title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Pyotr joined the Imperial Russian Army in 1782, enlisting as a sergeant in the Kavsansk Rifles of the Astrakhan Infantry Regiment. His younger brother Roman joined the Chuguevsk Cossack regiment as a "uryadnik" (a Cossack NCO) at the age of thirteen in 1791. Both would go on to become generals of the Imperial Russian Army.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration served for some years in the Russian-Circassian War. He participated in the Siege of Ochakov (1788). In 1792 he was commissioned as a captain and transferred to the Kyiv Cavalry Regiment that year as a second Major, transferring as a full first Major to the Sofiiskii Carabineers on 15 May 1794. He served in the military campaign to suppress the Polish Kościuszko Uprising of 1794.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: He received successive promotions to Lieutenant-Colonel (26 October 1794), to Colonel (1798) and to Major-General (1799). His merits were recognized by Suvorov, whom he accompanied in the Italian and Swiss campaigns of 1799, winning particular distinction by the capture of the town of Brescia. From 1798 to 1799, he commanded the 6th Chasseurs; from 1801 to 1802, he commanded the Chasseurs of the Imperial Guard; then from 1802 to 1805, he served as GOC Jager Brigade.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: He was the alleged lover of Emperor Paul's daughter Catherine. In 1800 Paul recognized the title of "Prince ("Knyaz") Bagration" for Pyotr in Russia, and unexpectedly married him off to Countess Catherine Pavlovna Skavronskaya, the favourite niece of Grigory Potemkin and one of the Empress Maria's ladies-in-waiting. Bagration and Catherine had been casually involved, but the marriage was a failure. The young and lovely Catherine soon preferred travelling and, in 1805, fled to Vienna, where her salon and running affair with Prince Clemens von Metternich—who called her "the Naked Angel"—permitted her to serve as an important agent of Russian intelligence and diplomacy. Bagration was obliged by the emperor to claim their daughter, Marie-Clementine, as his own and to subsidize thousands of rubles of Catherine's debts. He had a reputation as a heavy gambler, as well, and was forced to sell estates to cover losses that rose as high as 80,000 roubles.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: In the wars of 1805 Bagration's achievements appeared even more brilliant. When Napoleon ordered Murat to break an armistice he had just signed with Bagration, the general was able to successfully resist the repeated attacks of forces five times his own numbers under Murat and Lannes at Schöngrabern (16 November) near Hollabrunn. Though Bagration lost half of the men under his command, their stand protected the retreat of the main army under Kutuzov to Olmutz. When Kutuzov was overruled and forced into battle at Austerlitz (2 December), Bagration commanded the advance guard of the Prince Liechtenstein's column and defended the allied right against Lannes while the left attacked Napoleon's deliberately undefended right flank. He was promoted to Lieutenant-General in 1805, and in 1807 fought bravely and obstinately at the battles of Eylau (7 February), Heilsberg (11 June), and Friedland (14 June).


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: He was successful as commander of both Russia's Finnish Campaign in 1808 and Turkish Campaign in 1809. In the former, he captured the Åland Islands by a daring march across the frozen Gulf of Finland. His rapid transfer to the distant Moldavian front against the Ottoman Empire has been seen as a reprimand for an alleged affair with the tsarevna Catherine, who was married off shortly thereafter. While there, he led the Russian army at Rassowa and Tataritza and was promoted to full General of Infantry.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: In 1812, Bagration commanded the 2nd Army of the West. A few days before Napoleon's invasion on 24 June, he suggested to Alexander I a pre-emptive strike into the Duchy of Warsaw. Defeated at Mogilev (23 July), Bagration led his forces to join the 1st Army at Smolensk under Barclay de Tolly, to whom he ceded overall command of both armies on 2 August. Bagration led the left wing at the Battle of Borodino (7 September) where he constructed many flèches which, due to a shortage of engineer officers, were poorly-built. During the battle, he received a mortal wound and later died from gangrene on 24 September, in the village of Simi, where his aunt resided.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: It is said that, while wounded, Bagration kept giving orders to the troops without knowing that the Russian army was abandoning Moscow. When he finally heard the truth, Bagration was so shocked that he rapidly stood up, totally forgetting about his grave wound. Such an act was too much for his severely wounded body and it quickly cost Bagration his life.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: In the course of the War of the Third Coalition, Napoleon's defeat of General Mack's Austrian army at Ulm on 19 October 1805 led Kutuzov to consider withdrawing and uniting his forces with reinforcements arriving at Brünn. Kutuzov ordered Bagration to guard Vienna with just a single regiment to stall a possible French assault. The French marshals Murat and Lannes made a false armistice claim to position themselves near the Danube at Vienna. When the guards were distracted they rushed over the bridge to secure the town. Kutuzov was in hurry to unite his army with the Russian troops commanded by Buxhoeveden, so he needed a diversion to delay the French advance. Bagration then took command of the Russian army's rearguard to do so. His combined Russo-Austrian force numbered less than 7,500 men facing a foe more than five times the size. Bagration took up a position 6  km north of Hollabrunn, on the hill north above the small town of Schöngrabern, and formed a huge line to trick the French into believing the entire Russian army stood before them. In fact, Marshal Murat hesitated to attack and later even agreed to an offer from Bagration to negotiate an armistice, halting the entire French advance without informing Napoleon. This delay gave Kutuzov enough time to save his army. When word reached Napoleon he was enraged at Murat's obstinate behaviour and ordered him to resume the attack immediately, ending the armistice on 16 November. The vanguard of Lannes's and Murat's 45,000 men attacked Bagration's position repeatedly but were repelled each time, unable to take the hill for some six hours. General Bagration personally led some of the counter-attacks, which drove the French back. Even though his force suffered heavy casualties and destruction seemed inevitable, Bagration managed to manoeuver his remaining troops out of the area and unite with the rest of the Coalition army at Brunn on 18 November 1805. His actions prevented the Russian army from being cut off and destroyed.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Just two weeks later, on 2 December 1805, the opposing armies would meet at Austerlitz. This time Bagration assumed command over the Coalition army's 13,000 men strong right-wing, opposing Lannes' equally strong French left-wing. When the coalition army started to rout, Bagration too ordered his men to retreat after not achieving any progress against Marshal Lannes, who had the support of elements of Marshal Murat's forces, even though his men fought bravely and fiercely. The battle was lost at that point. While Bagration saw no other option but to commence a strategic withdrawal, Marshal Murat refused Lannes' suggestion to further pursue him so that his corps wouldn't suffer further losses.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: General Bagration demonstrated his skills as military commander particularly during the brutal Battle of Eylau which took place in East Prussia on 7 and 8 February 1807 during the War of the Fourth Coalition. After destroying the Prussian army at Jena-Auerstedt (October 1806), Napoleon was pursuing Russian forces under Marshal Kamensky. In a series of inconclusive clashes, the French did not reach their ultimate goal of destroying the enemy, while the Russians successfully continued retreating. However, on 7 January 1807 General Levin August, Count von Bennigsen assumed overall command of the Russian forces and carried out a successful surprise attack on the French left-wing against Marshal Ney and further against Marshal Bernadotte. Bernadotte managed to evade destruction by winning the Battle of Mohrungen (25 January 1807) and by retreating. Napoleon saw an opportunity to envelop Bennigsen's unprotected left-wing by instructing Bernadotte to keep retreating and allowing his army to cut off the Russians from their own retreat. By a stroke of luck, a group of Cossacks intercepted a French messenger carrying Napoleon's orders to Bernadotte and quickly reported to General Bagration. Bagration then informed Bennigsen, who immediately halted his offensive and retreated. The French pursued, and after several engagements finally confronted the entire Russian army at Eylau on 7 February 1807. Bagration occupied high ground a mile in front of the town, facing Marshal Soult's IV Corps and Marshal Murat's cavalry. The combined French forces assaulted the plateau, but Bagration's heavily outnumbered troops repulsed them. The general demanded bitter resistance from his men to gain time for Bennigsen's heavy artillery to pass through Eylau and join the main Russian force. During the afternoon the French were reinforced by Marshal Augereau's corps and the Imperial Guard, making up about 45,000 soldiers in all. Under pressure from greatly superior numbers, Bagration finally conducted an orderly retreat to join the main Russian army. Russian forces under General Barclay de Tolly covered the retreat. Despite a clear numerical advantage, the French were not able to achieve a greater victory than eventually driving Bagration's small force off the plateau. Bagration's delaying action and skilful withdrawal enabled the Russian army to escape destruction and consolidate for a decisive battle.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: In 1946, Soviet authorities renamed the town of Preußisch Eylau Bagrationovsk in honour of Pyotr Bagration and of his remarkable skills as a tactician.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: During the Finnish War from 1808 to 1809 Bagration commanded the 21st division of the Russian forces under Buxhoeveden. Not wanting to wait until Sweden had concentrated a large army in Finland, The Russian Empire took initiative and decided to take action. On the night of 9 (21) September (February 1808) Russian troops crossed the border to Finland and launched an offensive. Bagration's 21st division was forming the Russian centre and moving ahead to quickly seize Hämeenlinna, Tampere and Pori. Under the pressure of the swift advance, the Swedish forces began a hasty retreat to the depths of Finland and were pursued relentlessly. Bagration's men had to endure worst weather conditions, severe frost, snowstorms and forest debris. Also, the retreating Swedes were constructing obstacles and destroyed any possible food source as well as roads. Nevertheless, Bagration's division overcame those obstacles and took all objectives, Hämeenlinna on 22 February (6 March), Tampere on 1 March (13) and Pori on 6 (18) March 1808. Bagration managed to advance over a distance of 200  km and capture three cities in just eight days and securing the way to the Gulf of Bothnia. His manoeuvre split the Swedish forces in two, a northern and southern group, providing the Russians with the possibility to strike each group one after another. Bagration correctly assessed the situation that the main Swedish force was in the north and intended to turn his division for an attack. But the commander in chief Buxhoveden foiled that plan by miscalculating the situation and assaulting the southern Swedish group, which had itself fortified in numerous fortifications, with his superior force, including the 21st division of Bagration. This allowed the main Swedish force to retreat unharmed to Oulu. Despite that Bagration, himself still achieved success by capturing the strategically important Turku province. In September 1808 Bagration became ill and was forced to leave the theatre of operation. He was keenly interested in the events and hastily returned as soon as he became fit for service again. Upon arrival he was appointed commander of the Russian forces defending the west coast of Finland.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: In September 1808 the Swedish command decided to land troops on Turku to distract attention from the northern Russian Front that threatened the Swedish main army and to secure the southern part of the west coast of Finland. A 2,500 men strong advance guard arrived in Åland and from there departed for the Turku coast. Bagration made a timely response and quickly threw the Swedes back to the sea. The Swedish leadership decided to take Turku at all cost to be able to create a bridgehead for reinforcements. King Gustav IV arrived at the Åland Islands to personally supervise the operation. On 14 (26) September a Swedish vanguard of 5,000 men was landing on Turku. Bagration was carefully monitoring the enemy's activities and allowed the Swedish troops to set foot on shore before he commenced a full assault which destroyed the entire enemy force, leaving only a few who could escape with boats. By the end of 1808, suffering heavy casualties, the Swedish troops were in full retreat and the area of Finland completely cleared of them. Despite those setbacks, the Kingdom of Sweden was not ready to give up the fight.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: In 1809, the Russian command had decided to take the war to the territory of Sweden to finally crush her army. The Russian army was divided into three operational groups commanded by Bagration, Barclay de Tolly and . Bagration's 17,000-strong corps consisted of 30 infantry battalions, four cavalry squadrons, 600 Cossacks and 20 guns.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: The main assault was to be carried out by a daring march across the frozen Gulf of Bothnia from Turku, reaching and capturing the heavily fortified Åland, which were garrisoned by about 10,000 Swedish troops, before continuing on the frozen Sea towards Stockholm. Bagration carefully planned his campaign and managed to supply his troops with fresh food, warm clothes, ammunition and weapons.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: The expedition was ready on 26 February (10 March) 1809 and began the next day. The offensive against the Åland was carried out in five attack columns: four engaged in a frontal assault while the fifth bypassed Åland from the south. The Swedish troops did not put up much resistance, preferring to retreat to the major Åland island, from where they intended to stop Bagration's advance. To do so, the Swedish commander-general Carl von Döbeln proposed negotiations for an armistice. Bagration refused, convinced that the sole purpose of von Döbeln's offer was to delay his movements. After completing negotiations, he ordered his troops to advance at an even faster pace. Fearing an encirclement, General von Döbeln abandoned Åland. Pursued by Bagration's troops, the retreat quickly turned into a devastating rout, leaving ammunition, weapons and equipment behind.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: To intimidate the Swedes, Bagration ordered a 400-man cavalry detachment under Major General Yakov Kulnev to pursue the Swedes to their own shores. Kulnev managed to take the Swedish town of Grisslehamn, which was just 70  km away from Stockholm. This unexpected turn of events brought shock and confusion to the Swedish leadership and population, who were surprised to hear of Russian troops on Swedish soil. Stockholm was fortified and an army quickly put together and sent to intercept an enemy that was not actually there. The plan worked beyond Bagration's expectations as the psychological impact of Kulnev's incursion into Sweden was decisive for the course of the entire war. Simultaneously the other Russian corps also reached their goals so that the Swedish side found itself forced into peace talks after losing all its claims in Finland. Bagration was highly praised for his conduct of the campaign and was promoted to full general of infantry.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: During the early stage of Napoleon's incursion into Russia, Bagration commanded the 2nd Russian Army deployed close to Vileyka, Belarus. The French march on Vilnius intended to split Bagration's forces from Barclay de Tolly's, who assumed overall command. Napoleon would then destroy Bagration's 2nd army with a combined hammer and anvil operation conducted by the Marshals Jerome, Davout and Eugene after he falsely assumed they ran into Bagration's army when it were only elements of General Dokturov's cavalry. Confusion, false assumptions and lack of information prevented the French from having a clear picture of the situation. On the other side it was not much better. Conflicting orders and lack of information had almost placed Bagration in a blind march straight into Davout's forces. Mud tracks, supply problems, weather and command dispute among the French gave Bagration enough time to join with Docturov and assume command over a 45.000 men strong force. Having already lost a large portion of his troops to skirmishes, bad weather condition and diseases, Marshal Davout was reluctant to fight Bagration without Jerome first reinforcing him. The French cavalry was defeated twice by General Platov so that they were kept in the dark. Bagration wasn't better informed with both sides overestimating the other's strength. Davout thought Bagration had some 60,000 men and Bagration thought Davout had 70,000. Bagration was getting orders from both Alexander's staff and Barclay (which Barclay didn't know) and left Bagration without a clear picture of what was expected of him and the general situation. This stream of confused orders to Bagration had him upset with Barclay which would have repercussions later. Even though Barclay de Tolly was given overall command as minister of war, Bagration was not subordinate under him since he was the older general. This is a reason why he constantly received orders from Tsar Alexander and Barclay at the same time.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Despite massive losses among the French, their rapid advance by force march towards Moscow repeatedly prevented de Tolly to establish a defensive position and was forced to retreat every time he intended to. The commander in chief refused to put up a fight despite Bagration's numerous urging. De Tolly's continuing resistance to give battle would later lead to his removal from his position.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: The battle of Mogilev, better known as Battle of Saltanovka was the result of Bagration's unsuccessful attempt to unite with the Russian main army after he had suggested a pre-emptive strike on the French to tsar Alexander. His 2nd army got intercepted when trying to reach Barclay de Tolly's 1st army and clashed with Marshal Davout's forces at the Dnieper river. In order to break through the French lines at Mogilev, Bagration deployed the 20,000 men strong 7th corps led by General Nikolay Raevsky. On the opposing side marshal Davout's corps consisting of five divisions with a total strength of 28,000 men had formed defensive lines around Saltanovka. Davout waited for the approaching Russians and set them under massive musket volleys and artillery fire. Raevsky continued the advance personally leading his men in the assault. Despite great determination of the Russian troops, the French managed to repel the attack along the entire line. Davout then mounted a counter assault which threw the 7th corps back, although Raevsky was able to fend them off repeatedly until Bagration decided to order a general retreat when his army got also struck by other French forces at the flanks and rear. In order to avoid complete envelopement he quickly withdrew to Smolensk. Both sides suffered heavy losses, but Bagration misjudged the situation, believing he fought Napoleon's main army when it was only Davout's forces and some reinforcement. This highlighted the poor communication between the Russian armies. However at the same time Bagration's decision to withdraw thwarted Napoleon's plan to destroy the Second Western Army and he was eventually forced to fight a unified Russian force at Smolensk, which is what happened because Bagration fearing another attack, retreated to Smolensk and waited for Barclay to reinforce him.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: On 14 August 1812, the three Marshals Murat, Davout and Ney crossed the Dnieper River on quickly constructed pontoon bridges. The plan was to race toward the city of Smolensk, taking it without a fight. Napoleon saw Smolensk as a vital supply and replenishment base from where he would march to the north to attack the rear of the Russian main forces under Barclay de Tolly. The town had also symbolic, religious importance for the Russian side. Unfortunately for the French, conflicting orders and a breakdown in communication had already led Bagration to disobey orders and instead of marching west, he occupied Smolensk to the south. By 16 August, French forces found the city heavily garrisoned by Bagration's troops. He got further reinforced with the arrival of de Tolly's army. Napoleon, however, assumed the Russians would fight outside the city to avoid the destruction of historical monuments, which did not happen. The fight for Smolensk started on 16 August 1812 with Napoleon's forces of three corps capturing parts of the town's suburbs but being repelled soon after. Continuous artillery shelling set the town, which consisted of mostly wooden buildings, ablaze, but the French didn't manage to get past the suburbs and to the walls as they lacked ladders and other equipment. Inflicting heavy losses on the attackers, the Russian garrison was able to hold its positions. However, the widespread fire forced Bagration and de Tolly to abandon burning Smolensk on 18 August 1812. The battle ended inconclusively, with the Russian armies retreating and Napoleon conquering but as quickly leaving what was left of the city as it was of no use anymore.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: From the very beginning of the invasion Bagration had understood that the Patriotic War was not an ordinary one, but rather a national war. Local citizenry displayed great bravery where they could against small French units, particularly around Smolensk but also in other parts of Russia. Sporadic attacks from small diversionary groups of lightly-armed peasants had already caught Bagration's attention earlier and he was fascinated by their determination and effectiveness. From then on he was convinced that a smart cooperation between irregular forces and the regular Russian armies would be the only method to stop Napoleon's advance. His aide-de-camp, vice Colonel D.V. Davydov, commander of a Hussar regiment, shared Bagration's views on a guerilla movement and proposed a possible course of action. Bagration approved the proposal but, when he presented the plans to Kutuzov, the commander in chief only allowed a very limited number of troops to be provided for such operations. Davydov gave his word that he would take full care and responsibility for the supplies and action of his troops, only dissatisfied about the resources he considered very insufficient, asking Bagration to give him at least 1,000 Cossacks. Bagration, much as he wanted to meet his officer's request and carry out that operation himself, did not want to disobey Kutuzov, and replied: "I would give you 3000 of them to start with, for I do not like to act superficially, but I can not even speak about it; Knyaz (ie the Prince) has defined the composition of the group himself; it is necessary to obey." Afterwards Bagration wrote the following instruction to Davydov:


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration than also wrote letters to General Vassilichikov and General Karpov regarding the allocations and general information about the best Cossack and Hussar units available. On the request of Davydov he provided the vice colonel a copy of his map of the Smolensk province and when parting wished the young officer the best of luck, and also hoped for his success. His confidence would soon be emphasized when the guerilla movement developed wide scope. Soon, besides Davydov's movement, other groups emerged: those of General Dorokhov, Captain Fisher, Captain Seslavin, Colonel Kudashev and many others. These groups successfully strove against the French, combining their activities with those of peasant guerilla groups. Bagration became the author of the first real tactical instructions for such activities and one of the founders of the Russian guerilla movement against Napoleon.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Fearing that Napoleon might take the Smolensk Road to Moscow, Kutuzov ordered Bagration and his 2nd Army to the left while Barclay de Tolly was guarding the right with the 1st Army. Other than the 1st Army, which was deployed on positions which were strong and virtually unassailable by the French, Bagration's army had no terrain advantage at all and his request to change to a more advantageous position was denied by Kutuzov. So he decided to create one himself by ordering his sappers to construct four big Redans, also known as the Bagration flèches, four arrow-head shaped, open-backed earthworks which arced out to the left en echelon in front of the Kolocha stream. When the battle started on 7 September 1812 with a massive cannonade against the Russian center, Davout sent two divisions against the flèches at about 6 am. His force of 25,000 men supported by 102 guns faced 8,000 Russian defenders with 50 guns.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: While advancing, Davout's divisions were hit hard by massed Russian artillery, which was deployed on the other side of the Kolcha to support Bagration's lines and also by Russian jaeger units that were deployed in front of the fortifications. The French troops suffered heavy casualties before they could reach their objective and the undertaking was about to fall apart when Davout saw his troops retreating and rushed forward to personally lead the charge. With the second attempt he managed to take the southernmost flèche at 7 am. But in response Bagration ordered Raevsky and his 7th Corps once more to confront Davout, only this time the French were struck on their flank and thrown back for the second time. Napoleon already held Bagration in high esteem, calling him the best the Russians could possibly throw against him, but was surprised by the stiff resistance he offered. While Napoleon reinforced Davout with Marshal Ney and Junot for a third attack, Bagration repositioned his troops and deployed his reserves, the 2nd Grenadier and 2nd Cuirassier divisions.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: The 3rd Infantry Division was still held in reserve at Semyenovskoe for the possibility that the French might try to outflank him. Kutuzov, who observed the heavy fighting at the flèches, was sending the 2nd and parts of the 5th Infantry Corps with 100 guns from his artillery reserve, but their arrival would take one to two hours, which meant that Bagration was on his own. Napoleon demanded that the flèches be taken at all costs, and opened the third offensive with a massive artillery bombardment, followed by a simultaneous infantry and cavalry assault. At first the French managed to occupy the right and far left flèche but were again driven out by Bagration's troops. Marshal Poniatowski, who had the task of enveloping the Russians and striking Bagration's rear with his cavalry corps, was also defeated by Tuchkov's 3rd Infantry Corps. The defenders restored their positions at 9 am. Failing for a third time, Napoleon became furious and now also added Marshal Murat to the operation, launching a fourth assault at 9 am. This time Napoleon's forces were not only able to drive Bagration's forces out of the flèches but also captured Semyenovskoe.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: By this time however, the 2nd and 5th corps sent earlier by Kutuzov for Bagration's aid finally arrived and Bagration threw all available forces against the French, repulsing them completely from all occupied positions and inflicting heavy losses. After that, three more French attacks were repelled in a row, General Tuchkov being killed in the fifth assault. Despite the mounting casualties, Napoleon continued to assault Bagration's position. His troops were hit not only by musket fire but also canister shot from artillery at close range. Heaps of corpses and wounded prevented the cavalry and infantry from manoeuvring properly on the battlefield. Napoleon considered sending his elite Imperial Guard to bolster the morale of his troops but hesitated, not willing to risk it being torn apart as well. At noon, the French launched their eighth assault, with around 45,000 men supported by 400 guns against the defending 18,000 Russians and their 300 guns. Bagration decided to meet the attackers boldly in what led to a long and brutal melee, probably the bloodiest scene during the entire battle, described by the historian Buturlin as follows:


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration ordered his entire force to counterattack, but was seriously outnumbered and slowly driven back. The French 57th Line Infantry Regiment kept attacking the flèches, even though it was almost completely torn to pieces by musket fire from all directions. Their courageous behaviour earned two "Bravo" shouts from Bagration, and it was then that the 2nd commander-in chief was struck by shell splinters in his leg. His subordinates quickly carried him to a safe place away from the fight while trying to conceal what had happened, but Bagration's absence was soon noticed. Rumours of him being killed spread and the morale of his troops began to increasingly waver. Bagration, now unable to control the situation, insisted on not being moved from the field until the battle was decided, hoping for the success of the 2nd Cuirassier Division of General Duka. The Cuirassiers managed to defeat the forces of Marshal Ney but the news of Bagration being hit quickly spread and brought confusion and morale collapse within the 2nd Army. Its management broke down so that the Russian forces were starting to abandon their positions in the chaos and to retreat from the overwhelming French assault. The Bagration flèches were abandoned and left to the French, but it had cost them a huge price. From the 60,000 French soldiers who participated in the operation, about 30,000 were killed or wounded. Russian casualties were also high, but fewer. The battle, however, ended inconclusively, with both sides returning to their initial deployment zones. The battle drained from Napoleon his last fighting capabilities and resources and finally forced him to abandon his plan of capturing Russia when he entered an empty Moscow.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration was evacuated to Simy, a village in the Vladimir province and died there of his wound on 24 September 1812 at the age of 47.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration, heavily influenced by Alexander Suvorov, was an innovative tactician who favoured mobile offensive warfare even though many of the battles he was engaged in with the French were of a defensive nature. He refused what he perceived as obsolete positioning tactics and instead would give the Russian army strategic objects and tactical manoeuvers, always going for the quick confrontation, where speed and accuracy were most important, to deny the enemy any chance to react, respond or even organize. This led to much tension and rivalry between him and general Barclay de Tolly, who was given overall command and relied mostly on the search for adequate positions to entrench and wait for the enemy. Bagration's applied doctrines were ahead of time solid concepts for both offensive and defensive warfare, as even his retreats were conducted in equally good and impressive fashion, given the sometimes impossible odds he was facing.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration's strategic views defined also his insights about the character of tactical military action. It is possible to discern these insights, for example, by considering the famous order to the forces of the 2nd Western Army, dated 25 June 1812. In the order, written by Bagration with his own hand, instructions were given concerning actions to be taken against the French armies if they invaded Russian territory. He wrote:


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration recommended deployment of the forces in a battle array that was not too closely packed, but sufficiently so to permit soldiers to feel each other's presence with their elbows. In case of counter-attacks by enemy cavalry, Bagration advised the use of battalion masses and squares, or "carrés". "When the enemy cavalry attacks infantry, it takes only a minute to form either a column closed on all sides, or a battalion in a 'carré'."


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: With the purpose of increasing the enthusiasm of armies, all attacks were to be made with a shout, and during the approach the drums were to be beaten and music to be played.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Similar insights are reflected in a number of Bagration's other orders, instructions and letters. In particular, as the characteristic of his tactical perspective, the "Manual for Infantry Officers on the Day of Battle" may serve as an example. This document was prepared on the basis of the "Manual to Officers of the Narva infantry Regiment," authored by M.S. Vorontsov in 1812. According to military historian P. Simansky, Vorontsov's manual "was strongly influenced by Suvarov's precepts, and was appraised by the most favorite disciple of Suvarov, Prince Bagration; it was slightly corrected by him, as in some places it concerned only Narva infantry Regiment, and then in July 1812 it was dispatched to all units of the 2nd Army." The "Manual to Infantry Officers on the Day of Battle" recognized the offensive as the fundamental form of combat. The principal manifestation of offensive combat was the bayonet attack, concluded with a vigorous pursuit of the defeated enemy. This manual considered in detail the question of action in separate lines and in columns and about conducting aimed fire. The necessity of maintenance by skirmishers of a close communication with their columns was specified; movement forward was to be determined only by an order of the chief of division or battalion. If it was necessary to operate on separate lines in forests, it was suggested to hold a reserve behind one of the flanks in order to have an opportunity to suddenly envelope the flank of a counter-attacking enemy.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Attacks by enemy cavalry acting in separate lines were to be met by fire, having permitted the enemy to advance to within 150 paces; after that it would be necessary to divide into small groups of ten and to repulse the enemy by fire and bayonets until the approach of reinforcements. Upon approaching, reinforcements were to be redeployed from a column into square, firing on enemy cavalry from a distance of 150 paces. The "Manual" demanded that officers demonstrate constant care for their soldiers, to remind them of their duties and their oath, to explain what was required from them during military actions. Special attention was addressed to the maintenance of trust in the virtue of "Russian bayonets", a spirit of boldness, courage and persistence in the fight. "Persistence and courage," declared the "Manual", "have won more battles than all other military talents taken altogether."


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Dissemination of all rumors of disaster and panic, such as "We are cut off!", were categorically forbidden, under the threat of severe punishments. It was specified in the "Manual" that: "Brave people are never cut off; wherever the enemy goes, turn your breast to follow and defeat him." Thus, in the field of tactics, as well as in the field of strategy, Bagration acted as an innovator, a convinced supporter of decisive offensive action. He doggedly introduced advanced tactics; he dispensed with obsolete positional tactics and applied tactics of columns in a combination with separate lines. Paying great attention to the value of offensive combat, Bagration at the same time did not reject the opportunity to conduct defensive operations. He creatively approached planning for his assigned tasks, applying such forms of combat as provided exactly the right answers to particular circumstances. His practical legacy offers experience rich in the conduct of offensive battles as well as the development and practice of waging both advance and rear guard fights.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration was the unsurpassed master of organization of these extremely complex kinds of action. It was not by chance that, at the most crucial moments of the wars of 1799–1807, it was Bagration who was appointed to command the rear guards and advance guards of the Russian Army. The engagements conducted by Russian armies under Bagration's leadership during the Italian campaign of 1799, and also the advance and rear guard combats during the Swiss Campaign of 1799 and war between of Russia and France in 1805–1807, belong among the finest accomplishments in Russian military art. Bagration built a process of education and training of soldiers on the basis of the system developed by A.V. Suvorov. He paid great attention to the training and education of troops to develop soldiers with courage and initiative, capable of carrying out orders quickly and skillfully.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Bagration constantly worried about his soldiers' health, and that they should be well clothed and fed on time. S.G.Volkonsky, who during the Franco-Russian conflict of 1806–1807 was frequently in Bagration's group, wrote:


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: While showing a concern for the soldiers, however, Bagration at the same time demanded the maintenance of high military discipline, considering it to be the foundation of military service. "In military service," he wrote, "the first objective is order, subordination, discipline, unanimity and friendship". First of all, Bagration was extremely demanding of himself. "...To execute the will of the sovereign, of the emperor and my commanders is the most sacred obligation which I follow and obey at every step of my service... I love soldiers, I respect their bravery, and equally I demand order and discipline." Armies under Bagration's command were always distinguished by high discipline and, in some sense, this was one of the main reasons for their brilliant victories over their enemies.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: On 15 October 1800, Bagration was granted the hereditary title of a Prince of the Russian Empire ("Kniaz Bagration") by the Emperor Paul I. He was also awarded the Orders of St Andrew (1810), of St. Alexander Nevsky (1807), of the St Vladimir, 1st class (1809), of the St Anna, 1st class (1800), the St George 2nd class (1805) and made a Commander of the Order of St John of Jerusalem (1800). He was further honoured with a gold sword of honour for bravery (1808). Bagration's foreign awards also included the Prussian Orders of the Red Eagle (1807) and the Black Eagle (1807), the Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa, 2nd class (1799) and the Sardinian Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, 1st Class (1799).


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: He is a secondary character in Leo Tolstoy's epic 1869 novel "War and Peace". In the 1960s Russian movie "War and Peace", he is played by Giuli Chokhonelidze, who repeated the role in the 1985 Russian biopic "Bagrationi". In the 2016 BBC TV adaptation of "War and Peace", he is played by Pip Torrens.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Tsar Nicholas I had a monument erected in his honour on the battlefield of Borodino. The general's remains were transferred to the place where he had fallen and remain there to this day. The grave was blown up during World War II (reputedly, the local museum authorities were able to save only shreds of bone and cloth from the grave) but has since then been restored.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: Joseph Stalin chose Bagration as the name of the Soviet offensive launched on 22 June 1944 that defeated the German Army Group Centre and drove the forces of Nazi Germany out of what is now Belarus. After the war, the Soviet Union annexed northern East Prussia, and the until-then German town of Preußisch Eylau—the scene of the 1807 battle—was renamed Bagrationovsk in his memory.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: In Moscow, the Bagration Bridge, which commemorates the 850th year of the city is named in his honour.


title: Pyotr Bagration

text: An asteroid 3127 Bagration and Moscow Metro station Bagrationovskaya are named after Prince Bagration.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: The surface-area-to-volume ratio, also called the surface-to-volume ratio and variously denoted sa/vol or SA:V, is the amount of surface area per unit volume of an object or collection of objects.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: SA:V is an important concept in science and engineering. It is used to explain the relation between structure and function in processes occurring through the surface "and" the volume. Good examples for such processes are processes governed by the heat equation, i.e., diffusion and heat transfer by conduction. SA:V is used to explain the diffusion of small molecules, like oxygen and carbon dioxide between air, blood and cells, water loss by animals, bacterial morphogenesis, organism's thermoregulation, design of artificial bone tissue, artificial lungs and many more biological and biotechnological structures. For more examples see Glazier.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: The relation between SA:V and diffusion or heat conduction rate is explained from flux and surface perspective, focusing on the surface of a body as the place where diffusion, or heat conduction, takes place, i.e., the larger the SA:V there is more surface area per unit volume through which material can diffuse, therefore, the diffusion or heat conduction, will be faster. Similar explanation appears in the literature: "Small size implies a large ratio of surface area to volume, thereby helping to maximize the uptake of nutrients across the plasma membrane", and elsewhere.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: For a given volume, the object with the smallest surface area (and therefore with the smallest SA:V) is a ball, a consequence of the isoperimetric inequality in 3 dimensions. By contrast, objects with acute-angled spikes will have very large surface area for a given volume.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: A ball is a three-dimensional object, being the solid version of a sphere. (In geometry, the term "sphere" properly refers only to the surface, so a sphere thus lacks volume in this context.) Balls exist in any dimension and are generically called "n"-balls, where "n" is the number of dimensions.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: For an ordinary three-dimensional ball, the SA:V can be calculated using the standard equations for the surface and volume, which are, respectively, formula_1 and formula_2. For the unit case in which r = 1 the SA:V is thus 3. The SA:V has an inverse relationship with the radius - if the radius is doubled the SA:V halves (see figure).


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: The same reasoning can be generalized to n-balls using the general equations for volume and surface area, which are:


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: So the ratio reduces to formula_5. Thus, the same linear relationship between area and volume holds for any number of dimensions (see figure): doubling the radius always halves the ratio.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: The surface-area-to-volume ratio has physical dimension L (inverse length) and is therefore expressed in units of inverse distance. As an example, a cube with sides of length 1 cm will have a surface area of 6 cm and a volume of 1 cm. The surface to volume ratio for this cube is thus


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: For a given shape, SA:V is inversely proportional to size. A cube 2 cm on a side has a ratio of 3 cm, half that of a cube 1 cm on a side. Conversely, preserving SA:V as size increases requires changing to a less compact shape.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: Materials with high surface area to volume ratio (e.g. very small diameter, very porous, or otherwise not compact) react at much faster rates than monolithic materials, because more surface is available to react. An example is grain dust: while grain is not typically flammable, grain dust is explosive. Finely ground salt dissolves much more quickly than coarse salt.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: A high surface area to volume ratio provides a strong "driving force" to speed up thermodynamic processes that minimize free energy.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: The ratio between the surface area and volume of cells and organisms has an enormous impact on their biology, including their physiology and behavior. For example, many aquatic microorganisms have increased surface area to increase their drag in the water. This reduces their rate of sink and allows them to remain near the surface with less energy expenditure.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: An increased surface area to volume ratio also means increased exposure to the environment. The finely-branched appendages of filter feeders such as krill provide a large surface area to sift the water for food.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: Individual organs like the lung have numerous internal branchings that increase the surface area; in the case of the lung, the large surface supports gas exchange, bringing oxygen into the blood and releasing carbon dioxide from the blood. Similarly, the small intestine has a finely wrinkled internal surface, allowing the body to absorb nutrients efficiently.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: Cells can achieve a high surface area to volume ratio with an elaborately convoluted surface, like the microvilli lining the small intestine.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: Increased surface area can also lead to biological problems. More contact with the environment through the surface of a cell or an organ (relative to its volume) increases loss of water and dissolved substances. High surface area to volume ratios also present problems of temperature control in unfavorable environments.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: The surface to volume ratios of organisms of different sizes also leads to some biological rules such as Allen's rule, Bergmann's rule and gigantothermy.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: In the context of wildfires, the ratio of the surface area of a solid fuel to its volume is an important measurement. Fire spread behavior is frequently correlated to the surface-area-to-volume ratio of the fuel (e.g. leaves and branches). The higher its value, the faster a particle responds to changes in environmental conditions, such as temperature or moisture. Higher values are also correlated to shorter fuel ignition times, and hence faster fire spread rates.


title: Surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: A body of icy or rocky material in outer space may, if it can build and retain sufficient heat, develop a differentiated interior and alter its surface through volcanic or tectonic activity. The length of time through which a planetary body can maintain surface-altering activity depends on how well it retains heat, and this is governed by its surface area-to-volume ratio. For Vesta (r=263 km), the ratio is so high that astronomers were surprised to find that it "did" differentiate and have brief volcanic activity. The moon, Mercury and Mars have radii in the low thousands of kilometers; all three retained heat well enough to be thoroughly differentiated although after a billion years or so they became too cool to show anything more than very localized and infrequent volcanic activity. As of April 2019, however, NASA has announced the detection of a "marsquake" measured on April 6, 2019, by NASA's InSight lander. Venus and Earth (r>6,000 km) have sufficiently low surface area-to-volume ratios (roughly half that of Mars and much lower than all other known rocky bodies) so that their heat loss is minimal.


title: Para Brahman

text: Para Brahman () in Hindu philosophy is the "Supreme Brahman" that which is beyond all descriptions and conceptualisations. It is described as the formless (in the sense that it is devoid of Maya) that eternally pervades everything, everywhere in the universe and whatever is beyond.


title: Para Brahman

text: Param Brahma is conceptualised in diverse ways. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, the Param Brahma is a synonym of "nirguna brahman", i.e., the attribute-less Absolute. Conversely, in Dvaita Vedanta and Vishistadvaita Vedanta traditions, the Param Brahma is defined as "saguna brahman", i.e., the Absolute with attributes. In Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism, Vishnu, Shiva and Adi Shakti respectively are Param Brahma. Mahaganapati is considered as Param Brahma by the Ganapatya sect. Kartikeya is considered as Param Brahma by the Kartikeya sect.


title: Para Brahman

text: "Brahman" in Hinduism connotes the Absolute, the Ultimate Reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy it is the immaterial, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas and is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads and in Advaita Vedanta literature.


title: Para Brahman

text: In Advaita Vedanta, the Para Brahman is defined as "nirguna brahman", or Brahman without form or qualities. It is a state of complete knowledge of self as being identical with the transcendental Brahman, a state of mental-spiritual enlightenment (Jnana yoga). It contrasts with Saguna Brahman which is a state of loving awareness (Bhakti yoga). Advaita Vedanta non-dualistically holds that Brahman is divine, the Divine is Brahman, and this is identical to that which is Atman (one's soul, innermost self) and nirguna (attribute-less), infinite, love, truth, knowledge, "being-consciousness-bliss".


title: Para Brahman

text: According to Eliot Deutsch, "Nirguna Brahman" is a "state of being" in which all dualistic distinctions between one's own soul and Brahman are obliterated and are overcome. In contrast, "Saguna Brahman" is where the distinctions are harmonized after duality between one's own soul and Brahman has been accepted.


title: Para Brahman

text: Advaita describes the features of a nondualistic experience, in which a subjective experience also becomes an "object" of knowledge and a phenomenal reality. The Absolute Truth is both subject and object, so there is no qualitative difference:


title: Para Brahman

text: The Upanishads state that the Supreme Brahma is Eternal, Conscious, and Blissful sat-chit-ânanda. The realisation of this truth is the same as "being" this truth:


title: Para Brahman

text: In Vaishnavism, Vishnu (Narayana) is considered as Para Brahman (Adinarayana). Vishnu in his Vishvarupa is considered to be the supreme. His abode is called Vaikuntha and the name there is Para Vasudeva . He is depicted as the only Adipurusha According to the Narayana sukta in the Yajurveda . Narayana, in Hinduism, is considered as the Supreme Truth (Brahman), the thousand-headed, thousand-eyed, and thousand-limbed creator and this hymn is sung to worship Narayana, the universal Self (Paramatman).


title: Para Brahman

text: In Shaivism, Shiva is Para Brahman. Parashiva, the supreme form of Lord Shiva, is considered as Para Brahman. According to mythology, Parashiva is the single incarnation of all souls and deities. He is also depicted as the only Adipurusha or Mahadeva.


title: Para Brahman

text: In Kashmir Shaivism, Svachhanda Bhairava is considered as the supreme form of Shiva. Kashmir Shaivism consider Svachhanda Bhairava as Para Brahman. Kashmir Shaivism holds "turiya", or the fourth state of consciousness, as the state of Brahman. It is neither wakefulness, dreaming, nor deep sleep. It exists in the junction between any of these three states, i.e. between waking and dreaming, between dreaming and deep sleep, and between deep sleep and waking. In Kashmir Shaivism there exists a fifth state of consciousness called Turiyatita - "the state beyond Turiya" which represents Parabrahman. Turiyatita, also called the void or shunya is the state where one attains liberation otherwise known as jivanmukti or moksha.


title: Para Brahman

text: In Shaktism, Adi Parashakti is considered to be the Para Brahman both with and without qualities, and also Brahman in its energetic state, the ultimate reality. According to Devi Suktam and Sri Suktam in Rigveda she is the womb of all creation. Thus Mahakali is epithets is Brahmamayi, meaning "She Whose Essence is Brahman". Tridevi is the supreme form of Adi Parashakti. Her eternal abode is called Manidvipa.


title: Para Brahman

text: Parabrahman is other than Brahman so in the language of saints, it is called Parabrahman ("Para = next"). He is perishable. Akshar Purush ("Parabrahman") was originated by Achint ("a son of Satpurush"). Achint was assigned some work. For the help in his work, he created Akshar Purush ("Parabrahman"), but Akshar Purush had done some negligence in his work due to which he was expelled from Satlok along with the seven sankh Brahmands.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: The show follows Daimon Michiko, a freelance surgeon who works at university hospitals in Japan. Also known as Doctor-X, Daimon is introduced at new hospitals by walking into surgery staff planning review sessions, where the conditions of her work are established. She is depicted as challenging a medical system in crisis, which follows the laws of the jungle.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Her trademark line is "I never fail", and she is willing to do high risk surgeries that other surgeons are not, sending those patients elsewhere when they are deemed non-operable. Her success in treating high risk patients is a result of always putting the patient first, prioritizing their health above performing medical firsts or innovative techniques, and to adapt the right surgical methods on the spot when needed. This practice often puts her into conflict with other doctors. Beyond being a surgeon, she also served as a vet, combat surgeon and resort doctor. Daimon is supported by her manager Akira Kanbara and anesthesiologist Hiromi Jōnouchi.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Daimon Michiko, a lone wolf freelance surgeon who hates authority and groups, joins Teito III University Hospital, where her way of practicing results in conflict with hospital administrators.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Daimon continues her practice of doing risky surgeries to benefit patients. This practice continues to create conflict with hospital administrators.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: The National Advanced Medical Center, Japan's best medical center, is in crisis as a result of infighting between the East's "Tōtei University Hospital" and the West's "Seikyo University Hospital". Daimon is brought in to try to minimize these conflicts and bring a more patient-focused approach.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Daimon returns in the fourth season to the Totei University Hospital. Shigekatsu Hiruma serves as the primary adversary for Daimon.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Daimon returns to Totei University Hospital to assist in bringing a more patient-driven approach. Her main antagonist is the Japan Doctor's Club chairman.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Daimon clashes with Totei University Hospital's new administrator Nicholas Tange, (a 2nd generation Japanese-Brazilian, aka "The Vulture"), whose aggressive cost-cutting threatens the integrity of the hospital.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Coming back from New Zealand, Dr. Daimon returns to Tōtei university hospital amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The internal medicine department is now a priority over surgery with Dr. Hachisuka leading it.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: The show stars Ryōko Yonekura as Doctor-X – Daimon Michiko. Yonekura was a former fashion model who had performed as the first Roxie Hart in the Japanese theater production of "Chicago" in 2008. After learning English, Yonekura made her Broadway debut in the same role in 2012 and reprised it in 2017. The actress has said that she overuses her character's catchphrase, “私、失敗しないので" (“I never fail") in her personal life. Yonekura also sees the character as a lighter, less stressed and more free reflection of herself.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Yuki Uchida appears in all 7 seasons playing Jonouchi Hiromi, an anesthesiologist who works for the same agency as Michiko Daimon.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Ryōko Yonekura, Takeshi Kitano and Kei Inoo all appeared in the special. Takeshi Kitano returned to acting after a two-year absence for his role in the special. He had taken time off to work behind the camera. Michiko Tanaka was also a regular in the fourth season, playing the secretary of the hospital director. Tanaka was nervous during the whole three months of filming for the season because she had to work with Toshiyuki Nishida.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: The fourth season also starred Toshiyuki Nishida as Shigekatsu Hiruma. He had previously appeared in Nobunaga Concerto and State of Union.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Yonekura returned for the fourth season despite an earlier intention not to do so. During the break between seasons, Yonekura had starred in the Broadway production of "Chicago". The actress and former model gave as her reason for previously declining to appear in the fourth season that she had not had an opportunity to star in the same TV series for an extended run and she never had the confidence to respond to people’s expectations. However, because it was a role she really liked, and she felt able to reprise the role. Traditionally, dramas run for only one season in Japan.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: A freelance surgeon who takes on the most difficult operations using unorthodox and dangerous methods. Her favorite catchphrase is "I never fail".


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: The owner of Kanbara Medical Referral Agency and a former surgeon. Also another Doctor-X who was stripped of his medical License in Cuba. Known for his exorbitant prices and giving melons as gifts, given the nickname of Melon-Ojisan by Hiruma Shigekatsu.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: A anaesthetist who originally worked Full-Time in Season One. Resigned in the final episode and joined Kanbara Medical Referral Agency. She is a single mother, her husband is also a doctor who appeared in the series.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: One of the surgeons working for the University Hospital. He is known for his expertise in laparoscopy. Dr. Kaji calls Dr. Daimon as "demon" due to how she doesn't follow status quo. This character is the only one with a spin-off in the series "Doctor-Y".


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: One of the surgeons of Tōtei University Hospital, he is portrayed as someone weak to authority. He tries to be on Director Hiruma's good side by following his orders.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: One of the main antagonists of the series. In the series, he has been promoted, demoted, holding the position of hospital director or head of surgery. He tries to gain power by controlling top staff, taking advantage of Michiko's assignments, or through corrupt means.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Appearances: Season 1 and Season 5 - A surgeon who left at the end of Season One to hone his skills overseas. In the premiere of Season 5, he returned to work in a rural area, but was transferred back to the main hospital by Shimura Madoka. In season 7 he returns briefly to Tōtei but now as a medical "Extuber" helping to provide good publicity.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Appearances: Season 1, 2 and 3 - The Director of the Hospital in Season One until he was fired due to underhand tactics by Hiruma Shigekatsu. In Season Two, he re-appeared to help Daimon Michiko in fulfilling her wish to operate on a patient. In Season Three, he appeared in the premiere and was rescued from an explosion on a cruise by Daimon.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: "Doctor-X"'s first season aired from October 18 to December 13, 2012, on Thursdays on TV Asahi in Japan. It frequently was one of the top ranked dramas on private television in its time slot.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Premiering in 2012, the first season had 8 episodes and averaged a viewer share of 19.1%. The final episode of the season was 15 minutes longer than other episodes.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Daimon is in Kanazawa, with action centering around the country's vanguard hospital for drug testing Cross Medical Center serving as the hospital backdrop. National politician Aiko Ichinose, played by Kayako Kishimoto, collapses on the street following an intimate interlude. Daimon finds him on the street, and sees to his transport to the Cross Medical Center. She then immediately operates on the politician after getting him there. Meanwhile, reigning world figure skating champion Kojiro Himuro, played by guest star Hey! Say! JUMP group member Kei Inoo, is suffering from chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension ahead of the upcoming world championships. Medical Center of the Cross director Kantaro Kurosu asks Daimon Michiko to perform the surgery.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: "Doctor-X" continued to run on Thursday nights in the 9:00 PM time slot on TV Asahi. The fourth season contained 11 episodes and aired in late 2016. It finished with an average market share of 21.5%.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: The maximum viewing share during the season was the last episode, during a scene featuring 43-year-old Japanese comedian Daimaou Kosaka. It finished top in the rankings among Japanese dramas in 2016. It was the top ranked show for the first half of its run in the fourth season. The final episode of the season had a market share of 22.8%. The third episode had the highest market share for the season at 24.3%. The fourth episode had a rating of 21.3%. Among viewers who saved the show to watch later, the show ranked third in October 2016.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: The airing of the third episode was slightly delayed as a result of a live program about the bombing of Hiroshima.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: After five episodes, the show was averaging 20.1% market share and was the top ranked drama on private television networks.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Miho Nakazomo was the main writer for the first season. She had experience writing dramas with her 10 years of work on "Woman's woman ~ Tax collector inspector" and on the original story she wrote called "Haken no Rika".


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Ryoko Yonekura was awarded best actress at the 21st Hashida Awards for her performance as Doctor-X. It was her second time winning the award, previously winning it for her performance in the second season. Yonekura was also recognized with the Kuniko Mukda prize in 2013.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: Miho Nakazomo co-won the best writer award at the 21st Hashida Awards, sharing the honor with Kobayashi Nenjyutsu.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: "Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon" was spun off with the show "", featuring Masanobu Katsumura playing Hideki Kaji.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: It started airing on September 29, 2016. Katsumura was surprised and pleased that his character was spun off and he became the lead of the new series.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: "Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon" is distributed internationally via Netflix and Amazon Prime in selected countries with English language subtitles. In India, "Doctor-X" is dubbed in Hindi language on the occasion of International Women's Day and it is as of 2018 streaming on Indian Digital Platform ZEE5 for Season 1 and 2 only. It's not available anymore in the app. However, all six seasons are now available in India through the Netflix streaming service. Japan Foundation also distributed the first seasons in some Latin American countries (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Bolivia) in 2017, dubbed in Spanish.


title: Doctor-X: Surgeon Michiko Daimon

text: In Southeast Asia, WakuWaku Japan aired all six seasons of the series with subtitles, and is scheduled to air the seventh season on a near-simulcast basis starting in October 2021.


title: Mumaith Khan

text: Mumaith Khan (born 1 September 1985) is an Indian actress and model. She has appeared in numerous item numbers in Telugu, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, Bengali and Odia language films.


title: Mumaith Khan

text: Khan was born on 1 September 1985. She was born and brought up in Mumbai. Her father is from Pakistan and her mother is from Tiruchirappalli.


title: Mumaith Khan

text: Khan has acted primarily in Telugu, Hindi, Tamil and Kannada language films. Besides movies, she has contested in the reality shows like "Jhalak Dikhla Jaa 6" and first season of "Bigg Boss Telugu". As of 2017 she had worked in 40 Telugu movies, over 20 Hindi movies, 16 Tamil and 5 Kannada films. Her call to fame was her cameo performance in the Sanjay Dutt starrer hit Munna Bhai MBBS. Her career was rocked by a controversy of drug allegations in which many south movie stars were also questioned. Her relationship with a prime suspect Calvin Mascerehas was also at the centre of investigation. Because of those allegations, in July 2018, Mumaith was evicted mid way from "Big Boss Telugu season 1" for questioning by the special investigation team in relation to a drug racket along with 20 other prominent celebrities from South film industry. During the investigation she volunteered to giver her hair, fluid and nail samples which the SIT refused. Later she returned to the reality show after the interrogation.


title: Mumaith Khan

text: In December 2016, Mumaith fell down from the bed at her apartment and hit her head which led to an internal injury damaging her nerves in the brain. She was in coma for 15 days and the doctors said it would take her two years to recover after treatment and surgery. Subsequently, this led to few neurological health problems like seizures and has been on medication for last two years. This also led to her gaining weight as her doctor advised her to keep away from the gym. Since then she has been trying to get back in shape gradually and is optimistic of making a comeback.


title: Mumaith Khan

text: She was being investigated in a massive drug racket. She appeared before the special investigation team of Telangana Prohibition and Excise Department in Hyderabad which is probing the case. Many other actors were involved in it. After Investigation about this case by Special Investigation Team Mumaith Khan was given clean chit.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: Carl Eric "Charlie" Brandt (February 23, 1957 – September 13, 2004) was an American serial killer who murdered at least four female victims; one in Indiana and three others in Florida. Growing up in Fort Wayne, Indiana, Brandt shot his parents in their family home on the night of January 3, 1971, when he was 13, killing his pregnant mother and wounding his father. He spent one year at a psychiatric hospital before being released and was never criminally charged. 33 years later, on September 13, 2004, Brandt stabbed his wife and niece to death and then hanged himself in his niece's garage. This incident, Brandt's efficiency in killing his wife and niece, and his hidden obsession with human anatomy led investigators to look into the possibility that he had committed other murders since moving to Florida in 1973. The 1989 murder of a homeless woman near Brandt's home was solved as a result of the investigation, as Brandt was found to have been the perpetrator. The police suspect him in three other Florida murders, but his true number of victims could potentially be more than 30.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: Charlie Brandt was the second child of Herbert and Ilsa Brandt, two German immigrants who originally settled in Texas before moving to Connecticut. Brandt's father worked as a laborer for a division of International Harvester, eventually working his way up to draftsman and project engineer. The family moved frequently and as a result Brandt and his older sister Angela attended several different schools.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: Brandt was regarded as a good student, but was shy and had difficulty adjusting to new surroundings. In September 1968, Herbert was transferred to International Harvester's plant in Fort Wayne, Indiana. The family frequently vacationed in Florida, where Brandt hunted small game with his father.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: On the evening of January 3, 1971, after their children had turned in for the night in their Fort Wayne home, Herbert Brandt was shaving in the bathroom while Ilsa, eight months pregnant, was taking a bath. Charlie Brandt, then aged 13, abruptly walked into the bathroom and shot both parents at point blank range with his father's handgun, which he had taken from a dresser. His father survived, but his mother and the fetus were killed instantly. Brandt then entered his sister Angela's room and attempted to shoot her, but his gun would not fire.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: After a physical struggle, Angela managed to calm her brother down by promising him that she would help him figure out what to do. Angela eventually convinced Brandt to go upstairs to retrieve blankets for their infant sisters, who were unharmed, before fleeing the house and seeking help from neighbors. After pursuing his terrified sister outside, Brandt knocked on a neighbor's door, telling her, "I just shot my mom and dad." Herbert later identified his son as his attacker.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: After the shooting, Brandt had told Angela that he could not remember what he had done. Angela described her brother as being in a trance-like state, which had broken during their struggle. Upon being interviewed by police, Brandt attributed the shooting to "a combination of things" related to school, stating that, "Everything sort of just snapped in my mind. I felt like I never felt before." Brandt also alluded to an incident that took place a few days before the shooting, near the end of his family's annual Christmas vacation in Florida, in which Herbert shot and killed their dog while the two were hunting.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: Three separate psychiatric evaluations failed to determine what triggered the shooting. Because he was too young to be tried for murder under Indiana state law, Brandt spent one year at a psychiatric hospital before being released back into the custody of his family in June 1972. The family never spoke of the incident again. Until 2004, Brandt's two younger sisters had lived under the impression that their mother had been killed in a car accident.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: Shortly after Brandt's release, his family relocated to Ormond Beach, Florida. One year later, Brandt's father (who had remarried) and two younger sisters moved back to Indiana, while Brandt and Angela stayed behind in the care of their grandparents. In 1984, Brandt received a degree in electronics and became a radar specialist for Ford Aerospace in Astor.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: In 1986, Brandt married his girlfriend Theresa "Teri" Helfrich. No relatives were invited to their wedding. His sister Angela and her husband Jim had advised Brandt to tell Teri about the murder of their mother, but it is unclear whether or not he ever did. The couple settled in a beach house on Big Pine Key in 1989.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: On September 2, 2004, Brandt and Teri evacuated from their home ahead of Hurricane Ivan. Their niece, Michelle Lynn Jones, invited them to stay at her residence near Orlando. Throughout the visit, Jones kept in regular contact with her mother, Mary Lou, as well as several friends. On the evening of September 13, one of Jones' friends, Lisa Emmons, was scheduled to visit her house. However, Jones discouraged her from coming, saying that the Brandts had an argument after drinking. After that night, Jones stopped answering telephone calls, which alarmed her acquaintances.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: On September 15, another one of Jones' friends, Debbie Knight, went to her house to check on her while on the phone with Jones' mother. After finding the front door locked, Knight tried to enter the house through the garage, where she found Brandt's decomposing body hanging from the rafters; he had hanged himself using bedsheets. Knight contacted the police, who entered the house and found the bodies of Brandt's wife and niece. Teri had been stabbed seven times in the chest while lying on a couch. Jones had been decapitated and disemboweled, with her heart and organs removed, and her head was placed next to her body. The weapons used in the crimes had been knives from Jones' kitchen.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: Following the discovery of the bodies, a search of Brandt's residence on Big Pine Key revealed that he was a monthly subscriber to Victoria's Secret catalogs, had an extensive collection of surgery-themed books, posters, and clippings, and regularly searched online for autopsy photos and snuff film websites depicting violence against women. Police determined that Brandt's murder of Jones indicated past experience, and because he traveled often due to his job, police checked cold cases in Florida that matched his apparent "modus operandi". They also launched requests for similar inquiries in the U.S. and abroad. The investigation uncovered evidence linking Brandt to the 1989 murder of a woman near his home.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: 38 year-old Sherry Perisho's partially-clothed body was found on July 16, 1989, floating in the water near the North Pine Channel Bridge at Big Pine Key where she lived on a dinghy. Her throat had been slashed and her head had been nearly severed. Like Jones, her body was extensively mutilated and her heart was removed. Perisho was found less than 1,000 feet from where Brandt lived, and Brandt matched a composite sketch of a man seen crossing U.S. Route 1 near where Perisho was discovered on the night she was murdered. Teri had further confided in her brother-in-law that she suspected Brandt in the Perisho killing, and that he had come home with blood on his shirt that night, which he claimed was from him filleting fish. Based on this evidence, Monroe County investigators determined that Brandt killed Perisho and officially closed the case on May 6, 2006.


title: Charlie Brandt

text: Ultimately, the search prompted police to reinvestigate twenty-six unsolved murders in Florida dating back to 1973 for potential evidence of Brandt's involvement. Aside from the 1989 Sherry Perisho murder, there was not enough evidence to conclusively link him to other crimes. However, three cases that were determined to have been of particular interest were:


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Jean-Philippe Rameau (; – ) was a French composer and music theorist. Regarded as one of the most important French composers and music theorists of the 18th century, he replaced Jean-Baptiste Lully as the dominant composer of French opera and is also considered the leading French composer of his time for the harpsichord, alongside François Couperin.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Little is known about Rameau's early years. It was not until the 1720s that he won fame as a major theorist of music with his "Treatise on Harmony" (1722) and also in the following years as a composer of masterpieces for the harpsichord, which circulated throughout Europe. He was almost 50 before he embarked on the operatic career on which his reputation chiefly rests today. His debut, "Hippolyte et Aricie" (1733), caused a great stir and was fiercely attacked by the supporters of Lully's style of music for its revolutionary use of harmony. Nevertheless, Rameau's pre-eminence in the field of French opera was soon acknowledged, and he was later attacked as an "establishment" composer by those who favoured Italian opera during the controversy known as the Querelle des Bouffons in the 1750s. Rameau's music had gone out of fashion by the end of the 18th century, and it was not until the 20th that serious efforts were made to revive it. Today, he enjoys renewed appreciation with performances and recordings of his music ever more frequent.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: The details of Rameau's life are generally obscure, especially concerning his first forty years, before he moved to Paris for good. He was a secretive man, and even his wife knew nothing of his early life, which explains the scarcity of biographical information available.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau's early years are particularly obscure. He was born on 25 September 1683 in Dijon, and baptised the same day. His father, Jean, worked as an organist in several churches around Dijon, and his mother, Claudine Demartinécourt, was the daughter of a notary. The couple had eleven children (five girls and six boys), of whom Jean-Philippe was the seventh.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau was taught music before he could read or write. He was educated at the Jesuit college at Godrans in Dijon, but he was not a good pupil and disrupted classes with his singing, later claiming that his passion for opera had begun at the age of twelve. Initially intended for the law, Rameau decided he wanted to be a musician, and his father sent him to Italy, where he stayed for a short while in Milan. On his return, he worked as a violinist in travelling companies and then as an organist in provincial cathedrals before moving to Paris for the first time. Here, in 1706, he published his earliest known compositions: the harpsichord works that make up his first book of "Pièces de Clavecin", which show the influence of his friend Louis Marchand.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: In 1709, he moved back to Dijon to take over his father's job as organist in the main church. The contract was for six years, but Rameau left before then and took up similar posts in Lyon and Clermont-Ferrand. During this period, he composed motets for church performance as well as secular cantatas.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: In 1722, he returned to Paris for good, and here he published his most important work of music theory, "Traité de l'harmonie" ("Treatise on Harmony"). This soon won him a great reputation, and it was followed in 1726 by his "Nouveau système de musique théorique". In 1724 and 1729 (or 1730), he also published two more collections of harpsichord pieces.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau took his first tentative steps into composing stage music when the writer Alexis Piron asked him to provide songs for his popular comic plays written for the Paris Fairs. Four collaborations followed, beginning with "L'endriague" in 1723; none of the music has survived.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: On 25 February 1726 Rameau married the 19-year-old Marie-Louise Mangot, who came from a musical family from Lyon and was a good singer and instrumentalist. The couple would have four children, two boys and two girls, and the marriage is said to have been a happy one.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: It was not until he was approaching 50 that Rameau decided to embark on the operatic career on which his fame as a composer mainly rests. He had already approached writer Antoine Houdar de la Motte for a libretto in 1727, but nothing came of it; he was finally inspired to try his hand at the prestigious genre of "tragédie en musique" after seeing Montéclair's "Jephté" in 1732. Rameau's "Hippolyte et Aricie" premiered at the Académie Royale de Musique on 1 October 1733. It was immediately recognised as the most significant opera to appear in France since the death of Lully, but audiences were split over whether this was a good thing or a bad thing. Some, such as the composer André Campra, were stunned by its originality and wealth of invention; others found its harmonic innovations discordant and saw the work as an attack on the French musical tradition. The two camps, the so-called Lullyistes and the Rameauneurs, fought a pamphlet war over the issue for the rest of the decade.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Just before this time, Rameau had made the acquaintance of the powerful financier Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière, who became his patron until 1753. La Poupelinière's mistress (and later, wife), Thérèse des Hayes, was Rameau's pupil and a great admirer of his music. In 1731, Rameau became the conductor of La Poupelinière's private orchestra, which was of an extremely high quality. He held the post for 22 years; he was succeeded by Johann Stamitz and then François-Joseph Gossec. La Poupelinière's salon enabled Rameau to meet some of the leading cultural figures of the day, including Voltaire, who soon began collaborating with the composer. Their first project, the "tragédie en musique Samson", was abandoned because an opera on a religious theme by Voltaire—a notorious critic of the Church—was likely to be banned by the authorities. Meanwhile, Rameau had introduced his new musical style into the lighter genre of the "opéra-ballet" with the highly successful "Les Indes galantes". It was followed by two "tragédies en musique", "Castor et Pollux" (1737) and "Dardanus" (1739), and another "opéra-ballet, Les fêtes d'Hébé" (also 1739). All these operas of the 1730s are among Rameau's most highly regarded works. However, the composer followed them with six years of silence, in which the only work he produced was a new version of "Dardanus" (1744). The reason for this interval in the composer's creative life is unknown, although it is possible he had a falling-out with the authorities at the Académie royale de la musique.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: The year 1745 was a turning point in Rameau's career. He received several commissions from the court for works to celebrate the French victory at the Battle of Fontenoy and the marriage of the Dauphin to Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain. Rameau produced his most important comic opera, "Platée", as well as two collaborations with Voltaire: the "opéra-ballet Le temple de la gloire" and the "comédie-ballet La princesse de Navarre". They gained Rameau official recognition; he was granted the title "Compositeur du Cabinet du Roi" and given a substantial pension. 1745 also saw the beginning of the bitter enmity between Rameau and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Though best known today as a thinker, Rousseau had ambitions to be a composer. He had written an opera, "Les muses galantes" (inspired by Rameau's "Indes galantes"), but Rameau was unimpressed by this musical tribute. At the end of 1745, Voltaire and Rameau, who were busy on other works, commissioned Rousseau to turn "La Princesse de Navarre" into a new opera, with linking recitative, called "Les fêtes de Ramire". Rousseau then claimed the two had stolen the credit for the words and music he had contributed, though musicologists have been able to identify almost nothing of the piece as Rousseau's work. Nevertheless, the embittered Rousseau nursed a grudge against Rameau for the rest of his life.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rousseau was a major participant in the second great quarrel that erupted over Rameau's work, the so-called "Querelle des Bouffons" of 1752–54, which pitted French "tragédie en musique" against Italian "opera buffa". This time, Rameau was accused of being out of date and his music too complicated in comparison with the simplicity and "naturalness" of a work like Pergolesi's "La serva padrona". In the mid-1750s, Rameau criticised Rousseau's contributions to the musical articles in the "Encyclopédie", which led to a quarrel with the leading "philosophes" d'Alembert and Diderot. As a result, Jean-François Rameau became a character in Diderot's then-unpublished dialogue, "Le neveu de Rameau" ("Rameau's Nephew").


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: In 1753, La Poupelinière took a scheming musician, Jeanne-Thérèse Goermans, as his mistress. The daughter of harpsichord maker Jacques Goermans, she went by the name of Madame de Saint-Aubin, and her opportunistic husband pushed her into the arms of the rich financier. She had La Poupelinière engage the services of the Bohemian composer Johann Stamitz, who succeeded Rameau after a breach developed between Rameau and his patron; however, by then, Rameau no longer needed La Poupelinière's financial support and protection.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau pursued his activities as a theorist and composer until his death. He lived with his wife and two of his children in his large suite of rooms in Rue des Bons-Enfants, which he would leave every day, lost in thought, to take a solitary walk in the nearby gardens of the Palais-Royal or the Tuileries. Sometimes he would meet the young writer Chabanon, who noted some of Rameau's disillusioned confidential remarks: "Day by day, I'm acquiring more good taste, but I no longer have any genius" and "The imagination is worn out in my old head; it's not wise at this age wanting to practise arts that are nothing but imagination."


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau composed prolifically in the late 1740s and early 1750s. After that, his rate of productivity dropped off, probably due to old age and ill health, although he was still able to write another comic opera, "Les Paladins", in 1760. This was due to be followed by a final "tragédie en musique, Les Boréades"; but for unknown reasons, the opera was never produced and had to wait until the late 20th century for a proper staging. Rameau died on 12 September 1764 after suffering from a fever, thirteen days before his 81st birthday. At his bedside, he objected to a song sung. His last words were, "What the devil do you mean to sing to me, priest? You are out of tune." He was buried in the church of St. Eustache, Paris on the same day of his death. Although a bronze bust and red marble tombstone were erected in his memory there by the Société de la Compositeurs de Musique in 1883, the exact site of his burial remains unknown to this day.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: While the details of his biography are vague and fragmentary, the details of Rameau's personal and family life are almost completely obscure. Rameau's music, so graceful and attractive, completely contradicts the man's public image and what we know of his character as described (or perhaps unfairly caricatured) by Diderot in his satirical novel "Le Neveu de Rameau". Throughout his life, music was his consuming passion. It occupied his entire thinking; Philippe Beaussant calls him a monomaniac. Piron explained that "His heart and soul were in his harpsichord; once he had shut its lid, there was no one home." Physically, Rameau was tall and exceptionally thin, as can be seen by the sketches we have of him, including a famous portrait by Carmontelle. He had a "loud voice". His speech was difficult to understand, just like his handwriting, which was never fluent. As a man, he was secretive, solitary, irritable, proud of his own achievements (more as a theorist than as a composer), brusque with those who contradicted him, and quick to anger. It is difficult to imagine him among the leading wits, including Voltaire (to whom he bears more than a passing physical resemblance), who frequented La Poupelinière's salon; his music was his passport, and it made up for his lack of social graces.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: His enemies exaggerated his faults; e.g. his supposed miserliness. In fact, it seems that his thriftiness was the result of long years spent in obscurity (when his income was uncertain and scanty) rather than part of his character, because he could also be generous. He helped his nephew Jean-François when he came to Paris and also helped establish the career of Claude-Bénigne Balbastre in the capital. Furthermore, he gave his daughter Marie-Louise a considerable dowry when she became a Visitandine nun in 1750, and he paid a pension to one of his sisters when she became ill. Financial security came late to him, following the success of his stage works and the grant of a royal pension (a few months before his death, he was also ennobled and made a knight of the Ordre de Saint-Michel). But he did not change his way of life, keeping his worn-out clothes, his single pair of shoes, and his old furniture. After his death, it was discovered that he possessed only one dilapidated single-keyboard harpsichord in his rooms in Rue des Bons-Enfants, yet he also had a bag containing 1691 gold louis.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau's music is characterised by the exceptional technical knowledge of a composer who wanted above all to be renowned as a theorist of the art. Nevertheless, it is not solely addressed to the intelligence, and Rameau himself claimed, "I try to conceal art with art." The paradox of this music was that it was new, using techniques never known before, but it took place within the framework of old-fashioned forms. Rameau appeared revolutionary to the Lullyistes, disturbed by complex harmony of his music; and reactionary to the , who only paid attention to its content and who either would not or could not listen to the sound it made. The incomprehension Rameau received from his contemporaries stopped him from repeating such daring experiments as the second Trio des Parques in "Hippolyte et Aricie", which he was forced to remove after a handful of performances because the singers had been either unable or unwilling to execute it correctly.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau's musical works may be divided into four distinct groups, which differ greatly in importance: a few cantatas; a few motets for large chorus; some pieces for solo harpsichord or harpsichord accompanied by other instruments; and, finally, his works for the stage, to which he dedicated the last thirty years of his career almost exclusively. Like most of his contemporaries, Rameau often reused melodies that had been particularly successful, but never without meticulously adapting them; they are not simple transcriptions. Besides, no borrowings have been found from other composers, although his earliest works show the influence of other music. Rameau's reworkings of his own material are numerous; e.g., in "Les Fêtes d'Hébé", we find "L'Entretien des Muses", the Musette, and the Tambourin, taken from the 1724 book of harpsichord pieces, as well as an aria from the cantata "Le Berger Fidèle".


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: For at least 26 years, Rameau was a professional organist in the service of religious institutions, and yet the body of sacred music he composed is exceptionally small and his organ works nonexistent. Judging by the evidence, it was not his favourite field, but rather, simply a way of making reasonable money. Rameau's few religious compositions are nevertheless remarkable and compare favourably to the works of specialists in the area. Only four motets have been attributed to Rameau with any certainty: "Deus noster refugium", "In convertendo", "Quam dilecta", and "Laboravi".


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: The cantata was a highly successful genre in the early 18th century. The French cantata, which should not be confused with the Italian or the German cantata, was "invented" in 1706 by the poet Jean-Baptiste Rousseau and soon taken up by many famous composers of the day, such as Montéclair, Campra, and Clérambault. Cantatas were Rameau's first contact with dramatic music. The modest forces the cantata required meant it was a genre within the reach of a composer who was still unknown. Musicologists can only guess at the dates of Rameau's six surviving cantatas, and the names of the librettists are unknown.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Along with François Couperin, Rameau was a master of the 18th-century French school of harpsichord music, and both made a break with the style of the first generation of harpsichordists whose compositions adhered to the relatively standardised suite form, which had reached its apogee in the first decade of the 18th century and successive collections of pieces by Louis Marchand, Gaspard Le Roux, Louis-Nicolas Clérambault, Jean-François Dandrieu, Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre, Charles Dieupart and Nicolas Siret. Rameau and Couperin had different styles, and it seems they did not know one another: Couperin was one of the official court musicians; Rameau, fifteen years his junior, achieved fame only after Couperin's death.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau published his first book of harpsichord pieces in 1706. (Cf. Couperin, who waited until 1713 before publishing his first "Ordres".) Rameau's music includes pieces in the pure tradition of the French suite: imitative ("Le rappel des oiseaux", "La poule") and characterful ("Les tendres plaintes", "L'entretien des Muses"). But there are also works of pure virtuosity that resemble Domenico Scarlatti ("Les tourbillons", "Les trois mains") as well as pieces that reveal the experiments of a theorist and musical innovator ("L'enharmonique", "Les Cyclopes"), which had a marked influence on Louis-Claude Daquin, Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer and Jacques Duphly. Rameau's suites are grouped in the traditional way, by key. The first set of dances (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Les Trois Mains, Fanfairenette, La Triomphante, Gavotte et 6 doubles) is centred on A major and A minor, while the remaining pieces (Les tricoteuses, L'Indifferente, Première Menuet, Deuxième Menuet, La Poule, Les Triolets, Les Sauvages, L'Enharmonique, L'Egiptienne [sic]) are centred around G major and G minor.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau's second and third collections appeared in 1724 and 1727. After these he composed only one piece for the harpsichord, the eight-minute "La Dauphine" of 1747, while the very short "Les petits marteaux" (c. 1750) has also been attributed to him.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: During his semiretirement (1740 to 1744) he wrote the "Pièces de clavecin en concerts" (1741), which some musicologists consider the pinnacle of French Baroque chamber music. Adopting a formula successfully employed by Mondonville a few years earlier, Rameau fashioned these pieces differently from trio sonatas in that the harpsichord is not simply there as basso continuo to accompany melody instruments (violin, flute, viol) but as equal partner in "concert" with them. Rameau claimed that this music would be equally satisfying played on the harpsichord alone, but the claim is not wholly convincing because he took the trouble to transcribe five of them himself, those the lack of other instruments would show the least.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: After 1733 Rameau dedicated himself mostly to opera. On a strictly musical level, 18th-century French Baroque opera is richer and more varied than contemporary Italian opera, especially in the place given to choruses and dances but also in the musical continuity that arises from the respective relationships between the arias and the recitatives. Another essential difference: whereas Italian opera gave a starring role to female sopranos and castrati, French opera had no use for the latter. The Italian opera of Rameau's day (opera seria, opera buffa) was essentially divided into musical sections (da capo arias, duets, trios, etc.) and sections that were spoken or almost spoken ("recitativo secco"). It was during the latter that the action progressed while the audience waited for the next aria; on the other hand, the text of the arias was almost entirely buried beneath music whose chief aim was to show off the virtuosity of the singer. Nothing of the kind is to be found in French opera of the day; since Lully, the text had to remain comprehensible—limiting certain techniques such as the vocalise, which was reserved for special words such as ' ("glory") or ' ("victory"). A subtle equilibrium existed between the more and the less musical parts: melodic recitative on the one hand and arias that were often closer to arioso on the other, alongside virtuoso "ariettes" in the Italian style. This form of continuous music prefigures Wagnerian drama even more than does the "reform" opera of Gluck.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Rameau was the greatest ballet composer of all times. The genius of his creation rests on one hand on his perfect artistic permeation by folk-dance types, on the other hand on the constant preservation of living contact with the practical requirements of the ballet stage, which prevented an estrangement between the expression of the body from the spirit of absolute music.


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: During the first part of his operatic career (1733–1739), Rameau wrote his great masterpieces destined for the Académie royale de musique: three "tragédies en musique" and two "opéra-ballets" that still form the core of his repertoire. After the interval of 1740 to 1744, he became the official court musician, and for the most part, composed pieces intended to entertain, with plenty of dance music emphasising sensuality and an idealised pastoral atmosphere. In his last years, Rameau returned to a renewed version of his early style in "Les Paladins" and "Les Boréades".


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: His "Zoroastre" was first performed in 1749. According to one of Rameau's admirers, Cuthbert Girdlestone, this opera has a distinctive place in his works: "The profane passions of hatred and jealousy are rendered more intensely [than in his other works] and with a strong sense of reality."


title: Jean-Philippe Rameau

text: Unlike Lully, who collaborated with Philippe Quinault on almost all his operas, Rameau rarely worked with the same librettist twice. He was highly demanding and bad-tempered, unable to maintain longstanding partnerships with his librettists, with the exception of Louis de Cahusac, who collaborated with him on several operas, including "Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour" (1747), "Zaïs" (1748), "Naïs" (1749), "Zoroastre" (1749; revised 1756), "La naissance d'Osiris" (1754), and "Anacréon" (the first of Rameau's operas by that name, 1754). He is also credited with writing the libretto of Rameau's final work, "Les Boréades" (c. 1763).