title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: The general requirements of a good electrolyte for PEMFCs are: high proton conductivity (>10 S/cm for practical applications) to enable proton transport between electrodes, good chemical and thermal stability under fuel cell operating conditions (environmental humidity, variable temperatures, resistance to poisonous species, etc.), low cost, ability to be processed into thin-films, and overall compatibility with other cell components. While polymeric materials are currently the preferred choice of proton-conducting membrane, they require humidification for adequate performance and can sometimes physically degrade due to hydrations effects, thereby causing losses of efficiency. As mentioned, Nafion is also limited by a dehydration temperature of < 100 °C, which can lead to slower reaction kinetics, poor cost efficiency, and CO poisoning of Pt electrode catalysts. Conversely, MOFs have shown encouraging proton conductivities in both low and high temperature regimes as well as over a wide range of humidity conditions. Below 100 °C and under hydration, the presence of hydrogen bonding and solvent water molecules aid in proton transport, whereas anhydrous conditions are suitable for temperatures above 100 °C. MOFs also have the distinct advantage of exhibiting proton conductivity by the framework itself in addition to the inclusion of charge carries (i.e., water, acids, etc.) into their pores.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: A low temperature example is work by Kitagawa, et al. who used a two-dimensional oxalate-bridged anionic layer framework as the host and introduced ammonium cations and adipic acid molecules into the pores to increase proton concentration. The result was one of the first instances of a MOF showing “superprotonic” conductivity (8 × 10 S/cm) at 25 °C and 98% relative humidity (RH). They later found that increasing the hydrophilic nature of the cations introduced into the pores could enhance proton conductivity even more. In this low temperature regime that is dependent on degree of hydration, it has also been shown that proton conductivity is heavily dependent on humidity levels.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: A high temperature anhydrous example is PCMOF2, which consists of sodium ions coordinated to a trisulfonated benzene derivative. To improve performance and allow for higher operating temperatures, water can be replaced as the proton carrier by less volatile imidazole or triazole molecules within the pores. The maximum temperature achieved was 150 °C with an optimum conductivity of 5 × 10 S/cm, which is lower than other current electrolyte membranes. However, this model holds promise for its temperature regime, anhydrous conditions, and ability to control the quantity of guest molecules within the pores, all of which allowed for the tunability of proton conductivity. Additionally, the triazole-loaded PCMOF2 was incorporated into a H/air membrane-electrode assembly and achieved an open circuit voltage of 1.18 V at 100 °C that was stable for 72 hours and managed to remain gas tight throughout testing. This was the first instance that proved MOFs could actually be implemented into functioning fuel cells, and the moderate potential difference showed that fuel crossover due to porosity was not an issue.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: To date, the highest proton conductivity achieved for a MOF electrolyte is 4.2 × 10 S/cm at 25 °C under humid conditions (98% RH), which is competitive with Nafion. Some recent experiments have even successfully produced thin-film MOF membranes instead of the traditional bulk samples or single crystals, which is crucial for their industrial applicability. Once MOFs are able to consistently achieve sufficient conductivity levels, mechanical strength, water stability, and simple processing, they have the potential to play an important role in PEMFCs in the near future.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: MOFs have also been targeted as potential replacements of platinum group metal (PGM) materials for electrode catalysts, although this research is still in the early stages of development. In PEMFCs, the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the Pt cathode is significantly slower than the fuel oxidation reaction at the anode, and thus non-PGM and metal-free catalysts are being investigated as alternatives. The high volumetric density, large pore surface areas, and openness of metal-ion sites in MOFs make them ideal candidates for catalyst precursors. Despite promising catalytic abilities, the durability of these proposed MOF-based catalysts is currently less than desirable and the ORR mechanism in this context is still not completely understood.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Much of the current research on catalysts for PEM fuel cells can be classified as having one of the following main objectives:


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: As mentioned above, platinum is by far the most effective element used for PEM fuel cell catalysts, and nearly all current PEM fuel cells use platinum particles on porous carbon supports to catalyze both hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction. However, due to their high cost, current Pt/C catalysts are not feasible for commercialization. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that platinum-based catalysts will need to use roughly four times less platinum than is used in current PEM fuel cell designs in order to represent a realistic alternative to internal combustion engines. Consequently, one main goal of catalyst design for PEM fuel cells is to increase the catalytic activity of platinum by a factor of four so that only one-fourth as much of the precious metal is necessary to achieve similar performance.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: One method of increasing the performance of platinum catalysts is to optimize the size and shape of the platinum particles. Decreasing the particles’ size alone increases the total surface area of catalyst available to participate in reactions per volume of platinum used, but recent studies have demonstrated additional ways to make further improvements to catalytic performance. For example, one study reports that high-index facets of platinum nanoparticles (that is Miller indexes with large integers, such as Pt (730)) provide a greater density of reactive sites for oxygen reduction than typical platinum nanoparticles.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Since the most common and effective catalyst, platinum, is extremely expensive, alternative processing is necessary to maximize surface area and minimize loading. Deposition of nanosized Pt particles onto carbon powder (Pt/C) provides a large Pt surface area while the carbon allows for electrical connection between the catalyst and the rest of the cell. Platinum is so effective because it has high activity and bonds to the hydrogen just strongly enough to facilitate electron transfer but not inhibit the hydrogen from continuing to move around the cell. However, platinum is less active in the cathode oxygen reduction reaction. This necessitates the use of more platinum, increasing the cell's expense and thus feasibility. Many potential catalyst choices are ruled out because of the extreme acidity of the cell.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: The most effective ways of achieving the nanoscale Pt on carbon powder, which is currently the best option, are through vacuum deposition, sputtering, and electrodeposition. The platinum particles are deposited onto carbon paper that is permeated with PTFE. However, there is an optimal thinness to this catalyst layer, which limits the lower cost limit. Below 4 nm, Pt will form islands on the paper, limiting its activity. Above this thickness, the Pt will coat the carbon and be an effective catalyst. To further complicate things, Nafion cannot be infiltrated beyond 10 um, so using more Pt than this is an unnecessary expense. Thus the amount and shape of the catalyst is limited by the constraints of other materials.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: A second method of increasing the catalytic activity of platinum is to alloy it with other metals. For example, it was recently shown that the PtNi(111) surface has a higher oxygen reduction activity than pure Pt(111) by a factor of ten. The authors attribute this dramatic performance increase to modifications to the electronic structure of the surface, reducing its tendency to bond to oxygen-containing ionic species present in PEM fuel cells and hence increasing the number of available sites for oxygen adsorption and reduction.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Further efficiencies can be realized using an Ultrasonic nozzle to apply the platinum catalyst to the electrolyte layer or to carbon paper under atmospheric conditions resulting in high efficiency spray. Studies have shown that due to the uniform size of the droplets created by this type of spray, due to the high transfer efficiency of the technology, due to the non-clogging nature of the nozzle and finally due to the fact that the ultrasonic energy de-agglomerates the suspension just before atomization, fuel cells MEA's manufactured this way have a greater homogeneity in the final MEA, and the gas flow through the cell is more uniform, maximizing the efficiency of the platinum in the MEA.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Recent studies using inkjet printing to deposit the catalyst over the membrane have also shown high catalyst utilization due to the reduced thickness of the deposited catalyst layers.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Very recently, a new class of ORR electrocatalysts have been introduced in the case of Pt-M (M-Fe and Co) systems with an ordered intermetallic core encapsulated within a Pt-rich shell. These intermetallic core-shell (IMCS) nanocatalysts were found to exhibit an enhanced activity and most importantly, an extended durability compared to many previous designs. While the observed enhancement in the activities is ascribed to a strained lattice, the authors report that their findings on the degradation kinetics establish that the extended catalytic durability is attributable to a sustained atomic order.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: The other popular approach to improving catalyst performance is to reduce its sensitivity to impurities in the fuel source, especially carbon monoxide (CO). Presently, pure hydrogen gas is becoming economical to mass-produce by electrolysis. However, at the moment most hydrogen gas is produced by steam reforming light hydrocarbons, a process which produces a mixture of gases that also contains CO (1–3%), CO (19–25%), and N (25%). Even tens of parts per million of CO can poison a pure platinum catalyst, so increasing platinum's resistance to CO is an active area of research.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: For example, one study reported that cube-shaped platinum nanoparticles with (100) facets displayed a fourfold increase in oxygen reduction activity compared to randomly faceted platinum nanoparticles of similar size. The authors concluded that the (111) facets of the randomly shaped nanoparticles bonded more strongly to sulfate ions than the (100) facets, reducing the number of catalytic sites open to oxygen molecules. The nanocubes they synthesized, in contrast, had almost exclusively (100) facets, which are known to interact with sulfate more weakly. As a result, a greater fraction of the surface area of those particles was available for the reduction of oxygen, boosting the catalyst's oxygen reduction activity.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: In addition, researchers have been investigating ways of reducing the CO content of hydrogen fuel before it enters a fuel cell as a possible way to avoid poisoning the catalysts. One recent study revealed that ruthenium-platinum core–shell nanoparticles are particularly effective at oxidizing CO to form CO, a much less harmful fuel contaminant. The mechanism that produces this effect is conceptually similar to that described for PtNi above: the ruthenium core of the particle alters the electronic structure of the platinum surface, rendering it better able to catalyze the oxidation of CO.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: The challenge for the viability of PEM fuel cells today still remains in their cost and stability. The high cost can in large part be attributed to the use of the precious metal of platinum in the catalyst layer of PEM cells. The electrocatalyst currently accounts for nearly half of the fuel cell stack cost. Although the Pt loading of PEM fuel cells has been reduced by two orders of magnitude over the past decade, further reduction is necessary to make the technology economically viable for commercialization. Whereas some research efforts aim to address this issue by improving the electrocatalytic activity of Pt-based catalysts, an alternative is to eliminate the use of Pt altogether by developing a non-platinum-group-metal (non-PGM) cathode catalyst whose performance rivals that of Pt-based technologies. The U.S. Department of Energy has been setting milestones for the development of fuel cells, targeting a durability of 5000 hours and a non-PGM catalyst ORR volumetric activity of 300 A cm.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Promising alternatives to Pt-based catalysts are Metal/Nitrogen/ Carbon-catalysts (M/N/C-catalysts). To achieve high power density, or output of power over surface area of the cell, a volumetric activity of at least 1/10 that of Pt-based catalysts must be met, along with good mass transport properties. While M/N/C-catalysts still demonstrate poorer volumetric activities than Pt-based catalysts, the reduced costs of such catalysts allows for greater loading to compensate. However, increasing the loading of M/N/C-catalysts also renders the catalytic layer thicker, impairing its mass transport properties. In other words, H, O, protons, and electrons have greater difficulty in migrating through the catalytic layer, decreasing the voltage output of the cell. While high microporosity of the M/N/C catalytic network results in high volumetric activity, improved mass transport properties are instead associated to macroporosity of the network. These M/N/C materials are synthesized using high temperature pyrolysis and other high temperature treatments of precursors containing the metal, nitrogen, and carbon.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Recently, researchers have developed a Fe/N/C catalyst derived from iron (II) acetate (FeAc), phenanthroline (Phen), and a metal-organic-framework (MOF) host. The MOF is a Zn(II) zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF) called ZIF-8, which demonstrates a high microporous surface area and high nitrogen content conducive to ORR activity. The power density of the FeAc/Phen/ZIF-8-catalyst was found to be 0.75 W cm at 0.6 V. This value is a significant improvement over the maximal 0.37 W cm power density of previous M/N/C-catalysts and is much closer to matching the typical value of 1.0–1.2 W cm for Pt-based catalysts with a Pt loading of 0.3 mg cm. The catalyst also demonstrated a volumetric activity of 230 A·cm, the highest value for non-PGM catalysts to date, approaching the U.S. Department of Energy milestone.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: While the power density achieved by the novel FeAc/Phen/ZIF-8-catalyst is promising, its durability remains inadequate for commercial application. It is reported that the best durability exhibited by this catalyst still had a 15% drop in current density over 100 hours in H/air. Hence while the Fe-based non-PGM catalysts rival Pt-based catalysts in their electrocatalytic activity, there is still much work to be done in understanding their degradation mechanisms and improving their durability.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: The major application of PEM fuel cells focuses on transportation primarily because of their potential impact on the environment, e.g. the control of emission of the green house gases (GHG). Other applications include distributed/stationary and portable power generation. Most major motor companies work solely on PEM fuel cells due to their high power density and excellent dynamic characteristics as compared with other types of fuel cells. Due to their light weight, PEMFCs are most suited for transportation applications. PEMFCs for buses, which use compressed hydrogen for fuel, can operate at up to 40% efficiency. Generally PEMFCs are implemented on buses over smaller cars because of the available volume to house the system and store the fuel. Technical issues for transportation involve incorporation of PEMs into current vehicle technology and updating energy systems. Full fuel cell vehicles are not advantageous if hydrogen is sourced from fossil fuels; however, they become beneficial when implemented as hybrids. There is potential for PEMFCs to be used for stationary power generation, where they provide 5 kW at 30% efficiency; however, they run into competition with other types of fuel cells, mainly SOFCs and MCFCs. Whereas PEMFCs generally require high purity hydrogen for operation, other fuel cell types can run on methane and are thus more flexible systems. Therefore, PEMFCs are best for small scale systems until economically scalable pure hydrogen is available. Furthermore, PEMFCs have the possibility of replacing batteries for portable electronics, though integration of the hydrogen supply is a technical challenge particularly without a convenient location to store it within the device.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Before the invention of PEM fuel cells, existing fuel cell types such as solid-oxide fuel cells were only applied in extreme conditions. Such fuel cells also required very expensive materials and could only be used for stationary applications due to their size. These issues were addressed by the PEM fuel cell. The PEM fuel cell was invented in the early 1960s by Willard Thomas Grubb and Leonard Niedrach of General Electric. Initially, sulfonated polystyrene membranes were used for electrolytes, but they were replaced in 1966 by Nafion ionomer, which proved to be superior in performance and durability to sulfonated polystyrene.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: PEM fuel cells were used in the NASA Gemini series of spacecraft, but they were replaced by Alkaline fuel cells in the Apollo program and in the Space Shuttle. General Electric continued working on PEM cells and in the mid-1970s developed PEM water electrolysis technology for undersea life support, leading to the US Navy Oxygen Generating Plant. The British Royal Navy adopted this technology in early 1980s for their submarine fleet. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Los Alamos National Lab and Texas A&M University experimented with ways to reduce the amount of platinum required for PEM cells.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Parallel with Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, General Electric developed the first proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) for the Gemini space missions in the early 1960s. The first mission to use PEMFCs was Gemini V. However, the Apollo space missions and subsequent Apollo-Soyuz, Skylab and Space Shuttle missions used fuel cells based on Bacon's design, developed by Pratt and Whitney Aircraft.


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Extremely expensive materials were used and the fuel cells required very pure hydrogen and oxygen. Early fuel cells tended to require inconveniently high operating temperatures that were a problem in many applications. However, fuel cells were seen to be desirable due to the large amounts of fuel available (hydrogen and oxygen).


title: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

text: Despite their success in space programs, fuel cell systems were limited to space missions and other special applications, where high cost could be tolerated. It was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s that fuel cells became a real option for wider application base. Several pivotal innovations, such as low platinum catalyst loading and thin film electrodes, drove the cost of fuel cells down, making development of PEMFC systems more realistic. However, there is significant debate as to whether hydrogen fuel cells will be a realistic technology for use in automobiles or other vehicles. (See hydrogen economy.) A large part of PEMFC production is for the Toyota Mirai. The US Department of Energy estimates a 2016 price at $53/kW if 500,000 units per year were made.


title: Lee Garlington

text: She has guest starred in a number of notable television series, including "The West Wing", "7th Heaven", "8 Simple Rules", "", "Judging Amy", "Will & Grace", "Matlock", "L.A. Law", "The Practice", "Quantum Leap," "Home Improvement", "Boston Legal", "Roseanne", "Get a Life", "Coach", "Profiler", "Medium", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Two and a Half Men", "Lie to Me" and among other series. She also played the part of Kirsten, Rose Nylund's (Betty White) daughter in the final season of "The Golden Girls" and Ronni, the mistress of Joey Tribbiani's father on "Friends". From 2002 to 2005, she had a recurring role as Brenda Baxworth on "Everwood". She was one of the stars of the series "Lenny".


title: Lee Garlington

text: Garlington also appeared in the sequels to Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho", "Psycho II" (1983) and "Psycho III" (1986). She starred alongside Sylvester Stallone and Brigitte Nielsen in the action/thriller "Cobra" (1986). In "Sneakers" (1992), she appeared as Dr. Elena Rhyzkov, a Czechoslovakian mathematics scientist, in a scene with Robert Redford.


title: Lee Garlington

text: Garlington was originally intended to play the lead female role in "Seinfeld". She was the female regular in the pilot episode, "The Seinfeld Chronicles", playing the waitress Claire at Pete's Luncheonette. When the series was picked up, however, it was decided that having the female lead be from such a different social status compared to the rest of the cast would be unworkable, so the character of Claire was dropped and replaced by Elaine Benes.


title: Lee Garlington

text: In 2018, Garlington received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Short Form Comedy or Drama Series for her role as Darlene in "Broken".


title: Serena Williams career statistics

text: Williams has won an Open Era record 23 Grand Slam singles titles. To win those titles, she has beaten 12 different players who have been ranked No. 1, including her sister, Venus Williams, seven times. She is also one of only two players in the Open Era to have won each major three or more times.


title: Serena Williams career statistics

text: Serena and Venus are the only doubles team to win their first 14 Grand Slam doubles finals and have never lost a Grand Slam doubles final.


title: Serena Williams career statistics

text: Williams's record against players who have been ranked in the top 10. She has recorded wins against 22 of the other 26 women who have been ranked No. 1 in history, the other 4 players retired before her professional career began in 1995.


title: Serena Williams career statistics

text: Williams has a record against players who were, at the time the match was played, ranked in the top 10.


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: The American Institute in Taiwan (AIT; ) is the "de facto" Embassy of the United States of America in Taiwan. The AIT institution is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the federal government of the United States in Taiwan with Congressional oversight. The AIT was officially created as a U.S. government-sponsored non-profit, private corporation established under the auspices of the U.S. government to serve its interests in Taiwan. Primarily staffed by employees of the United States Department of State and local workers, the AIT provides consular services normally offered by United States diplomatic missions, with the Great Seal of the State Department hung at AIT's main office in Taipei. The establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1979 required acknowledgment of the "one-China policy" and subsequent termination of diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan). The AIT now serves to assist and protect U.S. interests in Taiwan in a quasi-official manner, and also processes US visas and provides consular services to U.S. expatriates. Following the swift passage of the 2018 Taiwan Travel Act by the United States, it now serves as a high-level representative bureau on behalf of United States in Taiwan. It receives full protection from the United States Marine Corps as do all US embassies.


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: American Institute in Taiwan Kaohsiung Branch Office is a division of the AIT institution located in southern Taiwan.


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: AIT is a non-profit corporation incorporated in the District of Columbia on 16 January 1979 after the US established full diplomatic relations with the PRC on January 1, 1979. This model, with an alternative form of American representative office established in Taiwan after the diplomatic relations were severed, was based on the AIT's Japanese counterpart stationed in Taipei since 1972, and was therefore referred to as the .


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: Following the authorization of the Taiwan Relations Act, the Department of State, through a semi-official contract with AIT, provides guidance and some funding in its operations. Like other U.S. missions abroad, AIT is staffed by employees of the Department of State and other agencies of the United States, as well as by locally hired staff. Prior to a 2002 amendment to the Foreign Service Act (Section 503 of the Foreign Service Act of 1980, as amended by the Department of State Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 2003), United States government employees were required to resign from government service for their period of assignment to AIT. According to Section 12 (a) of the Taiwan Relations Act, agreements conducted by AIT have to be reported to Congress, just as other international agreements concluded by United States and governments with which it has diplomatic relations. Thus, while relations between the US and Taiwan through AIT are conducted on an informal basis, the US government still treats the relationship within the same confines as with other states with formal diplomatic relations.


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: AIT has a small headquarters office in Arlington County, Virginia with its largest office located in Taipei, Taiwan. The organization also has a branch office in Taiwan's strategic southern port city of Kaohsiung. These three bureaus are referred to as AIT/Washington (AIT/W), AIT/Taipei (AIT/T) and AIT/Kaohsiung (AIT/K), respectively.


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: The AIT office complex at No. 100 Jin Hu Road, Neihu District, Taipei, was inaugurated in 2019. AIT/Taipei was previously located in the Daan District on the former site of the U.S. Military Advisory Group headquarters before 1979.


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: For the purposes of remuneration and benefits, directors of the AIT hold the same rank as ambassador and, in Taiwan, are accorded diplomatic privileges in their capacity as directors.


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: A new $250 million compound for the American Institute in Taiwan was unveiled in June 2018, accompanied by a "low-key" U.S. delegation and several mid-level diplomats. According to the AIT the new complex represents "the United State's brick-and-mortar commitment to Taiwan."


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: In 2019 director Christensen buried a time capsule at the new AIT complex in Neihu. The time capsule is not to be unearthed for 50 years.


title: American Institute in Taiwan

text: The Political Section, originally known as the General Affairs Section (GAS), is led by a chief which is similar to a political counselor in other embassies.


title: Swaraj Party

text: The Swaraj Party, established as the "Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party", was a political party formed in India on 1 January 1923 after the Gaya annual conference in December 1922 of the National Congress, that sought greater self-government and political freedom for the Indian people from the British Raj.


title: Swaraj Party

text: It was inspired by the concept of Swaraj. In Hindi and many other languages of India, "swaraj" means "independence" or "self-rule." The two most important leaders were Chittaranjan Das, its president, and Motilal Nehru, its secretary.


title: Swaraj Party

text: Das and Nehru thought of contesting elections to enter the legislative council with a view to obstructing a foreign government. Many candidates of the Swaraj Party were elected to the central legislative assembly and provincial legislative council in the 1923 elections. In these legislatures, they strongly opposed the unjust government policies.


title: Swaraj Party

text: As a result of the Bengal Partition, the Swaraj Party won the most seats during elections to the Bengal Legislative Council in 1923. The party disintegrated after the death of C. R. Das.


title: Swaraj Party

text: The Swaraj Party was formed on 1 January 1923 by Indian politicians and members of the Indian National Congress who had opposed Mahatma's suspension of all civil resistance on 12 February 1922 in response to the Chauri Chaura tragedy, where policemen were killed by a mob of protestors. Gandhi felt responsible for the killings, reproached himself for not emphasizing non-violence more firmly, and feared that the entire Non-Cooperation Movement could degenerate into an orgy of violence between the British-controlled army and police and mobs of freedom-fighters, alienating and hurting millions of common Indians. He went on a fast-unto-death to convince all Indians to stop civil resistance. The Congress and other nationalist groups disavowed all activities of disobedience.


title: Swaraj Party

text: However, many Indians felt that the Non-Cooperation Movement should not have been suspended over an isolated incident of violence, and that its astonishing success was actually close to breaking the back of British rule in India. These people became disillusioned with Gandhi's political judgments and instincts.


title: Swaraj Party

text: Gandhi and most of the Congress party rejected the provincial and central legislative councils created by the British to offer some participation for Indians. They argued that the councils were rigged with un-elected allies of the British, and too un-democratic and simply "rubber stamps" of the Viceroy...


title: Swaraj Party

text: In December 1922, Chittaranjan Das, Narasimha Chintaman Kelkar and Motilal Nehru formed the Congress-Khilafat Swarajaya Party with Das as the president and Nehru as one of the secretaries. Other prominent leaders included Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Subhas Chandra Bose of Bengal, Vithalbhai Patel and other Congress leaders who were becoming dissatisfied with the Congress. The other group was the 'No-Changers', who had accepted Gandhi's decision to withdraw the movement.


title: Swaraj Party

text: Now both the Swarajists and the No-Changers were engaged in a fierce political struggle, but both were determined to avoid the disastrous experience of the 1907 split at Surat. On the advice of Gandhi, the two groups decided to remain in the Congress but to work in their separate ways. There was no basic difference between the two.


title: Swaraj Party

text: In the 1923 Indian general election, Swarajist members(45/145) were elected to the councils. Vithalbhai Patel became the president of the Central Legislative Assembly.


title: Swaraj Party

text: At a meeting on 30 December 1923, the general council of the party demanded the establishment of fully responsible government for India. They demanded that the government start by releasing political prisoners, suspending all repressive laws and orders, and convening a round table conference to negotiate the principles of a constitution for India.


title: Swaraj Party

text: However, the legislatures had very limited powers, and apart from some heated parliamentary debates, and procedural stand-offs with the British authorities, the core mission of obstructing British rule failed.


title: Swaraj Party

text: With the death of Chittaranjan Das in 1925, and with Motilal Nehru's return to the Congress the following year, the Swaraj Party was greatly weakened.


title: Swaraj Party

text: After his release from prison in 1924, Gandhi sought to bring back the Swarajists to the Congress and re-unite the party. Gandhi's supporters were in a vast majority in the Congress, and the Congress still remained India's largest political party, but Gandhi felt it necessary to heal the divide with the Swarajists, so as to heal the nation's wounds over the 1922 suspension.


title: Swaraj Party

text: The Swarajists sought more representation in the Congress offices, and an end to the mandatory requirement for Congressmen to spin khadi cloth and do social service as a prerequisite for office. This was opposed by Gandhi's supporters, men like Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru and Rajendra Prasad, who became known as the "No Changers" as opposed to the Swarajist "Changers". Gandhi relaxed the rules on spinning and named some Swarajists to important positions in the Congress Party. He also encouraged the Congress to support those Swarajists elected to the councils, so as not to embarrass them and leave them rudderless before the British authorities.


title: Swaraj Party

text: When the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, millions of Indians were infuriated with the idea of an all-British committee writing proposals for Indian constitutional reforms without any Indian member or consultations with the Indian people. The Congress created a committee to write Indian proposals for constitutional reforms, headed by now Congress President Motilal Nehru. The death of Lala Lajpat Rai, beaten by police in Punjab further infuriated India. People rallied around the Nehru Report and old political divisions and wounds were forgotten, and Vithalbhai Patel and all Swarajist councillors resigned in protest.


title: Swaraj Party

text: Between 1929 and 1937, the Indian National Congress would declare the independence of India and launch the Salt Satyagraha. In this tumultuous period, the Swaraj Party was defunct as its members quietly dissolved into the Congress fold.


title: Swaraj Party

text: The Madras Province Swarajya Party was established in 1923. S. Satyamurti and S. Srinivasa Iyengar led the party. The party contested in all provincial elections between 1923 and 1934 with the exception of the 1930 election which it did not participate officially due to the Civil Disobedience Movement, though some of the members of the party contested for office as independents. The party emerged as the single largest party in the 1926 and 1934 Assembly elections but refused to form the provincial government under the existing dyarchy system. In 1934, the Madras Province Swarajya Party merged with the All India Swarajya Party which subsequently merged with the Indian National Congress when it contested the 1935 elections to the Imperial Legislative Council under the Government of India Act 1935.


title: Swaraj Party

text: From 1935 onward, the Swarajya Party ceased to exist and was succeeded by the Indian National Congress in the elections to the Imperial Legislative Council as well as the Madras Legislative Council.


title: Proof (album)

text: Proof is the first anthology album released by South Korean group BTS, on June 10, 2022, through Big Hit Music. The 3-disc project comprises several of the band's singles through the years; a selection of discography "favorites" chosen by the band members; and various demos and previously unreleased tracks. It also includes four new songs: the album's lead single "Yet to Come (The Most Beautiful Moment)", "Run BTS", "For Youth", and "Quotation Mark".


title: Proof (album)

text: The album sold over 2 million copies worldwide on its opening day and topped the charts in 18 territories, including Australia, Germany, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States.


title: Proof (album)

text: On December 5, 2021, in conjunction with an announcement that BTS would be devoting more attention to solo projects, Big Hit Music revealed that preparations for the release of an upcoming group album were underway. At the end of the band's final Permission to Dance on Stage concert at Allegiant Stadium on April 16, 2022, a video featuring excerpts of music videos from previous eras in the band's discography was played. The clip ended with the phrase "We are bulletproof" and the date "2022.06.10". The following day, Big Hit confirmed the release of an unnamed album on June 10, with further details to be provided in the near future. The album's title, "Proof", was revealed through a video trailer that premiered on YouTube on May 4. The preorder period began later that same day through Weverse Shop.


title: Proof (album)

text: Per a subsequent notice posted on Weverse and shared via Twitter, the three-disc album comprises tracks spanning the past nine years of the band's discography, as well as three new songs. Two editions of the album, "Standard" and "Compact", were made available for purchase. The schedule for the album's rollout was published on May 5. The track listing for the album's first disc—it comprises 19 tracks—was revealed on May 9 (KST). The disc contains all of BTS' lead singles from "No More Dream" (2013) to "Butter" (2021), as well as the new single "Yet to Come (The Most Beautiful Moment)" which serves as the album's lead track. A remastered version of the band's 2013 song "Born Singer" is also included. Originally released for free by the band shortly after their debut, the song samples "Born Sinner" by American rapper J. Cole from his album of the same name. It has never before been included on any of the band's albums. "Yet to Come" and its accompanying music video were released alongside the album on June 10.


title: Proof (album)

text: "Proof" was initially released with two editions: Standard and Compact. Both versions includes three CDS, photocards and postcards. The Standard Edition comes with four booklets and a limited-edition poster while the Compact Edition includes a custom booklet, a mini poster and a fold-out "discography guide."


title: Proof (album)

text: A limited collector's edition of "Proof" was announced through Weverse on August 28, with preorders opening that same day. Priced at ₩297,000, this version includes a 300-page photobook that features indepth interviews with the band about their discography, a 7-piece premium photo set, and several other collectibles not available with the Standard and Compact versions. Big Hit stated that sales of the album would not count towards any charts. It was released on September 28.


title: Proof (album)

text: Disc one opens with "Born Singer", a hip-hop and R&B track that samples American rapper J. Cole's "Born Sinner". The band reworked the original version to include their lyrics, ad-libs, and production. "Yet To Come (The Most Beautiful Moment)," the album's lead single, follows next. An alternative hip-hop track co-written by RM, J-Hope, and Suga, longtime producer Pdogg, and American artists Max and Dan Gleyzer, the song's lyrics simultaneously reflect on the band's past while looking towards the future. It contains references to songs such as the band's own "Young Forever" (from 2016's "") and Kanye West's "Touch The Sky". The production is laid-back, with striking background synths and old-school hip-hop beats from the early 2000s.


title: Proof (album)

text: Disc two comprises solo and sub-unit tracks, including the new song "Run BTS". A hip-hop/rock track, it features a "thrumming" repetitive guitar riff, and low-key growls of J-Hope, Suga, and RM are heard during the pre-chorus. The song highlights in particular Suga's complex rapping style while showcasing Jimin, V, Jungkook, and Jin's expert vocal abilities, as the singers "deliver some of the most soaring falsettos". Lyrically, the band voice their support for each another and expound on their attitude towards outside influences throughout the three-and-a-half-minute-long track. The band's Korean name, "Bangtan Sonyeondan", is referenced in lines where the members talk about the seven of them running "bulletproof."


title: Proof (album)

text: The third disc is a mixture of 11 demos, two new songs—exclusive to the physical version of the album, and one previously-shelved track. The first of the two new songs is the disc's second track, "Young Love", a collaborative traditional R&B song by RM and Jungkook. The other is track four, "Quotation Mark", by RM, J-Hope, and Jungkook, which has a retro beat similar in vigor to BTS' 2013 song "Like", from the "2 Cool 4 Skool" single album. The lyrics feature numerous allusions to past songs by the band. J-Hope's stanza is a replica of his verse from "BTS Cypher: Pt.3-Killer" while other tunes evoke "Love Maze" and "Hold Me Tight." The album's final song, "For Youth," opens with an audio sample from the band's 2019 concert at Wembley Stadium in London, of 90,000 fans singing along to "Young Forever". The song includes a trap beat, rag piano played slowly, and the mellow sounds of a soul band. The lyrics frequently allude to "Spring Day", "Epilogue: Young Forever", "Friends", and various trials the band faced during the previous nine years.


title: Proof (album)

text: At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, "Proof" received an average score of 88 based on five reviews, indicating "universal acclaim." Natalie Morin of "Rolling Stone" praised the album, describing its lead single as "a classic BTS blend of sparkling pop and old-school hip-hop that offers a hopeful promise of an even brighter future." Esquire's Ammal Hassan said the album is "more than just a roundup of the best of BTS. Instead, it is a carefully curated story of the group's past and memories, much of which they reflect on in their new songs."


title: Proof (album)

text: Choi Ji-won of The Korean Herald described the album as something that "offers a throwback to the past, an invitation to the future," and "evidence of BTS' unwavering pursuit of its dreams, which it promises to continue doing in the future." For Times, Elizabeth De Luna cited that "Proof" shows "an evolution from early raw material to a polished global presentation." In her review for Consequence, Mary Siroky explained how the band "unpack an unparalleled creative journey" through the 48 songs from different eras of their career.


title: Proof (album)

text: "Proof" received a nomination for Album of the Year at the Genie Music Awards, held in October, but did not win. It was awarded Record of the Year at the Melon Music Awards and Album of the Year at the MAMA Awards in November. It has been nominated in the Physical Album – 3rd Quarter category at the upcoming Circle Chart Music Awards, which will be held in February 2023. "Born Singer", "For Youth", "Run BTS", and "Yet to Come" are nominated in the Global Digital Music – June category.


title: Proof (album)

text: On its release day alone, "Proof" sold over two million copies worldwide. By the end of its first week, it sold a total of 2,752,496 copies. The album debuted at number one in South Korea, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Finland, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, and Switzerland. It also reached the top ten in Italy, Lithuania, and Norway. It peaked at number eight in the United Kingdom, becoming the group's fifth top-10 album. The album debuted at number three and peaked at number one on Greece's Albums Chart, giving BTS their first number one in the country.


title: Proof (album)

text: "Proof" sold 514,000 copies in Japan during the period dated June 13–19, recording the highest first-week sales on the weekly Oricon Albums Chart in 2022 and achieving the fifth-highest first-week sales of all-time in Oricon chart history, after Mariah Carey's "#1's" (1998), Boa's "Valenti" (2003), and BTS' own "BTS, the Best" (2021) and "" (2020). The album is the band's tenth to debut at number one in Japan, extending their record as the foreign artist with the most number-one albums in Oricon chart history.


title: Proof (album)

text: In the United States, "Proof" became BTS' sixth consecutive number-one on the "Billboard" 200. It debuted atop the chart with 314,000 album-equivalent units, including 266,000 pure sales, 36,0000 stream-equivalent units (52.84 million on-demand official streams) and 12,000 track-equivalent unit. It earned the most significant opening week for a group and the second-largest for an album released in the country in 2022 at the time, both in units accumulated and traditional album sales—Beyoncé's "Renaissance" eventually claimed the second-largest opening week record with 332,000 overall units in August. "Proof" also topped "Billboard"s Top Album Sales, Top Current Album Sales, Tastemaker Albums, and World Albums charts. "Yet To Come" debuted at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 while "Run BTS" peaked at number 73. BTS received a total of 25 chart placements as a result. According to Nielsen Music, the album sold a further 75,000 equivalent units in its second week.


title: Proof (album)

text: From May 17 to May 23, "Proof of Inspiration" clips for each member were released. It was followed by releasing two sets of concept photos called "Proof" and "Door" from May 28 to 29 and May 31 to June 2. The images include clear white photographs and dark photographs in front of a steel bank vault, as well as images with icy-blue lighting and variously colored lasers across the band members' faces. BTS made a total of 4 appearances on "BigHit Music Record," a program at Melon Station devoted to Big Hit music, on May 20 and 27, June 3 and 10, and July 1 and 8. Apple Music announced on May 26 that BTS would launch a new show, "BTS Radio: Past & Present" on Apple Music 1. The three-episode limited series aired from May 28 - June 10. The streaming service announced via Twitter on Tuesday (May 31) that the group smashed the record for the year's biggest show with the first episode of #BTSRadio on Apple Music 1. The band's members' statements, unique content, and a countdown to the album release are all featured on Spotify's #SpotifyPurpleU immersive microsite experience. Fans can also use the website to make custom #MyBTSProof share cards based on their favorite songs. From June 3, billboards with the hashtag #SpotifyPurpleU will be visible worldwide, including in South Korea, the US, Brazil, Mexico, Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam.


title: Proof (album)

text: On June 10, pop-up stores in New York City and Los Angeles were launched, coinciding with their album's release. In addition, goods limited to visitors were sold in each location. BTS also launched the # MyBTStory Challenge on the same day, which is only available on YouTube Shorts. At the end of the month-long challenge, a tribute video honoring a few of the shorts produced by the fans using the album title track will be made available on BTS' official YouTube Channel. Each week, BTS will release its own #MyBTStory Shorts featuring a different band member, starting with V on June 17. According to a Weverse announcement from Big Hit Music, the group opened an exhibition titled "2022 BTS EXHIBITION : PROOF" on September 28 in Seoul and on October 5 in Busan based on their creative journey.


title: Proof (album)

text: BTS performed "Yet to Come (The Most Beautiful Moment)", together with their B-side track "For Youth", on Mnet's "M Countdown", KBS2's "Music Bank", and SBS' "Inkigayo". It is the first time since their 2020 single, "On", that the group performed on South Korean music shows. The group performed "Yet to Come (The Most Beautiful Moment)", "Born Singer," and "For Youth" during "Proof Live" in celebration of the their 9th anniversary on June 13, 2022. On October 8, 2022, they performed "Yet to Come" and "For Youth" at The Fact Music Awards. For the first time in six months, BTS performed at their "Yet To Come" concert on October 15 at the Busan Asiad Main Stadium in Busan as part of the city's quest to host World Expo 2030. They also debuted the performance of "Run BTS" in which the official stream footage of the performance was posted on their own YouTube channel after the concert.


title: US Festival

text: The US Festival ("US" pronounced like the pronoun, not as initials) was the name of two early 1980s music and culture festivals in southern California, held east of Los Angeles, near San Bernardino.


title: US Festival

text: Steve Wozniak, cofounder of Apple and creator of the Apple I and Apple II personal computers, believed that the 1970s were the "Me" generation. He intended the US Festivals, with Bill Graham's participation, to encourage the 1980s to be more community-oriented and combine technology with rock music. The first was held Labor Day weekend in September 1982, and the second was less than nine months later, over Memorial Day weekend in May 1983.


title: US Festival

text: Wozniak paid for the bulldozing and construction of a new open-air field venue as well as the construction of an enormous state-of-the-art temporary stage at Glen Helen Regional Park near Devore, San Bernardino, California, just south of the junction of Interstates 15 and 215. (This site was later to become home to Blockbuster Pavilion—now Glen Helen Amphitheater—the largest amphitheatre in the United States .) The festival stage has resided at Disneyland in Anaheim since 1985, and has operated under various names and functions as the Videopolis dance club, the Videopolis Theatre, and the Fantasyland Theater.


title: US Festival

text: The festival ran for three days in early September in weather; there were 36 arrests, and a reported twelve drug overdoses. One "associated" murder of a hitchhiker occurred the day after the event. The festival lost a reported $12 million, and total attendance for the three days was about 400,000. The price for a three-day ticket was $37.50 (approximately $100 in 2021 money).


title: US Festival

text: The US festival featured the first implementation of the U.S.-Soviet Space Bridge, a two-way satellite hookup between the United States and the Soviet Union. Organizers had planned to have the US Festival and Soviet rock fans interact as a way to promote goodwill between the Cold War rivals, but it was too dark in California for cameras to pick up the festivalgoers when the link went live.


title: US Festival

text: The reprise festival ran for three days, this time at the helm was Colorado-based promoter Barry Fey, who with Wozniak added a fourth Country Day a week later. In late May, its first day weather was slightly cooler at , but air quality conditions in the region were the worst in four years. The total attendance was reported at 670,000 and the festival still lost $12 million; as Van Halen was reportedly paid $1.5 million to perform. There were two reported deaths.


title: US Festival

text: In 2003, the band Triumph released a DVD of their US Festival performance, "Live at the US Festival". In 2011 Shout! Factory announced plans to release a series of live concert DVDs from the US Festival. The first two of these releases, Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings, were released on November 15, 2011. The third DVD release from Shout! Factory was Quiet Riot, released on March 27, 2012.


title: US Festival

text: On September 18, 2012, Shout! Factory released "The English Beat: Live At The US Festival, ’82 & ’83" on CD/DVD.


title: US Festival

text: On November 19, 2013, Icon Television Music released The US Festival 1983 Days 1-3 on iTunes. This is the only US Festival release authorized by Steve Wozniak and the Unuson Corporation.


title: US Festival

text: Judas Priest's 30-year anniversary release of "Screaming for Vengeance" included a DVD with footage of their set from their 1983 appearance.


title: Kulturkampf

text: By extension the term is sometimes used to describe any conflict between secular and religious authorities or deeply opposing values, beliefs between sizable factions within a nation, community, or other group.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Under the influence of new emerging philosophies and ideologies, such as the enlightenment, realism, positivism, materialism, nationalism, secularism, and liberalism, the role of religion in society and the relationship between society and established churches underwent profound changes in the 18th and 19th centuries. Political leaders in many countries endeavored to strip the church of secular powers, whereas in earlier times the church and state were integrally connected; to reduce the duties of the church to spiritual affairs by secularising the public sphere and by separation of church and state; and to assert the supremacy of the state, especially in education. Róisín Healy argues that across Europe, the Kulturkampf operated mainly on the state level. It developed "especially in strongholds of liberalism, anti-clericalism, and anti-Catholicism".


title: Kulturkampf

text: The Catholic Church resisted this development, which it portrayed as an attack on religion, and it sought to maintain and strengthen its strong role in the state and society. With the growing influence of enlightenment and after having lost much of its wealth, power, and influence in the course of the mediatization and secularization of the early 19th century, the church had been in a state of decline.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The papacy was at a weak point in its history, having lost all its territories to Italy, with the pope a "prisoner" in the Vatican. The church strove to regain its influence and to hold sway in such matters as marriage, family, and education. It initiated a Catholic revival by founding associations, papers, schools, social establishments, and new orders, and encouraging religious practices such as pilgrimages, mass assemblies, devotion to the Virgin Mary or the sacred heart of Jesus, and the veneration of relics; the pope himself became an object of devotion.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Apart from the growth in religious orders, the 19th century was a time when numerous Catholic associations and organisations were founded, especially in Germany and in France. (In the United States, there was a comparable rise in fraternal organizations in the late nineteenth century.) Catholic propaganda, including the interpretation of daily events, was promoted through local and national Catholic newspapers that were prominent in all western European nations. In addition, organized missions and groups were dedicated to producing pious literature.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the 19th century, the Popes issued a series of encyclicals (such as (1832) by Pope Gregory XVI) condemning liberalism and freedom of the press. These generated controversy in some quarters. Under the leadership of Gregory's successor, Pope Pius IX, the church proclaimed Mary's immaculate conception in 1854. In 1864, Pius published the encyclical with its appended (""Syllabus of Errors""), and in 1870 convened the First Vatican Council. The Council, in turn, proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In , the Church condemned as false some 80 philosophical and political statements, mainly the foundations of the modern nation state. It rejected outright such concepts as freedom of religion, separation of church and state, civil marriage, sovereignty of the people, liberalism and socialism, reason as the sole base of human action, and in general condemned the idea of conciliation with progress. The announcements included an index of forbidden books.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The Church gradually reorganized and began to use mass media expansively to promote its messages. In addition, the popes worked to increase their control of the Church. The Church centralized some functions and streamlined its hierarchy, which prompted strong criticism by European governments. The bishops sought direction from the Vatican, and the needs and views of the international church were given priority over the local ones. Opponents of the new hierarchical church organization pejoratively called it ultramontanism.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In view of the church's opposition to enlightenment, liberal reforms, and the revolutions of the 18th/19th centuries, these dogmas and the church's expressed insistence on papal primacy angered the liberal-minded across Europe, even among some Catholics. Debates were heated.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The dogmas were perceived as threatening the secularized state, as they reaffirmed that the fundamental allegiance of Catholics was not to their nation-state, but to the Gospel and the Church. The pope's teaching was promoted as absolutely authoritative and binding on all the faithful. Secular politicians wondered whether "Catholicism and allegiance to the modern liberal state were not mutually exclusive". British Prime Minister Gladstone wrote in 1874 that the teaching on papal infallibility compromised the allegiance of faithful English Catholics. For European liberalism, the dogmas were perceived as a declaration of war against the modern state, science, and spiritual freedom.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The pope's handling of dissent from the dogmas, e. g. by excommunication of critics or demanding their removal from schools and universities, was considered as the "epitome of papal authoritarianism".


title: Kulturkampf

text: In direct response to the Vatican's announcements, Austria passed the so-called May-Laws for Cisleithania in 1868, restricting the Concordat of 1855, and then cancelled the Concordat altogether in 1870.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Saxony and Bavaria withheld approval to publish the papal infallibility dogma; Hesse and Baden even denied it any legal validity. France refused to publish the doctrines altogether; Spain forbade publication of in 1864.


title: Kulturkampf

text: By the mid-19th century, liberal policies had also come to dominate Germany and the separation of church and state became a prominent issue. The in Prussia is usually framed by the years 1871 and 1878 with the Catholic Church officially announcing its end in 1880 but the struggle in Germany had been an ongoing matter without definite beginning and the years 1871 to 1878 only mark its culmination in Prussia.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the wake of other European countries, most German states had taken first steps of secularisation well before unification. Predominantly Catholic Baden was at the forefront curbing the power of the Catholic Church (Baden Church Dispute, 1852–1854) and (, 1864–1876). Other examples are Prussia (1830s, 1850, 1859, and 1969), Württemberg (1859/1862), Bavaria ("", 1867), Hesse-Nassau or Hesse-Darmstadt.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the 1837 () of legal and policy issues regarding the children of mixed Protestant-Catholic marriages, Prussia's final settlement was considered a defeat for the state as it had given in to demands of the Catholic Church. In 1850, Prussia again had a dispute with the church about civil marriage and primary schools and in 1852, it issued decrees against the Jesuits.


title: Kulturkampf

text: As in many European countries, Jesuits were being banned or heavily restricted in many of the German states e. g. in Saxony (1831) and even in Catholic ones such as Bavaria (1851), Baden (1860) or Württemberg (1862).


title: Kulturkampf

text: Not to be left out, the German areas to the west of the Rhine had already gone through a process of separation of church and state in line with a radical secularization after annexation by revolutionary and Napoleonic France in 1794. After their return to Germany in 1814, many if not most of the changes were kept in place.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the period, Catholic publications usually portrayed revolutions as negative and dangerous to the existing order as well as to the interests of the Catholic Church. Most of them considered a viable Catholicism to be necessary for the very health of society and state and to be the only true and effective protection against the scourge of revolution.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The unsuccessful German revolutions of 1848–49, which the Catholic Church had opposed, produced no democratic reforms and attempts to radically disentangle state-church relationships failed. In the revolutionary parliament, many prominent representatives of political Catholicism took the side of the extreme right-wingers. In the years following the revolution, Catholicism became increasingly politicized due to rising liberal ideologies contrasted with the anti-modernist and anti-liberal policies of the Vatican.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and Franco-Prussian War of 1870 the Catholic Church sided against Prussia and it was an outspoken opponent of German unification under Prussia (as well as of Italy's unification).


title: Kulturkampf

text: The Catholic dogmas and doctrines announced in 1854, 1864 and 1870 were perceived in Germany as direct attacks on the modern nation state. Thus, Bismarck, the Liberals and the Conservatives representing orthodox Protestants found the Centre Party's support of the pope highly provocative. Many Catholics shared these sentiments, especially against the pope's declared infallibility and the majority of Catholic German bishops deemed the definition of the dogma as "'unpropitious' in light of the situation in Germany". While most Catholics eventually reconciled themselves to the doctrine, some founded the small breakaway Old Catholic Church.


title: Kulturkampf

text: According to the Bavarian head of government, Hohenlohe, the dogma of infallibility compromised the Catholic's loyalty to the state. He sent a circular to all the diplomatic representatives of the Bavarian Kingdom saying, "The only dogmatic thesis which Rome desires to have decided by the Council, and which the Jesuits in Italy and Germany are now agitating, is the question of the Infallibility of the Pope. This pretension once become a dogma, will have a wider scope than the purely spiritual spheres, and will become evidently a political question: for it will raise the power of the Sovereign Pontiff, even in temporal matters, above all the princes and peoples of Christendom."


title: Kulturkampf

text: The liberal majorities in the Imperial Diet and the Prussian parliament as well as liberals in general regarded the Church as backward, a hotbed for reactionaries, enemies of progress and cast monastic life as the epitome of a backward Catholic medievalism. They were alarmed by the dramatic rise in the numbers of monasteries, convents and clerical religious groups in an era of widespread religious revival. The Diocese of Cologne, for example, saw a tenfold increase of monks and nuns between 1850 and 1872. Prussian authorities were particularly suspicious of the spread of monastic life among the Polish and French minorities.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The Church, in turn, saw the National-Liberals as its worst enemy, accusing them of spearheading the war against Christianity and the Catholic Church.


title: Kulturkampf

text: At unification in 1871, the new German Empire included 25.5 million Protestants (62% of the population) and 15 million Catholics (36.5% of the population). Although a minority in the empire, Catholics were the majority in the states of Bavaria, Baden, and Alsace-Lorraine as well as in the four Prussian Provinces of West Prussia, Posen, Rhineland, Westphalia and in the Prussian region of Upper Silesia. Since the Thirty Years' War the population was generally segregated along religious lines and rural areas or towns were overwhelmingly if not entirely of the same religion. Education was also separate and usually in the hands of the churches. There was little mutual tolerance, interaction or intermarriage. Protestants in general were deeply distrustful of the Catholic Church.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Unification had been achieved through many obstacles with strong opponents. These were the European powers of France and Austria, both Catholic nations, and the Catholic Church itself, the three of which Bismarck perceived as "Coalition of Catholic Revenge". For Bismarck, the empire was very fragile and its consolidation was an important issue. Biographer Otto Pflanze notes that "all of these developments, real and imagined, reinforced Bismarck's belief in the existence of a widespread Catholic conspiracy that posed a threat to both his German and European policies."


title: Kulturkampf

text: In a Protestant empire, the Catholic Church was to lose its good standing which it had enjoyed for centuries in the Catholic-dominated Holy Roman Empire and which it would have continued to enjoy in a German empire united under Austrian auspices. Thus, in 1870, on the eve of unification, the Center Party was explicitly founded to defend the position of the church in the new empire.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Bismarck was highly concerned that many major members and supporters of this new party were not in sympathy with the new empire: the House of Hanover, the ethnic minority of the Poles, the southern German states. In 1871, the predominantly Catholic states of Southern Germany had only reluctantly joined the empire, increasing the overall share of the Catholic population to 36.5%. Among this Catholic share was Germany's largest ethnic minority, well over 2 million Poles in the east of Prussia, who under Prussia and Germany suffered discrimination and oppression. Bismarck regarded the new Centre Party not only as an illegal mixup of politics and religion and the church's "long arm" but also as a unifying force for Catholic Germans and Poles and thus a threat to the consolidation of the empire. He feared that the Centre Party would frustrate his broader political agendas and he accused the Catholic priests of fostering Polish nationalism as had been done openly in the provinces of Posen and Upper Silesia.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The Liberals regarded the Catholic Church as a powerful force of reaction and anti-modernity, especially after the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870 and the tightening control of the Vatican over the local bishops. The renewed vitality of Catholicism in Germany with its mass gatherings also attracted Protestants – even the heir to the Prussian throne, with the king's approval, attended one. Anti-liberalism, anti-clericalism, and anti-Catholicism became powerful intellectual forces of the time and the antagonism between Liberals and Protestants on one side and the Catholic Church on the other was fought out through mud-slinging in the press. A wave of anti-Catholic, anticlerical and anti-monastic pamphleteering in the liberal press was answered by anti-liberal preaching and propaganda in Catholic newspapers and vice versa.


title: Kulturkampf

text: For these reasons, the government sought to wean the Catholic masses away from the hierarchy and the Centre Party and the liberal's demands to curb the power of the churches meshed well with Bismarck's main political objective to crush the Centre Party.


title: Kulturkampf

text: According to historian Anthony J. Steinhoff:Bismarck's plan to disarm political Catholicism delighted liberal politicians, who provided the parliamentary backing for the crusade. Yet, the phrase the left-liberal Rudolf Virchow coined for this struggle, the , suggests that the liberals wanted to do more than prevent Catholicism from becoming a political force. They wanted victory over Catholicism itself, the long-delayed conclusion of the Reformation.At least since 1847 and in line with the Liberals, Bismarck had also been of the professed opinion, that state and church should be completely separated and "the sphere of the state had to be made secure against the incursions by the church", although his ideas were not as far-reaching as in the United States or in Great Britain. He had in mind the traditional position of the Protestant church in Prussia and provoked considerable resistance from conservative Protestants. This became clear in a heated debate with Prussian culture minister von Mühler in 1871 when Bismarck said: "Since you stopped my plans in the Protestant church, I have to go via Rome." In August 1871, at Bad Ems, Bismarck revealed his intention to fight against the Centre Party, to separate state and church, to transfer school inspection to laymen, to abolish religious instruction from schools and to transfer religious affairs to the minister of justice.


title: Kulturkampf

text: On 22 January 1872, liberal Adalbert Falk replaced conservative Heinrich von Mühler as Prussian minister for religion, education and health. In Bismarck's mind, Falk was "to re-establish the rights of the state in relation to the church". Yet, unlike Bismarck, whose main motivation for the was the political power struggle with the Centre Party, Falk, a lawyer, was a strong proponent of state authority having in mind the legal aspects of state-church relationships. Falk became the driving force behind the laws. Although Bismarck publicly supported Falk, he doubted the success of his laws and was unhappy with his lack of political tact and sensitivity. The differences in their attitudes concerning the eventually put the two politicians at odds with each other.


title: Kulturkampf

text: With this background and the determination of church and state, the in Germany acquired an additional edge as it gathered in intensity and bitterness.


title: Kulturkampf

text: From 1871 to 1876, the Prussian state parliament and the federal legislature (), both with liberal majorities, enacted 22 laws in the context of the . They were mainly directed against clerics: bishops, priests and religious orders (anti-clerical) and enforced the supremacy of the state over the church. While several laws were specific to the Catholic Church (Jesuits, congregations etc.) the general laws affected both Catholic and Protestant churches.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In an attempt to overcome increasing resistance by the Catholic Church and its defiance of the laws, new regulations increasingly went beyond state matters referring to the purely internal affairs of the church. Even many liberals saw them as an encroachment on civil liberties, compromising their own credo.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Constitutionally, education and regulation of religious affairs were vested in the federal states and the leading actor of the was Prussia, Germany's largest state. However, some of the laws were also passed by the Reichstag and applied to all of Germany. In general, the laws did not affect the press and associations including Catholic ones.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The Falk Laws, or 'May Laws' (), were a set of laws passed by the Prussian parliament in the years 1873, 1874, and 1875. Four laws passed in 1873 were enacted on 11–14 May that year:


title: Kulturkampf

text: The political situation in Europe was very volatile. Initially perceived as a possible enemy hostile to German unification under Prussian leadership, Austria and Germany very quickly became friends and formed the Dual Alliance in 1879. The possibility of a war with France or Russia also became more remote. Therefore, social and economic problems moved to the fore and Bismarck's attention gradually turned to other topics he deemed more threatening such as the increasing popularity of the socialists or more important such as questions of import duties. In these matters, he could either not rely on the support of the liberals to pursue his goals or they were not sufficient to form a majority.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Bismarck had not been comfortable with the increasing ferocity of the . Concerning the rise of the Centre Party, the laws had proven to be greatly ineffective and even counterproductive. He soon realized that they were of no help battling the Centre Party and as far as separation of state and church was concerned, he had achieved more than he wanted.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In order to garner support for his Anti-Socialist Laws and protective trade tariffs, Bismarck turned his back on the liberals in search of new alliances. The death of Pius IX on 7 February 1878 opened the door for a settlement with the Catholic Church. The new pope, Leo XIII was pragmatic and conciliatory and expressed his wish for peace in a letter to the Prussian king on the very day of his election followed by a second letter in a similar vein that same year.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Bismarck and the Pope entered into direct negotiations without the participation of the Church or the , yet initially without much success. It came to pass that Falk, vehemently resented by Catholics, resigned on 14 July 1879, which could be read as a peace offering to the Vatican. A decisive boost only came in February 1880, when the Vatican unexpectedly agreed to the civic registry of clerics. As the slowly wound down the talks lead to a number of so-called mitigation and peace laws which were passed until 1887.


title: Kulturkampf

text: On 29 September 1885, as another sign of peace, Bismarck proposed the Pope as arbiter in a dispute with Spain about the Caroline Islands and accepted his verdict in favour of Spain. In gratitude but to the great horror of Catholics, the Pope awarded Bismarck the Supreme Order of Christ, the highest order of chivalry to be granted by the Holy See. Bismarck was the only Protestant ever to receive this award.


title: Kulturkampf

text: After further negotiations between Prussia and the Vatican, the Prussian parliament passed 2 additional laws amending some of the laws.


title: Kulturkampf

text: On 23 May 1887, the Pope declared "The struggle which damaged the church and was of no good to the state is now over". The Mitigation and Peace Laws restored the inner autonomy of the Catholic church while leaving key regulations and the laws concerning separation of church and state in place (civic marriage, civic registry, religious disaffiliation, government school supervision, civic registry of clerics, ban of Jesuits, pulpit law, state supervision of church assets, constitutional amendments and the Catholic section in the Ministry of Culture was not reintroduced).


title: Kulturkampf

text: The respective opposing parties in the Reichstag harshly criticized the concessions made by the Vatican and the Prussian government.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Windthorst and the Centre Party were dismayed at being sidelined and not being consulted about the concessions the pope made, e. g. about the ban on Jesuits or the civil registry of clerics. None of the party's major demands were met. Instead, the pope even sided with Bismarck on non-religious issues and pressured the Centre Party to support Bismarck or at least abstain, e. g. in the matter of the hotly debated 1887 (7-year military budget).


title: Kulturkampf

text: The growth of the Centre Party has been considered a major setback for Bismarck although never publicly conceded. Yet, in spite of strong Catholic representation in the Reichstag, the political power and influence of the Church in the public sphere and its political power was greatly reduced.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Although Germany and the Vatican were officially at peace after 1878, religious conflicts and tensions continued. At the turn of the century, Pope Pius X announced the encyclical , mounting new attacks on historical criticism of biblical texts and any accommodation of Catholicism to modern philosophy, sociology or literature. As of 1910, clerics had to take an oath against all forms of modernism, a requirement later extended to teachers of Catholic religion at schools and professors of Catholic theology resulting in intense political and public debates and new conflicts with the state.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The abolition of the Catholic section of the Prussian Ministry of ecclesiastical and educational affairs deprived Catholics of their voice at the highest level. The system of strict government supervision of schools was applied only in Catholic areas; the Protestant schools were left alone. The school politics also alienated Protestant conservatives and churchmen.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The British ambassador Odo Russell reported to London in October 1872 how Bismarck's plans were backfiring by strengthening the ultramontane (pro-papal) position inside German Catholicism:


title: Kulturkampf

text: Nearly all German bishops, clergy and laymen rejected the legality of the new laws and were defiantly facing the increasingly heavy penalties, trials and imprisonments. As of 1878, only three of eight Prussian dioceses still had bishops, some 1,125 of 4,600 parishes were vacant, and nearly 1,800 priests ended up in jail or in exile, nearly half the monks and nuns had left Prussia, a third of the monasteries and convents were closed. Between 1872 and 1878, numerous Catholic newspapers were confiscated, Catholic associations and assemblies were dissolved, and Catholic civil servants were dismissed merely on the pretence of having Ultramontane sympathies. Thousands of laypeople were imprisoned for assisting priests to evade the punitive new laws.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The general ideological enthusiasm among the liberals for the was in contrast to Bismarck's pragmatic attitude towards the measures and growing disquiet from the Conservatives.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Apart from the outspoken criticism of the Laws by the Catholic Church and the Centre Party, there were also a number of Liberals and Protestants who voiced concern at least at the so-called (battle laws). "Unease concerning the effects of his programme continued to spread among all but the most bigoted priest-haters and the most doctrinaire liberals".


title: Kulturkampf

text: Such noted critics outside the Catholic camp were Friedrich Heinrich Geffcken, Emil Albert Friedberg or Julius von Kirchmann. Although they were proponents of state superiority, they regarded some of the laws as either ineffective or as interference in internal church affairs and not consistent with liberal values. Geffcken wrote that "with the intention to emancipate the laity from the hierarchy, the main body of the Catholics was brought in phalanx into the hands of leaders from which it was to be wrested. But the state cannot fight at length against a third of the population, it has no means to break such a passive resistance supported and organized by religious fanaticism. If a statesman desists from the correctness of a measure it only matters that he has the power to enforce it."


title: Kulturkampf

text: Even Bismarck – who initially saw a variety of tactical political advantages in these measures, e. g. for his suppressive policies against the Polish population – took pains to distance himself from the rigors of their enforcement."


title: Kulturkampf

text: The law considered the harshest and with no equivalent in Europe was the Expatriation Law. Passed by a liberal majority in parliament, it stipulated banishment as a punishment that all civilized peoples considered the harshest beyond the death penalty.


title: Kulturkampf

text: As to the Centre Party, these measures did not have the effect that Bismarck had in mind. In the state elections of November 1873, it grew from 50 to 90 seats and in the elections from 63 to 91. The number of Catholic periodicals also increased; in 1873 there were about 120.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The gave secularists and socialists an opportunity to attack all religions, an outcome that distressed the Protestant leaders and especially Bismarck himself, who was a devout pietistic Protestant.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the face of systematic defiance, the Bismarck government increased the penalties and its attacks, and were challenged in 1875 when a papal encyclical declared that the entire ecclesiastical legislation of Prussia was invalid, and threatened to excommunicate any Catholic who obeyed. There was no violence, but the Catholics mobilized their support, set up numerous civic organizations, raised money to pay fines and rallied behind their church and the Center Party.


title: Kulturkampf

text: To Bismarck's surprise, the Conservative Party especially the Junkers from his own landowning class in East Prussia sided with the Catholics. They were Protestants and did not like the Pope, but they had much in common with the Center Party. The Conservatives controlled their local schools and did not want bureaucrats from Berlin to take them over. They were hostile to the liberals, being fearful of free trade that would put them in competition with the United States and other grain exporters, and disliking their secular views. In the Prussian legislature, they sided with the Center Party on the school issue. Bismarck was livid, and he resigned the premiership of Prussia (while remaining Chancellor of the German Empire), telling an ally, "in domestic affairs I have lost the ground that is for me acceptable through the unpatriotic treason of the Conservative Party in the Catholic question." Indeed, many of Bismarck's conservative friends were in opposition. So too was William I, who was King of Prussia; he was strongly opposed to the civil marriage component of the .


title: Kulturkampf

text: The made Catholics more resolute; they responded not with violence but with votes, and as the newly formed Center Party became a major force in the Imperial Parliament, it gained support from non-Catholic minorities who felt threatened by Bismarck's centralization of power.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the long run, the most significant result was the mobilization of the Catholic voters through the Center Party, and their insistence on protecting their church. According to Margaret Anderson,


title: Kulturkampf

text: "The effort was perceived, and not only by its opponents, as aiming at nothing less than the forcible assimilation of the Catholic Church and its adherents to the values and norms of the empire's Protestant majority...[it led] Catholics – young and old, male and female, cleric and lay, big men and small – to cleave to their priests and defy the legislation."


title: Kulturkampf

text: After the Center party had doubled its popular vote in the elections of 1874, it became the second largest party in the national parliament, and remained a powerful force for the next 60 years. It became difficult for Bismarck to form a government without their support.


title: Kulturkampf

text: From the decades-long experience in battling against the , the Catholics of Germany learned democracy, according to Margaret Anderson. She states that the clergy:


title: Kulturkampf

text: Studies that analyze the nationalist aspect of Kulturkampf point out its anti-Polish character and Bismarck's attempt to Germanize Polish provinces in the German Empire.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The Poles had already suffered from discrimination and numerous oppressive measures in Germany long before unification. These measures were intensified after the German Empire was formed and Bismarck was known to be particularly hostile towards the Poles. Christopher Clark argues that Prussian policy changed radically in the 1870s in the face of highly visible Polish support for France in the Franco-Prussian war. Polish demonstrations made clear the Polish nationalist feeling, and calls were also made for Polish recruits to desert from the Prussian Army – though these went unheeded. Bismarck was outraged, telling the Prussian cabinet in 1871: From the Russian border to the Adriatic Sea we are confronted with the combined propaganda of Slavs, ultramontanes, and reactionaries, and it is necessary openly to defend our national interests and our language against such hostile actions. Therefore, in the Province of Posen the took on a much more nationalistic character than in other parts of Germany.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Not an adamant supporter of the Liberals' general goals, Bismarck did recognize the potential in some of them for subduing Polish national aspirations and readily made use of it. While the Liberals main objective was the separation of state and church as essential for a democratic and liberal society, Bismarck saw its use in separating the Polish population from the only supporter and guardian of its national identity.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Prussian authorities imprisoned 185 priests and forced hundreds of others into exile. Among the imprisoned was the Primate of Poland Archbishop Mieczysław Ledóchowski. A large part of the remaining Catholic priests had to continue their service in hiding from the authorities. Although most of the 185 imprisoned were finally set free by the end of the decade, those who were released emigrated. The anti-Polish aspects of the remained in place in Polish provinces of the German Empire until the First World War.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The in Austria has roots dating back to the 18th century. Emperor Joseph II launched a religious policy (later called "Josephinism") that advocated the supremacy of the state in religious matters. This resulted in far-reaching state control over the Catholic Church, including the reorganization of dioceses, the regulation of the number of masses, the transfer of many schools into government hands, state-controlled seminaries, and the limitation of the number of clerics and the dissolution of numerous monasteries. Protests of Pope Pius VI, and even his visit to Vienna in 1782, were to no avail.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the Concordat of 1855, which was the culmination of Catholic influence in Austria, many of the Catholic Church's previous rights that had been taken away under Joseph II were restored (marriage, partial control of censorship, elementary and secondary education, full control of the clergy and religious funds).


title: Kulturkampf

text: In 1868 and 1869, after sanctioning from the December constitution, Emperor Francis Joseph's newly appointed cabinet undid parts of the Concordat by way of several liberal reforms. These reforms are referred to as the May Laws. Against strong protests from the Catholic Church, the laws of 25 May 1868 and 14 May 1869 restored civil marriage, passed primary and secondary education into government hands, installed interconfessional schools, and regulated interconfessional relations (for example, mixed marriages and children's rights to choose their faith).


title: Kulturkampf

text: In a secret consistory, Pope Pius IX condemned the constitution of 1867 and the May Laws as . In a pastoral letter dated 7 September 1868, bishop Franz-Josef Rudigier called for resistance to these May Laws. However, the letter was confiscated, and Rudigier had to appear before court on 5 June 1869. This event led to the first-ever public demonstrations by the Catholic population. On 12 July 1869, the bishop was sentenced to a jail term of two weeks, but he was later pardoned by the emperor.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The May Laws provoked a serious conflict between state and church. After the promulgation of papal infallibility in 1870, Austria abrogated the Concordat of 1855 and abolished it entirely in 1874. In May 1874, the Religious Act was officially recognized.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the late 19th century, cultural wars arose over issues of prohibition and education in the United States. The Bennett Law was a highly controversial state law passed in Wisconsin in 1889 that required the use of English to teach major subjects in all public and private elementary and high schools. Because Wisconsin German Catholics and Lutherans each operated large numbers of parochial schools where German was used in the classroom, it was bitterly resented by German-American (and some Norwegian) communities. Although the law was ultimately repealed, there were significant political repercussions, with the Republicans losing the governorship and the legislature, and the election of Democrats to the Senate and House of Representatives.


title: Kulturkampf

text: In the United States, the term "culture war(s)" refers to conflict in the late 20th and early 21st centuries between religious social conservatives and secular social liberals. This theme of "culture war" was the basis of Patrick Buchanan's keynote speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention. By 2004, the term was in common use in the United States by both liberals and conservatives.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Throughout the 1980s, there were battles in Congress and the media regarding federal support for the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities that amounted to a war over high culture between neoconservatives and paleoconservatives.


title: Kulturkampf

text: Justice Antonin Scalia referenced the term in the Supreme Court case "Romer v. Evans", 517 U.S. 620 (1996), saying "the Court has mistaken a for a fit of spite". The case concerned an amendment to the Colorado state constitution that prohibited any subdepartment from acting to protect individuals on the basis of sexual orientation. Scalia believed that the amendment was a valid move on the part of citizens who sought "recourse to a more general and hence more difficult level of political decision making than others". The majority disagreed, holding that the amendment violated the Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.


title: Kulturkampf

text: The term, translated to Hebrew as () is also frequently used, with similar connotations, in the political debates of Israel—having been introduced by Jews who fled Nazi Germany in the 1930s.


title: Price action trading

text: The price action is a method of analysis of the basic movements of the price, to generate signals of entry and exit in trades and that stands out for its reliability and for not requiring the use of indicators. It is a form of technical analysis, since it ignores the fundamental factors of a security and looks primarily at the security's price history. What differentiates it from most forms of technical analysis is that its main focus is the relation of a security's current price to its past prices as opposed to values derived from that price history. This history includes swing highs and swing lows, trend lines, and support and resistance levels.


title: Price action trading

text: At its most simplistic, it attempts to describe the human thought processes invoked by experienced, non-disciplinary traders as they observe and trade their markets. Price action is simply how prices change - the action of price. It is readily observed in markets where liquidity and price volatility are highest, but anything that is bought or sold freely in a market will per se demonstrate price action. Price action trading can be included under the umbrella of technical analysis but is covered here in a separate article because it incorporates the behavioural analysis of market participants as a crowd from evidence displayed in price action - a type of analysis whose academic coverage isn't focused in any one area, rather is widely described and commented on in the literature on trading, speculation, gambling and competition generally. It includes a large part of the methodology employed by floor traders and tape readers. It can also optionally include analysis of volume and level 2 quotes.


title: Price action trading

text: A price action trader observes the relative size, shape, position, growth (when watching the current real-time price) and volume (optionally) of the bars on an OHLC bar or candlestick chart, starting as simple as a single bar, most often combined with chart formations found in broader technical analysis such as moving averages, trend lines or trading ranges. The use of price action analysis for financial speculation doesn't exclude the simultaneous use of other techniques of analysis, and on the other hand, a minimalist price action trader can rely completely on the behavioural interpretation of price action to build a trading strategy.


title: Price action trading

text: The various authors who write about price action, e.g. Brooks, Duddella, give names to the price action chart formations and behavioural patterns they observe, which may or may not be unique to that author and known under other names by other authors (more investigation into other authors to be done here). These patterns can often only be described subjectively and the idealized formation or pattern can in reality appear with great variation.


title: Price action trading

text: There is no evidence that these explanations are correct even if the price action trader who makes such statements is profitable and appears to be correct. Since the disappearance of most pit-based financial exchanges, the financial markets have become anonymous, buyers do not meet sellers, and so the feasibility of verifying any proposed explanation for the other market participants' actions during the occurrence of a particular price action pattern is exceedingly small. Also, price action analysis can be subject to survivorship bias for failed traders do not gain visibility. Hence, for these reasons, the explanations should only be viewed as subjective rationalisations and may quite possibly be wrong, but at any point in time they offer the only available logical analysis with which the price action trader can work.


title: Price action trading

text: The implementation of price action analysis is difficult, requiring the gaining of experience under live market conditions. There is every reason to assume that the percentage of price action speculators who fail, give up or lose their trading capital will be similar to the percentage failure rate across all fields of speculation. According to widespread folklore / urban myth, this is 90%, although analysis of data from US forex brokers' regulatory disclosures since 2010 puts the figure for failed accounts at around 75% and suggests this is typical.


title: Price action trading

text: Some skeptical authors dismiss the financial success of individuals using technical analysis such as price action and state that the occurrence of individuals who appear to be able to profit in the markets can be attributed solely to the Survivorship bias.


title: Price action trading

text: A price action trader's analysis may start with classical technical analysis, e.g. Edwards and Magee patterns including trend lines, break-outs, and pull-backs, which are broken down further and supplemented with extra bar-by-bar analysis, sometimes including volume. This observed price action gives the trader clues about the current and likely future behaviour of other market participants. The trader can explain why a particular pattern is predictive, in terms of bulls (buyers in the market), bears (sellers), the crowd mentality of other traders, change in volume and other factors. A good knowledge of the market's make-up is required. The resulting picture that a trader builds up will not only seek to predict market direction, but also speed of movement, duration and intensity, all of which is based on the trader's assessment and prediction of the actions and reactions of other market participants.


title: Price action trading

text: Price action patterns occur with every bar and the trader watches for multiple patterns to coincide or occur in a particular order, creating a set-up that results in a signal to buy or sell. Individual traders can have widely varying preferences for the type of setup that they concentrate on in their trading. One published price action trader is capable of giving a name and a rational explanation for the observed market movement for every single bar on a bar chart, regularly publishing such charts with descriptions and explanations covering 50 or 100 bars. This trader freely admits that his explanations may be wrong, however the explanations serve a purpose, allowing the trader to build a mental scenario around the current 'price action' as it unfolds.


title: Price action trading

text: The price action trader will use setups to determine entries and exits for positions. Each setup has its optimal entry point. Some traders also use price action signals to exit, simply entering at one setup and then exiting the whole position on the appearance of a negative setup. Alternatively, the trader might simply exit instead at a profit target of a specific cash amount or at a predetermined level of loss. This style of exit is often based on the previous support and resistance levels of the chart. A more experienced trader will have their own well-defined entry and exit criteria, built from experience.


title: Price action trading

text: An experienced price action trader will be well trained at spotting multiple bars, patterns, formations and setups during real-time market observation. The trader will have a subjective opinion on the strength of each of these and how strong a setup they can build them into. A simple setup on its own is rarely enough to signal a trade. There should be several favourable bars, patterns, formations and setups in combination, along with a clear absence of opposing signals.


title: Price action trading

text: At that point when the trader is satisfied that the price action signals are strong enough, the trader will still wait for the appropriate entry point or exit point at which the signal is considered 'triggered'. During real-time trading, signals can be observed frequently while still building, and they are not considered triggered until the bar on the chart closes at the end of the chart's given period.


title: Price action trading

text: Entering a trade based on signals that have not triggered is known as entering early and is considered to be higher risk since the possibility still exists that the market will not behave as predicted and will act so as to "not" trigger any signal.


title: Price action trading

text: After entering the trade, the trader needs to place a protective stop order to close the position with minimal loss if the trade goes wrong. The protective stop order will also serve to prevent losses in the event of a disastrously timed internet connection loss for online traders.


title: Price action trading

text: After the style of Brooks, the price action trader will place the initial stop order 1 tick below the bar that gave the entry signal (if going long - or 1 tick above if going short) and if the market moves as expected, moves the stop order up to one tick below the entry bar, once the entry bar has closed and with further favourable movement, will seek to move the stop order up further to the same level as the entry, i.e. break-even.