title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: By 1963, she had taken the series to galleries in New York City and Los Angeles, inviting the public to participate in the shootings. In Los Angeles, she shot a large-scale "King Kong" assemblage she had constructed, paint-splattering the embedded sculpted faces of politicians such as John F Kennedy, Fidel Castro, and Charles De Gaulle, with Santa Claus and Donald Duck as well. This work would later be acquired by the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, and would mark her transition to a new series of fantastic monsters, animals, and female figures. Throughout her career, snakes, birds, and dragons would become recurring symbols in her artworks.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: While in New York City, Saint Phalle and Tinguely stayed in the Hotel Chelsea in 1962, and again in 1964-1965.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1963, the couple purchased an old hotel, called "Auberge au Cheval Blanc" ("White Horse Inn"), in Soisy-sur-Ecole, southeast of Paris. It had previously been a hotel, a café, a cinema, and even a brothel, but the new owners converted it into artistic studios which they would share over the decades to come.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Saint Phalle next explored the various roles of women, in what would develop into her best-known and most prolific series of sculptures. She started making life-size dolls of women, such as brides and mothers giving birth, monsters, and large heads. Initially, they were made of soft materials, such as wool, cloth, and papier-mâché, but they soon evolved into plaster over a wire framework and plastic toys, some painted all white.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: As the series developed into larger monumental works, Saint Phalle used composite fiberglass-reinforced polyester plastic (also known as FRP or GRP) decorated with multiple bright-colored acrylic or polyester paints. She also used polyurethane foam in many of her early sculptures. These innovative materials enabled the construction of colorful, large-scale sculptures with new ease and fluidity of form. Saint Phalle unknowingly used dangerous fabrication and painting processes that released airborne glass fibers and chemicals, including styrene, epoxy, and toxic solvents.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1963–64, she created a series of sculptures protesting stereotypical societal roles for women, as child bearers, devouring mothers, witches, and prostitutes. Some of her early artworks from this "Bride" period depicted ghostly, skeletal brides dressed in white, which have been compared to Miss Havisham, an ethereal character in Charles Dickens' novel "Great Expectations".


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Over time, these figures became more joyful, whimsical, colorful, and larger in scale. Inspired by a collaborative drawing with American artist Larry Rivers of his wife, her pregnant friend Clarice Price, Saint Phalle began to portray archetypal female figures with a more optimistic view of the position of women in society. "Gwendoline" (1965) was the first major sculpture in what would become a lifetime series of these works.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The newer figures took on ecstatic dance poses and even acrobatic positions, such as handstands and cartwheels. Saint Phalle's light-hearted figures have been compared to the joyful dancers of Matisse and the sturdy female figures by Gaston Lachaise, Aristide Maillol, and Rodin.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: By 1965, she was calling her artistic expressions of the proverbial everywoman "Nanas", after a French slang word that is roughly equivalent to "broad", or "chick". The term also recalls the childish French taunt "nananère".


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The first of these freely-posed forms, made of papier-mâché, yarn, and cloth, were exhibited at the Alexander Iolas Gallery in Paris in September 1965. During this show, she joined a type of tombola raffle organized by the Artist's Club of New York, whereby artworks were randomly left in coin-operated luggage lockers at Pennsylvania Station, and keys were offered for $10 each.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: For this show, Iolas also published Saint Phalle's first artist book that included her handwritten text in combination with her drawings of "Bananas". Encouraged by Iolas, she started a highly productive output of graphics work that accompanied her exhibitions, which included silk-screened prints, posters, books, and writings. In the years to come, she would publish multiple hand-lettered books, profusely illustrated with colorful drawings and diagrams, on topics such as AIDS prevention and various periods in her life story.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1966, Saint Phalle collaborated with Jean Tinguely and Per Olof Ultvedt on a temporary indoor sculpture installation, "Hon – en katedral" (which means "She-a-Cathedral" in Swedish), filling a large temporary gallery in the Moderna Museet, in Stockholm, Sweden. During construction, Saint Phalle recruited Swiss art student , who had been working as a dishwasher in the museum restaurant (in the following years, he would become a vital assistant and collaborator for both Saint Phalle and Tinguely). A team of 8 people worked strenuously for 40 days, first building a frame using metal rebar, covering it with chicken wire, sheathing it with fabric attached with smelly animal glue, and then painting the inside of the enclosure black, and painting the outside in bright colors. The final structure was long and wide, weighing around . In the tabloid-sized newsprint catalog published for the show, Saint Phalle included a diagram showing the artistic influences on her design, which included Simon Rodia's Watts Towers, Ferdinand Cheval's "Le Palais Idéal", and the architecture of Antoni Gaudi.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The outer form was a giant, reclining sculpture of a pregnant woman (a "Nana"), whose voluminous interior could be entered through a door-sized vaginal opening between her legs. Written on one of "Hon"'s massive thighs was the motto "Honi soit qui mal y pense" ("May he be shamed who thinks badly of it"). Inside the massive sculpture were a 12-seat cinema theater, a milk bar inside a breast, a fish pond, and a brain built by Tinguely, with moving mechanical parts. In addition, the sprawling "Nana" contained a coin telephone, a love-seat sofa, a museum of fake paintings, a sandwich vending machine, an art installation by Ultvedt, and a playground slide for children.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: After an initial shocked silence, the installation elicited extensive public commentary in magazines and newspapers throughout the world, raising awareness of the Moderna Museet. Over 100,000 visitors crowded in to experience the immersive environment, including many children. At the end of 3 months, the entire temporary setup was demolished and removed, except for the head, which was preserved by the museum in its permanent collection. Some small fragments were attached to limited-edition exhibition catalogs and sold as mementos.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Around this time, Saint Phalle also designed stage sets and costumes for theatrical productions: "Éloge de La Folie" ("Praise of the Madness", 1966), a ballet by Roland Petit; an adaptation of the Aristophanes play "Lysistrata" (1966); and a German-language play she co-wrote with titled "ICH (All About Me)" (1968). Large fixed or moveable "Nana" figures were prominent in several of these productions.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1967, Saint Phalle began working with polyester resin, a material which could be shaped easily but would transform into a hard, smooth, weather-resistant surface. This new technology enabled her to construct large, fantastical figures for display outdoors in public spaces and parks. The material is reasonably durable outdoors (similar materials are used for boats and car bodies), although decades of weather exposure can eventually cause deterioration, requiring specialized art conservation measures.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In August 1967, the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam opened Saint Phalle's first retrospective exhibition, "Les Nanas au pouvoir" ("Nana Power"). For the show, Niki created her first "Nana Dream House" and "Nana Fountain", and also showed plans for her first "Nana Town".


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1967, she exhibited "Le Paradis Fantastique" ("The Fantastic Paradise"), a collaborative grouping of nine of her sculptures with six machines built by Tinguely, on the rooftop terrace of the 8-level French Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. The composition was originally conceived of as an attack by Tinguely's dark mechanical constructions upon Saint Phalle's brightly-colored animals and female figures, a kind of "amorous warfare".


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Although the French Pavilion itself was popular, most visitors did not see the rooftop terrace where the sculptures were installed. In 1968, the sculptures were re-displayed at the Albright-Knox Gallery in Buffalo, New York, and then for a year in New York City's Central Park. In 1971, some of the artworks were purchased by the Moderna Museet, and permanently installed nearby in an outdoor sculpture garden on Skeppsholmen, an island in central Stockholm.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1968, she first disclosed that she had developed respiratory problems from exposure to dust and fumes in making her artwork.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Starting in 1968, Saint Phalle sold "Nana" inflatable pool toys, which appeared in the April 1968 issue of "Vogue" magazine. She ignored complaints from art critics, focusing on raising money for her future monumental projects. In the coming years, she would face more criticism for over-commercializing and popularizing her artwork, but she raised significant funding that enabled her to finance several ambitious projects on her own. Her production of smaller, lower-cost objects also placed her art within reach of more supporters of her causes. During her career, she produced clothing, jewelry, perfume, glass or porcelain figures, furniture, and craft items, many with a "Nana" theme.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: From 1969 to 1971, she worked on her first full-scale architecture project, three small sculptural houses commissioned by Rainer von Diez in southern France, which she called "" ("The Dream of the Bird"). The project was a collaboration with him and Jean Tinguely, and a forerunner of her later "Tarot Garden" project.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1969, she joined several other artists under the lead of Tinguely, starting work on "Le Cyclop" ("Cyclops", also known as "La Tête", "The Head", or "le Monstre dans la forêt", "the Monster in the forest"), in Milly-la-Forêt, near Paris. Collaborators included Daniel Spoerri, Bernhard Luginbuhl, and Eva Aeppli. Eventually, 15 different people worked on the project, which would not be considered finished until 1994.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1969 in an interview on television in her studio, she shared her views about the place of women in politics and said "I think women could administer this world much better. If Black power and women power would get together, they would take over everything. That's the solution. A new world of joy."


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In November 1970, as part of an artists' reunion celebrating the 10th anniversary of the founding of the Nouveaux Réalistes, Saint Phalle shot at an altar assemblage.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: On 13 July 1971, Saint Phalle and Tinguely legally married, perhaps for tax savings, as Saint Phalle thus became a Swiss citizen. Their marriage did give the two artists mutual control over each other's artistic estate if one of them should die. That same year, she designed her first pieces of jewelry.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1972, she installed "Golem", commissioned by the then mayor Teddy Kollek, at a children's playground in the Kiryat Hayovel neighborhood of Jerusalem. It is a giant monster with three red tongues protruding from its mouth, which serve as playground slides. This project was the first time she used the shotcrete method of spraying concrete over a metal framework to produce large structures; this method would be used in her further major projects.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Starting in 1972, she engaged Robert Haligon (""Fabricant de Plastiques d’Art"") to help fabricate her large-scale sculptures, as well as various editions of artworks. This collaboration would continue for 25 years, including all four of his children, notably Gérard, who would take the lead in later years. The collaboration would produce approximately 3,000 sculptures, ranging from monumental outdoors pieces to small multiple editions. Saint Phalle personally trained daughter Marie Haligon to paint her multiple edition sculptures, following a master artist's prototype. Initially, the artist preferred a matte paint finish, shunning shiny surfaces. However, she was forced to adopt glossy surface finishes to attain improved durability of the paints on her outdoors sculptures. Over time, she embraced this glossy visual effect, and began using mirrors and polished stones to surface her artworks.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1972, Saint Phalle shot footage for her surreal horror film "Daddy", about a deeply troubled father-daughter love-hate relationship. The filming was done in a rented castle near Grasse in southeastern France in association with filmmaker Peter Whitehead. In November, the film was shown in London. The following January, she produced a new version of the film, with additional scenes in Soisy and New York, and an expanded cast. The revised version premiered at Lincoln Center for the 11th New York Film Festival in April. She was also commissioned to design the cover of the program for the festival.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1973, Saint Phalle worked with Tinguely and Rico Weber on a commission from Roger and Fabienne Nellens to build a playhouse in the garden of their home in seaside Knokke-le-Zoute, Belgium. The "Le Dragon" they built was a substantial structure, high and long, made using techniques derived from the earlier "Le Rêve de l'oiseau" and "Golem" projects. The fantastical building would eventually include a kitchen, bathroom, toilet, heating system, and bedroom, at an estimated cost of $30,000 to $40,000. The exterior was decorated with bright paintings, including ones done by Roger Nellens and the Formula 1 race-car driver Jacky Ickx. Similar to the "Golem" project the previous year, a long tongue formed an exterior slide from the upper level.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1987, graffiti artist Keith Haring would live in "Le Dragon" while working on a mural commissioned by Roger Nellens at nearby Knokke Casino, and would return for at least three summers. With Saint Phalle's enthusiastic consent, he would paint a long fresco along an interior stairway wall. Eventually, the building would be designated a Monument Historique of Belgium, though it would remain private property.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Saint Phalle continued to create "Nanas" for the rest of her life, but would soon focus her attention on a comprehensive project in Italy.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1955, Saint Phalle had visited Antoni Gaudí's Parc Güell in Barcelona, Spain, which inspired her to use diverse materials and found objects as essential elements in her art. Another influence was the Parco dei Mostri in Bomarzo, in the Lazio region of Italy. In the late 1950s, she and Jean Tinguely had visited "Le Palais Idéal" built by Ferdinand Cheval (known as "Le Facteur Cheval") in Hauterives, France, as well as Simon Rodia's "Watts Towers" in Los Angeles in the early 1960s. Both these latter locations were examples of fantastical outsider art and architecture built by ordinary working men of modest means but an expansive vision. Saint Phalle decided that she wanted to make something similar: a magnificent sculpture garden, but created by a woman.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The founding sponsors for her ambitious project were members of the Italian Agnelli family. In 1974, Saint Phalle became ill with a pulmonary abscess from her work with polyester and was hospitalized in Arizona. She then recuperated in St. Moritz, Switzerland. She reconnected with Marella Agnelli, a friend from the 1950s in New York, and told Agnelli about her ideas for a fantasy garden. In 1978, Agnelli's brothers Carlo and Nicola Caracciolo offered a parcel of their land in Tuscany for the garden's site.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1974, Saint Phalle created a trio of monumental "Nana"s installed next to the River Leine in Hanover, Germany. City leaders were initially inundated with over 20,000 letters of complaint, but eventually the figures were affectionately nicknamed "Sophie", "Charlotte", and "Caroline" in honor of three of the city's historical women.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1975, Saint Phalle wrote the screenplay for "Un rêve plus long que la nuit" ("A Dream Longer Than the Night", later also called "Camélia et le Dragon"), and she recruited many of her artist friends to help make it into a film, a phantasmagorical tale of dragons, monsters, and adolescence. A young girl is held captive by a dragon, manages to escape, and must explore "Sept Portes du Mystère" ("Seven Doors of Mystery") to find love. Saint Phalle's daughter Laura was the lead character in the film, appearing with Saint Phalle, Jean Tinguely, and other artist friends; Peter Whitehead composed the music. For the filming, she designed several pieces of furniture, which were later displayed on the facade of the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels. From 1968 to 1988, she also worked on "Last Night I Had a Dream", a sculptural relief painting that included many elements from her earlier life and dreams.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1976, she retreated to the Swiss Alps to refine her plans for the sculpture park. In 1977 Ricardo Menon, an Argentinian, became her assistant; he would work closely with her until 1986.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1977, she worked with the English writer Constantin Mulgrave to design sets for "The Traveling Companion", based on a Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale, but the project was never completed. She and Mulgrave lived together for around four years, but Tinguely remained a continually reappearing presence in her life.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1978, Saint Phalle started to lay out her sculpture garden in an abandoned quarry in Garavicchio, Tuscany, about north-west of Rome near the west coast of the Italian peninsula. The following year, sites were cleared, and foundations were established.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1979, she produced the first of what would become a new series of sculptures, the "Skinnies". These were flat, planar, see-through outlines of heads and figures, highlighted by patches of color. In some ways, they resembled her colorful sketches and drawings but scaled up to monumental size. The series also symbolized Saint Phalle's struggles against emphysema and illness. She continued to produce her "Nanas" in addition to her new style of sculpture, and both styles of figures would appear in her "Tarot Garden" project.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1980, Saint Phalle and her team began to build the first architectural sculpture in the garden. As the project progressed, Saint Phalle started taking lessons in the Italian language, to better communicate with local workers. The second crew member she hired was Ugo Celletti, a 50-year-old part-time postal delivery man, who discovered a love for mosaic work on the project. He would work on the project for 36 years and recruit his nephews to join in; some family members are still involved in maintaining the site.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: She invited artist friends from Argentina, Scotland, Holland, and France to help work on the sculptures. Over time, Saint Phalle worked with dozens of people, including architects, ceramicists, ironworkers, bricklayers, painters, and mosaic artists. The materials used in the "Tarot Garden" project would include steel, iron, cement, polyester, ceramic, mosaic glass, mirrors, and polished stones (which she called "M&M's").


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The structure of the more massive sculptures was very similar to the temporary "Hon" installation at the Moderna Museet in 1966, but this time the artworks were outdoors and needed to withstand the long-term weathering effects of sun and rain. The basic shape of the sculptures was established with frameworks made of welded steel rebar. A second layer of lighter-gauge steel reinforcement bars was added, followed by two layers of expanded metal. A specialist firm was then brought in to spray shotcrete onto the structure. A layer of tar for waterproofing and a final layer of white cement produced a sturdy, hollow structure ready for decoration.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1980, she also began selling a series of polyester snake chairs, vases, and lamps. That year, she recorded her first attack of rheumatoid arthritis, a painful disease affecting the joints of the skeleton.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1980–1981, she designed a colorful paint scheme for a Piper Aerostar 602 P twin-engine airplane, which participated in the first trans-Atlantic race sponsored by the Peter Stuyvesant Foundation of Amsterdam. As an act of playful rebellion against the cigarette manufacturer sponsor, she added a "No Smoking" sign visible on the belly of the plane (she was allergic to tobacco smoke).


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1981, Saint Phalle rented a small house near the "Tarot Garden" and hired young people from Garavicchio to help with construction of the garden. Jean Tinguely led a Swiss team, comprising Seppi Imhoff and Rico Weber, and started welding the frames of the sculptures. The following year, Dutch artist Doc Winsen (also called "Dok van Winsen") took up the welding operations.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1982, Saint Phalle developed and marketed an eponymous perfume, using the proceeds to help finance her project. The perfume bottle top featured a small sculpture of two intertwined snakes, one golden and the other brightly multicolored. This was one of the first of what came to be called celebrity perfumes, using fame and name recognition to sell scented products. She may have raised as much as a third of the funds she needed for the garden in this way. She actively solicited funding from friends and acquaintances, as well as by selling her artworks.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In August 1982, Saint Phalle was honored at the Street Festival of the Arts in New York City. Later that year, Saint Phalle collaborated with Tinguely to produce the "Stravinsky Fountain", a 15-piece sculptural fountain for Igor Stravinsky Square, located next to the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris. Because of its prominent location in Paris, it would become one of the best-known collaborations between the two artists.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: From 1983 until 1988 when on site, Saint Phalle lived in a small apartment built into "The Empress", a house-sized sphinx-like sculpture in the garden. On the second level, her bedroom was inside one breast, and her kitchen was inside the other one. Each of these two rooms had a single recessed circular window, appearing as an inverted nipple when viewed from the outside. In 2000, she would recall: "At last, my lifelong wish to live inside a sculpture was going to be granted: a space entirely made out of undulating curves ... I wanted to invent a new mother, a mother goddess, and be reborn within its form ... I would sleep in one breast. In the other, I would put my kitchen".


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The ground floor contained a large mirrored space with a mirrored dining table where she would serve lunch to workers and artists, beneath a chandelier Tinguely had made with a cow skull. She used this motherly role to help reinforce her authority in directing the team of men she needed to help build her project. Eventually, she would grow tired of the cramped space "in the womb of her mother", and after 1988 would move into a New-York-loft-style studio which she had built for herself underground at the site. Her assistant Ricardo Menon would live in the "Tower of Babel" structure while on site, working closely with Saint Phalle and caring for her during crippling arthritis flareups.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Around 1983, Saint Phalle decided to cover her "Tarot Garden" sculptures primarily in durable ceramic colored tiles, adding shards of mirrors and glass, and polished stones. Menon helped her recruit Venera Finocchiaro, a ceramics teacher from Rome; she taught local women new techniques for molding ceramic pieces to curved surfaces and installed on-site ovens to finish the pieces. Starting in 1985, Jean Tinguely added motorized and stationary steel sculptures and fountains to the project. Robert Haligon and his sons did much of the work which involved polyester resins. Saint Phalle asked Pierre Marie Lejeune to create a cement path, which he inscribed with hieroglyphs, other signs and symbols, and text. During this period, Saint Phalle dedicated almost all of her time to living and working in the garden.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1986 Menon left to attend a drama school in Paris, but kept secret from Saint Phalle that he had contracted AIDS. While there, he recruited fellow Argentinian Marcelo Zitelli to work for Saint Phalle as a gardener, but he in turn became her assistant for other work as well, helping her fabricate sculptures for at least the next decade.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The same year, Saint Phalle took some time to collaborate with (a German medical professor of immunology) in writing and illustrating her book "AIDS: You Can’t Catch It Holding Hands", intended for students in middle school or high school. It was first published in San Francisco in English, then later translated into five different languages; 70,000 copies were sold or given to medical institutions and schools. The book was considered influential in early efforts supporting public health education about the disease.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: From 1987 to 1993, Saint Phalle spent more of her time in Paris, where she developed many of the smaller sculptures for the garden. From time to time, she would organize gallery shows of her art, including maquettes of her more significant works, to raise funds for the garden project. Saint Phalle also worked on establishing a permanent legal structure for the preservation and maintenance of the garden.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1988, Saint Phalle participated in a worldwide touring exhibition of kites. Her contribution was a gigantic kite inspired by her "oiseau amoreux" ("amorous bird") series of sculptures.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1992–1993, corrective maintenance on the "Tarot Garden" sculptures was performed, using new glues and silicones to attach mirrors and glass elements more securely, to withstand weathering and the touch of many visitors' hands. , a similar restoration process of re-attaching mirrors was ongoing with "Le Cyclop", located in Milly-la-Forêt, near Paris.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The "Tarot Garden" was under development for almost 30 years, and $5 million (roughly $11 million in 2016 dollars) was spent to construct it. The Foundation of the Tarot Garden was constituted in 1997 (and would attain official juridical status in 2002), and the garden officially opened to the public on 15 May 1998. The completed garden (called "il Giardino dei Tarocchi" in Italian, and "le Jardin des Tarots" in French) now contains sculptures and architectural sculptures representing the 22 cards of Major Arcana found in the Tarot deck of cards, plus other smaller artworks. The site covers around on the southern slope of the hill of Garavicchio, in Capalbio. The tallest sculptures are about high.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Saint Phalle's friend, architect Mario Botta, built a fortress-like protective wall and a porthole-shaped gateway at the entrance to the garden, marking a distinctive separation from the outside world. The entry structure also houses a ticket office, a gift shop, and restrooms for visitors. Within the park, there are fountains, courtyards, a multilevel tower, and many larger-than-life mythical creatures. Saint Phalle designed a brochure containing a map and other information for visitors to the garden, which is open seasonally.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In her final years, Saint Phalle was afflicted with emphysema, asthma, and severe arthritis, which she and many commentators attributed to exposure to airborne glass fibers, fumes, and petrochemicals from materials used in her artworks. Despite these handicaps, she launched into exploring new venues, new technologies, and new art media.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1989, Ricardo Menon, Saint Phalle's former assistant, died of AIDS; his loss plunged Saint Phalle into depression. She created a large mosaic sculpture of a cat, "Chat de Ricardo", to serve as his cemetery headstone in Montparnasse Cemetery, Paris, France. She placed a second copy of the memorial sculpture in her "Tarot Garden" in Tuscany, where he had worked closely with her for nearly a decade.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1990, Saint Phalle completed "Skull (Meditation Room)", a tall room-sized skull-shaped enclosure surfaced in colorful mosaics and lined inside with mosaic mirrors, to memorialize the AIDS crisis. She also used bronze for the first time, in a series of Egyptian gods and goddesses.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1991, she produced a maquette for "Le Temple Idéal" ("The Ideal Temple"), a place of worship welcoming all religions, in response to the religious intolerance she saw while working in Jerusalem. The city of Nîmes (France) commissioned her to build the architectural sculpture, but the project never was constructed, due to politics. Over the years, she had become interested in myths and religious traditions beyond her childhood Roman Catholic upbringing, including Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, and ancient Egyptian beliefs.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In August 1991, Jean Tinguely died suddenly of a heart attack in Bern, Switzerland. During his previous two years of declining health, he had stopped taking medication and began preparing for death. The couple had separated years ago, but remained very close; the loss of her longtime collaborator and intimate friend affected Saint Phalle deeply. She was writing a memoir letter about their first meeting when news of his death reached her.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In his memory, Saint Phalle created her first kinetic sculptures, which she called "Méta-Tinguelys". With initial assistance from her artist friend Larry Rivers, she created a series of kinetic reliefs or moving paintings, called "Tableaux Éclatés" ("Shattered Paintings"), in homage to her late husband and colleague. When a visitor approached, a photocell would trigger motors which caused elements of the paintings to separate.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Saint Phalle lost many friends and associates to AIDS, including Jean-Jacques Goetzman, who died in 1992. She memorialized him with "Oiseau pour Jean-Jacques" ("Bird for Jean-Jacques"), a large reflective abstract bird sculpture at Montparnasse Cemetery.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: As her health deteriorated, she worked on creating the Museum Tinguely in Basel, Switzerland, as well as continuing work on her "Tarot Garden". During this time, she became a good friend of the museum's architect Mario Botta, and she also engaged him to design the wall and entryway to her "Tarot Garden".


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1994, Saint Phalle published her hand-illustrated and hand-colored memoirs "Mon Secret" ("My Secret") in French and revealed her childhood history of sexual abuse. In 1999, she released "Traces", an English-language autobiography, which she also illustrated. In 2006, "Harry and Me: The Family Years; 1950–1960" was published (posthumously), consisting of her self-illustrated memoirs from the decade when she was married to Harry Mathews.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Saint Phalle moved from Paris to La Jolla, California in 1994 for health reasons. She set up a new studio and produced sculptures which were covered with mirrors, glass, and polished stones, instead of paints. In her new workspace, she started to explore novel technologies for designing and creating artwork. She also became an active member of the San Diego art scene, participating in fund-raisers and exhibitions there.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1994 she designed a stamp for Swiss Post, with the message "Stop AIDS/Stop SIDA", for which she was awarded the Prix Caran d’Ache. She also began a series of silkscreened works, which she called "California Diary", featuring local fauna. She started a new series of "Totem" pillars of stacked human or animal figures and anatomical fragments.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1994, she finally declared the collaborative sculpture "Le Cyclop", started in 1969 by Tinguely and worked on by 15 artists, to be finished. The President of France, François Mitterrand, opened the work to the general public in May. To control vandalism, the installation was donated to the French state, which has taken responsibility for its safeguarding and maintenance. The massive structure is tall, weighs , and is filled with custom-built artworks, including a giant rolling ball sculpture. Many of the artworks are kinetic, endowing the installation with constant motion, and producing loud groaning and other mechanical noises.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In October 1994, the Niki Museum, dedicated to telling the story of her life and artwork, was opened in Nasu, Japan. However, the Niki Museum would later be forced to close in 2011.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1994, Saint Phalle worked with Peter Schamoni in making a documentary film about her life story, "Niki de Saint Phalle: Wer ist das Monster – Du oder ich?" ("Who is the Monster, You or I?"). In 1995, the film was awarded the Bavarian Film Award for best documentary.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1996, she began building "Gila", a large dragon-shaped children's playhouse for a San Diego private residence. This project was her first use of digital techniques to enlarge drawings into full-scale construction.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1996, she supported the opening of the Museum Tinguely in Basel, by donating 55 major sculptures and over 100 graphic works by Tinguely, which constituted much of the core collection. She also donated some of her and her husband's artwork to create at the Musée d’art et d’histoire in Fribourg, Switzerland.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1998, she created a series of "Black Heroes" sculptures in honor of African-Americans who made major contributions to sports or jazz, including Miles Davis, Louis Armstrong, and Josephine Baker. She dedicated the series to her great-grandchildren, who are of mixed race. She also completed her series of 23 large animals for the "Noah's Ark" sculptural park at the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo with the assistance of her international team of artisans, and in collaboration with architect Mario Botta.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 1999, she debuted a monumental statue of "Buddha", a one-eyed contemplative figure seated in the lotus position. The figure is covered with glittering mosaic tiles, glass, mirrors, and polished stones.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: On 17 November 2000, she became an honorary citizen of Hannover, Germany, and donated 300 pieces of her artwork to the Sprengel Museum located there. In 2000, the artist was awarded the Praemium Imperiale award for sculpture, by the Japan Art Association. The award is considered to be the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in the world of art.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: In 2001, she gave 170 pieces to the Musée d'art moderne et d'art contemporain (MAMAC) in Nice, France, and donated other works to the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: She also designed and built for the Port of San Diego a tall, 10-ton sculpture, "Coming Together". The largest of her "Skinnies" series, the artwork consists of a colorful half female and a black-and-white half male face joined together, covered with mosaic and stones. The dedication ceremony was delayed to 25 October 2001 because of the September 11 attacks the previous month; the artist was unable to attend because of her deteriorating health. The artwork signified her interpretation of yin and yang, sickness and health, and the integration of dual aspects into a unified whole.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Saint Phalle endured intensive care hospitalization for six months before dying of respiratory failure (caused by emphysema) at Scripps Memorial Hospital in La Jolla, on 21 May 2002. She was attended by her first husband Harry Mathews, and their children.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Up until the end, she continued to design further developments for her "Tarot Garden" in Italy, including a maze, for which land was cleared, and metal rods were installed. Upon her death, all new developments in her garden were halted, as she had previously specified. Since then, some modest changes have been implemented, mostly to accommodate an increasing number of visitors. A garden cafe designed by Mario Botta has also been constructed. One salient exception is the Tarot figure of "Le Fou" ("The Fool"), which Saint Phalle relocated within the "Tarot Garden" at least twice during her life. This symbolic migrational tradition is expected to be continued from time to time.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Posthumously, the "Grotto" (2001–2003) was completed according to detailed instructions left by Saint Phalle. The permanent installation, in the "Grosser Garten", Herrenhausen Gardens, Hannover, consisted of three rooms which were decorated on every surface with mirrors, glass, ceramics, and colored stones.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Posthumously, "Queen Califia's Magical Circle" (2000–2003), a diameter sun-drenched sculpture garden designed by Saint Phalle, was opened in Escondido, California in October 2002. It is enclosed in a undulating wall topped with large python-like snakes, and includes a maze and 10 large sculptures she designed, comprising the most extensive public collection of her work in the US. The artworks were inspired by Native American culture, and decorations also included symbols and plaques referring to her earlier "Tarot Garden".


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Throughout her career, Saint Phalle was outspoken in addressing important religious conflict, political, pandemic health, race, gender, reproductive rights, food security, climate change, and cultural issues of the time. Her "Tirs" series and assemblages reflected the violence of the early 1960s Algerian War for independence from France and asserted her rebellion as part of second-wave feminism. In spite of the spectacular use of firearms in her "Tirs" series of early work, she supported gun control.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Her enormous, curvaceous "Nanas" celebrated the fecund female form, featuring large breasts and buttocks, splayed limbs, joyous dance postures, and often, black skin. She was one of the earliest artistic champions of AIDS awareness, creating artworks and a widely distributed educational book. Shortly before her death, she exhibited drawings critical of the George W Bush administration. In addition to her artworks, she wrote extensively in both French and English, and granted numerous interviews; much of this material is collected in her archives.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: Many of Saint Phalle's sculptures are large and are exhibited in public places. The Niki Charitable Art Foundation maintains an online map and catalog of all her extant public artworks, including a pizza oven in La Jolla, California.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: A “Jean Tinguely–Niki de Saint Phalle Museum” exists in Fribourg, Switzerland, entirely dedicated to her and her husbands’ works.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The Sprengel Museum has the largest holdings of Niki de Saint Phalle's work, and other major holdings are at MAMAC. Her archives and artistic rights are held by the Niki Charitable Art Foundation (NCAF) in Santee, California, near San Diego, which became active upon her passing. The NCAF maintains an online catalog of artworks in museums and major collections.


title: Niki de Saint Phalle

text: The Bechtler Museum of Modern Art in Charlotte, North Carolina has several works by Niki de Saint Phalle in its permanent collection, as well as the "Grand Oiseau de Feu sur l’arche" ("Great Firebird on the Arch", 1991) which stands on a sidewalk outside the museum.


title: The Breaker (manhwa)

text: The Breaker () is a South Korean manhwa series written by Jeon Geuk-jin and illustrated by Park Jin-hwan under the pen name Kamaro. "The Breaker" was serialized in Daiwon C.I.'s "Young Champ"s magazine between 2007 and 2010. A sequel, "The Breaker: New Waves", () was published on Daum Communications online comics portal from 2010 to 2015. A second sequel, "The Breaker: Eternal Force" began serialization in 2022 as a webtoon.


title: The Breaker (manhwa)

text: Chunwoo Han is a martial artist who earned the title of Nine Arts Dragon from the Murim, a secret martial arts society that exists in harmony with modern society. The Murim's government is the Martial Arts Alliance who has garnered Chunwoo's hatred by killing his martial arts teacher. In the present, Chunwoo Han transfers to a fictional school in Seoul for a mission given to him by the Black Forest Defense Group, an anti-government group who opposes the Martial Arts Alliance. At the school, he meets the protagonist Shiwoon Yi. To solve his bullying problem, Shiwoon has Chunwoo train him in martial arts. Chunwoo initiates his mission and frees Sosul, the head of the Sunwoo Clan, from the Martial Arts Alliance. As Chunwoo prepares to leave the country, the Martial Arts Alliance take Shiwoon hostage, forcing him to intervene. In the conflict, Chunwoo publicly renounces Shiwoon as his disciple and destroys his Qi-center which cripples his potential as a martial artist. In doing so, Shiwoon is no longer considered part of Murim and will be protected by law from martial artists who wish to take revenge on Chunwoo through Shiwoon. In the aftermath, Shiwoon is greeted by the Sunwoo Clan who reveal Sosul has named him as her successor.


title: The Breaker (manhwa)

text: The sequel "The Breaker: New Waves" continues with Shiwoon, who has declined his position as the head of the Sunwoo Clan. Meanwhile, the Martial Arts Alliance is losing its control over the world and a new group, acronymed SUC, begins terrorizing normal citizens under the name of the Nine Arts Dragon. Shiwoon becomes acquainted with Sera Kang who arranges a series of events and successfully restores Shiwoon's Qi-center. After learning about the existence of SUC, Shiwoon resolves to destroy them for tarnishing his teacher's name.


title: The Breaker (manhwa)

text: Shiwoon was a weak and cowardly boy who was constantly bullied. After meeting with Chunwoo Han and learning he can't be overly dependent on others, Shiwoon begins to improve himself, becoming more convicted to his sense of justice. In order to fix his body's weak Qi, Shiwoon ingests the One Moon Divine Pill (). Shiwoon is revealed to be a martial arts genius as he is able to learn techniques quickly. He is taught the Black Heaven and Earth Techniques () by Chunwoo. During the course of the series, Shiwoon is instated as the head of the Sunwoo Clan. His Qi center is destroyed in "The Breaker" which prevents him from doing martial arts but is repaired over the course of "New Waves".


title: The Breaker (manhwa)

text: Chunwoo is the last user of the Black Heaven and Earth Techniques. He earned the title of Nine Arts Dragon in a Murim tournament after defeating the other Arts Dragons. Because of his victory, his teacher, Unwol (), was killed by the Martial Arts Alliance out of spite. He joins the Black Forest Defense group as he intends to destroy the Martial Arts Alliance to avenge his master. He enters Shiwoon Yi's school to infiltrate Seoul for a mission and touched by Shiwoon's conviction, teaches him martial arts for a month before leaving Seoul. His lover, Shiho Lee is killed by the Martial Arts Alliance, furthering his hatred.


title: The Breaker (manhwa)

text: "The Breaker" was serialized in Daiwon C.I.'s "Young Champ"s magazine between June 1, 2007 and July 20, 2010. The series' individual chapters were encapsulated in ten volumes released between August 31, 2007 and July 27, 2010. The sequel, "The Breaker: New Waves", was serialized on Daum Communications' online comics portal from October 2010 to May 2015. "The Breaker" has been translated in other languages such as French, Italian, Russian, and Polish.


title: The Breaker (manhwa)

text: Manga News described the plot of the beginning chapters of "The Breaker" as conventional but intriguing. In further volumes, Manga News praised the action and the increased pacing of the story. Animeland agreed and praised the series for its extraordinary action scenes.


title: Violin family

text: The violin family of musical instruments was developed in Italy in the 16th century. At the time the name of this family of instruments was viole da braccio which was used to distinguish them from the viol family (viole "da gamba"). The standard modern violin family consists of the violin, viola, cello, and (possibly) double bass.


title: Violin family

text: Instrument names in the violin family are all derived from the root "viola", which is a derivative of the Medieval Latin word "vitula" (meaning "stringed instrument"). A "violin" is a "little viola", a "violone" is a "big viola" or a bass violin, and a "violoncello" (often abbreviated "cello") is a "small violone" (or literally, a "small big viola"). (The "violone" is not part of the modern violin family; its place is taken by the modern double bass, an instrument with a mix of violin and viol characteristics.)


title: Violin family

text: The instruments of the violin family may be descended in part from the lira da braccio and the medieval Byzantine lira.


title: Violin family

text: While the cello (which developed from the bass violin), the viola and the violin are indisputable members of the ancestral violin or "viola da braccio" family, the double bass's origins are sometimes called into question. The double bass is sometimes taken to be part of the viol family, due to its sloping shoulders, its tuning, the practice of some basses being made with more than four strings and its sometimes flat back. Others point out that correlation does not imply causation and say that these external similarities are either arbitrary or that they arose from causes other than a relationship to the viol family. They point to the internal construction of the double bass, which includes a sound post and bass bar like other violin family instruments as a more weighty piece of evidence than the external features. Its origins aside, it has historically been used as the lowest member of the violin family.


title: Violin family

text: All string instruments share similar form, parts, construction and function, and the viols bear a particularly close resemblance to the violin family. However, instruments in the violin family are set apart from viols by similarities in shape, tuning practice and history. Violin family instruments have four strings each, are tuned in fifths (except the double bass, which is tuned in fourths), are not fretted and have four rounded bouts while always having a sound post and bass bar inside. In contrast, the viol family instruments usually have five to six strings with a fretted fingerboard, are tuned in fourths and thirds, often have sloping shoulders, and do not necessarily have a sound post or bass bar.


title: Violin family

text: The playing ranges of the instruments in the violin family overlap each other, but the tone quality and physical size of each distinguishes them from one another. The ranges are as follows: violin: G to E; viola: C to A (conservative); violoncello: C to A (conservative); and double-bass: E to C (slightly expanded from conservative estimate). The double bass is often equipped with a mechanical extension or a fifth string that increases its lower range to either C or B, respectively.


title: Violin family

text: Both the violin and viola are played under the jaw. The viola, being the larger of the two instruments, has a playing range that reaches a perfect fifth below the violin's. The cello is played sitting down with the instrument between the knees, and its playing range reaches an octave below the viola's. The double bass is played standing or sitting on a stool, with a range that typically reaches a minor sixth, an octave or a ninth below the cello's.


title: Violin family

text: The top of the instrument, crafted from spruce, is thinner at the edges than the center. Similarly of a variable thickness, the back is most commonly crafted from maple (poplar and willow were used for some baroque instruments). The neck, bridge and ribs are maple, while the nut is often ebony.


title: Violin family

text: The instruments of the violin family are the most used bowed string instruments in the world today. Although all share a place in classical music, they are also used to a lesser degree in jazz, electronic music, rock, and other types of popular music, where they are often amplified, or simply created to be used as electric instruments. The violin is also used extensively in fiddle music, country music, and folk music. The double bass plays an indispensable part in both classical and jazz music forms.


title: Violin family

text: One of the most popular and standardized groupings in classical chamber music, the string quartet, is composed entirely of instruments from the violin family: two violins, one viola and one cello. This similarity in the manner of sound production allows string quartets to blend their tone colour and timbre more easily than less homogeneous groups. This is particularly notable in comparison to the standard wind quintet, which, although composed entirely of wind instruments, includes four fundamentally different ways of producing musical pitch.


title: Violin family

text: The octobass, a larger version of the double bass, is a rarely used member of this family constructed in the 19th century. It is extremely unwieldy to play and thus has not found much acceptance; nevertheless, it can be found in some Romantic-era scores and is called for occasionally in modern works. The octobass is played standing and its range typically reaches an octave below the double bass.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Promiscuity tends to be frowned upon by many societies that expect most members to have committed, long-term relationships.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Among women, as well as men, inclination for sex outside committed relationships is correlated with a high libido, but evolutionary biology as well as social and cultural factors have also been observed to influence sexual behavior and opinion.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Studies have related sociosexual orientation to sex drive, especially in women, where the higher the sex drive the less restricted the sociosexual orientation, or interest in sex outside committed relationships. Nevertheless, pertaining to the nature and nurture debate, there is some data emphasizing cultural factors, more so for women than for men. One review assessed that sociosexuality was affected almost equally by heredity and environment unshared with siblings; shared environment had relatively little effect.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Men tend to have higher sociosexuality scores and be more unrestricted than women across a variety of cultures. However, there is more variability in scores within each gender than between men and women, indicating that although the average man is less restricted than the average woman, individuals may vary in sociosexual orientation regardless of gender.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Body esteem in women showed a significant positive correlation with sociosexual unrestrictedness. So did hip-to-waist ratio and two measures of virilization. Finally, still in the same study, alcohol consumption correlated, too, but it is unclear whether the latter promoted the former or vice versa, or if a third variable was at play.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Bisexual women tend to be less restricted in their sociosexual attitudes than both homo- and heterosexual women. In sociosexual behavior also, bisexual women reported being more unrestricted, followed by homo- and then heterosexual women.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Social power has been popularly associated with sexual infidelity among men; experimental psychologists have linked power with sexual infidelity among women also. A Dutch study involving a large survey of 1,561 professionals, concluded that "The relationship between power and infidelity was the same for women as for men, and for the same reason. These findings suggest that the common assumption (and often-found effect) that women are less likely than men to engage in infidelity is, at least partially, a reflection of traditional gender-based differences in power that exist in society."


title: Female promiscuity

text: Church-attending women score lower on promiscuity than other women, while men appear to lack this correlation.


title: Female promiscuity

text: A 2010 study published in "Journal of Marriage and Family" found that there was a correlation between female pre-marital promiscuity and higher rates of divorce. The research, conducted by Jay Teachman, found that women with 16 or more sexual partners prior to marriage had an 80% rate of subsequent divorce.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Men and women leading polyandrous lifestyles have higher levels of testosterone. However, it is unclear whether higher levels of testosterone cause increased sex drive and in turn multiple partners or whether sexual activity with multiple partners causes the increase in testosterone. Sociosexuality in women is positively correlated with two measures of prenatal exposure to androgens—right digit ratio, and scores on the Vandenberg Mental Rotation test—providing some limited support to the virilization hypothesis of female promiscuity (see also Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation). The aforementioned hypothesis is not at all mutually exclusive with other hypotheses.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Libido is correlated with the menstrual cycle so that many women experience an increase in sexual desire several days immediately before ovulation. Testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the 14th day of the next cycle.


title: Female promiscuity

text: It is common for sex drive to diminish dramatically after menopause. A number of studies, including Alfred Kinsey's, have concluded that the average age group in which women are the most active sexually is their mid-thirties, one study liberally estimating 27–45 as the limits of the age group (the average man peaks earlier). Women in this age group typically report having sexual fantasies greater in number and intensity, engaging in sexual activity more frequently, and being more interested in casual sex.


title: Female promiscuity

text: One study in sexual antagonism suggested a possible genetic link between female androphilic promiscuity and male androphilia: Samoan tribal women exhibited a correlation between reproductive output and the likeliness of having androphilic grandsons, though not nephews (see also Fa'afafine).


title: Female promiscuity

text: Rate of molecular evolution of the seminal protein gene SEMG2 correlates with levels of female promiscuity.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Pathological overactivity of the dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway in the brain—forming either psychiatrically, during mania, or pharmacologically, as a side effect of dopamine agonists, specifically D-preferring agonists—is associated with various addictions and has been shown to result among some subjects of either sex in overindulgent, sometimes hypersexual, behavior.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Bateman's principle implies that females are choosy because there is little evolutionary advantage for them to mate with multiple males. However, observation of many species, from rabbits to fruit flies, has shown that females have more offspring if they mate with a larger number of males. This seemingly contradicts Bateman's theory, specifically his conclusion that "while males had more children the more partners they mated with, females did not."


title: Female promiscuity

text: Exceptions to Bateman's principle abound, as do hypotheses explaining the evolution of female promiscuity. Females in fact have a lot to gain, depending on the species (see here).


title: Female promiscuity

text: Many species once thought monogamous, including such birds as swans, are now known to engage in extra-pair copulation.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Thierry Lodé found possible evolutionary explanations for polyandry relating to sexual conflict, including mate competition and inbreeding avoidance. The following list is incomplete.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Evolutionary psychologists have theorized that taboos against female promiscuity evolved on the basis of paternity anxiety. DNA tests being yet to be invented, it was impossible to accurately determine paternity, unlike maternity. A male risked spending paternal investment on offspring who carried genetic material of another male rather than of his own. Evolutionarily, this translated into sexual jealousy and complex preventive customs (e.g., female genital mutilation, menstrual taboos).


title: Female promiscuity

text: Female promiscuity is a recurring theme in mythologies and religions. In the Middle East, sacred prostitution, usually in honor of Goddess Astarte, had been prevalent before the 4th century when Emperor Constantine I attempted to replace pagan traditions with Christianity. In Greek mythology, nymphs are portrayed as dangerous nature spirits sexually uninhibited with humans; hence, the Victorian medical term "". Imperial Rome is popularly seen as being sexually profligate, and certain Roman empresses—such as Theodora I, Messalina and Julia the Elder—gained in their lifetime a reputation of extreme promiscuity.


title: Female promiscuity

text: The Bible features many female personages identified as being promiscuous, among them the Whore of Babylon, Princess Jezebel, Prophetess Jezebel, Gomer, Rahab, Salome, and Potiphar's unnamed wife.


title: Female promiscuity

text: The development of chastity belts, apparently in the 14th century, proved handy to men worried about the prospect of their wives committing adultery.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Many cultures have historically laid much restriction on sexuality, most emphatically against immoderate expression of sexuality by women. In contrast, some recent ethical philosophies—both secular (coming from individualism and sex-positive feminism) and religious (e.g., Wicca, Thelema, LaVeyan Satanism)—either tolerate it or outright celebrate it.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Public opinion has fluctuated over the centuries, with such downturns as New England Puritanism (1630–1660) and the Victorian era (1837–1901), when hypersexuality was often treated as an exclusively female disorder, diagnosed on the grounds of as little as masturbation alone (see here). Up until the late 20th century, women could be incarcerated for promiscuous behavior in so-called Magdalene asylums, the last of which was closed in Ireland in 1996. From 1897 to 1958, Ontario used the Female Refuges Act to incarcerate women felt to be "incorrigible".


title: Female promiscuity

text: Following the Industrial Revolution (1760~1840), as Western countries underwent industrialization and urbanization, education and employment opportunities were increasing for women. This environment gave rise in the late 19th century to the feminist ideal called "the New Woman"—a personification of female economic, sexual and other autonomy—which had a profound influence on feminism well into the 20th century. It wasn't until the Married Women's Property Act 1882 that female British citizens were no longer legally compelled, upon marriage, to transfer all their property to their husbands. The women's movement was closely allied with the free love movement, whose advocates had a strong belief that a woman ought to be herself sovereign over her body.


title: Female promiscuity

text: The Roaring Twenties have been described as "a time when gin was the national drink and sex the national obsession." Popular at that time was a female subculture called "flappers", who flouted social and sexual norms and were considered a significant challenge to Victorian gender roles. But these sentiments were then overshadowed by the Great Depression.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Despite this, the 1925 silent film "The Red Kimono", sympathetic toward its promiscuous protagonist, was subject to severe censorship, and led to a landmark legal case, "Melvin v. Reid".


title: Female promiscuity

text: The 1950s in America is stereotyped to have been sexually repressed, though not as severely as the Victorian era. Female promiscuity in particular became substantially more accepted in Western culture after the sexual revolution of the 1960s, which resonated with the hippie movement. It also became more prevalent a theme in mass media, including cinema (e.g., "Sex and the City") and music (e.g., "Erotica" by Madonna).


title: Female promiscuity

text: Madonna has been at the forefront of the gender neutrality movement in terms of promiscuity since becoming a globally recognized entertainer in the 1980s. In addition to her sexually explicit song lyrics and occasional nude self exposures during live performances and almost being arrested in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, on 29 May 1990 for simulating masturbation in public, her book Sex released on 21 October 1992 was a commercially successful nude pictorial of her and various famous celebrities engaging in scenes of purported promiscuity, further enhancing her vision of gender equality in this regard.


title: Female promiscuity

text: There has been an increase in awareness of discrimination on grounds of promiscuity—apparent or actual—which at least since year 2010 has been called "slut shaming". On 3 April 2011, the SlutWalk movement—protesting against explaining or excusing rape by referring to any aspect of a woman's appearance and later, by extension, calling for sexual freedom in general—began in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and went on to spread throughout the world.


title: Female promiscuity

text: In the Islamic world, the "Ummah", female promiscuity is a major fear. A woman is obliged, in some countries legally, to wear a veil, such as a burqa or a niqab—in its own right, a symbol of "modesty" and "namus", i.e. female sexual restraint—so as to prevent the woman from having her body visible to any men other than her family or her sole husband.


title: Female promiscuity

text: When a Muslim woman is found to have engaged in extra-marital relations, she falls under the risk of being executed, either by a governmental institution or by natural persons. In the latter case, a common scenario, sometimes even among Muslims residing in Western countries, is family honor killing: the woman's relatives feel that she brought shame on their family, so they resort to homicide as a form of atonement. Otherwise, the woman may be given the penalty of capital punishment by a court, in accordance with the customs of Sharia Islamic law, which is based on the Islamic scriptures of the Quran and on Sunnah. For "zina", adultery, the Quran prescribes flogging 100 times in public; the Sunnah adds stoning ("Rajm") to death if it was extra-marital.


title: Female promiscuity

text: On 20 April 2010, Iranian Islamic cleric Hojatoleslam Kazem Sedighi provoked transnational ridicule by blaming promiscuous women for causing earthquakes. Six days later, on 26 April, the American Boobquake gathering, organized by the blogger Jennifer McCreight and attended by 200,000 participants, was held in response to it.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Japan wasn't as soon to be reached by the sexual revolution, originating in the American 1960s. The documentary "Japan – Female Sexuality" touched on the subject from a 1990s perspective, and reported the trend to be increasing.


title: Female promiscuity

text: The use of demographical methods in sexological research was pioneered by the American zoologist Alfred Kinsey, who published two books—"Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" (1948) and "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female" (1953)—collectively known as the Kinsey Reports. The reports defied the expectations of the public and paved the way for the sexual revolution of the 1960s.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Accurately assessing people's sexual behavior is difficult, since there are strong social and personal motivations, depending on social sanctions and taboos, for either minimizing or exaggerating reported sexual activity. Women tend to undervalue the number of their sex partners whereas men tend to overestimate the number of theirs.


title: Female promiscuity

text: In a 1994 study in the United States, almost all married heterosexual women reported having sexual contact only with their husbands, and unmarried women almost always reported having no more than one sexual partner in the past three months. Lesbians who had a long-term partner reported having fewer outside partners than heterosexual women. More recent research, however, contradicts the assertion that heterosexual women are largely monogamous. A 2002 study estimated that 45% to 55% of married heterosexual women engage in sexual relationships outside their marriage. While the estimates for heterosexual males in the same study were greater (50–60%), the data indicates that a significant portion of married heterosexual women have or have had sexual partners other than their spouse as well.


title: Female promiscuity

text: One international study found women to be more variable than men in their sex drive. International measurements of promiscuity are inconsistent from study to study, varying by the methodology used. Due to practical reason—the inability to survey a country's entire population—all studies of this class are inductive, generalizing about the general population based on assessments of sample groups supposed to be representative of the larger population being studied.


title: Female promiscuity

text: For example, in a non-scientific study conducted by the condom-making company Durex, British women reported fewer partners than British men, while the only country where women reported more sex partners than men did was New Zealand (20.4 versus 16.8), which was also the country where women reported more sex partners than did women from all other countries surveyed. To further complicate matters, a well-known study in general sociosexuality that surveyed 14,059 people across 48 countries, placed New Zealand, which came right before Slovenia, second to Finland; the United States, in the unisex scores of the same study, came in 22nd.


title: Female promiscuity

text: Sexual relations with multiple males are termed "polyandry". It has a more specific meaning in zoology, where it refers to a type of mating system, and in anthropology, where it refers to a type of marriage. Sexual relations with multiple females are termed "polygyny", but in zoology it can only be applied to heterosexual relations. Polyamory is sometimes defined as non-monogamy with consent of all parties involved, if within or without committed relationships. Attitudinal differences concerning sex outside committed relationships are referred to under the term "sociosexual orientation" or simply "sociosexuality".


title: Female promiscuity

text: Since at least 1450, the word "slut" has been used, often pejoratively, to describe a sexually promiscuous woman. In and before the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras, terms like "strumpet" and "whore" were used to describe women deemed promiscuous, as seen for example in John Webster's 1612 play "The White Devil".


title: Female promiscuity

text: Discrimination targeting individuals, specifically women, for sexual behavior deemed excessive, has been referred to, since at least spring of 2010, with the neologism "slut shaming" (also hyphenated, as "slut-shaming").


title: Female promiscuity

text: "Cuckold fetish" is colloquial for a paraphilia in which sexual gratification is gained from maintenance or observation of sexual relations by a woman with a man or a number of men besides her husband, boyfriend or long-term male sex partner.


title: Female promiscuity

text: The popular slang "cougar" refers to a woman who seeks sexual relations with considerably younger men.


title: Female promiscuity

text: The term "fallen woman" was used to describe a woman who has "lost her innocence", and fallen from the grace of God. In Victorian Britain especially, the meaning came to be closely associated with the "loss or surrender of a woman's chastity". Its use was an expression of the belief that to be socially and morally acceptable a women's sexuality and experience should be entirely restricted to marriage, and that she should also be under the supervision and care of an authoritative man.


title: Yakuza 4

text: A remaster was released on the PlayStation 4 on January 17, 2019 in Japan, and worldwide on October 29, 2019 as part of "The Yakuza Remastered Collection". Versions for Windows and Xbox One were released in January 2021. Because Hiroki Narimiya retired from acting due to allegations of drug use, the role of Tanimura was recast with Toshiki Masuda taking over.


title: Yakuza 4

text: The available mini-games are pachinko, fishing, onsen, massage, table tennis, hanafuda and karaoke, including duets with non-player characters (NPCs). In Haruka's Wish, the player must raise Haruka's trust level. Each main character has a side game or goal which must be completed, and many side games are related to trophies.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Akiyama may create with some NPCs by buying them items, or with some storekeepers by being a regular customer. His other mission, , is to scout girls for the cabaret he owns. A girl is improved by dressing her up and training her. After she becomes number one, the player can choose a final outfit for her and she will appear at the cabaret. A similar challenge in the Japanese version of "Yakuza 3" was cut from overseas versions and was reintroduced for its remastered edition.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Saejima's mission, is to train fighters to win tournaments after 50 rounds or less of training (building up movesets). Different movesets allow different moves to be performed.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Tanimura's mission, , is to keep the peace on the streets of Kamurocho. Radio reports tell him where to find incidents, and the player must defeat the perpetrator. In Kiryu's mission, , seven gangs attack him and he must fight to reach each gang leader.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Each character has his own style of fighting and special moves as their body frames are different. Kiryu focuses on the powerful blows of Karate and Boxing, Akiyama prefers swift attacks using Taekwondo, Saejima favors powerful and slow brawling/grappling attacks using wrestling techniques, and Tanimura uses the defensive maneuvers of Aikido and Jiu Jitsu that he learned from his time at the police academy.


title: Yakuza 4

text: "Yakuza 4" takes place one year after the events of "Yakuza 3". Like the original game, most of the action takes place in Kamurocho (resembling Shinjuku's red-light district, Kabukichō). Three locations have been added since "Yakuza 3": a rooftop area stretching across a large portion of the town, the back streets of Kamurocho (known as ) and a third area known as the underground (or , which includes the city's sewers, parking lot and shopping arcades). The underground area is also known as , short for "Kamuro Chika" (Kamuro underground).


title: Yakuza 4

text: "Yakuza 4" has three new protagonists in addition to Kazuma Kiryu, the main character since the original "Yakuza" game: Masayoshi Tanimura (Hiroki Narimiya/Toshiki Masuda), Shun Akiyama (Kōichi Yamadera) and Taiga Saejima (Rikiya Koyama). Other new characters include Junji Sugiuchi (Kenichi Endō), a Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department detective; Hiroaki Arai (Ikki Sawamura), a Tojo Clan yakuza; Seishirō Munakata (Kinya Kitaoji), a high-ranking police officer and a woman, Lily (Maju Ozawa). Returning characters are Haruka Sawamura, Goro Majima, Makoto Date, Daigo Dojima and Goh Hamazaki.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Loan shark Shun Akiyama learns that members of the Ueno Seiwa Clan, an organization involved in a power-struggle with the Tojo Clan in 1985, are causing a disturbance. Akiyama beats them up as Hiroaki Arai and his friend Takeshi Kido arrive. One of the men, Masaru Ihara, shoots Arai, misses, and flees. Arai pursues him. Akiyama returns to his office and finds Arai next to Ihara's body, having killed him. Arai flees, and Akiyama is arrested for the murder. His secretary gets him released, but the arresting officer, Junji Sugiuchi, warns Akiyama to avoid the yakuza. Akiyama reveals to Kido that he used money from the Millennium Tower explosion to start his firm. A woman named Lily requests a loan of ¥100 million. Akiyama learns that people involved with Lily are being murdered, and when he confronts her, she takes the loan and flees. Akiyama eventually meets Goro Majima, who reveals that he is looking for Lily to protect her.


title: Yakuza 4

text: In 1985, Majima and his blood brother, Taiga Saejima, prepare to assassinate the chairman of the Ueno Seiwa. Saejima is forced to perform the hit alone, killing eighteen men, though the chairman survives. Saejima is arrested and sentenced to death. In the present, with his execution approaching, Saejima is transferred to a prison off the coast. He meets former patriarch Goh Hamazaki, imprisoned for attempting to murder Kiryu, who reveals that Saejima was set up. They escape, and Hamazaki seemingly sacrifices himself to save Saejima from the prison's chief, Saito. Saejima washes up to shore and meets Kiryu and Haruka. Saejima tracks down and fights Majima, who reveals that he was intercepted on the day of the hit.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Detective Masayoshi Tanimura investigates Ihara's murder. He finds Lily, who is Saejima's sister Yasuko, and rescues her from the Shibata family. He learns that patriarch Kazuo Shibata is working with Arai and organized the 1985 hit with help from Isao Katsuragi. Arai shoots Shibata under Katsuragi's orders and flees. Yasuko reveals that Tanimura's father was investigating the hit, but disappeared. She was coerced into killing Shibata's men by Katsuragi, who promised to reexamine Saejima's case if she eliminated them or gave him ¥100 million. Tanimura meets Katsuragi to give him the money. Katsuragi reveals that he was responsible for the murders in 1985, and orders Tanimura killed. Sugiuchi saves him.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Tanimura's superior, Satoshi Hisai, reveals that Sugiuchi was his father's partner. Tanimura returns the money to Akiyama, and they conclude that Katsuragi is silencing anyone involved with the hit. Yutaka Mishima, Ihara's friend, contacts Tanimura, offering to inform on Katsuragi. Sugiuchi kills Mishima and reveals that he is Katsuragi's mole, and that he helped Katsuragi cover up the hit with Deputy Commissioner Seishiro Munakata. He also killed Tanimura's father. Hisai, who was Munakata's mole, kills Sugiuchi and commits suicide out of guilt.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Hamazaki, having survived, arrives at the Morning Glory Orphanage. He tells Kiryu he wants to reform and admits the theft of a ledger indicating that the police is using dirty money. He links the scheme to Munakata and Katsuragi, who plan to destroy the Tojo Clan and allow the Ueno Seiwa Clan to take over. When he goes to the police to surrender, they find Yasuko, and offer to help her. Saito arrives with orders to kill them. Kiryu beats him and goes to Kamurocho with Yasuko; Hamazaki is wounded and later dies.


title: Yakuza 4

text: The authorities raid Akiyama's office, so he and Tanimura agree to work together. Kiryu leaves Yasuko with Date, and goes to meet Majima, but sees him being arrested. Munakata meets Daigo Dojima, reveals his plan to give the police control of organized crime, and offers to eliminate the Ueno Seiwa if Daigo promotes Arai, who is an undercover police officer.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Kiryu finds Date drugged by Yasuko, who joins Akiyama and Tanimura and flees to the sewers. Kiryu beats them, but finds that Yasuko and Saejima have been captured by Katsuragi. Akiyama learns that Kido has stolen ¥100 billion yen from him, giving it to the Ueno Seiwa. Katsuragi offers to return the Saejimas and the money in return for the ledger, but Kido shoots him and gives the ledger to Arai, who shoots him and leaves. Katsuragi and Yasuko fatally shoot each other; and Arai shoots Munakata when he orders him to threaten Kiryu's orphans to recover the money.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Kiryu uses Hamazaki's death to motivate Saejima and Akiyama. They use Akiyama's money as a lure on the roof of the Millennium Tower. Daigo and Arai arrive to claim it, and Kido is revealed to be alive and working for Daigo. Munakata, having faked his death, brings officers to kill the others. Akiyama, Kiryu, Saejima and Tanimura defeat Arai, Daigo, Kido, and Munakata and his men. When Munakata declares that he is untouchable, Date scatters newspapers exposing his corruption. He shoots Akiyama, but a wad of money stops the bullet. Faced with prison, Munakata commits suicide. Arai surrenders to the authorities.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Months later, the group meets outside Akiyama's office, where he intends to restart his business. Date, who has rejoined the force, asks Kiryu what he intends to do; Kiryu, Daigo, and a newly-freed Majima appoint Saejima as patriarch of his own family.


title: Yakuza 4

text: The theme song to the Japanese version, played during the introductory video when starting the game, is "Butterfly City" by Japanese hip-hop artist Zeebra featuring Ryo the Skywalker and Mummy D. (Rhymester) with music by DJ Hasebe (also known as Old Nick). The music video, posted on Ariola Japan's YouTube channel, disclosed that R&B singer Double contributed vocals to the song. The CD was released by Ariola Japan (SME) on March 17, 2010 in a regular edition (BVCL-89) and a first-press limited edition, including a bonus video DVD (BVCL-87) and an alternate cover with Kiryu. Zeebra first contributed to the series with "Ryū ga Gotoku Kenzan!"s opening theme, "Bushido". The western version removes these songs and replaces them with original pieces due to licensing issues.


title: Yakuza 4

text: Three new tie-ins were made to shops: 's on Nakamichi Street, and Cuez Bar and Milestone in the underground. Advertisements for other companies (such as Nico Nico Douga) are in the game, especially on the walls in the underground. Promotional flyers can be found in the underground of the bowling alley, some of which offer discounts on in-game products, and there is advertising on both sets of coin lockers. A staff member at Volcano, the pachislot building, will ask for a password obtainable from the 777town website. Kamurocho residents' conversations refer to companies such as 777town.


title: Yakuza 4

text: "Yakuza 4" received mostly positive reviews from critics. The game received an Award for Excellence at the 2010 Japan Game Awards, and received a score of 38 out of 40 from "Famitsu". "GameSpot" described it as 'positively bursting with other things to do', and found the story 'benefits a great deal from its focus on four distinct heroes', thought noted that it 'isn't always told in an engaging way'. It has a valuation of 78 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 59 reviews.


title: Yakuza 4

text: On August 31, 2011, two new Yakuza games were announced: "Yakuza 5" and a sequel to the PSP game, "Kurohyō 2". "Yakuza 5" was released in Japan on December 6, 2012, and received a worldwide release on December 8, 2015, as a PlayStation Network download.


title: Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars

text: Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars is a Lego-themed action-adventure video game developed by Traveller's Tales and published by LucasArts in March 2011 for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360, Wii, Nintendo DS, Microsoft Windows and a launch title for the Nintendo 3DS. The game features missions and characters from the 2008 animated film "" and its , as well as fan-favorites from the original "Star Wars" saga, in both single-player and multiplayer gameplay modes. The Mac OS X version of the game was released by Feral Interactive.


title: Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars

text: Gameplay in "Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars" is similar to the previous titles in the series, and other Lego video games. Up to two players can switch between different characters to fight enemies in combat, solve puzzles, and progress through various levels. It introduces a few novelties, including "scene swap", where players can switch between teams in separate locations to complete multi-part objectives, and boss battles. The game also features some real-time strategy elements, such as commanding large ground armies across battlefields. Also, the space fights have been remodelled to use a more instinctive, 3D-space battle sensation. It is set during the "Clone Wars" animated series, as well as certain scenes from "", unlike the original games, which featured characters from the first six films of "Star Wars" such as "" and "". The console version of the game features 115 characters. The portable version features 77 characters. The version for the PSP, 3DS, and DS have some differences from the console version. For example, the ground battles are not featured. The portable version features unlockable minigames like Snowball Fight, Volleyball Droids and more. The rooms where vehicles are also not available to test in the ship itself unlike on the console version. Some levels are removed from the portable version. Some characters such as the Galactic Marine, Chi Cho, Ryo Chuchi, Thi-Sen and others, are featured on the portable version but not on the console version.


title: Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars

text: Overall, the game engine used by previous "Lego Star Wars" games has been upgraded. It can now hold more than 200 moving units or objects on-screen. The graphics are more detailed than before, and the lighting has been improved.


title: Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars

text: New features include scenarios in which players can command large armies of clones to battle against droid armies (although not on DS), and Story Swap mode, in which players can switch between two characters in different areas whose stories run simultaneously. The game includes split screen combat. All new character features include lightsaber throwing, picking up droids and stepping on certain pads in which Jedi do "combo moves" to destroy certain objects. Vehicle levels have been altered; now, players can land their ship and begin fighting on foot (similar to ""). All the original elements seen in previous Lego Star Wars games have returned. The hub has also been changed, taking place in a Republic Cruiser named the "Resolute" and also a Separatist Ship the "Invisible Hand". Characters can be purchased on these ships- Separatists on the Invisible Hand; characters from the Republic on the Resolute.


title: Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars

text: The game adapts the animated film "" and various episodes from the first two seasons of the , without dialogue and with many humorous deviations. The prologue level is based on the Geonosian Arena battle from "".


title: Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars

text: The game had been in development since late 2009 when the second season of "" started. The game was covered up and in June 2010 after the second-season finale The Lego Group started to work on adding the last part of the second season in and new things such as a new hub and a new way to use the lightsaber. Then in late 2010, LEGO finished the game and started to make promotions for it. On 23 June 2010, LEGO released the first trailer for the game and later in 2011 they released some demos and cutscenes. Nintendo have made 3DS trailers for the game too and also some E3 convention videos with the gameplay of "Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars". The official release date of the game was 22 March 2011.


title: Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars

text: The game has received mixed to positive reviews. "GameSpot" gave 6.5/10 for PC, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Wii while 6/10 for Nintendo 3DS. "IGN" Anthony Gallegos rated the PC, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3 versions of the game 7.5/10, the Wii version 7/10, and the DS, 3DS, and PSP versions 6/10. He commented on the vast variety in the in-game Hub; "the hub world is open to players to explore, but this time around, Traveller's Tales have really outdone themselves". They further stated "like so much of the Lego games design, when you combine these two relatively unexciting portions together, something strange happens: It becomes a simple, engaging game". "GameTrailers" gave the game 6.5/10, and called it "one of the dullest in the entire series", strongly criticising the game's repetition.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: The Copernican Revolution was the paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having Earth stationary at the center of the universe, to the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. This revolution consisted of two phases; the first being extremely mathematical in nature and the second phase starting in 1610 with the publication of a pamphlet by Galileo. Beginning with the publication of Nicolaus Copernicus’s "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium", contributions to the “revolution” continued until finally ending with Isaac Newton’s work over a century later.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: The "Copernican Revolution" is named for Nicolaus Copernicus, whose "Commentariolus", written before 1514, was the first explicit presentation of the heliocentric model in Renaissance scholarship.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: The idea of heliocentrism is much older; it can be traced to Aristarchus of Samos, a Hellenistic author writing in the 3rd century BC, who may in turn have been drawing on even older concepts in Pythagoreanism. Ancient heliocentrism was, however, eclipsed by the geocentric model presented by Ptolemy in the Almagest and accepted in Aristotelianism.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: European scholars were well aware of the problems with Ptolemaic astronomy since the 13th century. The debate was precipitated by the reception by Averroes' criticism of Ptolemy, and it was again revived by the recovery of Ptolemy's text and its translation into Latin in the mid-15th century. Otto E. Neugebauer in 1957 argued that the debate in 15th-century Latin scholarship must also have been informed by the criticism of Ptolemy produced after Averroes, by the Ilkhanid-era (13th to 14th centuries) Persian school of astronomy associated with the


title: Copernican Revolution

text: The state of the question as received by Copernicus is summarized in the "Theoricae novae planetarum" by Georg von Peuerbach, compiled from lecture notes by Peuerbach's student Regiomontanus in 1454 but printed only in 1472.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Peuerbach attempts to give a new, mathematically more elegant presentation of Ptolemy's system, but he does not arrive at heliocentrism.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Regiomontanus himself was the teacher of Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara, who was in turn the teacher of Copernicus.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: There is a possibility that Regiomontanus already arrived at a theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, as he paid particular attention to the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus in a later work, and mentions the "motion of the Earth" in a letter.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Copernicus studied at Bologna University during 1496–1501, where he became the assistant of Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara. He is known to have studied the "Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei" by Peuerbach and Regiomontanus (printed in Venice in 1496) and to have performed observations of lunar motions on 9 March 1497. Copernicus went on to develop an explicitly heliocentric model of planetary motion, at first written in his short work "Commentariolus" some time before 1514, circulated in a limited number of copies among his acquaintances. He continued to refine his system until publishing his larger work, "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" (1543), which contained detailed diagrams and tables.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: The Copernican model makes the claim of describing the physical reality of the cosmos, something which the Ptolemaic model was no longer believed to be able to provide.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Copernicus removed Earth from the center of the universe, set the heavenly bodies in rotation around the Sun, and introduced Earth's daily rotation on its axis. While Copernicus's work sparked the "Copernican Revolution", it did not mark its end. In fact, Copernicus's own system had multiple shortcomings that would have to be amended by later astronomers.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Copernicus did not only come up with a theory regarding the nature of the sun in relation to the earth, but thoroughly worked to debunk some of the minor details within the geocentric theory. In his article about heliocentrism as a model, author Owen Gingerich writes that in order to persuade people of the accuracy of his model, Copernicus created a mechanism in order to return the description of celestial motion to a “pure combination of circles.” Copernicus’s theories made a lot of people uncomfortable and somewhat upset. Even with the scrutiny that he faced regarding his conjecture that the universe was not centered around the Earth, he continued to gain support- other scientists and astrologists even posited that his system allowed a better understanding of astronomy concepts than did the geocentric theory.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was a Danish nobleman who was well known as an astronomer in his time. Further advancement in the understanding of the cosmos would require new, more accurate observations than those that Nicolaus Copernicus relied on and Tycho made great strides in this area. Tycho formulated a geoheliocentrism, meaning the Sun moved around the Earth while the planets orbited the Sun, known as the Tychonic system. Although Tycho appreciated the advantages of Copernicus's system, he like many others could not accept the movement of the Earth.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: In 1572, Tycho Brahe observed a new star in the constellation Cassiopeia. For eighteen months, it shone brightly in the sky with no visible parallax, indicating it was part of the heavenly region of stars according to Aristotle's model. However, according to that model, no change could take place in the heavens so Tycho's observation was a major discredit to Aristotle's theories. In 1577, Tycho observed a great comet in the sky. Based on his parallax observations, the comet passed through the region of the planets. According to Aristotelian theory, only uniform circular motion on solid spheres existed in this region, making it impossible for a comet to enter this region. Tycho concluded there were no such spheres, raising the question of what kept a planet in orbit.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: With the patronage of the King of Denmark, Tycho Brahe established Uraniborg, an observatory in Hven. For 20 years, Tycho and his team of astronomers compiled astronomical observations that were vastly more accurate than those made before. These observations would prove vital in future astronomical breakthroughs.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Kepler found employment as an assistant to Tycho Brahe and, upon Brahe's unexpected death, replaced him as imperial mathematician of Emperor Rudolph II. He was then able to use Brahe's extensive observations to make remarkable breakthroughs in astronomy, such as the three laws of planetary motion. Kepler would not have been able to produce his laws without the observations of Tycho, because they allowed Kepler to prove that planets traveled in ellipses, and that the Sun does not sit directly in the center of an orbit but at a focus. Galileo Galilei came after Kepler and developed his own telescope with enough magnification to allow him to study Venus and discover that it has phases like a moon. The discovery of the phases of Venus was one of the more influential reasons for the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism. Sir Isaac Newton's "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" concluded the Copernican Revolution. The development of his laws of planetary motion and universal gravitation explained the presumed motion related to the heavens by asserting a gravitational force of attraction between two objects.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: In 1596, Kepler published his first book, the "Mysterium Cosmographicum", which was the second (after Thomas Digges, in 1576) to endorse Copernican cosmology by an astronomer since 1540. The book described his model that used Pythagorean mathematics and the five Platonic solids to explain the number of planets, their proportions, and their order. The book garnered enough respect from Tycho Brahe to invite Kepler to Prague and serve as his assistant.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: In 1600, Kepler set to work on the orbit of Mars, the second most eccentric of the six planets known at that time. This work was the basis of his next book, the "Astronomia nova", which he published in 1609. The book argued heliocentrism and ellipses for planetary orbits instead of circles modified by epicycles. This book contains the first two of his eponymous three laws of planetary motion. In 1619, Kepler published his third and final law which showed the relationship between two planets instead of single planet movement.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Kepler's work in astronomy was new in part. Unlike those who came before him, he discarded the assumption that planets moved in a uniform circular motion, replacing it with elliptical motion. Also, like Copernicus, he asserted the physical reality of a heliocentric model as opposed to a geocentric one. Yet, despite all of his breakthroughs, Kepler could not explain the physics that would keep a planet in its elliptical orbit.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who is sometimes referred to as the "father of modern observational astronomy". His improvements to the telescope, astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism were all integral to the Copernican Revolution.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Based on the designs of Hans Lippershey, Galileo designed his own telescope which, in the following year, he had improved to 30x magnification. Using this new instrument, Galileo made a number of astronomical observations which he published in the "Sidereus Nuncius" in 1610. In this book, he described the surface of the Moon as rough, uneven, and imperfect. He also noted that "the boundary dividing the bright from the dark part does not form a uniformly oval line, as would happen in a perfectly spherical solid, but is marked by an uneven, rough, and very sinuous line, as the figure shows." These observations challenged Aristotle's claim that the Moon was a perfect sphere and the larger idea that the heavens were perfect and unchanging.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: Galileo's next astronomical discovery would prove to be a surprising one. While observing Jupiter over the course of several days, he noticed four stars close to Jupiter whose positions were changing in a way that would be impossible if they were fixed stars. After much observation, he concluded these four stars were orbiting the planet Jupiter and were in fact moons, not stars. This was a radical discovery because, according to Aristotelian cosmology, all heavenly bodies revolve around the Earth and a planet with moons obviously contradicted that popular belief. While contradicting Aristotelian belief, it supported Copernican cosmology which stated that Earth is a planet like all others.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: In 1610, Galileo observed that Venus had a full set of phases, similar to the phases of the moon we can observe from Earth. This was explainable by the Copernican or Tychonic systems which said that all phases of Venus would be visible due to the nature of its orbit around the Sun, unlike the Ptolemaic system which stated only some of Venus's phases would be visible. Due to Galileo's observations of Venus, Ptolemy's system became highly suspect and the majority of leading astronomers subsequently converted to various heliocentric models, making his discovery one of the most influential in the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism.


title: Copernican Revolution

text: In the sixteenth century, a number of writers inspired by Copernicus, such as Thomas Digges, Giordano Bruno and William Gilbert argued for an indefinitely extended or even infinite universe, with other stars as distant suns. This contrasts with the Aristotelian view of a sphere of the fixed stars. Although opposed by Copernicus and (initially) Kepler, in 1610 Galileo made his telescopic observation of the faint strip of the Milky Way, which he found it resolves in innumerable white star-like spots, presumably farther stars themselves. By the middle of the 17th century this new view became widely accepted, partly due to the support of René Descartes.