title: Prince Gabriel of Belgium

text: Gabriel was a student at St John Berchmans College until 2019, where the instruction is in Dutch, in the Marolles district of Brussels, the capital of Belgium. He also speaks French and English. From 2019 to 2021, he finished his secondary education at the International School of Brussels (ISB), an English-language private school in Watermael-Boitsfort. From September 2021, he is taking a 1-year preparatory A-Level course in mathematics, further mathematics, and physics at The National Mathematics and Science College, a STEM-oriented sixth form college in Warwickshire, England. In August 2022, the Royal Family announced that Gabriel attended the Royal Military Academy of Belgium, studying social and military sciences in Dutch and will be a part of the 162nd class.


title: Prince Gabriel of Belgium

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Prince Gabriel had conversations over the phone with elderly people in residential care centers in order to encourage and support them. He has been involved in the Scouts since he was eight years old and has become a patrol leader in the last few years.


title: Prince Gabriel of Belgium

text: Prince Gabriel plays the piano. He likes to practice taekwondo, football, cycling, tennis, swimming, skiing, sailing and hiking. He was also a member of , a Belgian hockey club based in Evere but decided to quit hockey in 2019 to focus on his school work.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: Wallander () is a Swedish television series adapted from Henning Mankell's Kurt Wallander novels, starring Krister Henriksson in the title role. The first season of thirteen films was produced in 2005 and 2006, with one taken directly from a novel and the remainder with new storylines suggested by Mankell. The second season of thirteen films was shown between 2009 and 2010. The stories are set in Ystad, Skåne near the southern tip of Sweden.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: The three films "Before the Frost" (#1), "Mastermind" (#6), and "The Secret" (#13) were premiered in cinemas, with the rest first released as direct-to-DVD movies. The first episode of the second series, "Hämnden" ("The Revenge"), was released in Swedish cinemas in January 2009; the rest of the series was made for television. A third and final season, containing six 90 minute episodes, aired in 2013 with Charlotta Jonsson replacing the late Johanna Sällström as Linda Wallander. The first episode, adapted from the novel "The Troubled Man", was released in cinemas in January 2013.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: From 2005 to 2006, the first 13 new stories, starring Krister Henriksson as Kurt Wallander, were produced. The first film is based on the Henning Mankell novel "Before the Frost" and was released in cinemas. The rest of the films are original stories based on plots written by Mankell, with scriptwriting completed by others. Two more were theatrical releases, and the rest were released on DVD and shown on TV.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: In 2008, a further 13 films were commissioned. Filming began in August 2008, and continued during 2009. The 13 episodes were released during 2009 and 2010.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: The first of these films, "Hämnden" ("The Revenge"), was a theatrical release on 9 January 2009, directed by award-winning Paris-based Franco-Swedish director Charlotte Brandström. The remaining 12 films went directly to DVD in Scandinavia during 2009 and 2010, and were broadcast there at a later date. In the beginning of 2010, both Canvas TV in Belgium and BBC Four in the UK began airing the 13 episodes weekly, which meant that they both showed the two last episodes before these had been released in Scandinavia.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: After filming completed on the 2009 series, Henriksson stated that he would not play Wallander again, having only signed the new contract because he thought the 2005 series could have been better. However, he later indicated that he would be interested in playing the role in an adaptation of the final Wallander novel, "The Troubled Man", because "it is the definite end".


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: A third and final season, containing six 90-minute episodes, was released in 2013 with Charlotta Jonsson as Linda Wallander. The first episode, adapted from the novel "The Troubled Man", was released in cinemas in January 2013, and the rest on DVD. The series finale premiered 30 July 2013.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: To coincide with the BBC television adaptation, "Wallander", BBC Four began broadcasting the 2005 series to United Kingdom audiences. "Before the Frost" and "Mastermind" were shown in November 2008; broadcast of the others began weekly in July 2009. Reviewing "The Village Idiot" and "The Brothers" in the "Financial Times", John Lloyd wrote:


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: More evident is the philosophical underpinning that the books' author, Henning Mankell, brings, focusing down on the forensic work of a provincial detective the global sins of the western world. This coming week’s episode, "The Brothers", is a murder mystery emerging from a terrible crime perpetrated by a group of drunken men on colonised people; last week's, "The Village Idiot", had at its core the moral obloquy of a private surgeon greedy for profit.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: Wallander and his comrades seek what remedies they can to the consequences of the sins of oppression and greed. At one point, Wallander tells his daughter, Linda, who is applying to become a detective, that she should reflect—otherwise she, like him, will emerge from a tunnel 30 years later, wondering what had happened to life. What had happened for Wallander is a melancholy immersion in human degradation, a provincial Inferno without a Virgil to guide him.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: Writing in "Örnsköldsviks Allehanda" after the release of "The Thief" (2009), Peter Carlsson complained that only the first and last films of the successive series were any good, pointing out that these are the ones released to cinemas. Carlsson further criticised that the middle films "are often predictable, tentative and carelessly made", and that the arrest of the criminal is anticlimactic.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: As a series, "Wallander" has been nominated for The International TV Dagger at the 2009 Crime Thriller Awards, an awards ceremony presented by British television channel ITV3 and the Crime Writers' Association.


title: Wallander (Swedish TV series)

text: Series 2 won the International TV Dagger at the 2010 Crime Thriller Awards, an awards ceremony presented by British television channel ITV3 and the Crime Writers' Association.


title: Granny Goodness

text: Granny Goodness made her live-action debut in the final two seasons of "Smallville", and she was portrayed by Nancy Amelia Bell and Christine Willes. Granny Goodness made her first live-action film appearance in "Zack Snyder's Justice League", portrayed by CGI.


title: Granny Goodness

text: Modeled after Phyllis Diller, Granny Goodness first appeared in "Mister Miracle" #2 (May 1971) and was created by Jack Kirby.


title: Granny Goodness

text: Granny Goodness did not begin as one of the higher-level residents of Apokolips, but was instead one of the "Lowlies"–the brutally oppressed peasant class. She was removed from her parents and trained to be one of Darkseid's "Hounds" (his elite soldiers). One part of their training was to train their dog; Goodness named hers Mercy. Through combat and training, the two bonded. As the final step of her initiation into life as a Hound, she was told to kill her beloved pet. Instead, she killed her trainer for ordering this. When Darkseid asked why, she answered that "to have done otherwise would have robbed my lord of a most valuable asset", telling him that Mercy would obey her first, but him foremost. Testing this, Darkseid ordered Mercy to kill Goodness. Mercy attacked Goodness, forcing Goodness to kill her pet. Darkseid was impressed, telling Goodness that she had graduated with honors. "You have trained Mercy so well in my name that perhaps you'll do as well training others whose blind obedience I will one day require".


title: Granny Goodness

text: Darkseid had Goodness run the training facility for his elite soldiers, where she used brainwashing and torture, in a brutal parody of child care, to turn the innocent into fanatical warriors willing to kill or die for Darkseid's glory. Since the war between Apokolips and New Genesis first moved to Earth, Granny Goodness has often run Earthly orphanages, looking for potential warriors for Darkseid.


title: Granny Goodness

text: Granny runs the "orphanage" on Apokolips and is the chief of the Female Furies. She also raised Scott Free, the son of Highfather of New Genesis who had been traded for Darkseid's son as part of a peace treaty. Scott Free (AKA Mister Miracle) became the first child to successfully escape one of her Orphanages.


title: Granny Goodness

text: In the final issue of the "Amazons Attack" miniseries it was revealed that Granny Goodness has been posing as Athena, having manipulated the Amazons into the war. She tells Hippolyta that it was a test which the Amazons failed. It also appears that Goodness is posing as Athena in the "Countdown" series, using Amazon centers to recruit new female fighters. She is also holding the Gods of Olympus prisoner. After the gods are freed by Mary Marvel, Holly Robinson and Harley Quinn from an Apokolitian chamber, Granny is attacked and killed by Infinity-Man.


title: Granny Goodness

text: However, she is reincarnated on Earth, along with the other Evil Gods, as a member of Boss Dark Side's gang. Although this form is destroyed by Black Alice in an issue of "Birds of Prey", in the "Final Crisis" storyline, she takes the body of the Alpha Lantern known as Kraken and uses it to attack John Stewart and frame Hal Jordan for the assault. While she is discovered by Batman, she easily overpowers him and brings him back to the Evil Factory beneath Blüdhaven where he is sealed inside a torture device. Later, Reverend Good announces that Granny Goodness is poised to conquer Oa from within in the name of Darkseid, which would likely reestablish her as his favorite among the Elite.


title: Granny Goodness

text: Granny's attempted assault on the power structure of Oa results in injury to a Guardian, the clearing of Hal Jordan's name, the hiding of the Power Battery and a Green Lantern assault force sent to Earth. After she is stopped by Hal Jordan, she is taken away to be inspected. Her fate after "Final Crisis" is left unknown.


title: Granny Goodness

text: Granny Goodness is functionally immortal, has superhuman strength and endurance. She is surprisingly robust considering her age: she can still lift several tons with ease and she is resistant to most forms of physical attack. Also she is quite good at hand-to-hand combat. In her youth, she was one of the best and most loyal warriors in the service of Darkseid. As a member of Darkseid's elite, Granny Goodness has access to highly advanced weaponry; in combat she usually wields a mega-rod. In addition, she is a great leader and military strategist that commands soldiers being trained at her orphanages, including flight troops, who ride on flying aero-discs; armored infantry; and members of the special powers force, who wield deadly weapons and who, in many cases, possess super powers. Among her most relevant pupils are Mister Miracle, Big Barda, Kanto, Virman Vundabar and the Female Furies.


title: Granny Goodness

text: Granny Goodness has been described as a symbol of the "monstrous feminine" who "violates traditional paradigms of motherhood and femininity" through her wickedness, as opposed to more traditional, nurturing depictions of motherhood in fiction.


title: Granny Goodness

text: She is seen in the pages of Justice League, in the "Rock of Ages" storyline, in an alternate future where Darkseid has conquered the Earth. She has merged with the Mother Box systems, making a giant "Grandmother Box". As her main offensive weapon, she teleports and blasts firepits energy at her adversaries. Ultimately, she is destroyed by the future Wonder Woman who sacrifices her own life in the battle.


title: Granny Goodness

text: In Grant Morrison's Seven Soldiers, after Darkseid's victory over New Genesis destroyed both planets, Granny reinvented herself. She is now a brothel madame, with the Furies as her prostitutes, and is an obese black woman. In this guise she hoped to seduce the new Mister Miracle to Darkseid. An identical version of Granny appears in "Birds of Prey" #118 (following "Countdown"), working at the "Dark Side Club".


title: Granny Goodness

text: In Amalgam Comics, Goodness was fused with Marvel Comics' Agatha Harkness to become Granny Harkness, follower of Thanoseid (Thanos + Darkseid).


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Júlio César Clemente Pereira Baptista (born 1 October 1981) is a Brazilian football manager and former player who played as an attacking midfielder or a forward. He is the current manager of Valladolid B.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Baptista is nicknamed "The Beast" due to his size and physical presence on the football field and "Hulio" due to an interview with former teammate Joaquín. He began his career as a defensive midfielder, and after a series of impressive performances for his hometown squad São Paulo FC, Baptista signed for Sevilla FC in 2003. Upon signing for Sevilla, he was converted into a forward, and in his two seasons, he scored 50 goals, leading to his 2005 transfer to Spanish giants Real Madrid. After two unsuccessful seasons at Real Madrid with a loan spell at Arsenal sandwiched in between, Baptista transferred to Roma in Italy. In January 2011 he returned to Spain by signing for Málaga, and two years later went back to Brazil with Cruzeiro.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 3 August 2003, Sevilla FC unveiled Baptista as their newest signing. He cost the Spanish club £1.75 million (US$3.75 million). Baptista made it clear he was confident that he would succeed in Spain. He donned the No.19 jersey and began playing as an attacking midfielder. Baptista settled in quickly, scoring a double in Sevilla's 4–0 victory over Racing de Santander. As the season progressed, his good form continued, including a double against Levante UD and once more hitting the back of the net against Racing de Santander, this time with four goals as Sevilla picked up a 5–2 victory at home.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: His form attracted the attention of several big clubs, but despite interest from English giants Arsenal, Baptista remained at Sevilla for the following season, in which he once more showed his worth registering 25 goals in all competitions.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Between 2003 and 2005, Baptista made 81 appearances in all competitions for Sevilla and scored 50 goals in total. With this goal tally came a summer of transfer rumours in which Real Madrid battled it out with Arsenal for his signature.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 25 July 2005, Real Madrid confirmed the signing of the long-time Arsenal target for a fee of £13.8 million (€20 million), rising to £16.9 million (€24.5 million); Baptista signed a five-year deal. Baptista said he had chosen to remain in Spain at least one more year, as transferring to Real Madrid would allow him to gain dual citizenship (in Spain as well as Brazil), which would enable him to travel across Europe freely. He also explained he did not want to move to England at this time. Upon his arrival at Real Madrid, Baptista was awarded the No.8 jersey.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: The season looked very promising for Real Madrid; the big-money signings of Robinho from Santos FC, Baptista, and Sergio Ramos from Sevilla meant that Real Madrid were tipped to end their trophy drought. It was not to be, however. At Real, Baptista was often played out of position as a left-winger to accommodate the likes of Zinedine Zidane and Guti in the Spanish side's attacking line-up. For this reason, he was unable to find the form that led many of Europe's top clubs to want to sign him. He managed to score just eight league goals throughout the 2006 league campaign. The season ended in disappointment as Real Madrid yet again ended the season without a trophy.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Baptista insisted that Arsenal were still in pursuit of him, but he made it clear he wanted to fulfill his contract with Real Madrid.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: At the end of August 2006, with the transfer window about to close, press reports linked him with a move to either Tottenham Hotspur or Arsenal. The latter was part of a possible swap deal that included José Antonio Reyes. Baptista went on to strenuously claim that he was not interested in a move away from Real Madrid. However, on 31 August 2006, the day of the transfer deadline, Baptista moved to Arsenal in exchange for Reyes. The deal saw both players signing on to 12-month loans at their new clubs. He scored his first goal for Arsenal against Hamburg in the Champions League on 21 November 2006.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Baptista struggled to score in the Premier League, managing just three goals in 24 league matches. Baptista, however, found scoring form in the League Cup, with six goals in the competition, including a club record four goals in Arsenal's quarter-final victory against Liverpool on 9 January 2007, in a 6–3 win for Arsenal; beside his 4 goals, he also missed a penalty kick in that game, and missed two other penalties that season against Bolton Wanderers and Portsmouth. Baptista also scored twice in Arsenal's semi-final against Tottenham Hotspur (having also scored an own goal at the other end), but they lost 2–1 to Chelsea in the final.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: At the end of the 2006–07 season, he was no longer required by Arsenal and returned to Real Madrid, as the loan deal finished. After the appointment of Bernd Schuster as head coach of Madrid, Baptista played far more often and in his preferred central position.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Baptista went on to score first in a 3–0 victory that knocked Lazio out of the Champions League. He then netted a magnificent first half goal from a one-two pass from Ruud van Nistelrooy against rivals Barcelona in the El Clásico. Baptista's goal proved to be vital in a game that eventually finished 1–0 to the visitors. This was only the second time Real Madrid had beaten rivals Barcelona in the league at the Camp Nou in 24 years.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: During the season, Baptista continued his good form. This led to many praising his good performances as he continued to keep Guti on the bench. Real eventually won that season's La Liga title with Baptista thus earning a winner's medal.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Roma ended their search for another forward on 14 August, when they signed Baptista from Real Madrid. The Serie A club said in a statement that the 26-year-old had cost an initial €9 million plus bonuses and had penned a four-year deal worth €4.5million before tax and excluding bonuses.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Baptista made his debut for Roma in the Supercoppa Italiana on 24 August 2008, but the team lost to Inter Milan on penalties. Baptista converted his penalty kick. On 1 October 2008, he scored his first Champions League goals for the club, scoring a double against Bordeaux to give his side a 3–1 victory. Baptista scored Roma's winning goal in his first Rome derby against Lazio.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: In the Champions League, Roma drew Baptista's former club, Arsenal. He played in both games, the first at the Emirates Stadium, a ground he used to call home, and the return leg at the Stadio Olimpico. In the return leg, Baptista came on as an early substitute, following the early injury to Roma's goalscorer Juan. Baptista had a couple of chances to give Roma the two goal advantage that would have sent them through to the quarter-final stage of the Champions League, most notably a chance in the 79th minute, where he missed from 10 yards out with just Manuel Almunia to beat. Roma lost 7–6 in the ensuing penalty shootout.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 3 January 2011, Málaga CF announced the signing of Júlio Baptista. He signed a two-and-a-half-year contract. On 14 January 2011, Roma announced that the transfer fee was €2.5 million. He made his debut for Málaga on 16 January 2011 in a 4–1 defeat at Barcelona, and six days later he scored his first goal in a 4–3 defeat at Valencia CF.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Baptista, however, was injured during the match between Málaga and Getafe CF (and scoring from penalty in a 2–2 draw) and was operated in Brazil couple of days later. He returned to action on 16 April 2011 by scoring twice in a 3–0 home win over RCD Mallorca, taking the team out of the relegation zone.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 1 October 2011, Baptista scored a dramatic late winner in a 3–2 win over Getafe with an overhead kick, on his 30th birthday. However, he injured his right leg during the match, and though it was at first thought to be a minor injury he ultimately needed an operation that would keep him out of action for the rest of the year. On 6 March 2012 it was announced that Baptista might miss the rest of the season and would travel to Brazil to recover from his injury. He made his comeback on 3 February 2013, coming on as a substitute in a 1–1 draw against Real Zaragoza. Baptista scored his first goal since his return from injury on 30 March, netting the winner in Malaga's 3–1 defeat of Rayo Vallecano, a result that pushed the side into fourth place in La Liga.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 24 July 2013, Júlio Baptista signed with the Brazilian first division club Cruzeiro Esporte Clube, where he was teamed up with well-known names such as Dedé, Dagoberto, and Fábio. He was reported to be on a two-year contract, with a reportedly €170,000 per month salary.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 28 July 2013, Baptista went to the Mineirão Stadium in an armored car, and was presented to "Celeste" fans in the club's 4–1 victory against rivals Atlético Mineiro. After his presentation, Baptista did not confirm when he could debut for his new club. According to "La Bestia", it depended on "documentation and of Marcelo Oliveira (Cruzeiro's coach)".


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Manager Marcelo Oliveira praised Baptista for working to return to his best shape. Asked in which position Oliveira would play Baptista, he affirmed that Baptista would play as a playmaker, because he played in this position for Sevilla, in his best days. Oliveira also said he wanted Ricardo Goulart instead of Baptista to mark players.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 23 March 2016, Orlando City SC announced that they had signed Baptista. He made his Major League Soccer debut on 8 April as a sub against Philadelphia Union, and scored his first goal in the league on 29 May against New York City FC. His contract option was declined by the club on 23 November 2016, making him a free agent.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 18 August 2018, Baptista penned a deal for an undisclosed period with Romanian defending champions CFR Cluj. Eight days later, he made his debut in a goalless Liga I draw at Gaz Metan Mediaș, replacing Alexandru Ioniță in the 70th minute.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Baptista became subject of controversy in Romania, having played only 43 minutes for CFR in 2018, which made him one of the best paid football players per minute played.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: Baptista has 47 caps with Brazil and has netted five goals. His first cap came on 4 June 2001 in the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup, a 0–0 draw against Japan. He also played a limited part in the 2005 edition of the competition.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: As Baptista often played out of position at Real Madrid, his form dipped, and he was not included on the 2006 World Cup roster. However, Baptista was re-called to the Brazil squad for the 2007 Copa América and scored the opening goal in Brazil's 3–0 victory over Argentina in the final on 15 July 2007. Baptista ended the competition with three goals. He went on to play the 2010 World Cup for Brazil under coach Dunga.


title: Júlio Baptista

text: On 27 June 2019, Baptista was named manager of the "Juvenil" squad of Real Valladolid, owned by former Real Madrid teammate Ronaldo. On 8 July 2021, he took over the club's reserve team after Javier Baraja left.


title: VBMR Griffon

text: The Véhicule Blindé Multi-Rôle Griffon (English: "Multirole Armoured Vehicle Griffon") or VBMR Griffon is a French multi-purpose armoured personnel carrier developed and manufactured by Nexter in cooperation with Arquus and Thales. Entering service in 2018, it will, alongside the VBMR-L Serval, succeed the Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé (VAB).


title: VBMR Griffon

text: The French army has been preparing to replace the VAB since the early 2000s. According to the Army's 2020 Defense White Paper it plans to buy up to 2,122 VBMR vehicles between 2018 and 2025. A consortium of Nexter, Thales, and Renault Trucks Defense is building the vehicles. The same consortium also builds the EBRC Jaguar reconnaissance and combat vehicle for the French Army, which shares 70% of its components with the VBMR Griffon.


title: VBMR Griffon

text: On 6 December 2014, French Defense Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian announced that deliveries will commence in 2018 and a first tranche of 319 Griffons and 20 Jaguars was ordered in April 2017. A second tranche for 271 Griffons and 42 Jaguars was ordered on 24 September 2020. In total the French Army plans to buy 1,872 Griffons and 300 Jaguars.


title: VBMR Griffon

text: On 22 June 2017, Belgium's cabinet approved a plan to purchase 60 "Jaguar" and 417 “Griffon” vehicles for €1.1 billion. The vehicles will replace the Belgian Army's Piranha IIIC armored personnel carriers and Dingo 2 infantry mobility vehicles. The deal includes spare parts and secure communications equipment and deliveries are planned to commence in 2025.


title: VBMR Griffon

text: The vehicle is based on a 6×6 commercial all-terrain truck chassis and will carry up to eight infantry soldiers. The consortium building the "Griffon" and "Jaguar" is contractually obliged to keep the price per Griffon under €1 million. Currently, six versions of the Griffon are planned, with four of these (Armored Personnel Carrier, Command Post, Ambulance, and Artillery Observer) ordered in the first tranche.


title: VBMR Griffon

text: The vehicles are designed for simple maintenance and logistics. For example, Griffon and Jaguar both use standard commercial truck engines, which have been adapted to use a wider range of fuel. The vehicle has an overpressure system to maintain constant protection to the troop compartment against chemical, biological and radiological threats. For service in hot climates, the Griffon is equipped with air conditioning.


title: VBMR Griffon

text: The Griffon is equipped with a remote weapons station that can be armed with either a 12.7mm or 7.62mm machine gun, or a 40mm automatic grenade launcher. The addition of two Akeron MP anti-tank guided missiles is optional. Eight launchers for smoke grenades are fitted to the remote weapon station, which also includes an acoustic sniper localisation system.


title: VBMR Griffon

text: Furthermore, 1060 additional Serval VLTP P segment haut (multipurpose light tactical vehicles) will also be purchased by 2033.


title: Parasomnia

text: Parasomnias are a category of sleep disorders that involve abnormal movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, and dreams that occur while falling asleep, sleeping, between sleep stages, or during arousal from sleep. Parasomnias are dissociated sleep states which are partial arousals during the transitions between wakefulness, NREM sleep, and REM sleep, and their combinations.


title: Parasomnia

text: The newest version of the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD, 3rd. Ed.) uses State Dissociation as the paradigm for parasomnias. Unlike before, where wakefulness, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep were considered exclusive states, research has shown that combinations of these states are possible and thus, may result in unusual unstable states that could eventually manifest as parasomnias or as altered levels of awareness.


title: Parasomnia

text: Although the previous definition is technically correct, it contains flaws. The consideration of the State Dissociation paradigm facilitates the understanding of the sleep disorder and provides a classification of 10 core categories.


title: Parasomnia

text: NREM parasomnias are arousal disorders that occur during stage 3 (or 4 by the R&K standardization) of NREM sleep—also known as slow wave sleep (SWS). They are caused by a physiological activation in which the patient's brain exits from SWS and is caught in between a sleeping and waking state. In particular, these disorders involve activation of the autonomic nervous system, motor system, or cognitive processes during sleep or sleep-wake transitions.


title: Parasomnia

text: Some NREM parasomnias (sleep-walking, night-terrors, and confusional arousal) are common during childhood but decrease in frequency with increasing age. They can be triggered in certain individuals, by alcohol, sleep deprivation, physical activity, emotional stress, depression, medications, or a fevered illness. These disorders of arousal can range from confusional arousals, somnambulism, to night terrors. Other specific disorders include sleepeating, sleep sex, teeth grinding, rhythmic movement disorder, restless legs syndrome, and somniloquy.


title: Parasomnia

text: Confusional arousal is a condition when an individual awakens from sleep and remains in a confused state. It is characterized by the individual's partial awakening and sitting up to look around. They usually remain in bed and then return to sleep. These episodes last anywhere from seconds to minutes and may not be reactive to stimuli. Confusional arousal is more common in children than in adults. It has a lifetime prevalence of 18.5% in children and a lifetime prevalence of 2.9–4.2% in adults. Infants and toddlers usually experience confusional arousals beginning with large amounts of movement and moaning, which can later progress to occasional thrashings or inconsolable crying. In rare cases, confusional arousals can cause injuries and drowsy driving accidents, thus it can also be considered dangerous. Another sleeping disorder may be present triggering these incomplete arousals.


title: Parasomnia

text: Sleep-related abnormal sexual behavior, "Sleep sex", or sexsomnia, is a form of confusional arousal that may overlap with somnambulism. Thereby, a person will engage in sexual acts while still asleep. It can include such acts as masturbation, inappropriate fondling themselves or others, having sex with another person; and in more extreme cases, sexual assault. These behaviors are unconscious, occur frequently without dreaming, and bring along clinical, social, and legal implications. It has a lifetime prevalence of 7.1% and an annual prevalence of 2.7%.


title: Parasomnia

text: Sleepwalking has a prevalence of 1–17% in childhood, with the most frequent occurrences around the age of eleven to twelve. About 4% of adults experience somnambulism.


title: Parasomnia

text: Normal sleep cycles include states varying from drowsiness all the way to deep sleep. Every time an individual sleeps, he or she goes through various sequences of non-REM and REM sleep. Anxiety and fatigue are often connected with sleepwalking. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking. Sleep walking may involve sitting up and looking awake when the individual is actually asleep, and getting up and walking around, moving items or undressing themselves. They will also be confused when waking up or opening their eyes during sleep. Sleep walking can be associated with sleeptalking.


title: Parasomnia

text: Sleep terror is the most disruptive arousal disorder since it may involve loud screams and panic; in extreme cases, it may result in bodily harm or property damage by running about or hitting walls. All attempts to console the individual are futile and may prolong or intensify their confused state. Usually they experience amnesia after the event but it may not be complete amnesia. Up to 3% of adults have sleep terrors and exhibited behavior of this parasomnia can range from mild to extremely violent. This is very prevalent in those who have violent post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They typically occur in stage 3 sleep.


title: Parasomnia

text: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) classifies sleep-related eating disorder under sleepwalking, while ICSD classifies it as NREM-related parasomnia. It is conceptualized as a mixture of binge-eating behavior and arousal disorder. Thereby, preferentially high-caloric food is consumed in an uncontrolled manner. However, SRED should not be confused with nocturnal eating syndrome, which is characterized by an excessive consumption of food before or during sleep in full consciousness. Since sleep-related eating disorders are associated with other sleep disorders, successful treatment of the latter can reduce symptoms of this parasomnia.


title: Parasomnia

text: Unlike other parasomnias, rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (RBD) in which muscle atonia is absent is most common in older adults. This allows the individual to act out their dreams and may result in repeated injury—bruises, lacerations, and fractures—to themselves or others. Patients may take self-protection measures by tethering themselves to bed, using pillow barricades, or sleeping in an empty room on a mattress. Besides ensuring the sleep environment is a safe place, pharmacologic therapy using melatonin and clonazepam is also common as a treatment for RBD, even though they might not eliminate all abnormal behaviours. Before starting a treatment with clonazepam, a screening for obstructive sleep apnea should performed. However, clonazepam needs to be manipulated carefully because of its significant side effects, i.e., morning confusion or memory impairment, mainly in patients with neurodegenerative disorders with dementia.


title: Parasomnia

text: Demographically, 90% of RBD patients are males, and most are older than 50 years of age. However, this prevalence in males could be biased due to the fact that women tends to have a less violent type of RBD, which leads to lower reports at sleep centres and different clinical characteristics. While men might have more aggressive behaviour during dreaming, women have presented more disturbance in their sleep. RBD may be also influenced by a genetic compound, since primary relatives seem to have significantly more chance to develop RBD compared with non-relatives control group.


title: Parasomnia

text: Acute RBD occurs mostly as a result of a side-effect in prescribed medication—usually antidepressants. Furthermore, substance abuse or withdrawal can result in RBD.


title: Parasomnia

text: Chronic RBD is idiopathic, meaning of unknown origin, or associated with neurological disorders. There is a growing association of chronic RBD with neurodegenerative disorders—Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy (MSA), or dementia—as an early indicator of these conditions by as much as 10 years. RBD associated with neurological disorders is frequently related to abnormal accumulation of alpha-synuclein, and more than 80% of patients with idiopathic RBD might develop Lewy body disease (LBD). Patients with narcolepsy are also more likely to develop RBD.


title: Parasomnia

text: The diagnosis is based on clinical history, including partner's account and needs to be confirmed by polysomnography (PSG), mainly for its accuracy in differentiating RBD from other sleep disorders, since there is a loss of REM atonia with excessive muscle tone. However, screening questionnaires, such as RBDSQ, are also very useful for diagnosing RBD.


title: Parasomnia

text: Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis is an inability to perform voluntary movements at sleep onset, or upon waking from sleep. Although the affected individual is conscious and recall is present, the person is not able to speak or move. However, respiration remains unimpaired. The episodes last seconds to minutes and diminish spontaneously. The lifetime prevalence is 7%. Sleep paralysis is associated with sleep-related hallucinations. Predisposing factors for the development of recurrent isolated sleep paralysis are sleep deprivation, an irregular sleep-wake cycle, e.g. caused by shift work, or stress. A possible cause could be the prolongation of REM sleep muscle atonia upon awakening.


title: Parasomnia

text: Nightmares are like dreams primarily associated with REM sleep. Nightmare disorder is defined as recurrent nightmares associated with awakening dysphoria that impairs sleep or daytime functioning. It is rare in children, however persists until adulthood. About 2/3 of the adult population report experiencing nightmares at least once in their life.


title: Parasomnia

text: Before the ICSD-3, Catathrenia was classified as a rapid-eye-movement sleep parasomnia, but is now classified as sleep-related breathing disorder. It consists of breath holding and expiratory groaning during sleep, is distinct from both somniloquy and obstructive sleep apnea. The sound is produced during exhalation as opposed to snoring which occurs during inhalation. It is usually not noticed by the person producing the sound but can be extremely disturbing to sleep partners, although once aware of it, they tend to be woken up by their own groaning as well. Bed partners generally report hearing the person take a deep breath, hold it, then slowly exhale; often with a high-pitched squeak or groaning sound.


title: Parasomnia

text: Painful erections appear only during the sleep. This condition is present during the REM sleep. Sexual activity does not produce any pain. There is not any lesion or physical damage but an hypertonia of the pelvic floor could be one cause. It affects men of all ages but especially from the middle-age. Some pharmacologic treatment as propranolol, clozapine, clonazepam, baclofen and various antidepressants, seems to be effective.


title: Parasomnia

text: Sleep-related hallucinations are brief episodes of dream-like imagery that can be of any sensory modality, i.e., auditory, visual, or tactile. They are differentiated between hypnagogic hallucination, that occur at sleep onset, and hypnapompic hallucinations, which occur at the transition of sleep to awakening. Although normal individuals have reported nocturnal hallucinations, they are more frequent in comorbidity with other sleep disorders, e.g. narcolepsy.


title: Parasomnia

text: According to ICSD-3 it is not defined a disorder in particular. It is rather an isolated symptom or normal variant and ranges from isolated speech to full conversations without recall. With a lifetime prevalence of 69% it is considered fairly common. Sleep talking is associated with REM-related parasomnias as well as with disorders or arousal. It occurs in all sleep states. As yet, there is no specific treatment for sleeptalking available.


title: Parasomnia

text: Parasomnias are most commonly diagnosed by means of questionnaires. These questionnaires include a detailed analyses of the clinical history and contain questions to:


title: Parasomnia

text: Furthermore, a sleep diary is helpful to exclude that sleep deprivation could be a precipitating factor. An additional tool could be the partner's log of the events. The following questions should therefore be considered:


title: Parasomnia

text: In potentially harmful or disturbing cases a specialist in sleep disorders should be approached. Video polysomnographic documentation is necessary only in REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), since it is an essential diagnostic criteria in the ICSD to demonstrate the absence of muscle atonia and to exclude comorbid sleep disorders. For most of the other parasomnias, polysomnographic monitoring is a costly, but still supportive tool in the clinical diagnosis.


title: Parasomnia

text: The use of actigraphy can be promising in the diagnostical assessment of NREM-related parasomnias, for example to rule out sleep deprivation or other sleep disorders, like circadian sleep-wake rhythm disorder which often develops among shift workers. However, there is currently no generally accepted standardized technique available of identifying and quantifying periodic limb movements in sleep (PLMS) that distinguishes movements resulting from parasomnias, nocturnal seizures, and other dyskinesias. Eventually, using actigraphy for parasomnias in general is disputed.


title: Parasomnia

text: Parasomnias can be considered as potentially harmful to oneself as well as to bed partners, and are associated with other disorders. Children with parasomnias do not undergo medical intervention, because they tend to recover the NREM-related disorder with the process of growth. In those cases, the parents receive education on sleep hygiene to reduce and eventually eliminate precipitating factors.


title: Parasomnia

text: In adults psychoeducation about a proper sleep hygiene can reduce the risk to develop parasomnia. Case studies have shown that pharmacological interventions can improve symptoms of parasomnia, however mostly they are accompanied by side-effects. Behavioral treatments, i.e., relaxation therapy, biofeedback, hypnosis, and stress reduction, may also be helpful, but are not considered as universally effective.


title: Parasomnia

text: NREM-related parasomnias which are common in childhood show a good prognosis, since severity decreases with age, the symptoms tend to resolve during puberty. Adults with NREM-related parasomnias, however, are faced with a stronger persistence of the symptoms, therefore, full remission is quite unlikely and is also associated with violent complications, including homicide. The variant sleep-related eating disorders is chronic, without remission, but treatable.


title: Parasomnia

text: REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) can mostly be handled well with the use of melatonin or clonazepam. However, there is high comorbidity with neurodegenerative disorders, that is in up to 93% of cases. The underlying psychopathology of nightmare disorder complicates a clear prognosis.


title: Parasomnia

text: The prognosis for other parasomnias seems promising. While exploding head syndrome usually resolves spontaneously, the symptoms for sleep-related hallucinations tend to diminish over time.


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: Jeffrey E. Garten (born October 29, 1946) is an American economist, author, businessman, and former government official who is Dean Emeritus at the Yale School of Management, where he teaches a variety of courses on the global economy. From 1996 to 2005 he was the dean of the school, and from 2005 to 2015 he was the Juan Trippe Professor in international trade, finance, and business. Before that, he was Undersecretary of Commerce for International Trade in the Clinton administration from 1993 to 1995, and had a career on Wall Street as a managing director for the Blackstone Group and Lehman Brothers.


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: He is the author of six books on the global political economy and numerous articles in "The New York Times", "The Wall Street Journal", "Financial Times", "Newsweek", "Foreign Affairs", and "Harvard Business Review". From 1997 to 2005 he wrote a monthly column in "Business Week".


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: Garten was born to a Jewish family. He is the son of Ruth (née Engelman) and Melvin Garten. His father fought in World War II, the Korean War, and Vietnam; and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in 1953 for his heroism in Korea's Battle of Pork Chop Hill. His brother, Allan Garten, is a retired federal prosecutor in Portland, Oregon. Due to Melvin Garten's military career, the family moved frequently.


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: Garten earned his A.B. from Dartmouth College in 1968 and an M.A. (1972) and Ph.D. (1980) from the Johns Hopkins University's School of Advanced International Studies. He also served in the United States Army from 1968 to 1972, during the Vietnam War, holding the rank of Lieutenant in the 82nd Airborne Division and Captain and aide-de camp to the commanding general of the US Special Forces. In 1971 he was an advisor to the Royal Thai Army.


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: Garten worked in the Nixon, Ford and Carter administrations in both the White House and at the State Department. He then went on to Wall Street, becoming a managing director of Lehman Brothers and the Blackstone Group. At Lehman, he specialized in sovereign debt restructuring in Latin America. He also lived in Tokyo and directed and expanded the Asian investment banking business for that firm, including overseeing some of the largest international corporate restructurings of the era. At Blackstone he worked in the financial advisory and mergers and acquisitions arena. Garten founded the Eliot Group, an investments firm, in 1990, and was its first chairman. He then taught at Columbia Business School from 1992 to 1993.


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: From July 1993 to September 1995, Garten was Undersecretary of Commerce for International Trade in the Clinton administration where he focused his efforts on trade and investment deals in "Big Emerging Markets" such as China, India, Indonesia Brazil, Mexico, and Turkey. Afterward, from 1996 to 2005, Garten was dean of the Yale School of Management after which he stayed on to teach full-time. His courses have included "Leading A Global Company", "Wall Street and Washington", "Managing Global Catastrophes", and "The Future of Global Finance", and he has led study trips for students to China, Singapore, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom.


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: In 2006, Garten and a colleague, David Rothkopf, set up Garten Rothkopf in Washington to provide strategic advice for global companies, international organizations and governments. In 2016 the firm was sold to The Slate Group, a subsidiary of Graham Holdings, Inc.


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: Garten sits on the board of directors for Credit Suisse Asset Management (which includes a number of mutual funds), and he is a trustee of The International Rescue Committee. Previously, he was a director of Aetna, CarMax, Inc., Standard & Poor's ("the Board of Managers"), Calpine Energy Corporation, Alcan Inc., and The Conference Board, and he served on the international advisory boards of Toyota and the Chicago Climate Exchange.


title: Jeffrey Garten

text: Garten has been married to the former Ina Rosenberg since 1968. Ina Garten hosts Food Network's "Barefoot Contessa," for which she has won three Emmy Awards. She has also written ten best-selling cookbooks, including "Cooking for Jeffrey" in 2016. Garten and his wife live in Southport, Connecticut, and East Hampton, New York.


title: Polynesian languages

text: The Polynesian languages form a genealogical group of languages, itself part of the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian family.


title: Polynesian languages

text: There are 38 Polynesian languages, representing 7 percent of the 522 Oceanic languages, and 3 percent of the Austronesian family. While half of them are spoken in geographical Polynesia (the Polynesian triangle), the other half – known as Polynesian outliers – are spoken in other parts of the Pacific: from Micronesia to atolls scattered in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands or Vanuatu. The most prominent Polynesian languages, in number of speakers, are Tahitian, Samoan, Tongan, Māori and Hawaiian.


title: Polynesian languages

text: The ancestors of modern Polynesians were Lapita navigators, who settled in the Tonga and Samoa areas about 3,000 years ago. Linguists and archaeologists estimate that this first population went through common development during about 1000 years, giving rise to Proto-Polynesian, the linguistic ancestor of all modern Polynesian languages. After that period of shared development, the Proto-Polynesian society split into several descendant populations, as Polynesian navigators scattered around various archipelagoes across the Pacific – some travelling westwards to already populated areas, others navigating eastwards and settling in new territories (Society Islands, Marquesas, Hawaii, New Zealand, Rapa Nui, etc.).


title: Polynesian languages

text: Still today, Polynesian languages show strong similarity, particularly cognate words in their vocabulary; this includes culturally important words such as "tapu", "ariki", "motu", "fenua", "kava", and "tapa" as well as *"sawaiki", the mythical homeland for some of the cultures.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Polynesian languages fall into two branches, Tongic and Nuclear Polynesian. Tongan and Niuean constitute the Tongic branch; all the rest are part of the Nuclear Polynesian branch.


title: Polynesian languages

text: The contemporary classification of the Polynesian languages began with certain observations by Andrew Pawley in 1966 based on shared innovations in phonology, vocabulary and grammar showing that the East Polynesian languages were more closely related to Samoan than they were to Tongan, calling Tongan and its nearby relative Niuean "Tongic" and Samoan and all other Polynesian languages of the study "Nuclear Polynesian".


title: Polynesian languages

text: Previously, there had been only lexicostatistical studies that squarely suggested a "West Polynesian" group composed of at least Tongan and Samoan and that an "East Polynesian" group was equally distant from both Tongan and Samoan. Lexicostatistics is a controversial . Since Pawley's 1966 publication, inferring the ancient relationships of the Polynesian languages and the proofs of shared innovations.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Pawley published another study in 1967. It began the process of extracting relationships from Polynesian languages on small islands in Melanesia, the "Polynesian Outliers", whose languages Pawley was able to trace to East Futuna in the case of those farther south and perhaps to Samoa itself in the case of those more to the north.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Except for some minor differentiation of the East Polynesian tree, further study paused for almost twenty years until Wilson published a study of Polynesian pronominal systems in 1985 suggesting that there was a special relationship between the East Polynesian languages and all other Nuclear Polynesian but for Futunic, and calling that extra-Futunic group the "Ellicean languages". Furthermore, East Polynesian was found to more likely have emerged from extra-Samoan Ellicean than out of Samoa itself, an astonishing suggestion given the long assumption of a Samoan homeland for the origins of East Polynesian. Wilson named this new group "Ellicean" after the pre-independence name of Tuvalu and presented fine-grained evidence for subgroups within that overarching category.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Marck, in 2000, was able to offer some support for some aspects of Wilson's suggestion through comparisons of shared sporadic (irregular, unexpected) sound changes, e. g., Proto-Polynesian and Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian *mafu 'to heal' becoming Proto-Ellicean *mafo. This was made possible by the massive Polynesian language comparative lexicon ("Pollex" – with reconstructions) of Biggs and Clark.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Despite the relative low number of Polynesian languages, and the relative abundance of data already available on many of them, the comparative method was often reduced to comparisons of vocabulary, shared sporadic sound changes and, as Wilson had done in 1985, comparison of pronominal systems, which is perhaps the second most commonly described aspect of "minor" languages often available for comparison after the lexicostatistical lists. Wilson has a forthcoming work providing further evidence of fine grained subgroups within Ellicean and a consideration of other recent work on the matter of Ellicean internal relations. Wilson's new work brings the matter to the approximate limits of current data available, incorporating much data unknown to most other researchers.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Returning to lexicostatistics, it must be emphasised that the method does not make the best possible use of its short word lists of 100 or 200 words. Dyen's massive lexicostatistical study of Austronesian, for instance, showed a great deal of (lexicostatistical) diversity in the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia. This was sometimes on par with the lexicostatistical distance of Taiwan Austronesian languages from other Austronesian including Taiwan Austronesian languages from each other (Taiwan now definitively known to be the homeland of the language family itself). But the low lexicostatistical agreement of many Western Melanesian Oceanic languages with other Oceanic Austronesian can be easily dismissed as of little subgrouping interest because those languages are nevertheless full of diagnostic innovations of Oceanic Austronesian in their sound systems and vocabulary, including many Oceanic lexical innovations found in the 100 and 200 lexicostatistical word lists (and the deadly conclusive evidence of the shared phonological innovations of those low-scoring groups with all other Oceanic Austronesian). The Western Oceanic Melanesian "diversity" of lexicostatistical studies was never of any interest in terms of attributing any special time depth or subgrouping significance to it. They are just languages with accelerated loss of vocabulary, sometimes, in the Western Oceanic case, because they involve certain more ancient peoples of the region shifting to Oceanic speech after Oceanic-speaking peoples arrived.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Partly because Polynesian languages split from one another comparatively recently, many words in these languages remain similar to corresponding words in others. The table below demonstrates this with the words for 'sky', 'north wind', 'woman', 'house' and 'parent' in a representative selection of languages: Tongan; Niuean; Samoan; Sikaiana; Takuu; Rapanui language; Tahitian; Cook Islands Māori (Rarotongan); Māori; North Marquesan; South Marquesan; Hawaiian and Mangarevan.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Certain regular correspondences can be noted between different Polynesian languages. For example, the Māori sounds , , , and correspond to , , , and in Hawaiian. Accordingly, "man" is "tangata" in Māori and "kanaka" in Hawaiian, and Māori "roa" "long" corresponds to Hawaiian "loa". The famous Hawaiian greeting "aloha" corresponds to Māori "aroha", "love, tender emotion". Similarly, the Hawaiian word for kava is "awa".


title: Polynesian languages

text: Similarities in basic vocabulary may allow speakers from different island groups to achieve a significant degree of understanding of each other's speech. When a particular language shows unexpectedly large divergence in vocabulary, this may be the result of a name-avoidance taboo situation – see examples in Tahitian, where this has happened often.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Many Polynesian languages have been greatly affected by European colonization. Both Māori and Hawaiian, for example, have lost many speakers to English, and only since the 1990s have they resurged in popularity.


title: Polynesian languages

text: In general, Polynesian languages have three numbers for pronouns and possessives: singular, dual and plural. For example, in Māori: "ia" (he/she), "rāua" (they two), "rātou" (they 3 or more). The words "rua" (2) and "toru" (3) are still discernible in endings of the dual and plural pronouns, giving the impression that the plural was originally a trial (threesome) or paucal (a few), and that an original plural has disappeared.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Polynesian languages have four distinctions in pronouns and possessives: first exclusive, first inclusive, second and third. For example, in Māori, the plural pronouns are: "mātou" (we, exc), "tātou" (we, inc), "koutou" (you), "rātou" (they). The difference between exclusive and inclusive is the treatment of the person addressed. "Mātou" refers to the speaker and others but not the person or persons spoken to (i.e., "I and some others, but not you"), while "tātou" refers to the speaker, the person or persons spoken to, and everyone else (i.e., "You and I and others").


title: Polynesian languages

text: Many Polynesian languages distinguish two possessives. The a-possessives (as they contain that letter in most cases), also known as subjective possessives, refer to possessions that must be acquired by one's own action (alienable possession). The o-possessives or objective possessives refer to possessions that are fixed to someone, unchangeable, and do not necessitate any action on one's part but upon which actions can still be performed by others (inalienable possession). Some words can take either form, often with a difference in meaning. One example is the Samoan word , which takes the o-possessive in (her breast) and the a-possessive in (her breastmilk). Compare also the particles used in the names of two of the books of the Māori Bible: (The Book of Jeremiah) with (The Book of Joshua); the former belongs to Jeremiah in the sense that he was the author, but the Book of Joshua was written by someone else about Joshua. The distinction between one's birth village and one's current residence village can be made similarly.


title: Polynesian languages

text: Written Polynesian languages use orthography based on Latin script. Most Polynesian languages have five vowel qualities, corresponding roughly to those written "i, e, a, o, u" in classical Latin. However, orthographic conventions for phonemes that are not easily encoded in standard Latin script had to develop over time. Influenced by the traditions of orthographies of languages they were familiar with, the missionaries who first developed orthographies for unwritten Polynesian languages did not explicitly mark phonemic vowel length or the glottal stop. By the time that linguists trained in more modern methods made their way to the Pacific, at least for the major languages, the Bible was already printed according to the orthographic system developed by the missionaries, and the people had learned to read and write without marking vowel length or the glottal stop.


title: Polynesian languages

text: This situation persists in many languages. Despite efforts at reform by local academies, the general conservative resistance to orthographic change has led to varying results in Polynesian languages, and several writing variants co-exist. The most common method, however, uses a macron to indicate a long vowel, while a vowel without that diacritical mark is short, for example, ā versus a. Sometimes, a long vowel is written double, e.g. "Maaori".


title: Polynesian languages

text: The glottal stop (not present in all Polynesian languages, but, where present, one of the most common consonants) is indicated by an apostrophe, for example, 'a versus a. Hawaiʻian uses the ʻokina, also called by several other names, a unicameral consonant letter used within the Latin script to mark the phonemic glottal stop. It is also used in many other Polynesian languages, each of which has its own name for the character. Apart from the ʻokina or the somewhat similar Tahitian ʻeta, a common method is to change the simple apostrophe for a curly one, taking a normal apostrophe for the elision and the inverted comma for the glottal stop. The latter method has come into common use in Polynesian languages.


title: George Blake

text: George Blake ( Behar; 11 November 1922 – 26 December 2020) was a spy with Britain's Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) and worked as a double agent for the Soviet Union. He became a communist and decided to work for the MGB while a prisoner during the Korean War. Discovered in 1961 and sentenced to 42 years in prison, he escaped from Wormwood Scrubs prison in west London in 1966 and fled to the Soviet Union. He was not one of the Cambridge Five spies, although he associated with Donald Maclean and Kim Philby after reaching the Soviet Union.


title: George Blake

text: George Blake was born George Behar in Rotterdam, the Netherlands in 1922. He was the son of a Protestant Dutch mother, Catherine (née Beijderwellen), and an Egyptian father of Sephardi Jewish origin who was a naturalised British subject. He was named George after George V of the United Kingdom. His father, Albert Behar, served in the British Army during the First World War. While Albert received the Meritorious Service Medal, he embellished his war service when recounting it to his wife and children, and concealed his Jewish background until his death. The Behars lived a comfortable existence in the Netherlands until Albert's death in 1936. The thirteen-year-old Behar was sent to live with a wealthy aunt in Egypt, where he continued his education at the English School in Cairo. He later attended Downing College, Cambridge, to study Russian.


title: George Blake

text: While in Cairo, he was close to his cousin Henri Curiel, who was later to become a leader of the Communist Democratic Movement for National Liberation in Egypt. In 1991, Blake said that his encounter with Curiel, who was a decade older and already a Marxist, shaped his views in later life.


title: George Blake

text: When the Second World War broke out, Behar was back in the Netherlands. In 1940, Germany invaded and quickly defeated the Dutch military. Behar was interned but released because he was only 17, and joined the Dutch resistance as a courier. In 1942, he escaped from the Netherlands and travelled to Britain via Spain and Gibraltar, reaching London in January 1943. There, he was reunited with his mother and his sisters, who had fled at the start of the war. In 1943, his mother decided to change the family name from Behar to Blake.


title: George Blake

text: After he reached Britain, Blake joined the Royal Navy as a sub-lieutenant before being recruited by the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) in 1944. For the rest of the war, Blake was employed in the Dutch Section. He intended to marry an MI6 secretary, Iris Peake, but her family prevented the marriage because of Blake's Jewish background and the relationship ended. In 1946, he was posted to Hamburg and put in charge of the interrogation of German U-boat captains. In 1947, the Navy sent Blake to study languages, including Russian, at Downing College, Cambridge, where his fellow students included the future foreign policy analyst Michael MccGwire. He was posted thereafter to the British legation in Seoul, South Korea, under Vyvyan Holt, arriving on 6 November 1948. Under cover as a vice-consul, Blake's mission was to gather intelligence on Communist North Korea, Communist China, and the Soviet Far East.


title: George Blake

text: The Korean War broke out on 25 June 1950, and Seoul was quickly captured by the advancing Korean People's Army of the North. After British forces joined the United Nations Command defending the South, Blake and the other British diplomats were taken prisoner. As the tide of the war turned, Blake and the others were taken north, first to Pyongyang and then to the Yalu River. After seeing the bombing of North Korea, and after reading the works of Karl Marx and others during his three-year detention, he became a communist.


title: George Blake

text: At a secret meeting arranged with his guards, he volunteered to work for the Soviet Union's spy service, the MGB. In an interview, Blake was once asked: "Is there one incident that triggered your decision to effectively change sides?" Blake responded:


title: George Blake

text: It was the relentless bombing of small Korean villages by enormous American Flying Fortresses. Women and children and old people, because the young men were in the army. We might have been victims ourselves. It made me feel ashamed of belonging to these overpowering, technically superior countries fighting against what seemed to me defenceless people. I felt I was on the wrong side ... that it would be better for humanity if the Communist system prevailed, that it would put an end to war.


title: George Blake

text: However, in his first ever interview in 1990 with Tom Bower for 'The Confession', a BBC TV documentary, Blake said that he had been tempted towards communism during his Russian course in Cambridge while serving with MI6, and had been finally convinced while reading Karl Marx's "Das Kapital" during his imprisonment in North Korea.


title: George Blake

text: Following his release in 1953, Blake returned to Britain as a hero, landing at RAF Abingdon. In October 1954, he married MI6 secretary Gillian Allan in St Mark's Church (North Audley Street) in London. In 1955, he was sent by MI6 to work as a case officer in Berlin, where his task was to recruit Soviet officers as double agents. But he also informed his KGB contacts of the details of British and American operations, including Operation Gold, in which a tunnel into East Berlin was used to tap telephone lines used by the Soviet military. In order to protect Blake from exposure, the Soviet decided not to "discover" the tunnel until it had been in operation for nearly a year. According to the author of a 2019 book about the operation, the Soviets "value[d] Blake so much, they fear[ed] his exposure more than they fear[ed] a breach of their secrets".


title: George Blake

text: In the course of nine years, Blake is said to have betrayed details of some forty MI6 agents to the KGB, destroying most of MI6's operations in Eastern Europe, although this remains unsubstantiated. Blake later said of this: "I don't know what I handed over because it was so much." In the same TV interview, Blake claimed to have betrayed 500 British agents. In 1959 Blake became aware of a Central Intelligence Agency mole inside GRU, and was possibly instrumental in exposing P. S. Popov, who was executed in 1960.


title: George Blake

text: Although Blake's espionage during the Cold War is famous and has regularly been pored over, it has been in a less detailed way than the Cambridge Five spy ring, because "Blake was never part of this [elite] class-ridden inner circle", according to an article by "The Guardian"


title: George Blake

text: after Blake's death. "Born in Rotterdam to a Dutch mother and an Egyptian Jewish father [he] was never considered one of them."


title: George Blake

text: In 1961, Blake fell under suspicion after revelations by Polish defector Michael Goleniewski and others. He was arrested when he arrived in London after being summoned from Lebanon, where he had been enrolled at the Middle East Centre for Arabic Studies (MECAS). Three days into his interrogation, Blake denied he was tortured or blackmailed by the North Koreans. Without thinking about what he was saying, he stated that he had switched sides voluntarily. He then gave his MI6 interrogators a full confession.


title: George Blake

text: The maximum sentence for any one offence under section 1 of the Official Secrets Act 1911 is 14 years, but his activities were divided into five time periods charged as five offences and, in May 1961 after an "in camera" trial at the Old Bailey, he was sentenced to the maximum term of 14 years consecutively on each of three counts of spying for a potential enemy and 14 years concurrently on both the two remaining counts—a total of 42 years imprisonment—by the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Parker of Waddington. This sentence was reported by newspapers to represent one year for each of the agents who were killed when he betrayed them, although this is dubious. It was the longest non-life sentence ever handed down by a British court.


title: George Blake

text: Five years into his imprisonment in Wormwood Scrubs, Blake escaped with the help of three men he had met in jail, namely Sean Bourke and two anti-nuclear campaigners, Michael Randle and Pat Pottle. The escape was masterminded by Bourke, who first approached Randle only for financial help with the escape. Randle became more involved and suggested they bring Pottle in on the plan as well, as he had suggested springing Blake to Randle in 1962 when they were both still in prison. Their motives for helping Blake to escape were their belief that the 42-year sentence was "inhuman" and because of a personal liking of Blake. Several sources also state that the plan was financed by film director Tony Richardson.


title: George Blake

text: Bourke had smuggled a walkie-talkie to Blake to communicate with him while in jail. On 22 October 1966, Blake broke a window at the end of the corridor where his cell was located. Then between 6 and 7 p.m., while most of the other inmates and guards were at the weekly film showing, Blake climbed through the window, slid down a porch and made his way to the perimeter wall. There, Bourke, who had been released from the jail earlier, threw a rope ladder over the wall. Blake then used it to climb over the wall and they drove off to a safe house. During the escape, Blake fractured his wrist jumping from the perimeter wall, but apart from that it all went according to plan.


title: George Blake

text: After the escape, it became apparent that the safe house was not suitable, as it was a bedsit that was cleaned by the landlady once a week. Blake then spent several days moving between Randle and Pottle's friends' houses, including that of Rev. John Papworth in Earls Court. Subsequently, Blake and Bourke moved in with Pottle, staying with him while preparing to get out of the country. They smuggled Blake across the English Channel in a camper van, then drove across northern Europe and through West Germany to the Helmstedt–Marienborn border crossing. Having safely crossed the border without incident, Blake met his handlers in East Germany and completed his escape to the Soviet Union.


title: George Blake

text: Pottle and Randel were not prosecuted until 1991. Their defence was a claim of moral justification for aiding Blake, whose 42-year sentence they considered to be excessively long and "inhuman". Despite being directed that they must find the men guilty, the jury acquitted them both - an act known as jury nullification in which a jury uses its absolute discretion to find as it sees fit. Bourke was not prosecuted for his role since Ireland refused to extradite him to the United Kingdom to face charges that were political in nature.


title: George Blake

text: In November 1966, his wife Gillian, with whom he had three children, began divorce proceedings against him, and in March 1967 Mr Justice Orr granted a "decree nisi" in Blake's absence, on the grounds that the conviction of a spouse for treason can amount to cruelty or constructive desertion. Custody of their three sons, Anthony, James, and Patrick, was awarded to Gillian. This caused Blake a good deal of grief, though he knew that Gillian would have struggled to settle into life in the Soviet Union.


title: George Blake

text: In 1990, Blake published the autobiography "No Other Choice". The book's British publisher had paid him about £60,000 before the government intervened to stop him profiting from sales. (Eventually, the amount seized by the government totalled £90,000.) He later filed a complaint charging the British government with a human rights violation for taking nine years to decide on his case, and was awarded £5,000 in compensation by the European Court of Human Rights. In 1991, Blake testified by video recording when Randle and Pottle were put on trial for aiding his escape. They were acquitted. In an interview with NBC News in 1991, Blake said he regretted the deaths of the agents he had betrayed.


title: George Blake

text: In a 1992 interview for the programme "As It Happens", aired by Canada's CBC Radio, Blake praised the general concept of communism. He said that he had offered his services to the Soviet Union because he viewed communism as "a great experiment of mankind, to create a more just society, to create, in fact, the kingdom of God in this world". During this discussion, he denied responsibility for the deaths of any British agents, having been assured by the Soviets that none were executed based on the intelligence that he had provided, and stating that he believes they didn't lie. However, according to NPR, "Blake gave up the identities of hundreds of British spies, some of whom were executed."


title: George Blake

text: In the 1992 CNN series Cold War, former KGB general Oleg Kalugin remarked, "George Blake had that innocent mind, in a sense. He's still a very naïve man. He didn't want to know that many people he betrayed were executed. And I think we discussed this subject at one point, and he wouldn't believe it. He would say, 'Well, I was told that this would not happen!' It did happen. He was not told."


title: George Blake

text: Blake later married again in the Soviet Union in 1968 to Ida Mikhailovna Kareyeva with whom he had one child. He also reconciled with his other children. In late 2007, Blake was awarded the Order of Friendship on his 85th birthday by Vladimir Putin. Blake's later book, "Transparent Walls" (2006), was reported by the daily "Vzglyad" ("The View"). Sergei Lebedev, the then director of the Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR) of the Russian Federation, wrote in the book's foreword that despite the book's being devoted to the past, it is about the present as well. He also wrote that Blake, the 85-year-old colonel of foreign intelligence, "still takes an active role in the affairs of the secret service".


title: George Blake

text: In 2012, he celebrated his 90th birthday, still living in Moscow on a KGB pension. His eyesight was failing and he described himself as "virtually blind". He remained a committed Marxist–Leninist. Blake denied being a traitor, insisting that he had never felt British: "To betray, you first have to belong. I never belonged."


title: George Blake

text: Five years later, Blake remained committed to Russia and to communism. In a November 2017 statement, he claimed that its spies now have "the difficult and critical mission" of saving the world "in a situation when the danger of nuclear war and the resulting self-destruction of humankind again have been put on the agenda by irresponsible politicians. It's a true battle between good and evil."


title: George Blake

text: Blake died on 26 December 2020, aged 98, in Moscow. The RIA Novosti news agency first reported Blake's death, citing Russia's SVR foreign intelligence agency. "We received some bitter news—the legendary George Blake passed away," it said. Russian President Vladimir Putin, himself an ex-KGB agent, expressed his "deep condolences" to Blake's family and friends. In a message published on the Kremlin website, the Russian leader noted Blake's "invaluable contribution to ensuring strategic parity and maintaining peace on the planet." Putin also said of Blake, "Colonel Blake was a brilliant professional of special vitality and courage."


title: George Blake

text: The play "Cell Mates" (1995) by Simon Gray is about Blake and Sean Bourke. The original production starred Stephen Fry as Blake and Rik Mayall as Bourke. The production was thrown into turmoil when Fry walked out following a bad review. Alfred Hitchcock planned to make a film, "The Short Night", based on Blake, but died before doing so. In 2015, BBC "Storyville" made a documentary about Blake at the age of 92, which included interviews with Blake. The film was titled "Storyville: Masterspy of Moscow – George Blake". In 2021 the BBC radio play "Breaking Blake" by Barnaby Kay was broadcast. It covers his escape from prison and his flight to a Czechoslovakian border post with East Germany in a camper van's hidden compartment.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: Madison Square Garden (MSG III) was an indoor arena in New York City, the third bearing that name. Built in 1925 and closed in 1968, it was located on the west side of Eighth Avenue between 49th and 50th streets in Manhattan, on the site of the city's trolley-car barns. It was the first Garden that was not located near Madison Square. MSG III was the home of the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League and the New York Knicks of the National Basketball Association, and also hosted numerous boxing matches, the Millrose Games, concerts, and other events. In 1968 it was demolished and its role and name passed to the current Madison Square Garden, which stands at the site of the original Penn Station. One Worldwide Plaza was built on the arena's former 50th Street location.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: the noted theater architect Thomas W. Lamb, it was built at the cost of $4.75 million in 349 days by boxing promoter Tex Rickard, who assembled backers he called his "600 millionaires" to fund the project. The new arena was dubbed "The House That Tex Built." In contrast to the ornate towers of Stanford White's second Garden, the exterior of MSG III was a simple box. Its most distinctive feature was the ornate marquee above the main entrance, with its seemingly endless abbreviations (Tomw., V/S, Rgrs, Tonite, Thru, etc.) Even the name of the arena was abbreviated, to "Madison Sq. Garden".


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: The arena, which opened on December 15, 1925, was by , with seating on three levels, and a maximum capacity of 18,496 spectators for boxing. It had poor sight lines, especially for hockey, and fans sitting virtually anywhere behind the first row of the side balcony could count on having some portion of the ice obstructed. The fact that there was poor ventilation and that smoking was permitted often led to a haze in the upper portions of the Garden.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: In its history, Madison Square Garden III was managed by Rickard, John S. Hammond, William F. Carey, General John Reed Kilpatrick, Ned Irish and Irving Mitchell Felt. It was eventually replaced by the current Madison Square Garden.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: Boxing was Madison Square Garden III's principal claim to fame. The first bout took place on December 8, 1925, a week before the arena's official opening. On January 17, 1941, 23,190 people witnessed Fritzie Zivic's successful welterweight title defense against Henry Armstrong, still the largest crowd for any of the Gardens.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: The New York Rangers, owned by the Garden's owner Tex Rickard, got their name from a play on words involving his name: "Tex's Rangers". However, the Rangers were not the first NHL team to play at the Garden; the New York Americans had begun play in 1925 – and in fact, officially opened the Garden in front of 17,000 by losing to the Montreal Canadiens, 3-1 – Shorty Green of the Americans was the first player to score a goal in the arena. The Americans were so tremendously successful at the gate that Rickard wanted his own team as well. The Rangers were founded in 1926, playing their first game in the Garden on November 16, 1926, and both teams played at the Garden until the Americans suspended operations in 1942 due to World War II. In the meantime, the Rangers had usurped the Americans' commercial success with their own success on the ice, winning three Stanley Cups between 1928 and 1940. The refusal of the Garden's management to allow the resurrection of the Americans after the war was one of the popular theories underlying the Curse of 1940, which supposedly prevented the Rangers from winning the Stanley Cup again until 1994. Another alleged cause of "The Curse" stemmed from then-manager Kilpatrick burning the Garden's mortgage papers in the bowl of the Stanley Cup, as receipts from the 1940 Cup run had allowed the MSG Corporation to pay it off: hockey purists believed that the trophy had been "defiled", thus leading to the Rangers' woes.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: The New York Rovers, a farm team of the Rangers, also played in the Garden on Sunday afternoons, while the Rangers played on Wednesday and Sunday nights. Tommy Lockhart managed the Rovers games and introduced on-ice promotions such as racing model aircraft and bicycles around the arena, figure skating acts Shipstads & Johnson Ice Follies and Sonja Henie, and a skating grizzly bear. The fourth floor of the Garden featured a second sheet of ice, used for public skating, recreational hockey, and as the Rangers' practice facility.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: The first professional basketball game was played in the 50th Street Garden on December 6, 1925, nine days before the arena officially opened. It pitted the Original Celtics against the Washington Palace Five; the Celtics won 35-31. The New York Knicks debuted there in 1946, although if there was an important college game, they played in the 69th Regiment Armory. Thanks to other events being booked in the arena, all their home games during the 1951, 1952 and 1953 NBA Finals were played at the Armory; thus MSG III never hosted an NBA Finals game. MSG III also hosted the NBA All-Star Game in 1954, 1955 and 1968.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: In 1931, a college basketball triple header to raise money for Mayor Jimmy Walker's Unemployment Relief Fund was highly successful. In 1934, Ned Irish began promoting a successful series of college basketball double headers at the Garden featuring a mix of local and national schools. MSG III began hosting the National Invitation Tournament annually in 1938, and hosted seven NCAA men's basketball championship finals between 1943 and 1950. On February 28, 1940, Madison Square Garden hosted the first televised basketball games in a Fordham-Pitt and Georgetown-NYU doubleheader. A point shaving scandal involving games played at the Garden led the NCAA to reduce its use of the Garden, and caused some schools, including 1950 NCAA and NIT Champion City College of New York (CCNY), to be banned from playing at the Garden.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: Capitol Wrestling Corporation—along with its successor, the World Wide Wrestling Federation—promoted professional wrestling at the Garden during its last two decades. Toots Mondt and Jess McMahon owned CWC, which initially promoted tag team wrestling. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Mondt and McMahon were successful at promoting ethnic heroes of Puerto Rican or Italian descent.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: Two especially notable events in wrestling history took place at MSG III. On May 17, 1963, Bruno Sammartino defeated "Nature Boy" Buddy Rogers, via submission, in 48 seconds, to become the second ever WWWF World Heavyweight Champion. On November 19, 1957, the Dr. Jerry Graham & Dick the Bruiser vs. Edouard Carpentier & Argentina Rocca main event led to a race riot involving the largely Italian and Puerto Rican fans of Carpentier and Rocca. After the riot, New York City nearly banned professional wrestling and children under the age of 14 were prohibited from attending.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: From 1925 until 1961, Madison Square Garden hosted the Six Days of New York, an annual six-day racing event of track cycling. Upon its final running, it was the longest-running six days in the world with 73 editions.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: While the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus had debuted at the second Garden in 1919, the third Garden saw large numbers of performances. The circus was so important to the Garden that when the Rangers played in the 1928 Stanley Cup Finals, the team was forced to play all games on the road, which did not prevent the Rangers from winning the series. The circus would continue to perform as often as three times daily throughout the life of the third Garden, repeatedly knocking the Rangers out of the Garden at playoff time.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: The circus acrobatics included acts in the rings as well as on the high wire and trapeze. One dramatic act which was only performed in the Garden, and not taken on the road with the traveling circus, involved Blinc Candlin, a Hudson, New York fireman, who rode his antique 1880s high-wheel bicycle on the high wire every season for over two decades beginning in the 1910s and running well through the 1930s.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: The Garden continued to host The Westminster Kennel Club's annual dog show. This championship is the second longest continuously running U.S. sporting event (behind only the Kentucky Derby).


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: On November 3, 1960, Penn Station's owners Pennsylvania Railroad announced they had sold the air rights to the Madison Square Garden corporation to build a new arena to replace Penn Station's original building. Previously the Madison Square Garden was looking to replace the arena as early as the 1950’s as poor sight lines caused problems for the upper decks. Even though the Rangers play was poor in this time period, they still sold out game after game. Added with the rising popularity of the Knicks, the demand for a new arena was needed. Demolition on Penn Station commenced in 1963 and Madison Square Garden was completed in 1968 with its first event being held in February 12, 1968. Originally the Garden was planned to close down at the end of the summer of 1967 however construction delays prevented that from happening which pushed the opening in February 1968. The final Rangers game was held on February 11, 1968, the game resulted in a 3-3 tie against the Detroit Red Wings. Jean Ratelle was the last player to score a goal in the arena at 19:15 remaining in the third. After the game, a number of former Ranger greats along with players representing other NHL teams of the past 43 years including New York Americans players skated on the ice in a closure ceremony. Two days later, the last event took place in the Garden, the Westminster Dog Show.


title: Madison Square Garden (1925)

text: There were no plans to keep the old Madison Square Garden and demolition commenced in the summer of 1968. It finished in early 1969. When the third Madison Square Garden was torn down, there was a proposal to build the world's tallest building on the site, prompting a major battle in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood where it was located. Ultimately, the debate resulted in strict height restrictions in the area. The space remained a parking lot until 1989 when Worldwide Plaza, designed by David Childs of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, opened on the site of the old Garden.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: MS "Achille Lauro was a cruise ship based in Naples, Italy. Built between 1939 and 1947 as MS "Willem Ruys, a passenger liner for the Rotterdamsche Lloyd, it was hijacked by members of the Palestine Liberation Front in 1985.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: In other incidents, it also suffered two serious collisions (in 1953 with the and in 1975 with the cargo ship "Youseff") and four onboard fires or explosions (in 1965, 1972, 1981, and 1994). In the last of these, in 1994, the ship caught fire and sank in the Indian Ocean off Somalia.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: Ordered in 1938 to replace the aging ships on the Dutch East Indies route, her keel was laid in 1939 at De Schelde shipyard in Vlissingen, Netherlands, for Rotterdamsche Lloyd (now Nedlloyd). Interrupted by World War II and two bombing raids, the ship was finally launched in July 1946, as "Willem Ruys". The ship was named after the grandson of the founder of the Rotterdamsche Lloyd who was taken hostage and shot during the war.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: "Willem Ruys" was completed in late 1947. At that time, the Rotterdamsche Lloyd had been granted a royal prefix in honour of its services during the war. "Willem Ruys" was in length, in beam, had a draught of , and measured 21,119 gross register tons. Eight Sulzer engines drove two propellers. She could accommodate 900 passengers. She featured a superstructure very different from other liners of that era; "Willem Ruys" pioneered low-slung aluminium lifeboats, within the upper-works' flanks. The next ship to adopt this unique arrangement was the in 1961. Today, all cruise ships follow this layout, with fibreglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) used for lifeboat hulls.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: As "Willem Ruys", the ship began her maiden voyage on 5 December 1947. Together with her main competitor and running mate, the MS "Oranje" of the Netherland Line, she became a popular fixture on the Dutch East Indies route. However, when the East Indies gained independence from The Netherlands in 1949, passengers' numbers decreased.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: The future prime minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, travelled aboard "Willem Ruys" as a fresh graduate upon completing his studies in the United Kingdom.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: On 6 January 1953, "Willem Ruys" collided in the Red Sea with running mate , which was heading in the opposite direction. At that time, it was common for passenger ships to pass each other at close range to entertain their passengers. During the (later heavily criticized) abrupt and fast approach of "Oranje", "Willem Ruys" made an unexpected swing to the left, resulting in a collision. "Oranje" badly damaged her bow. Due to the possibility that she would be impounded for safety reasons, she was unable to call at Colombo as scheduled, and went directly to Jakarta. "Willem Ruys" suffered less damage. There was no loss of life involved. Later, it was determined that miscommunication on both ships had caused the collision.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: During 1957, the English diplomat, author and diarist Harold Nicolson and his wife, the author and poet Vita Sackville-West, toured the Far East for two months aboard "Willem Ruys". The voyage is documented in "Journey to Java", his published journal of the trip, which provides a detailed account of first class travel on the vessel in the 1950s.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: After repairs, Royal Rotterdam Lloyd decided to release "Willem Ruys" on the North Atlantic run. First, she was placed on the New York service, and later Canada was included.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: In 1958, the Royal Rotterdamsche Lloyd and the Netherland Line signed a co-operative agreement to create a round-the-world passenger service. The joint fleet would sail under the banner of "The Royal Dutch Mail Ships". Together with "Oranje" and "Johan van Oldenbarneveldt", "Willem Ruys" underwent an extensive refit to prepare her for this new service. She made two charter trips to Montreal for the Europa-Canada service. Then, from 20 September 1958, until 25 February 1959, she underwent a major facelift at the Wilton-Fijenoord shipyard in Amsterdam, turning her from a passenger liner into a cruise ship. Her original four class distinctions became First and Tourist Class. A hundred new cabins were installed and air-conditioning was extended throughout all accommodations. The Javanese crew members were replaced by Europeans, who required upgraded crew accommodation. Externally, she was fitted with a new glazing in Tourist Class Wintergarden, her forward funnel was heightened and stabilizers were fitted. "Willem Ruys" was now able to accommodate 275 first class and 770 tourist class passengers, although there were many interchangeable cabins which had additional berths fitted, which could increase the maximum passenger number to 1167. Her new specifications would see her tonnage increase from 21,119 to 23,114 gross register ton.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: On 7 March 1959, "Willem Ruys" went off on her new world service to Australia and New Zealand. She departed from Rotterdam, sailing via Southampton, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, Fremantle, Melbourne, Sydney, New Zealand, returning via the Panama Canal. The Royal Dutch Mail Ships ("Willem Ruys", "Johan van Oldenbarnevelt" and "Oranje") became a popular alternative to the British liners.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: At the end of 1964, due to a strong drop in passenger numbers, "Willem Ruys" was laid up in Rotterdam and put up for sale.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: In 1965, she was sold to the Flotta Lauro Line and renamed "Achille Lauro" after the company's owner. She was extensively rebuilt and modernized after an August 1965 onboard explosion, and entered service in 1966 carrying passengers to Sydney, Australia. The ship played a role in evacuating the families of British servicemen caught up in unrest in Aden, and made one of the last northbound transits through the Suez Canal before its closure during the Six-Day War.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: "Achille Lauro" was converted to a cruise ship in early 1972, during which time she suffered a disastrous fire. A 1975 collision with the cargo ship "Youseff" resulted in the sinking of the latter, and another onboard fire in 1981 took her out of service for a time. She was laid up in Tenerife when Lauro Lines went bankrupt in 1982. The Chandris Line took possession of her under a charter arrangement in 1985, shortly before the hijacking.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: On 7 October 1985, four members of the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) took control of the liner off Egypt as she was sailing from Alexandria to Port Said. Holding the passengers and crew hostage, they directed the vessel to sail to Tartus, Syria, and demanded the release of 50 Palestinians then in Israeli prisons. After being refused permission to dock at Tartus, the hijackers killed disabled Jewish-American passenger Leon Klinghoffer and then threw his body overboard.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: The ship then headed back towards Port Said, and after two days of negotiations, the hijackers agreed to abandon the liner in exchange for safe conduct and were flown towards Tunisia aboard an Egyptian commercial airliner. This airliner, however, was intercepted by US Navy F-14 Tomcats and directed to land in Sicily. There, the United States Delta Force unsuccessfully attempted to extract the hijackers in order to try them in the United States, thereby causing the Sigonella Crisis. The four terrorists were ultimately sentenced to prison terms by the Italian courts, while the operation's mastermind, who had not taken part in the actual hijacking, was given passage to Yugoslavia and escaped.


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: The ship continued in service. She was re-flagged in 1989 when the Lauro Line was taken over by the Mediterranean Shipping Company to become "StarLauro".


title: MS Achille Lauro

text: In the evening of 30 November 1994 she caught fire off the coast of Somalia while "en route" to South Africa, with 979 passengers and crew aboard. At that time, Italian officials said the fire had been caused by a discarded cigarette. Later analysis suggests that the fire started in the engine room after one of the crankcases exploded which allowed cooling oil to get into the exhaust. Because of a lack of supervision, the fire burned out of control before its discovery. The crew battled the fire for several hours which was unsuccessful: first with hoses and then passing buckets from the swimming pool, and entertainer Moss Hills (who led rescue efforts during the sinking of MTS "Oceanos" in 1991) recalled that pouring water upon an oil fire was ineffective while making the conflagration worse. The vessel was abandoned in the morning after developing a list. A small number of crew and passengers were unable to board the main lifeboats due to flames coming up from the hull, so they climbed down a rope ladder from the stern to reach inflatable boats. Two died and eight were wounded during the evacuation and transfer to rescue ships. Among the ships that responded to the call were "USS Gettysburg" and . "Achille Lauro" sank on 2 December 1994, which was witnessed by a fire tugboat that had arrived to assess salvageability. The wreck has not been located.


title: Levomethamphetamine

text: Levomethamphetamine is the levorotatory (L-enantiomer) form of methamphetamine. Levomethamphetamine is a sympathomimetic vasoconstrictor that is the active ingredient in some over-the-counter (OTC) nasal decongestant inhalers in the United States.


title: Levomethamphetamine

text: Levomethamphetamine crosses the blood-brain-barrier and acts as a TAAR1 agonist, functioning as a selective norepinephrine releasing agent (with few or no effects on the release of dopamine), so it affects the central nervous system, although its effects are qualitatively distinct relative to those of dextromethamphetamine. It does not possess the potential for euphoria or addiction that dextromethamphetamine possesses. Among its physiological effects are the vasoconstriction that makes it useful for nasal decongestion. The elimination half-life of levomethamphetamine is between 13.3 and 15 hours, whereas dextromethamphetamine has a half-life of about 10.5 hours.


title: Levomethamphetamine

text: Levomethamphetamine is an active metabolite of the antiparkinson's drug selegiline. Selegiline, a selective monoamine oxidase B (MAO) inhibitor at low doses, is also metabolized into levomethamphetamine and levoamphetamine. This has caused users to test positive for amphetamines.


title: Levomethamphetamine

text: Selegiline itself has neuroprotective and neuro-rescuing effects, but concern over the resulting levomethamphetamine's neurotoxicity led to development of alternative MAO inhibitors, such as rasagiline, that do not produce toxic metabolites.


title: Levomethamphetamine

text: When the nasal decongestant is taken in excess, levomethamphetamine has potential side effects resembling those of other sympathomimetic drugs; these effects include hypertension (elevated blood pressure), tachycardia (rapid heart rate), nausea, stomach cramps, dizziness, headache, sweating, muscle tension, and tremors. Central side effects may include anxiety, insomnia, and loss of appetite.


title: Levomethamphetamine

text: In a study of psychoactive effects of levomethamphetamine, the intravenous administration of 0.5 mg/kg (but not 0.25 mg/kg) in recreational methamphetamine users produced scores of "drug liking" similar to racemic methamphetamine, but the effects were shorter lived. The study did not test the oral administration of levomethamphetamine. As of 2006, there were no studies demonstrating "drug liking" scores of oral levomethamphetamine that are similar to racemic methamphetamine or dextromethamphetamine in either recreational users or medicinal users.


title: Levomethamphetamine

text: Levomethamphetamine can register on urine drug screens as either methamphetamine, amphetamine, or both, depending on the subject's metabolism and dosage. L-methamphetamine metabolizes completely into L-amphetamine after a period of time.