is . It is subdivided into several civil parishes ("parròquies"), themselves subdivided into "vendas" ("véndes" in Catalan).


title: Formentera

text: North of Formentera is the island of Espalmador ("Illa de s'Empalmador" in Catalan), which is the second largest island of the municipality, and is itself surrounded by a few minor islets. Espalmador is a tombolo, separated from the main island of Formentera by a shallow sandbar, and during low tide, it is possible for one to wade between the two islands. This area is a popular stopping point for those in yachts heading between Ibiza and Formentera.


title: Formentera

text: Since the 1960s, Formentera has been a popular destination for hippies. Formentera is renowned across Europe for many pristine white beaches and the fact that nude sunbathing is allowed on most of its beaches. The Canadian writer Patrick Roscoe was born in Formentera. Meanwhile, Joni Mitchell wrote her 1971 album "Blue" on the island while Bob Dylan once lived in the Cap de Barbaria lighthouse on the island. Author Matt Haig also writes about visiting the island often in his twenties in "Reasons to Stay Alive". The opening track of the King Crimson album "Islands", "Formentera Lady", is named after the island. James Taylor also worked on his hit song "Carolina in My Mind" on holiday from recording with Apple Records, though he began writing it in London and completed it on the nearby island of Ibiza.


title: Formentera

text: Although paved roads allow access to all parts of the island and cars are easily hired in the port, many people choose to rent mopeds or even bicycles due to the flat nature of most of the island and the availability of dedicated cycle tracks in many locations.


title: Formentera

text: With no airports, the island was formerly reachable only by boat from Ibiza, making it the quieter of the two islands, but in recent years regular passenger service from the Spanish mainland has increased tourism.


title: Formentera

text: Ferry tickets from Ibiza are available in advance, as are transfers from Ibiza airport or port directly to accommodation in Formentera.


title: Formentera

text: Ferries to Formentera operate from their own terminal in Ibiza port, with departures every half hour in high season on large (200+ passenger) fast catamarans. The journey takes approximately 30 minutes comprising 10 minutes leaving Ibiza, 10 minutes crossing the sea, and 10 minutes arriving in Formentera past the isthmus to Espalmador.


title: Formentera

text: A local Ibizan ("eivissenc") variant of the Balearic dialect of the Catalan language is spoken in Formentera. While the official languages are Catalan and Spanish, other major languages like English, Italian, German, French and Dutch can also be heard extensively in the summer due to mass tourism.


title: Formentera

text: From 1 September to 7 September, Formentera hosted the 2007 Techno 293 OD World Championships in windsurfing for juniors under 15 and youths under 17.


title: Muriel Spark

text: Dame Muriel Sarah Spark (née Camberg; 1 February 1918 – 13 April 2006) was a Scottish novelist, short story writer, poet and essayist.


title: Muriel Spark

text: Muriel Camberg was born in the Bruntsfield area of Edinburgh, the daughter of Bernard Camberg, an engineer, and Sarah Elizabeth Maud (née Uezzell). Her father was Jewish, born in Edinburgh of Lithuanian immigrant parents, and her English mother had been raised Anglican. She was educated at James Gillespie's School for Girls (1923–35), where she received some education in the Presbyterian faith. In 1934–35 she took a course in "commercial correspondence and précis writing" at Heriot-Watt College. She taught English for a brief time, and then worked as a secretary in a department store.


title: Muriel Spark

text: In 1937 she became engaged to Sidney Oswald Spark, thirteen years her senior, whom she had met in Edinburgh. In August of that year, she followed him out to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), and they were married on 3 September 1937 in Salisbury. Their son Samuel Robin was born in July 1938. Within months she discovered that her husband was manic depressive and prone to violent outbursts. In 1940 Muriel left Sidney and temporarily placed Robin in a convent school, as children were not permitted to travel during the war. Spark returned to Britain in early 1944, taking residence at the Helena Club in London. She worked in intelligence for the remainder of World War II. She provided money at regular intervals to support her son. Spark maintained it was her intention for her family to set up home in England, but Robin returned to Britain with his father later to be brought up by his maternal grandparents in Scotland.


title: Muriel Spark

text: Between 1955 and 1965 she lived in a bedsit at 13 Baldwin Crescent, Camberwell, south-east London. After living in New York City for some years, she moved to Rome, where she met artist and sculptor Penelope Jardine in 1968. In the early 1970s they settled in Tuscany, in the village of Oliveto, near to Civitella in Val di Chiana, of which in 2005 Spark was made an honorary citizen. She was the subject of frequent rumours of lesbian relationships from her time in New York onwards, although Spark and her friends denied their validity. She left her entire estate to Jardine, taking measures to ensure that her son received nothing.


title: Muriel Spark

text: Spark began writing seriously, under her married name, after World War II, beginning with poetry and literary criticism. In 1947 she became editor of the "Poetry Review". This position made Spark one of the only female editors of the time. Spark left the "Poetry Review" in 1948. In 1953 Muriel Spark was baptized in the Church of England but in 1954 she decided to join the Roman Catholic Church, which she considered crucial in her development toward becoming a novelist. She was formally instructed by Dom Ambrose Agius, a Benedictine monk of Ealing Priory, who she had known from her Poetry Society days, and was received into the Roman Catholic Church on 1st May 1954 by Dom Ambrose. Penelope Fitzgerald, a fellow novelist and contemporary of Spark, wrote that Spark "had pointed out that it wasn't until she became a Roman Catholic ... that she was able to see human existence as a whole, as a novelist needs to do". In an interview with John Tusa on BBC Radio 4, she said of her conversion and its effect on her writing that she "was just a little worried, tentative. Would it be right, would it not be right? Can I write a novel about that – would it be foolish, wouldn't it be? And somehow with my religion – whether one has anything to do with the other, I don't know – but it does seem so, that I just gained confidence." Graham Greene, Gabriel Fielding and Evelyn Waugh supported her in her decision.


title: Muriel Spark

text: Her first novel, "The Comforters", was published to great critical acclaim in 1957. It featured several references to Catholicism and conversion to Catholicism, although its main theme revolved around a young woman who becomes aware that she is a character in a novel.


title: Muriel Spark

text: "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" (1961) was even more successful. Spark displayed originality of subject and tone, making extensive use of flashforwards and imagined conversations. It is clear that James Gillespie's High School was the model for the Marcia Blaine School in the novel. Her residence at the Helena Club was the inspiration for the fictional May of Teck Club in "The Girls of Slender Means" published in 1963.


title: Muriel Spark

text: In the 1940s Spark began to keep a record of her professional and personal activities that developed into a comprehensive personal archive containing diaries, accounts and cheque books and tens of thousands of letters. Spark used her archive to write her autobiography, "Curriculum Vitae", and after its publication in 1992 much of the material was deposited at National Library of Scotland.


title: Muriel Spark

text: Spark refused permission for publication of a biography of her by Martin Stannard. Penelope Jardine holds publication approval rights, and the book was posthumously published in July 2009. On 27 July 2009 Stannard was interviewed on "Front Row", the BBC Radio 4 arts programme. According to A. S. Byatt, "she [Jardine] was very upset by the book and had to spend a lot of time going through it, line by line, to try to make it a little bit fairer".


title: Muriel Spark

text: Spark received the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 1965 for "The Mandelbaum Gate", the US Ingersoll Foundation TS Eliot Award in 1992 and the David Cohen Prize in 1997. She became an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1967 and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1993 for services to literature. She was twice shortlisted for the Booker Prize, in 1969 for "The Public Image" and in 1981 for "Loitering with Intent". In 1998, she was awarded the Golden PEN Award by English PEN for a "Lifetime's Distinguished Service to Literature".


title: Muriel Spark

text: Spark received eight honorary doctorates including Doctor of the University degree (Honoris causa) from her alma mater, Heriot-Watt University in 1995; a Doctor of Humane Letters (Honoris causa) from the American University of Paris in 2005; and Honorary Doctor of Letters degrees from the Universities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, London, Oxford, St Andrews and Strathclyde.


title: Muriel Spark

text: In 2008, "The Times" ranked Spark as No. 8 in its list of "the 50 greatest British writers since 1945". In 2010, Spark was posthumously shortlisted for the Lost Man Booker Prize of 1970 for "The Driver's Seat".


title: Muriel Spark

text: Spark and her son Samuel Robin Spark at times had a strained relationship. They had a falling out when Robin's Orthodox Judaism prompted him to petition for his late great-grandmother to be recognized as Jewish. (Spark's maternal grandparents, Adelaide Hyams and Tom Uezzell, had married in a church. Tom was Anglican. Adelaide's father was Jewish, but her mother was not; Adelaide referred to herself as a "Jewish Gentile.") Spark reacted by accusing him of seeking publicity to further his career as an artist. Muriel's brother Philip, who himself had become actively Jewish, agreed with her version of the family's history. During one of her last book signings in Edinburgh, she told a journalist who asked if she would see her son again: "I think I know how best to avoid him by now."


title: Krabby Patty

text: A Krabby Patty is a veggie burger sold by the fictional restaurant the Krusty Krab in the animated television series "SpongeBob SquarePants". The series' creator, Stephen Hillenburg, expressly stated that the patties do not contain any meat. Created by the restaurant's founder Eugene Krabs and his archenemy Plankton, it is what the main character SpongeBob cooks throughout his job as a fry cook, as well as the restaurant's trademark food and most famous burger in Bikini Bottom. A prominent storyline throughout the series is Krabs' nemesis Plankton trying to steal the Krabby Patty secret formula. This running gag was given a backstory in the special "Friend or Foe", where it is revealed that Krabs and Plankton created the Krabby Patty to compete with the health-violating restaurant Stinky Burgers.


title: Krabby Patty

text: Krabby Patties make their debut appearance in "SpongeBob SquarePants" pilot episode "Help Wanted" and have had many different variations throughout the show's run.


title: Krabby Patty

text: The Krabby Patty burger is a menu item sold by the Krusty Krab as a fast food product. It is considered to be one of the most successful foods in Bikini Bottom. The Krabby Patty formula is a closely guarded trade secret, and rival restaurateur Plankton's futile attempts at acquiring the secret formula is a major recurring theme throughout the series. The Krusty Krab usually attracts customers from Bikini Bottom because of the Krabby Patty's renowned taste and the fact that Plankton's restaurant, the Chum Bucket, has a menu consisting of mostly inedible chum. Due to the lack of viable competition, Mr. Krabs is generally free to engage in price gouging, a practice he has been known to do throughout the show. Sometimes the Krusty Krab is shown to have a drive-thru to serve krabby patties seen in the episodes "Driven to Tears" and "Drive Thru" as well as "". It is noted by Mr. Krabs that the Krusty Krab and the Krabby Patty is clean and disease-free.


title: Krabby Patty

text: The Krabby Patty is made out of a frozen meatless burger with buns, the patty, pickles, lettuce, tomatoes, cheese, ketchup, mustard, and onions and with other elements according to a Krabby Patty secret formula, though said secret formula has never been revealed in the series. In the episode "Just One Bite," the Krusty Krab is revealed to have a "patty vault" that contains many Krabby Patties.


title: Krabby Patty

text: The Krusty Krab's menu, the Galley Grub, consists mostly of ordinary fast food items, such as french fries and sodas. Its signature sandwich, the Krabby Patty, is celebrated, to a comic degree, by the citizens of Bikini Bottom. In "", Mr. Krabs states: "The Krabby Patty is what ties us all together! Without it, there will be a complete breakdown of social order!" The sandwich comprises two buns, with the patty, lettuce, cheese, onions, tomatoes, ketchup, mustard, and pickles between them (in that order).


title: Krabby Patty

text: The formula has been hinted at but remained a mystery throughout the series. A running gag is Plankton's obsession with obtaining it as a way to produce the sandwiches and attract customers to his across-the-street restaurant, the Chum Bucket. The recipe of the patty is a closely guarded trade secret, which have led viewers to speculate about its contents. Several fan theories have been formed to guess the secret ingredient.


title: Krabby Patty

text: Matthew Patrick stated that the sandwich contains "...Four cups of faba beans, one chopped onion, enough breadcrumbs to bind it, liquid smoke, chili pepper, turmeric, one teaspoon of a calcium supplement, flour, salt, seaweed sauce, and lastly the big secret; red algae extract and of course, love. The love and pride that one yellow sponge has for his little baby burgers..."


title: Krabby Patty

text: According to series animator Vincent Waller, "there is absolutely no meat in the Krabby Patty. There's no animal product in there", something which was always planned by series creator Stephen Hillenburg. Mr. Lawrence, a show writer and Plankton's voice actor, explained that the show's writers are not allowed to depict fish as food, or at least fish eating each other as food (as episodes such as "Hooky", "Wishing You Well", and "My Leg?" depict or allude to fish being consumed by humans); he stated that there is no meat served in Bikini Bottom except at the Chum Bucket. Tom Kenny, the voice actor for SpongeBob, joked: "Krabby Patties are hummus!" Some commentators suggest that there is actually no secret ingredient, pointing to Mr. Krabs' miserliness. A writer for Hollywood.com believes that it is "all a ruse that crafty Mr. Krabs came up with in order to stop Plankton from focusing on [t]he Chum Bucket. It's legitimately brilliant marketing!" The episode "Patty Caper" shows that there is truly a secret ingredient in the Krabby Patty, which is delivered to the restaurant with high security. On the possibility that the secret Krabby Patty formula will be revealed in future episodes, Waller said in 2017 that he "would not count on it". In 2019, Waller stated that Hillenburg, who died in 2018, is the only person to have seen it.


title: Krabby Patty

text: Publications such as "USA Today" have named it among other fictional foods that many have wanted to exist in real life, but according to the "New York Daily News", there are four restaurants which serve a similar burger to the one seen in the show. These burgers include the Snow Crab Crispy Rice, Phuket Fantasy, Angry Crab Benedict, and Soft Shell Crab Taco.


title: Krabby Patty

text: The Krabby Patties have also inspired real life gummy confectionery treats, primarily in New England. In 2008, a doctor with Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine warned parents to be aware of where the candy their child consumes is produced due to contamination then found in Chinese milk; SpongeBob Gummy Krabby Patties were among those candies produced in China. In 2019, a reporter with the student newspaper of Capital University gave the gummy candies a rating of a 2 out of 10 in their review of Halloween candy.


title: Krabby Patty

text: The Krabby Patty has been used by Katy Perry as a second costume on the red carpet at New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art. In "The SpongeBob Musical", the Krabby Patty was portrayed by an actor on stage at the Palace Theatre. Various merchandise depicts SpongeBob and the Krabby Patty such as HipDot, as make-up, and as dog toys.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Jon Llewellyn Kyl ( ; born April 25, 1942) is an American politician and lobbyist who served as a United States Senator for Arizona from 1995 to 2013 and again in 2018. A Republican, he held both of Arizona's Senate seats at different times, serving alongside John McCain during his first stint. Kyl was Senate Minority Whip from 2007 until 2013. He first joined the lobbying firm Covington & Burling after retiring in 2013, then rejoined in 2019.


title: Jon Kyl

text: The son of U.S. Representative John Henry Kyl and Arlene (née Griffith) Kyl, Kyl was born and raised in Nebraska and lived for some time in Iowa. He received his bachelor's degree and law degree from the University of Arizona. He worked in Phoenix, Arizona as an attorney and lobbyist before winning election to the United States House of Representatives, where he served from 1987 to 1995. He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1994 and continued to be re-elected by comfortable margins until his retirement in January 2013. In 2006, he was recognized by "Time" magazine as one of America's Ten Best Senators. Kyl was ranked by "National Journal" in 2007 as the fourth-most conservative U.S. Senator. He has been a fixture of Republican policy leadership posts, chairing the Republican Policy Committee (2003–2007) and the Republican Conference (2007). In December 2007, he became Senate Minority Whip. He was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2010 for his persuasive role in the Senate.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl did not seek re-election to the Senate in 2012 and retired at the end of his third term. He expressly ruled out running for further office except, if offered, the Vice Presidency. After leaving the Senate in 2013, he worked as an attorney and lobbyist and then worked to shepherd the Supreme Court nomination of Brett Kavanaugh.


title: Jon Kyl

text: In September 2018, Kyl was appointed by Governor Doug Ducey to serve in the Senate seat left vacant by the death of John McCain. At a press conference accepting the appointment, Kyl stated that he would not run for the remainder of the term following the 2020 special election. Kyl is the first person to return to the Senate via appointment since New Hampshire Republican Norris Cotton in 1975. Kyl resigned from the Senate effective December 31, 2018, and was succeeded by Martha McSally.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl was born in Oakland, Nebraska, the son of Arlene (née Griffith) and John Henry Kyl, a teacher at Nebraska State Teachers College. His father served as a Congressman from Iowa after moving his family to Bloomfield, Iowa. After graduating from high school in 1960, Kyl attended the University of Arizona, where he earned a bachelor's degree in 1964, graduating with honors. Kyl is a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity, as is Governor Doug Ducey of Arizona. He then earned a law degree in 1966 at the University of Arizona's James E. Rogers College of Law, and served as editor-in-chief of the "Arizona Law Review". Before entering politics, he was a lawyer and lobbyist with Jennings, Strouss & Salmon in Phoenix, Arizona. He also worked as an attorney at Mountain States Legal Foundation in Denver, Colorado, prior to running for office.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl is a Presbyterian. Kyl is married to Caryll Collins, with whom he has had two children. They also have four grandchildren.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl served in the House of Representatives from 1987 to 1995. He was first elected in 1986 against Democrat Philip R. Davis, 65% to 35%. He was re-elected in 1988 against Gary Sprunk of the Libertarian party, 87% to 13%; in 1990 against Democrat Mark Ivey, Jr., 61% to 39%;


title: Jon Kyl

text: For his first six terms, Kyl represented most of the northeastern portion of the state, from heavily Republican northern Phoenix to the New Mexico border. Redistricting after the 1990 Census carved away all of Kyl's former territory outside the Valley of the Sun. The new 4th, however, was as safely Republican as its predecessor, and Kyl easily won reelection in 1992 against Democrat Walter R. Mybeck, II, 59% to 27%.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl was elected by his fellow Senate Republicans to a succession of leadership posts: Policy Committee chairman (2003–2007), Conference chairman (2007), and most recently (in December 2007), Senate Minority Whip. Kyl's ascension to Minority Whip makes him the first Arizonan to hold such an influential Senate leadership post since Democrat Ernest W. McFarland served as Senate Majority Leader from 1951 to 1953. Kyl is the only Arizona Republican to hold that leadership position.


title: Jon Kyl

text: On September 4, 2018, Kyl was appointed by Republican Arizona governor Doug Ducey to the U.S. Senate seat that had been vacated due to John McCain's death.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl is only the sixth person to return to the Senate via appointment since the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment (mandating the direct election of U.S. senators) in 1913. The last preceding case had been Norris Cotton (New Hampshire)


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl voted in favor of the confirmation of Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court. He resigned from the Senate effective December 31, 2018 and was succeeded by former congresswoman Martha McSally, a Republican.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl is considered to be a conservative and was ranked by "National Journal" as the fourth-most conservative United States Senator in their March 2007 conservative/liberal rankings. In addition, in April 2006, Kyl was selected by "Time Magazine" as one of "America's 10 Best Senators"; the magazine cited his successful behind-the-scene efforts as head of the Senate Republican Policy Committee. Senator Kyl has earned a 96.58% Lifetime Score from the American Conservative Union.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl was one of the original sponsors, along with Democratic Senator Dianne Feinstein, of an effort to amend the United States Constitution to protect crime victims' rights in the criminal justice system. When in 2004 it appeared that the constitutional amendment would not receive the requisite 2/3 support to pass the Senate, Kyl and Feinstein authored the Crime Victims' Rights Act, which listed a victims' bill of rights and provided mandamus relief in appellate court for any victim denied those rights. The act also offered sanctions against government officials who wantonly and willfully refused to comply with the Crime Victims' Rights Act.


title: Jon Kyl

text: In November 2010, Kyl opposed the New START arms control treaty's ratification in the lame-duck session. Nevertheless, the treaty passed 71–26, clearing the constitutionally mandated two-thirds threshold by the narrowest margin of any nuclear arms control treaty ever ratified by the United States.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl and Bob Goodlatte were among the first in the United States to draft legislation on online gambling. In the late 1990s they introduced bills to the Senate that would curb online gambling activities except for those that involved horse and dog races and state lotteries. The bill by Kyl, known as the Kyl bill, was not passed in the end due to certain loopholes. Attorney Jorge Van, at the time principal investigator of the National Gambling Impact Study Commission on Internet Gambling, pointed out that under the Kyl bill "state lotteries would be able to offer a variety of games under the guise of a lottery, including slot machines", which ultimately would allow "interactive wagering at home on the internet which the law aimed to prevent in the first place".


title: Jon Kyl

text: In September 2006, working with then-Congressman Jim Leach, Kyl was a major Senate supporter of Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006. The Act was passed at midnight the day Congress adjourned before the 2006 elections. Prior to it being added to the bill, the gambling provisions had not been debated by any Congressional committee, although the general issue had been debated in multiple times in the past. When publication of the associated regulations was delayed until June 2010, Kyl responded by denying unanimous consent to confirm the appointment of 6 nominees to the US Treasury Department, none of whom specialized on gambling issues.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl voted against the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) in December 2009, and he voted against the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.


title: Jon Kyl

text: In February 2006, Kyl joined Senator Lindsey Graham in an amicus brief in the "Hamdan v. Rumsfeld" case. The brief presented to the Supreme Court of the United States an "extensive colloquy" added to the Congressional Record. It was not, however, included in the December 21 debate as evidence that "Congress was aware" that the Detainee Treatment Act of 2005 would strip the Court of jurisdiction to hear "pending cases, including this case" brought by the Guantanamo detainees.


title: Jon Kyl

text: In the spring of 2009, Kyl invited Geert Wilders to show his film "Fitna" to the United States Congress, which led to American Muslim protests.


title: Jon Kyl

text: In 2012, Kyl voted against ratification of the UN Treaty Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.


title: Jon Kyl

text: In 2010, Democratic Senate Leader Harry Reid wanted the Senate to return to work on the week between Christmas and New Year's in order to pass time-critical legislation including the James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act, which would ensure health coverage for 9/11 first responders. Kyl made a public comment that this would disrespect "one of the two holiest of holidays for Christians and the families of all of the Senate." First responder Kenny Specht appeared on "The Daily Show" and replied, "You won't find a single New York firefighter who considers it a sign of disrespect to work in a New York City firehouse on New Year's Eve or New Year's Day." The Zadroga Act passed on December 22.


title: Jon Kyl

text: During a Senate debate on April 8, 2011, Kyl said that performing abortions is "well over 90 percent of what Planned Parenthood does". Planned Parenthood responded that 90 percent of its services are to provide contraception, STD and cancer testing and treatment, and only 3 percent are abortion-related. A spokesperson for Kyl later claimed the senator's remark "was not intended to be a factual statement but rather to illustrate that Planned Parenthood, an organization that receives millions in taxpayer dollars, does subsidize abortions." Politifact noted that Planned Parenthood's numbers (from their most recent Annual Report, year ending June 30, 2009) are the result of self-reporting and that there is no national audit on such claims, but stated their belief that Kyl "vastly overstated" the number. A political science professor writing at National Review Online suggested that perhaps Kyl's comments were based on the pregnancy-related services provided to pregnant women, citing Planned Parenthood's 2009 annual report figures and claiming that 98% of those services were for abortion. The phrase "not intended to be a factual statement" was mocked by political comedians such as Stephen Colbert, who joked, "You can't call him out for being wrong when he never intended to be right."


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl was first elected to the Senate in 1994, defeating Samuel G. Coppersmith (D), then a member of the House of Representatives, 54% to 40%. Libertarian Party candidate Scott Grainger got 6% of the votes.


title: Jon Kyl

text: Kyl was re-elected in 2000 without major-party opposition, with 79% of the vote. Independent William Toel got 8%; Green Party candidate Vance Hansen also got 8%; and Barry Hess of the Libertarian Party got 5%.


title: Jon Kyl

text: On November 7, 2006, Kyl defeated real estate developer and former Arizona Democratic Party chairman Jim Pederson to win his third term in the Senate. Kyl won with 53% of the vote; Pederson received 44%; and Libertarian Party candidate Richard Mack received 3%. The race was one of the most expensive in Arizona history, with Kyl raising more than $15 million and Pederson raising just shy of that amount.


title: Jon Kyl

text: A major issue in the campaign was illegal immigration. While in the Senate, Kyl cosponsored legislation that would give illegal immigrants up to five years to leave the country. Once there, they could apply for permanent residence or be guest workers. Since fellow Arizona Senator John McCain opposed this legislation, Pederson tried to use the issue as a way of allying with McCain and dividing Republicans in Arizona. Controversy also arose when each candidate accused the other of supporting the amnesty provisions in a 1986 immigration bill, although both candidates deny ever supporting those provisions.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: "Duel of the Fates" is a musical theme recurring in the "Star Wars" prequel trilogy and the Expanded Universe. It was composed by John Williams and recorded for the film soundtrack of "" by the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO) and the London Voices. This symphonic piece is played with both a full orchestra and a choir. The lyrics are based on a fragment of an archaic Welsh poem "Cad Goddeu" ("Battle of the Trees"), and are sung in Sanskrit. The piece debuts during the final lightsaber duel in "". With the music video for this theme, the LSO became the only classical group to ever have a video debut on MTV’s "Total Request Live". "Duel of the Fates" lasted 11 days on the countdown.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: "" was also used as the title of a working script by Colin Trevorrow and Derek Connolly for "" (2019).


title: Duel of the Fates

text: "Duel of the Fates" was composed by John Williams and recorded by the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO) and the London Voices for the "" film soundtrack. The symphonic piece is played with both a full orchestra and a choir. The lyrics are based on a fragment of an archaic Welsh poem "Cad Goddeu" ("Battle of the Trees"), and sung in Sanskrit. The translation was loose and Williams arranged it by ear, while rearranging the syllables, so the pronunciation of the Sanskrit is not accurate and the meaning of the stanza is lost in the actual singing.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: Although Williams conducted "Duel of the Fates" to appear as a concert suite in the end credits (rather than the film), Williams did record similar cues using the ostinato motif, and in one instance, a 'cut down' version, labelled the "Great Duel". John Williams stated the chorus was introduced to give a religious, temple-like feel to the epic lightsaber duel. Williams compared the setting of the battle to a pagan altar, and that the duel itself "seems like a dance or a ballet, a religious ceremony of some kind, probably ending in the death of one of the combatants".


title: Duel of the Fates

text: The music had its debut during the final lightsaber duel between Qui-Gon Jinn, Obi-Wan Kenobi, and Darth Maul in "". The beginning portion used on the soundtrack is replaced with the beginning of a separate track titled "Qui-Gon's Noble End"; however, the full version of the original recording is used during the film's end credits.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: An abridged version is played in "" when Anakin Skywalker used a swoop bike to search for his mother.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: The piece "Battle of the Heroes", which was played in "", during the battle sequence between Yoda and Darth Sidious in the senate chamber on Coruscant, and the simultaneous battle between Darth Vader and Obi-Wan Kenobi on Mustafar, had a piece of "Duel of the Fates", but rewritten in a tragic mode. Lucas had expressed in a documentary of "The Phantom Menace" that he wanted to use “Duel of the Fates” in "Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith" as he liked the feeling of the work. However, he decided not to use it mainly because it did not match the tragic mood of the duel between Obi-Wan and Vader. “Duel of the Fates” makes an appearance during the Yoda/Sidious fight scene. For this instance, John Williams re-recorded the choir and layered it over the vocal-less recording from "Episode I".


title: Duel of the Fates

text: "Duel of the Fates" can be heard in a number of "Star Wars" video games, including "", , "", , "", "", "", "", and "Angry Birds Star Wars II". The theme also plays during "Soulcalibur IV", whenever The Apprentice fights within either of the game's three Star Wars-themed stages, as well as during his extended ending. "Duel of the Fates" also plays when Darth Maul appears during the Jedi Training Academy show featured at Disney's Hollywood Studios and Disneyland.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: A special of "Lego Star Wars" called "The Empire Strikes Out" features a short section of “Duel of the Fates”, in which Darth Maul hums along with the music while declaring how "awesome" he is.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: Another "Lego Star Wars" special, entitled "The Yoda Chronicles: Menace of the Sith", also featured “Duel of the Fates”. Count Dooku plays the music on a radio during a demonstration of the Sith clone Jek-14's power. Darth Maul complains that “Duel of the Fates” is his theme song, to which Asajj Ventress replies "Can somebody say diva?".


title: Duel of the Fates

text: "Duel of the Fates" is heard in a TV spot for "" titled "Duel", in which it is mixed with "The Imperial March". Additionally, "" was the title of a working script by Colin Trevorrow and Derek Connolly for "Episode IX", before the film evolved into "The Rise of Skywalker".


title: Duel of the Fates

text: A reorchestrated version of the song can be heard in "" episode "The Phantom Apprentice" while the characters Ahsoka Tano and Maul duel.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: Despite only being slightly used in the film "The Phantom Menace", the theme "Duel of the Fates" has gone on to define the music of the prequel trilogy. It was so loved by fans that it went on to be blended into the theme "Battle of the Heroes" in "Revenge of the Sith".


title: Duel of the Fates

text: "Duel of the Fates" has also been used to reference and satirize "Star Wars". For instance, in "The Simpsons" episode "Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em", the song plays in a sequence parodying "Star Wars", during an allergen-stick (of shrimp and peanut) battle between Bart Simpson and Seymour Skinner.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: The song was also used as the theme for the 2003 Broadcast of the Drum Corps International World Championships on PBS.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: "Duel of the Fates" was used in the original BBC broadcast of "Top Gear" Series 9 Episode 2 in 2007, during the segment in which host James May drives a Bugatti Veyron to its top speed at the Volkswagen test track at Ehra-Lessien.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: Tottenham Hotspur F.C. uses "Duel of the Fates" to announce the appearance of the players from the tunnel.


title: Duel of the Fates

text: J.P. Anderson's band Rabbit Junk used a sample of "Duel of the Fates" in the song "Demons", which appears on the album "Reframe".


title: Duel of the Fates

text: The Boston Pops performed the piece as the Montreal Canadiens and Boston Bruins entered Gillette Stadium for the 2016 NHL Winter Classic.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Steven David Levitt (born May 29, 1967) is an American economist and co-author of the best-selling book "Freakonomics" and its sequels (along with Stephen J. Dubner). Levitt was the winner of the 2003 John Bates Clark Medal for his work in the field of crime, and is currently the William B. Ogden Distinguished Service Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago as well as the Faculty Director and Co-Founder of the Center for Radical Innovation for Social Change at the University of Chicago which incubates the Data Science for Everyone coalition. He was co-editor of the "Journal of Political Economy" published by the University of Chicago Press until December 2007. In 2009, Levitt co-founded TGG Group, a business and philanthropy consulting company. He was chosen as one of "Time" magazine's "100 People Who Shape Our World" in 2006. A 2011 survey of economics professors named Levitt their fourth favorite living economist under the age of 60, after Paul Krugman, Greg Mankiw and Daron Acemoglu.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Levitt attended St. Paul Academy and Summit School in St. Paul, Minnesota. He graduated from Harvard University in 1989 with his AB in economics "summa cum laude", writing his senior thesis on rational bubbles in horse breeding, and then worked as a consultant at Corporate Decisions, Inc. (CDI) in Boston advising Fortune 500 companies. He received his PhD in economics from MIT in 1994. He is currently the William B. Ogden Distinguished Service Professor and the director of Gary Becker Milton Friedman Institute for Research in Economics at the University of Chicago. In 2003 he won the John Bates Clark Medal, awarded every two years by the American Economic Association to the most promising U.S. economist under the age of 40.


title: Steven Levitt

text: In April 2005 Levitt published his first book, "Freakonomics" (coauthored with Stephen J. Dubner), which became a "New York Times" bestseller. Levitt and Dubner also started a blog devoted to Freakonomics.


title: Steven Levitt

text: His work on various economics topics, including crime, politics and sports, includes over 60 academic publications. For example, his "An Economic Analysis of a Drug-Selling Gang's Finances" (2000) analyzes a hand-written "accounting" of a criminal gang, and draws conclusions about the income distribution among gang members. In his most well-known and controversial paper ("The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime" (2001), co-authored with John Donohue), he shows that the legalization of abortion in the US in 1973 was followed approximately eighteen years later by a considerable reduction in crime, then argues that unwanted children commit more crime than wanted children and that the legalization of abortion resulted in fewer unwanted children, and thus a reduction in crime as these children reached the age at which many criminals begin committing crimes.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Among other papers, Levitt's work on crime includes examination of the effects of prison population, police hiring, availability of LoJack anti-theft devices and legal status of abortion on crime rates.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Revisiting a question first studied empirically in the 1960s, Donohue and Levitt argued that the legalization of abortion could account for almost half of the reduction in crime witnessed in the 1990s. This paper sparked much controversy, to which Levitt has said


title: Steven Levitt

text: ". . . John Donohue and I estimate maybe that there are 5,000 or 10,000 fewer homicides because of it. But if you think that a fetus is like a person, then that’s a horrible tradeoff. So ultimately I think our study is interesting because it helps us understand why crime has gone down. But in terms of policy towards abortion, you’re really misguided if you use our study to base your opinion about what the right policy is towards abortion"


title: Steven Levitt

text: In 2003, Theodore Joyce argued that legalized abortion had little impact on crime, contradicting Donohue and Levitt's results. In 2004, the authors published a response, in which they claimed Joyce's argument was flawed due to omitted-variable bias.


title: Steven Levitt

text: In November 2005, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston economist Christopher Foote and his research assistant Christopher Goetz, published a paper, in which they argued that the results in Donohue and Levitt's paper were due to statistical errors made by the authors. When the corrections were made, Foote and Goetz argued that abortion actually increased violent crime instead of decreasing it.


title: Steven Levitt

text: In January 2006, Donohue and Levitt published a response, in which they admitted the errors in their original paper, but also pointed out that Foote and Goetz's correction was flawed due to heavy attenuation bias. The authors argued that, after making necessary changes to fix the original errors, the corrected link between abortion and crime was now weaker but still statistically significant.


title: Steven Levitt

text: In 2019, Levitt and Donohue published a new paper to review the predictions of the original 2001 paper. The authors concluded that the original predictions held up with strong effects. "We estimate that crime fell roughly 20% between 1997 and 2014 due to legalized abortion. The cumulative impact of legalized abortion on crime is roughly 45%, accounting for a very substantial portion of the roughly 50-55% overall decline from the peak of crime in the early 1990s."


title: Steven Levitt

text: Levitt discusses this paper and the background and history of the original paper (including its criticisms) in an episode of the "Freakonomics" podcast.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Levitt's 1996 paper on prison population uses prison overcrowding litigation to estimate that decreasing the prison population by one person is associated with an increase of fifteen Index I crimes per year (Index I crimes include homicide, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson).


title: Steven Levitt

text: In a 1997 paper on the effect of police hiring on crime rates, Levitt used the timing of mayoral and gubernatorial elections as an instrumental variable to identify a causal effect of police on crime. Past studies had been inconclusive because of the simultaneity inherent in police hiring (when crime increases, more police are hired to combat crime). The findings of this paper were found to be the result of a programming error. This was pointed out in a comment by Justin McCrary published in the "American Economic Review" in 2002. In a response published with McCrary's comment Levitt admits to the error and then goes on to offer alternative evidence to support his original conclusions. Levitt's 1997 paper was also criticized in another comment that demonstrates the weakness of the instrumental variables used in the original study, rendering the interpretation difficult if not impossible.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Ayres and Levitt (1998) used a new dataset on the prevalence of LoJack automobile anti-theft devices to estimate the social externality associated with its use. They find that the marginal social benefit of Lojack is fifteen times greater than the marginal social cost in high crime areas, but that those who install LoJack obtain less than ten percent of the total social benefits.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Another 1998 paper finds that juvenile criminals are at least as responsive to criminal sanctions as adults. Sharp drops in crime at the age of maturity suggest that deterrence plays an important role in the decision to commit a crime.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Levitt and Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh (2000) analyzed a unique dataset which details the financial activities of a drug-selling street gang. They found that wage earnings in the gang were somewhat higher than legal market alternatives, but did not offset the increased risks associated with selling drugs. They suggested that the prospect of high future earnings is the primary economic motivation for being in a gang.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Levitt and Porter (2001) found that drivers with alcohol in their blood are seven times more likely to cause a fatal crash than sober drivers (those above the legal limit are 13 times more likely than sober drivers). They estimate that the externality per mile driven by a drunk driver is at least thirty cents, which implies that the proper fine to internalize this cost is roughly $8,000.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Duggan and Levitt (2002) showed how non-linear payoff schemes establish incentives for corruption and the authors used the non-linearity to provide substantial statistical evidence that cheating is taking place in Japanese sumo wrestling. Brian Jacob and Levitt (2003) developed an algorithm to detect teachers who cheat for their students on standardized tests. They found that the observed frequency of cheating appears to respond strongly to relatively minor changes in incentives.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Levitt's work on politics includes papers on the effects of campaign spending, on the median voter theorem, and on the effects of federal spending.


title: Steven Levitt

text: Levitt's 1994 paper on campaign spending employs a unique identification strategy to control for the quality of each candidate (which in previous work had led to an overstatement of the true effect). It concludes that campaign spending has a very small impact on election outcomes, regardless of who does the spending. On the subject of federal spending and elections, previous empirical studies were not able to establish that members of Congress are rewarded by the electorate for bringing federal dollars to their district because of omitted variables bias. Levitt and Snyder (1997) employ an instrument which circumvents this problem and finds evidence that federal spending benefits congressional incumbents; they find that an additional $100 per capita spending is worth as much as 2 percent of the popular vote.


title: Steven Levitt

text: The 1996 paper on the median voter theorem develops a methodology for consistently estimating the relative weights in a senator's utility function and casts doubt on the median voter theorem, finding that the senator's own ideology is the primary determinant of roll-call voting patterns.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The M'Naghten rule (pronounced, and sometimes spelled, McNaughton) is any variant of the 1840s jury instruction in a criminal case when there is a defence of insanity:


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The rule was formulated as a reaction to the acquittal in 1843 of Daniel M'Naghten on the charge of murdering Edward Drummond. M'Naghten had shot Drummond after mistakenly identifying him as UK Prime Minister Robert Peel, who was the intended target. The House of Lords asked a panel of judges, presided over by Sir Nicolas Conyngham Tindal, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, a series of hypothetical questions about the defence of insanity. The principles expounded by this panel have come to be known as the "M'Naghten Rules", though they have gained any status only by usage in the common law and M'Naghten himself would have been found guilty if they had been applied at his trial.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The rules so formulated as "M'Naghten's Case" 1843 10 C & F 200 have been a standard test for criminal liability in relation to mentally disordered defendants in common law jurisdictions ever since, with some minor adjustments. When the tests set out by the Rules are satisfied, the accused may be adjudged "not guilty by reason of insanity" or "guilty but insane" and the sentence may be a mandatory or discretionary (but usually indeterminate) period of treatment in a secure hospital facility, or otherwise at the discretion of the court (depending on the country and the offence charged) instead of a punitive disposal.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The insanity defence is recognized in Australia, Canada, England and Wales, Hong Kong, India, the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand, Norway and most U.S. states with the exception of Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Utah, and Vermont but not all of these jurisdictions still use the M'Naghten Rules. States that disallow the insanity defence still allow defendants to demonstrate that they are not capable of forming intent to commit a crime as a result of mental illness.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: There are various justifications for the exemption of the insane from criminal responsibility. When mental incapacity is successfully raised as a defence in a criminal trial it absolves a defendant from liability: it applies public policies in relation to criminal responsibility by applying a rationale of compassion, accepting that it is morally wrong to punish a person if that person is deprived permanently or temporarily of the capacity to form a necessary mental intent that the definition of a crime requires. Punishment of the obviously mentally ill by the state may undermine public confidence in the penal system. A utilitarian and humanitarian approach suggests that the interests of society are better served by treatment


title: M'Naghten rules

text: Historically, insanity was seen as grounds for leniency. In pre-Norman times in England there was no distinct criminal code – a murderer could pay compensation to the victim's family under the principle of "buy off the spear or bear it". The insane person's family were expected to pay any compensation for the crime. In Norman times insanity was not seen as a defence in itself but a special circumstance in which the jury would deliver a guilty verdict and refer the defendant to the King for a pardon


title: M'Naghten rules

text: whether the accused is totally deprived of his understanding and memory and knew what he was doing "no more than a wild beast or a brute, or an infant".


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The next major advance occurred in "Hadfield's Trial" 1800 27 How St. Tr. 765 in which the court decided that a crime committed under some delusion would be excused only if it would have been excusable had the delusion been true. This would deal with the situation, for example, when the accused imagines he is cutting through a loaf of bread, whereas in fact he is cutting through a person's neck.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: Each jurisdiction may have its own standards of the insanity defence. More than one standard can be applied to any case based on multiple jurisdictions.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The central issue of this definition may be stated as "did the defendant know what he was doing, or, if so, that it was wrong?", and the issues raised have been analysed in subsequent appellate decisions:


title: M'Naghten rules

text: Sanity is a rebuttable presumption and the burden of proof is on the party denying it; the standard of proof is on a balance of probabilities, that is to say that mental incapacity is more likely than not. If this burden is successfully discharged, the party relying upon it is entitled to succeed. In Lord Denning's judgement in "Bratty v Attorney-General for Northern Ireland" 1963 AC 386, whenever the defendant makes an issue of his state of mind, the prosecution can adduce evidence of insanity. However, this will normally only arise to negate the defence case when automatism or diminished responsibility is in issue. In practical terms, the defence will be more likely to raise the issue of mental incapacity to negate or minimise criminal liability. In "R v Clarke" 1972 1 All E R 219 a defendant charged with a shoplifting claimed she had no "mens rea" because she had absent-mindedly walked out of the shop without paying because she suffered from depression. When the prosecution attempted to adduce evidence that this constituted insanity within the Rules, she changed her plea to guilty, but on appeal the Court ruled that she had been merely denying mens rea rather than raising a defence under the Rules and her conviction was quashed. The general rule was stated that the Rules apply only to cases in which the defect of reason is substantial.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: Whether a particular condition amounts to a disease of the mind within the Rules is not a medical but a legal question to be decided in accordance with the ordinary rules of interpretation. It seems that any disease which produces a malfunctioning of the mind is a disease of the mind and need not be a disease of the brain itself. The term has been held to cover numerous conditions:


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The courts have clearly drawn a distinction between internal and external factors affecting a defendant's mental condition. This is partly based on risk of recurrence, whereby the High Court of Australia has expressed that the defence of automatism is unable considered when the mental disorder has been proved transient and as such not likely to recur. However, the distinction between insanity and automatism is difficult because the distinction between internal and external divide is difficult. Many diseases consist of a predisposition, considered an internal cause, combined with a precipitant, which would be considered an external cause. Actions committed while sleepwalking would normally be considered as "non-insane automatism", but often alcohol and stress trigger bouts of sleepwalking and make them more likely to be violent. The diabetic who takes insulin but does not eat properly – is that an internal or external cause?


title: M'Naghten rules

text: This phrase refers to the physical nature and quality of the act, rather than the moral quality. It covers the situation where the defendant does not know what he is physically doing. Two common examples used are:


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The judges were specifically asked if a person could be excused if he committed an offence in consequence of an insane delusion. They replied that if he labours under such partial delusion only, and is not in other respects insane, "he must be considered in the same situation as to responsibility as if the facts with respect to which the delusion exists were real". This rule requires the court to take the facts as the accused believed them to be and follows "Hadfield's Trial", above. If the delusions do not prevent the defendant from having mens rea there will be no defence. In "R v Bell" 1984 Crim. LR 685 the defendant smashed a van through the entrance gates of a holiday camp because "It was like a secret society in there, I wanted to do my bit against it" as instructed by God. It was held that, as the defendant had been aware of his actions, he could neither have been in a state of automatism nor insane, and the fact that he believed that God had told him to do this merely provided an explanation of his motive and did not prevent him from knowing that what he was doing was wrong in the legal sense.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: The interpretation of this clause is a subject of controversy among legal authorities, and different standards may apply in different jurisdictions.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: "Wrong" was interpreted to mean "legally" wrong, rather than "morally" wrong, in the case of "Windle" 1952 2QB 826; 1952 2 All ER 1 246, where the defendant killed his wife with an overdose of aspirin; he telephoned the police and said, "I suppose they will hang me for this." It was held that this was sufficient to show that although the defendant was suffering from a mental illness, he was aware that his act was wrong, and the defence was not allowed. Under this interpretation, there may be cases where the mentally ill know that their conduct is legally prohibited, but it is arguable that their mental condition prevents them making the connection between an act being legally prohibited and the societal requirement to conform their conduct to the requirements of the criminal law.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: As an example of a contrasting interpretation in which defendant lacking knowledge that the act was "morally" wrong meets the M'Naghten standards, there are the instructions the judge is required to provide to the jury in cases in New York State when the defendant has raised an insanity plea as a defence:


title: M'Naghten rules

text: ... with respect to the term "wrong", a person lacks substantial capacity to know or appreciate that conduct is wrong if that person, as a result of mental disease or defect, lacked substantial capacity to know or appreciate either that the conduct was against the law or that it was against commonly held moral principles, or both.


title: M'Naghten rules

text: There is other support in the authorities for this interpretation of the standards enunciated in the findings presented to the House of Lords regarding M'Naghten's case:


title: M'Naghten rules

text: If it be accepted, as can hardly be denied, that the answers of the judges to the questions asked by the House of Lords in 1843 are to be read in the light of the then existing case-law and not as novel pronouncements of a legislative character, then the [Australian] High Court's analysis in "Stapleton's Case" is compelling. Their exhaustive examination of the extensive case-law concerning the defence of insanity prior to and at the time of the trial of M'Naughten establishes convincingly that it was morality and not legality which lay as a concept behind the judges' use of "wrong" in the M'Naghten rules.