title: Peter Tatchell

text: He points out that much of his prison and asylum casework involves supporting Muslim prisoners and asylum seekers—heterosexual as well as LGBT. In 2006, he helped stop the abuse of Muslim prisoners at a Norwich jail and helped secure parole for other Muslim detainees. Half his asylum cases are, he reports, male and female Muslim refugees. Two of his highest-profile campaigns involved Muslim victims—Mohamed S, who was framed by men who first tried to kill him and then jailed him for eight years, and Sid Saeed, who brought a racism and homophobic harassment case against Deutsche Bank.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Tatchell chose Malcolm X as his specialist subject when appearing on "Celebrity Mastermind", explaining that he considered him an inspiration and hero (his other inspirations are Mahatma Gandhi, Sylvia Pankhurst and Martin Luther King Jr.). However, his endorsement of Bruce Perry's biography, in an article calling for black gay role models, led to criticism. due to Perry's claim that Malcolm X had male lovers in his youth.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In February 2010, Women Against Fundamentalism defended Tatchell against allegations of Islamophobia and endorsed his right to challenge all religious fundamentalism: "WAF supports the right of Peter Tatchell and numerous other gay activists to oppose the legitimisation of fundamentalists and other right wing forces on university campuses, by the Left and by the government in its Preventing Violent Extremism strategy and numerous other programmes and platforms".


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Tatchell had described the Muslim Council of Britain as being "anti-gay", asking how can "they expect to win respect for their community, if at the same time as demanding action against Islamophobia, they themselves demand the legal enforcement of homophobia?". He noted that the MCB had joined forces with the "rightwing Christian Institute" to oppose every gay law reform from 1997 to 2006. In January 2006, the MCB Chairman Iqbal Sacranie said that homosexuals are immoral, harmful and diseased on BBC Radio 4.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Tatchell argued that "Both the Muslim and gay communities suffer prejudice and discrimination. We should stand together to fight Islamophobia and homophobia". Tatchell subsequently criticised Unite Against Fascism for inviting Sacranie to share its platforms, describing him as a "homophobic hate-mongerer."


title: Peter Tatchell

text: When the MCB boycotted Holocaust Memorial Day, partly because it was "not sufficiently inclusive", Tatchell wrote that "the only thing that is consistent about the MCB is its opposition to the human rights of lesbians and gay men".


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In 2006, Tatchell wrote an opinion column in "The Guardian" arguing that Muslims deliberately conflate offence with violence, in an effort to suppress Muslim reformers in Britain. He argued that Islamist groups like Hizb ut-Tahrir in Britain see "any criticism of Islam is an insult and that all such insults are unacceptable" in order to suppress the "free exchange of ideas". The Muslim gay rights organisation IMAAN criticised Tatchell, saying, "OutRage! doesn't understand our cultural and religious sensitivities. Often, the way they word and phrase their press releases can and does antagonise Muslims. Much as we’ve invited them to meetings so we can talk about the best way to tackle Muslim LGBT issues, they insist on doing things their way."


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In the book ""Out of Place: Interrogating Silences in Queerness/Raciality"", in a chapter called "Gay Imperialism: Gender and Sexuality Discourse in the 'War on Terror'", Jin Haritaworn, Tamsila Tauqir and Esra Erdem wrote, "rather than help, politics such as Tatchell's have worsened the situation for the majority of queer Muslims. It has become increasingly difficult for groups such as the Safra Project, who are forced into the frontline of the artificially constructed gay v. Muslim divide, to contest sexual oppression in Muslim communities. The more homophobia is constructed as belonging to Islam, the more anti-homophobic talk will be viewed as a white, even racist, phenomenon, and the harder it will be to increase tolerance and understanding among straight Muslims [...] The dialogue which Safra and other queer Muslim groups have long sought over this is more often than not ignored or disregarded, and white gay activists such as Tatchell have proved indifferent to the fact that the mud which they sling onto Muslim communities lands on queer Muslims themselves."


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Despite previously attending a "rally for free expression", where the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons were celebrated, Tatchell sued the small publisher Raw Nerve Books, who issued an apology, and replaced links to the book on their site with that apology, but were later forced to shut down. The Monthly Review described this as censorship, adding, "the violent suppression of "Gay Imperialism" and the book in which it appeared also works as a warning to the authors, editors, and other critics and potential critics of Tatchell to better keep their mouths shut."


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In July 2004, then-Mayor of London Ken Livingstone invited Yusuf al-Qaradawi to attend a talk called "A woman's right to choose" about the wearing of the hijab. Livingstone had read positive coverage of Qaradawi in "The Guardian" and "The Sun".


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In October 2004, 2,500 Muslim academics from 23 countries condemned Qaradawi, and accused him of giving "Islam a bad name and foster[ing] hatred among civilizations" and "providing a religious cover for terrorism".


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Tatchell argued that Qaradawi expresses liberal positions to deceive the Western press and politicians, while being "rightwing, misogynist, anti-semitic and homophobic", using his books and fatwas to advocate female genital mutilation, blame for rape victims who dress immodestly, and the execution of apostates, homosexuals, and women who have sex outside marriage.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Livingstone issued a 2005 dossier praising Qaradawi as a moderate, based on positive press coverage he had received previously. Livingstone pronounced that Tatchell has "a long history of Islamophobia", and asserted that he is in a "de facto alliance with the American neo-cons and Israeli intelligence services." Tatchell strenuously denied the accusations, pointing out that he has never said any of the things that Livingstone accused him of saying. Livingstone continued to describe Qaradawi as "one of the leading progressive voices in the Muslim world" in 2010, after having been denied entry to the UK for his extremist views.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Two years after condemning Tatchell, Livingstone stated he "probably shouldn't" have called Tatchell an "Islamophobe".


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In December 2005, Respect Party activist Adam Yosef came under criticism for an article in "Desi Xpress" opposing registered civil partnerships. He asserted that Tatchell needed "a good slap in the face" and his "queer campaign army" should "pack their bent bags and head back to Australia". "Desi Xpress" staff expressed regret to Tatchell and gave him a right of reply, while Yosef apologised and retracted his article, claiming the "slap in the face" remark was a "figure of speech" and the remark about Australia was not racist. Yosef later backed Tatchell's 2009 election campaign.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: For over 20 years, Tatchell has written and campaigned about environmental problems including global warming and resource depletion, pointing out that they often have a disproportionately negative impact on developing countries. In the late 1980s, he was co-organiser of the Green and Socialist Conferences, which sought to ally reds and greens. He championed energy conservation and renewable energy; in particular tidal, wave and concentrated solar power. On 24 May 2009, he appeared on the BBC Daily Politics programme to oppose the Elephant and Castle regeneration scheme, which he said would bring few benefits to local working-class people. However, most of his campaigning continues to be in the areas of human rights and "queer emancipation".


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In August 2008 Tatchell wrote about speculative theories concerning possible atmospheric oxygen depletion compared to prehistoric levels, and called for further investigation to test such claims and, if proven, their long-term consequences.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Tatchell is an active supporter of animal rights, saying "human rights and animal rights are two aspects of the same struggle against injustice", and that he advocates for a "claim to be spared suffering and offered inalienable rights" for both humans and animals.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Tatchell campaigned on the issue of the constitutional status of Cornwall. In November 2008, "The Guardian" carried an article by him entitled "Self-rule for Cornwall", in which he said:


title: Peter Tatchell

text: This article received the largest number of comments to any Guardian article, according to "This is Cornwall". Over 1,500 comments were made, and while some comments were supportive, Tatchell found himself "shocked and disgusted" by the anti-Cornish sentiment shown by many commenters.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Tatchell has written numerous articles in newspapers and magazines related to his various campaigns. He was highly critical of the media coverage of the Admiral Duncan pub bombing, claiming than the homophobic attitudes of news outlets had helped fuel the attack, and that the press concerned themselves almost exclusively with the one heterosexual victim, rather than the two other deaths and the dozens of maimed patrons, saying that:


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In 1987 Tatchell appeared on the second programme of the first series of "After Dark", a discussion on press ethics with, among others, Tony Blackburn, Victoria Gillick, Johnny Edgecombe and a "Private Eye" journalist.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: On 5 August 1995 Tatchell was interviewed at length by Andrew Neil on his one-on-one interview show "Is This Your Life?", made by Open Media for Channel 4.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: Tatchell is a patron of Humanists UK, an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society and a committed secularist, saying, "As an atheist, secularist and humanist I believe that reason, science and ethics—not religious superstition—are the best way to understand the world and promote human rights and welfare."


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In 2009, he racked up multiple awards. He was named Campaigner of the Year in "The Observer" Ethical Awards, London Citizen of Sanctuary Award, Shaheed Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti Award (for reporting the Balochistan national liberation struggle), Evening Standard 1000 Most Influential Londoners (winning again in 2011), Liberal Voice of the Year and a Blue Plaque in recognition of his more than 40 years of human rights campaigning.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In 2010 he won Total Politics Top 50 Political Influencers. A diary journalist reported rumours that he had been recommended for the award of a life peerage in the British New Year Honours. He was said to have turned it down.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In 2012, the National Secular Society awarded Tatchell Secularist of the Year, in recognition of his lifelong commitment to the defence of human rights against religious fundamentalism.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: On 21 September 2012, he was awarded a Lifetime Achievement award at the UK's first National Diversity Awards. Alongside Misha B, Jody Cundy, Peter Norfolk and others he was a patron for 2013 National Diversity Awards.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: The Peter Tatchell Papers are held at the London School of Economics in the Hall Carpenter Archive. Supplementary papers are housed at the British Library. The papers can be accessed through the British Library catalogue.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: The Peter Tatchell Foundation (PTF) is a non-profit, nonpartisan organisation based in the United Kingdom which "seeks to promote and protect the human rights of individuals, communities and nations, in the UK and internationally, in accordance with established national and international human rights law" and its stated aims and objectives are "to raise awareness, understanding, protection and implementation of human rights, in the UK and worldwide". Tatchell started the Foundation as a company in 2011, which gained charitable status in 2018. The organisation was named after Tatchell to honour his 50+ years of globally campaigning for human rights. The charity's celebrity patrons include Sir Ian McKellen and Paul O'Grady.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: The organisation works with a variety of human rights issues globally, such as homophobia, transphobia, sexism, gender inequality, racism, political freedom, censorship, religious discrimination, unjust detention, freedom of association, capital punishment, asylum and refugees, trade union rights, self-determination of oppressed peoples, torture, genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and poverty.


title: Peter Tatchell

text: In 2012 the foundation gained funding from The Funding Network for three projects: "Casework & Advice", including adding an "Advice" section to its website; "Equal Love", campaigning on same-sex marriage and opposite-sex civil partnerships; and "Olympic Equality Initiative", working against sexism and homophobia in the Olympic movement.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: Volgograd Oblast (, "Volgogradskaya oblast") is a federal subject (an oblast) of Russia, located in the Volga region of Southern Russia. Its administrative center is Volgograd. The population of the oblast was 2,610,161 in the 2010 Census.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: Formerly known as Stalingrad Oblast, it was given its present name in 1961, when the city of Stalingrad was renamed Volgograd as part of de-Stalinization. Volgograd Oblast borders Rostov Oblast in the southwest, Voronezh Oblast in the northwest, Saratov Oblast in the north, Astrakhan Oblast and the Republic of Kalmykia in the southeast, and has an international border with Kazakhstan in the east. The two main rivers in European Russia, the Don and the Volga, run through the oblast and are connected by the Volga–Don Canal. Volgograd Oblast's strategic waterways have made it a popular route for shipping and for the generation of hydroelectricity.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: Volgograd Oblast was the primary site of the Battle of Stalingrad during World War II, often regarded as one of the single largest and the bloodiest battles in the history of warfare.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: Volgograd Oblast borders with Saratov, Rostov, Astrakhan, and Voronezh Oblasts, as well as with Kalmykia of Russia and with Kazakhstan (West Kazakhstan Region).


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: Most of Volgograd oblast is located in the Pontic–Caspian steppe. The Yergeni hills are located to the southeast. Forests cover 4% of the territory.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: Stalingrad Oblast () was established on December 5, 1936 on the territory of former Stalingrad Krai. The oblast was given its present name on November 10, 1961.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: In 1991 the CPSU lost "de facto" power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: The Charter of Volgograd Oblast provides the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Volgograd Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body, the Oblast Government, includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day-to-day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor, who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: The population of the oblast was 2,610,161 according to the 2010 Russian census, 2,699,223 in the 2002 Russian census, and 2,593,944 in the 1989 Soviet census. In 2012, there were 30,252 births (11.7 per 1000) and 35,021 deaths (13.5 per 1000). The total fertility rate was 1.46 in 2009, rising to 1.57 by 2016.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: According to a 2012 survey 54.5% of the population of Volgograd Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 4% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 2% are Eastern Orthodox Christian believers who don't belong to any church or are members of non-Russian Eastern Orthodox churches, 3% are Muslims. In addition, 18% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 12% is atheist, and 6.5% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: Both the flag and the coat of arms of Volgograd Oblast include an image of "The Motherland Calls", an 85 meter tall statue located in Volgograd.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: Primary branches of economics are agriculture, food production, heavy industry, gas and petroleum refining. The Volga Hydroelectric Station operates on the Volga River.


title: Volgograd Oblast

text: The largest companies in the region include Volzhsky Pipe Plant, Volgogradenergosbyt (a local electric power distribution company), OJSC Kaustik (caustic soda manufacturer), Volzhsky Orgsintez (a chemical plant).


title: The World God Only Knows

text: , abbreviated as , is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Tamiki Wakaki. It was originally serialized in Shogakukan's "Weekly Shōnen Sunday" from April 2008 to April 2014, with its chapters collected in 26 "tankōbon" volumes.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: The manga was adapted into three anime television series produced by Manglobe, which were broadcast in Japan from October 2010 to September 2013. In North America, the anime series were licensed for English release by Sentai Filmworks.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: Keima Katsuragi, a second-year high school student, is an avid player of gal games (video games that involve interactions with anime-styled pretty girls). He is known on the Internet as for his legendary skills to be able to "conquer" any 2D girl in games. However, in his actual school life, Keima is called , a derogatory portmanteau of the two words and .


title: The World God Only Knows

text: At the start of the series, Keima receives an e-mail offering him a contract to "conquer" girls and, thinking it is an invitation to a game challenge, he accepts. In response, a cute demon from Hell named Elsie appears: a Spirit Hunter. She asks for his cooperation to help her in catching the evil spirits that have escaped to the Human Realm: the "Loose Souls", which were once Old Demons from Hell. These evil spirits hide themselves inside the hearts of girls, feeding off the hosts' negative emotions to replenish their power and strength, thus becoming whole demons once again (and in turn, the host becomes an empty shell of a person). Elsie suggests that the only method to force the evil spirits out is by "conquering" the girls' hearts, making them fall in love with him and filling up the gaps which the escaped evil spirits hide in, in which she is then able to capture them. Interested only in video game girls, however, Keima is appalled by the idea, and refuses the assignment as he has no romantic real life experiences whatsoever. Nevertheless, with the contract already agreed, Keima has no choice but to help Elsie no matter what, as they will be beheaded by an invisible (to others) purple collar around their necks if they fail.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: After winning the hearts of fourteen girls (and capturing the spirits residing in them), Keima and Elsie are given an even greater mission: to awaken the six goddesses known as the Jupiter Sisters. Each sister is dormant in the heart of a girl among those they have previously helped, thus Keima must locate them and conquer their hearts a second time. This time however, they remember the encounters he has had with them already, due to the goddesses inside them, causing high tension and constant possible failure as he tries to conquer the girls simultaneously. However, his time is limited as a rebel demon faction called "Vintage" is planning to capture the goddesses and take over the world.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: After Vintage's plans are thwarted, Keima starts seeing visions of a child who is somewhat familiar to him. The goddesses send Keima and Elsie to the past with the task of helping her. Upon arriving, they team up with a mysterious girl who apparently has some connection with Dokuro, Elsie's superior in the underworld, and Keima discovers that several occurrences in the past are different from what he remembers, leading to a tragic chain of events that he must avert to ensure that the present stays unaltered, as well as another demon faction which releases giant humanoid monsters.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: As Keima completes his final mission, he discovers the truth about one of the giants and is able to reconcile with it. He is relieved from the collar and returns to his normal life in the real world.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: In addition to Keima's romantic comedy adventures, the series makes fun of and parodies common, and popular cliches about dating sims, anime character stereotypes, and pop culture.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: "The World God Only Knows" was authored by Tamiki Wakaki. He cited the 1996 visual novel "" as an influence on the manga.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: "The World God Only Knows" is written and illustrated by Tamiki Wakaki, serialized in the Japanese manga magazine "Weekly Shōnen Sunday" April 9, 2008 and April 23, 2014. Wakaki created a prototype version of the story which debuted as a one-shot in "Weekly Shōnen Sunday" 2007 Issue #32 and was titled, . Shogakukan compiled its chapters in twenty-six "tankōbon" volumes, released from July 11, 2008 to June 18, 2014.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: The series is licensed in South Korea by Haksan Culture Company, and the first two volumes of the series were simultaneously released on August 2009 with a limited edition supplement for each.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: A 3-chapter spin-off series, titled , portraying Kanon Nakagawa as a magical girl, ran in "Weekly Shōnen Sunday" from March 13 to March 27, 2013. The series was published along with additional chapters in a book, bundled with the limited edition of the 21st volume of the main series, released on April 16, 2013. Another spin-off series, titled , was serialized on the "Club Sunday" website in 2014. It was later released into a single volume with three additional previously published chapters on July 17, 2015.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: A light novel entitled , written by Mamizu Arisawa and illustrated by Tamiki Wakaki, was released on May 19, 2009, published by Shogakukan under their "Gagaga Bunko" label. The novel features a completely original story, disparate from the series, with original novel characters. A second light novel entitled was released on May 18, 2010.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: The anime adaptation was officially announced in the issue #19 of Shogakukan's "Weekly Shōnen Sunday" in April 2010. It was announced that script writer Hideyuki Kurata, character designer Watanabe Akio, and director Shigehito Takayanagi would be working on the project. The studio in charge of the animation was Manglobe. On September 18, 2010, Crunchyroll announced the anime would be streaming online on their site. The anime aired on TV Tokyo from October 6 to December 22, 2010, with the second season airing from April 11 to June 28, 2011. The third season, titled , aired on TV Tokyo from July 8 to September 23, 2013, and was simulcast on Crunchyroll.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: At Anime Weekend Atlanta 2011, Sentai Filmworks announced that they have licensed both seasons of the anime in North America and released the first season on DVD and Blu-ray Disc in January 2012.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: A prologue OVA episode was released and bundled together with the tenth manga volume on September 17, 2010. A second OVA episode, titled , was released on a DVD, bundled together with the fourteenth manga volume on September 16, 2011. A third OVA, titled , was released in two parts with the 19th and 20th volumes of the manga, on October 16 and December 18, 2012. A spin-off OVA based on the character Kanon was announced in the 2013 combined #2–3 issue of Shogakukan's "Weekly Shōnen Sunday" magazine. The spin-off is titled and was released bundled with the 22nd volume of the manga on June 18, 2013.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: The third volume of "The World God Only Knows" was the fourth highest-selling "tankōbon" in Japan on the Oricon Comic Chart for the week of January 13 and January 19, 2009, with over 50,500 copies sold that week. The following week, it was the twenty-first highest-selling manga volume in Japan, having sold 30,600 copies the week of January 20 and January 26, 2009. As of January 2009, the third manga volume have sold about 81,100 copies.


title: The World God Only Knows

text: Carlo Santos of Anime News Network reviewed the anime's first season and gave it a B where he was surprised how much he enjoyed the great storyline despite its plot description alone might be off putting to some saying, "By most expectations, anything involving ditzy demon girls and gaming-obsessed geekboys and a rotating lineup of high school beauties should have been the stuff of critical derision. Yet the show's sharp sense of humor, honest emotions, and polished production values prove that working with familiar clichés doesn't have to result in a clichéd product. With the right prodding and poking, any anime series can indeed become greater than the sum of its parts."


title: The World God Only Knows

text: In a 2019 "Forbes" article about the best anime of the 2010s decade, Lauren Orsini considered it to be one of the five best anime of 2010; she wrote, "What makes this show a standout of its genre is Keima's individuality; he's not a viewer stand-in, but an interesting and flawed character in his own right. Sharp production values and creative character design make this show a visual and audio treat".


title: Arjun Ashokan

text: Arjun Ashokan (24 August 1992) is an Indian actor working in the Malayalam film industry. Known for his roles as a supporting actor, he is the son of a Malayalam actor called Harisree Ashokan.


title: Arjun Ashokan

text: Making his debut with "Orkut Oru Ormakoot", along with a group of newcomers, Arjun first made a mark with "Parava", the debut directorial of Soubin Shahir, and later with "B. Tech" and the sleeper hit "June" produced by Vijay Babu, and "The Times of India" described him as a "scene stealer in his own right" for the later film. Arjun was also noticed in films like "Varathan", "Unda", " Super Sharanya" and "An International Local Story", directed by his actor father Harisree Ashokan.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton is a market town and civil parish in the Cotswold Hills in the West Oxfordshire district of Oxfordshire, England, about south-west of Banbury and north-west of Oxford. The 2011 Census recorded the civil parish population as 5,719. It was estimated at 6,254 in 2019.


title: Chipping Norton

text: The Rollright Stones, a stone circle north of Chipping Norton, reflect prehistoric habitation in the area. The town name means "market north town", with "Chipping" (from Old English "cēping") meaning "market". Chipping Norton began as a small settlement beneath a hill, where the earthworks of the motte-and-bailey Chipping Norton Castle can still be seen. The Church of England parish church dedicated to St Mary the Virgin stands on the hill next to the castle. Parts of today's building may date from the 12th century. It retains features of the 13th and 14th centuries. The nave was largely rebuilt in about 1485 with a Perpendicular Gothic clerestory. It is believed to have been funded by John Ashfield, a wool merchant, making St Mary's an example of a "wool church".


title: Chipping Norton

text: In July 1549 the Vicar of Chipping Norton, Henry Joyes or Joyce, led parishioners in a popular rising after the suppression of chantries and other religious reforms left him to minister alone to a congregation of 800 and reduced the budget for schooling. The rising was brutally put down by Lord Grey de Wilton. Joyes was captured, then hanged in chains from the tower of his church. The bell tower rebuilt in 1825 has a ring of eight bells, all cast in 1907 by Mears and Stainbank of Whitechapel Bell Foundry. It also has a Sanctus bell cast in 1624 by Roger I Purdue of Bristol.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Wool in the Middle Ages made the Cotswolds one of England's wealthiest parts and many of the medieval buildings survive in the centre of Chipping Norton. There is still a market every Wednesday and a mop fair in September, when the High Street is closed to through traffic. In 1205 a new market place was laid out higher up the hill. Sheep farming was largely displaced by arable, but agriculture remained important. Many original houses round the market place received fashionable Georgian façades in the 18th century. An inscription on the almshouses records them as founded in 1640 as ""The work and gift of Henry Cornish, gent"".


title: Chipping Norton

text: In 1796 James and William Hitchman founded Hitchman's Brewery in West Street. The business moved in 1849 to a larger brewery in Albion Street that included a malthouse and its own water wells. Three generations of Hitchmans ran this, but in 1890 Alfred Hitchman sold it as a limited company that acquired other breweries in 1891 and 1917. In 1924 it merged with Hunt Edmunds of Banbury and in 1931 the brewery here was closed. Other local industries included a woollen mill (see below), a glove-maker, a tannery and an iron foundry.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton had a workhouse by the 1770s. In 1836 the architect George Wilkinson built a larger one with four wings round an octagonal central building, similar to one he was building at Witney. The architect G. E. Street added a chapel to Chipping Norton workhouse in 1856–1857. The building became a hospital in the Second World War. It was taken over by the National Health Service in 1948 as Cotshill Hospital, later became a psychiatric hospital, and was closed in 1983. It has been redeveloped as private residences.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Its Town Hall designed in the neoclassical style was completed in 1842.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton Railway (CNR) opened in 1855, linking with on the Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway. In 1887 a second railway opened to the Oxford and Rugby Railway at and the CNR became part of the Banbury and Cheltenham Direct Railway (B&CDR). Extending the railway from Chipping Norton involved a tunnel long under Elmsfield Farm west of the town. In 1951 British Railways withdrew passenger services between Chipping Norton and . In 1962 it closed the station at Kingham, and two years later the B&CDR to freight, and dismantled the line. The disused railway tunnel is bricked up at both ends for safety and used as a refuge for bats. ("See Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981")


title: Chipping Norton

text: In May 1873 rioting occurred after the sentencing of the Ascott Martyrs – 16 local women accused of trying to interfere with strikebreakers at a farm. Bliss Tweed Mill in the west of town was built as a tweed mill by William Bliss in 1872. In 1913 to 1914 the millworkers struck for eight months. The mill closed in 1980 and was turned into flats. It remains a landmark, visible from Worcester Road. The town lost its status as a municipal borough in 1974, when the Local Government Act 1972 made it a successor parish in the district of West Oxfordshire. The neoclassical Holy Trinity Roman Catholic church was built in 1836 by the architect John Adey Repton, grandson of the English garden designer Humphry Repton.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton is in the Witney parliamentary constituency, whose Member of Parliament from 2001 to 2016 was David Cameron, prime minister from 2010 to 2016 and leader of the Conservative Party from 2005. Since 2016 the MP has been the Conservative Robert Courts. One Conservative and two Labour councillors represent the town on West Oxfordshire District Council.


title: Chipping Norton

text: The town theatre began life as a Salvation Army Citadel, its first stones, now visible in the auditorium, being laid in 1888. It continued as a furniture warehouse before being spotted by two Royal Shakespeare Company actors, Tamara and John Malcolm, in 1968. In 1973, fundraising for the new theatre began in earnest, and a pantomime, "Beauty and the Beast" was staged in the town hall. The Theatre was opened in 1975 by Tom Baker (who played the title character, the Doctor, in the BBC science-fiction TV show "Doctor Who"), beginning with a light programme including films and lunchtime jazz. The adjoining cottage was bought and converted into the bar and gallery. In 1990 a building bought in Goddards Lane now serves as green room, offices and rehearsal room.


title: Chipping Norton

text: The town hosts annual arts festivals: Chipping Norton Literary Festival ('ChipLitFest'), Chipping Norton Music Festival, and a jazz festival. The Theatre Chipping Norton opened in 1975 as a theatre, cinema, gallery and music venue for original productions and touring companies.


title: Chipping Norton

text: The town acts as a retail and leisure centre, with three supermarkets and numerous shops, including branches of national chain stores. It has four pubs, two hotels with public bars, and three schools. Holy Trinity Roman Catholic School and St Mary's Church of England School are primary schools. Chipping Norton School is the town's secondary school with a sixth form.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton Golf Club, now the Cotswold Club and part of Cotswold Hotel and Spa, is the oldest in Oxfordshire. It began in 1890 on Chipping Norton Common.


title: Chipping Norton

text: The first XV of Chipping Norton Rugby Union Football Club plays in the Southern Counties North League. It was league champion in 2007/08.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton has a purpose-built veterinary hospital, serving the community and the local zoos. The hospital's building was opened in July 2015 by then prime minister David Cameron. The previous premises were on Albion Street, where the practice had been based since it was founded in the 1970s. The hospital has a boarding cattery, a CT Scanner, and hosts one of only 15 radioiodine treatment units for hyperthyroid cats in the UK.


title: Chipping Norton

text: From 1989, the veterinary hospital had a partnership with the remote island of St Helena, using funding provided by the DfID for vets to visit the island. Since 2010, the island has had its own permanent vet and the connection has since been lost.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton Town F.C. ("The Magpies" or "Chippy") was founded in 1893 and plays at Walterbush Road. It resigned from the Hellenic Football League in favour of the Witney & District Football League.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton Town Cricket Club plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association Division 6. The town also has a bowls club.


title: Chipping Norton

text: From 1972 to 1999 the former British Schools building in New Street was Chipping Norton Recording Studios. "Baker Street" by Gerry Rafferty, "In The Army Now" by Status Quo, "Too Shy" by Kajagoogoo, "I Should Have Known Better" by Jim Diamond, "Perfect" by Fairground Attraction, "I Just Died In Your Arms Tonight" by Cutting Crew and "Bye Bye Baby" by the Bay City Rollers were recorded there. Jeff Beck, Barbara Dickson, Duran Duran, Marianne Faithfull, Alison Moyet, Nektar, Radiohead, The Supernaturals, Wet Wet Wet, XTC, Mark Owen and Chris Rea also used them.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton Castle was a timber Norman motte-and-bailey castle to the north-west of the town. Little of the original structures remains apart from earthworks.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Chipping Norton railway station served the town until 1962. The nearest stations now are at and . A community bus network called The Villager links residential roads and nearby villages with the town centre. Longer-distance buses run to Oxford and Banbury. Diamond and Stagecoach in Warwickshire operate service X50/50 to Stratford-upon-Avon.


title: Chipping Norton

text: Several media, political and show-business acquaintances living near the town, including David Cameron, have been called the "Chipping Norton set". Members regularly met socially. It gained notoriety after the News International phone hacking scandal, which involved several members. Those affected, along with several attending social functions, were victims of phone hacking by the "News of the World". Notable group meetings included the nearby wedding reception Rebekah and Charlie Brooks, a 2010 Christmas dinner at the Brooks's, and Elisabeth Murdoch and Matthew Freud's 2011 Summer party at Burford Priory.


title: Chipping Norton

text: The list covers notable persons with a Wikipedia page, born or long living in Chipping Norton. References are needed for information absent from the person's page.


title: Diego Llorente

text: Diego Javier Llorente Ríos (; born 16 August 1993) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Premier League club Leeds United and the Spain national team.


title: Diego Llorente

text: Having been developed at Real Madrid, who also loaned him twice to clubs in La Liga, Llorente signed with Real Sociedad in June 2017. Three years later, he joined Leeds United.


title: Diego Llorente

text: Born in Madrid, Llorente joined Real Madrid's youth system in July 2002, one month shy of his ninth birthday. In the 2012–13 season he made his senior debut, appearing with the C team in a 1–1 away draw against Caudal Deportivo in the Segunda División B.


title: Diego Llorente

text: On 24 March 2013, Llorente made his first appearance with Real Madrid Castilla, coming on as a substitute for injured Iván González in an eventual 4–0 home win over Córdoba CF. On 11 May, he was an unused bench player for the main squad in a La Liga match at RCD Espanyol, but finally made his debut in the competition on 1 June, replacing Álvaro Arbeloa for the dying minutes of the last game of the campaign, at home against CA Osasuna.


title: Diego Llorente

text: On 14 July 2015, Llorente moved to neighbouring Rayo Vallecano in a season-long loan deal. He scored his first goal in the top flight on 3 January 2016, the first in a 2–2 home draw against Real Sociedad, and was an undisputed starter as his team eventually suffered relegation as third from bottom.


title: Diego Llorente

text: On 26 June 2017, Llorente signed a five-year contract with fellow league team Real Sociedad. In his league debut, on 10 September, he contributed one goal to a 4–2 away win against Deportivo de La Coruña after replacing Iñigo Martínez midway through the second half. Four days later, in his very first appearance in European competition, he started and scored twice in a 4–0 home defeat of Rosenborg BK in the group stage of the UEFA Europa League.


title: Diego Llorente

text: Leeds United announced the signing of Llorente on a four-year deal on 24 September 2020, for a reported fee of £18 million. He made his Premier League debut on 5 December, coming on for the injured Robin Koch in the ninth minute of an eventual 3–1 away loss to rivals Chelsea. He scored his first league goal on 19 April 2021, heading home a cross from Jack Harrison in a 1–1 home draw against Liverpool.


title: Diego Llorente

text: In May 2016, Llorente was called up to the Spain national team by manager Vicente del Bosque for a friendly against Bosnia and Herzegovina. He made his debut later in the month, replacing Cesc Fàbregas in the 3–1 win in Switzerland.


title: Diego Llorente

text: A right-footed player who possesses good positioning and is strong in the air, Llorente can operate as a central defender or defensive midfielder.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Fermat's principle, also known as the principle of least time, is the link between ray optics and wave optics. In its original "strong" form, Fermat's principle states that the path taken by a ray between two given points is the path that can be traveled in the least time. In order to be true in all cases, this statement must be weakened by replacing the "least" time with a time that is "stationary" with respect to variations of the path — so that a deviation in the path causes, at most, a "second-order" change in the traversal time. To put it loosely, a ray path is surrounded by close paths that can be traversed in "very" close times. It can be shown that this technical definition corresponds to more intuitive notions of a ray, such as a line of sight or the path of a narrow beam.


title: Fermat's principle

text: First proposed by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat in 1662, as a means of explaining the ordinary law of refraction of light (Fig.1), Fermat's principle was initially controversial because it seemed to ascribe knowledge and intent to nature. Not until the 19th century was it understood that nature's ability to test alternative paths is merely a fundamental property of waves. If points "A" and "B" are given, a wavefront expanding from "A" sweeps all possible ray paths radiating from "A", whether they pass through "B" or not. If the wavefront reaches point "B", it sweeps not only the "ray" path(s) from "A" to "B", but also an infinitude of nearby paths with the same endpoints. Fermat's principle describes any ray that happens to reach point "B"; there is no implication that the ray "knew" the quickest path or "intended" to take that path.


title: Fermat's principle

text: For the purpose of comparing traversal times, the time from one point to the next nominated point is taken as if the first point were a "point-source". Without this condition, the traversal time would be ambiguous; for example, if the propagation time from to were reckoned from an arbitrary wavefront "W" containing (Fig.2), that time could be made arbitrarily small by suitably angling the wavefront.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Treating a point on the path as a source is the minimum requirement of Huygens' principle, and is part of the explanation of Fermat's principle. But it can also be shown that the geometric "construction" by which Huygens tried to apply his own principle (as distinct from the principle itself) is simply an invocation of Fermat's principle. Hence all the conclusions that Huygens drew from that construction — including, without limitation, the laws of rectilinear propagation of light, ordinary reflection, ordinary refraction, and the extraordinary refraction of "Iceland crystal" (calcite) — are also consequences of Fermat's principle.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Then the various propagation paths from "A" to "B" will help each other if their traversal times agree within the said tolerance. For a small tolerance (in the limiting case), the permissible range of variations of the path is maximized if the path is such that its traversal time is "stationary" with respect to the variations, so that a variation of the path causes at most a "second-order" change in the traversal time.


title: Fermat's principle

text: The most obvious example of a stationarity in traversal time is a (local or global) minimum — that is, a path of "least" time, as in the "strong" form of Fermat's principle. But that condition is not essential to the argument.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Having established that a path of stationary traversal time is reinforced by a maximally wide corridor of neighboring paths, we still need to explain how this reinforcement corresponds to intuitive notions of a ray. But, for brevity in the explanations, let us first "define" a ray path as a path of stationary traversal time.


title: Fermat's principle

text: If the corridor of paths reinforcing a ray path from "A" to "B" is substantially obstructed, this will significantly alter the disturbance reaching "B" from "A" — unlike a similar-sized obstruction "outside" any such corridor, blocking paths that do not reinforce each other. The former obstruction will significantly disrupt the signal reaching "B" from "A", while the latter will not; thus the ray path marks a "signal" path. If the signal is visible light, the former obstruction will significantly affect the appearance of an object at "A" as seen by an observer at "B", while the latter will not; so the ray path marks a "line of sight".


title: Fermat's principle

text: If the corridor of paths reinforcing a ray path from "A" to "B" is substantially obstructed, this will significantly affect the "energy" reaching "B" from "A" — unlike a similar-sized obstruction outside any such corridor. Thus the ray path marks an "energy" path — as does a beam.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Suppose that a wavefront expanding from point "A" passes point "P", which lies on a ray path from point "A" to point "B". By definition, all points on the wavefront have the same propagation time from "A". Now let the wavefront be blocked except for a window, centered on "P", and small enough to lie within the corridor of paths that reinforce the ray path from "A" to "B". Then all points on the unobstructed portion of the wavefront will have, nearly enough, equal propagation times to "B", but "not" to points in other directions, so that "B" will be in the direction of peak intensity of the beam admitted through the window. So the ray path marks the beam. And in optical experiments, a beam is routinely considered as a collection of rays or (if it is narrow) as an approximation to a ray (Fig.3).


title: Fermat's principle

text: According to the "strong" form of Fermat's principle, the problem of finding the path of a light ray from point "A" in a medium of faster propagation, to point "B" in a medium of slower propagation (Fig.1), is analogous to the problem faced by a lifeguard in deciding where to enter the water in order to reach a drowning swimmer as soon as possible, given that the lifeguard can run faster than (s)he can swim. But that analogy falls short of "explaining" the behavior of the light, because the lifeguard can think about the problem (even if only for an instant) whereas the light presumably cannot. The discovery that ants are capable of similar calculations does not bridge the gap between the animate and the inanimate.


title: Fermat's principle

text: In contrast, the above assumptions (1) to (3) hold for any wavelike disturbance and explain Fermat's principle in purely mechanistic terms, without any imputation of knowledge or purpose.


title: Fermat's principle

text: The principle applies to waves in general, including (e.g.) sound waves in fluids and elastic waves in solids. In a modified form, it even works for matter waves: in quantum mechanics, the classical path of a particle is obtainable by applying Fermat's principle to the associated wave — except that, because the frequency may vary with the path, the stationarity is in the phase shift (or number of cycles) and not necessarily in the time.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Fermat's principle is most familiar, however, in the case of visible light: it is the link between geometrical optics, which describes certain optical phenomena in terms of "rays", and the wave theory of light, which explains the same phenomena on the hypothesis that light consists of "waves".


title: Fermat's principle

text: In this article we distinguish between Huygens' "principle", which states that every point crossed by a traveling wave becomes the source of a secondary wave, and Huygens' "construction", which is described below.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Let the surface be a wavefront at time , and let the surface be the same wavefront at the later time (Fig.4). Let be a general point on . Then, according to Huygens' construction,


title: Fermat's principle

text: The construction may be repeated in order to find successive positions of the primary wavefront, and successive points on the ray.


title: Fermat's principle

text: The ray direction given by this construction is the radial direction of the secondary wavefront, and may differ from the normal of the secondary wavefront (cf. Fig.2), and therefore from the normal of the primary wavefront at the point of tangency. Hence the ray "velocity", in magnitude and direction, is the radial velocity of an infinitesimal secondary wavefront, and is generally a function of location and direction.


title: Fermat's principle

text: By (i), the ray path is a path of stationary traversal time from to ; and by (ii), it is a path of stationary traversal time from a point on to .


title: Fermat's principle

text: So Huygens' construction implicitly defines a ray path as "a path of stationary traversal time between successive positions of a wavefront", the time being reckoned from a "point-source" on the earlier wavefront. This conclusion remains valid if the secondary wavefronts are reflected or refracted by surfaces of discontinuity in the properties of the medium, provided that the comparison is restricted to the affect paths and the affected portions of the wavefronts.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Fermat's principle, however, is conventionally expressed in "point-to-point" terms, not wavefront-to-wavefront terms. Accordingly, let us modify the example by supposing that the wavefront which becomes surface at time , and which becomes surface at the later time , is emitted from point at time . Let be a point on (as before), and a point on . And let , , , and be given, so that the problem is to find .


title: Fermat's principle

text: If satisfies Huygens' construction, so that the secondary wavefront from is tangential to at , then is a path of stationary traversal time from to . Adding the fixed time from to , we find that is the path of stationary traversal time from to (possibly with a restricted domain of comparison, as noted above), in accordance with Fermat's principle. The argument works just as well in the converse direction, provided that has a well-defined tangent plane at . Thus Huygens' construction and Fermat's principle are geometrically equivalent.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Through this equivalence, Fermat's principle sustains Huygens' construction and thence all the conclusions that Huygens was able to draw from that construction. In short, "The laws of geometrical optics may be derived from Fermat's principle". With the exception of the Fermat-Huygens principle itself, these laws are special cases in the sense that they depend on further assumptions about the media. Two of them are mentioned under the next heading.


title: Fermat's principle

text: In an isotropic medium, because the propagation speed is independent of direction, the secondary wavefronts that expand from points on a primary wavefront in a given "infinitesimal" time are spherical, so that their radii are normal to their common tangent surface at the points of tangency. But their radii mark the ray directions, and their common tangent surface is a general wavefront. Thus the rays are normal (orthogonal) to the wavefronts.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Because much of the teaching of optics concentrates on isotropic media, treating anisotropic media as an optional topic, the assumption that the rays are normal to the wavefronts can become so pervasive that even Fermat's principle is explained under that assumption, although in fact Fermat's principle is more general.


title: Fermat's principle

text: In a homogeneous medium (also called a "uniform" medium), all the secondary wavefronts that expand from a given primary wavefront in a given time are congruent and similarly oriented, so that their envelope may be considered as the envelope of a "single" secondary wavefront which preserves its orientation while its center (source) moves over . If is its center while is its point of tangency with , then moves parallel to , so that the plane tangential to at is parallel to the plane tangential to at . Let another (congruent and similarly orientated) secondary wavefront be centered on , moving with , and let it meet its envelope at point . Then, by the same reasoning, the plane tangential to at is parallel to the other two planes. Hence, due to the congruence and similar orientations, the ray directions and are the same (but not necessarily normal to the wavefronts, since the secondary wavefronts are not necessarily spherical). This construction can be repeated any number of times, giving a straight ray of any length. Thus a homogeneous medium admits rectilinear rays.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Let a path extend from point to point . Let be the arc length measured along the path from , and let be the time taken to traverse that arc length at the ray speed formula_1 (that is, at the radial speed of the local secondary wavefront, for each location and direction on the path). Then the traversal time of the entire path is


title: Fermat's principle

text: (where and simply denote the endpoints and are not to be construed as values of or ). The condition for to be a "ray" path is that the first-order change in due to a change in is zero; that is,


title: Fermat's principle

text: Now let us define the "optical length" of a given path ("optical path length", "OPL") as the distance traversed by a ray in a homogeneous isotropic reference medium (e.g., a vacuum) in the same time that it takes to traverse the given path at the local ray velocity. Then, if denotes the propagation speed in the reference medium (e.g., the speed of light in a vacuum), the optical length of a path traversed in time is , and the optical length of a path traversed in time is . So, multiplying equation (1) through by , we obtain


title: Fermat's principle

text: where formula_4 is the "ray index" — that is, the refractive index calculated on the "ray" velocity instead of the usual phase velocity (wave-normal velocity). For an infinitesimal path, we have formula_5 indicating that the optical length is the physical length multiplied by the ray index: the OPL is a notional "geometric" quantity, from which time has been factored out. In terms of OPL, the condition for to be a ray path (Fermat's principle) becomes


title: Fermat's principle

text: This has the form of Maupertuis's principle in classical mechanics (for a single particle), with the ray index in optics taking the role of momentum or velocity in mechanics.


title: Fermat's principle

text: In an isotropic medium, for which the ray velocity is also the phase velocity, we may substitute the usual refractive index for .


title: Fermat's principle

text: If are Cartesian coordinates and an overdot denotes differentiation with respect to , Fermat's principle (2) may be written


title: Fermat's principle

text: In the case of an isotropic medium, we may replace with the normal refractive index , which is simply a scalar field. If we then define the "optical Lagrangian" as


title: Fermat's principle

text: If the direction of propagation is always such that we can use instead of as the parameter of the path (and the overdot to denote differentiation w.r.t.  instead of ), the optical Lagrangian can instead be written


title: Fermat's principle

text: This has the form of Hamilton's principle in classical mechanics, except that the time dimension is missing: the third spatial coordinate in optics takes the role of time in mechanics. The optical Lagrangian is the function which, when integrated w.r.t. the parameter of the path, yields the OPL; it is the foundation of Lagrangian and Hamiltonian optics.


title: Fermat's principle

text: If a ray follows a straight line, it obviously takes the path of least "length". Hero of Alexandria, in his "Catoptrics" (1st century CE), showed that the ordinary law of reflection off a plane surface follows from the premise that the total "length" of the ray path is a minimum. In 1657, Pierre de Fermat received from Marin Cureau de la Chambre a copy of newly published treatise, in which La Chambre noted Hero's principle and complained that it did not work for refraction.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Fermat replied that refraction might be brought into the same framework by supposing that light took the path of least "resistance", and that different media offered different resistances. His eventual solution, described in a letter to La Chambre dated 1 January 1662, construed "resistance" as inversely proportional to speed, so that light took the path of least "time". That premise yielded the ordinary law of refraction, provided that light traveled more slowly in the optically denser medium.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Fermat's solution was a landmark in that it unified the then-known laws of geometrical optics under a "variational principle" or "action principle", setting the precedent for the principle of least action in classical mechanics and the corresponding principles in other fields (see "History of variational principles in physics"). It was the more notable because it used the method of "adequality", which may be understood in retrospect as finding the point where the slope of an infinitesimally short chord is zero, without the intermediate step of finding a general expression for the slope (the derivative).


title: Fermat's principle

text: It was also immediately controversial. The ordinary law of refraction was at that time attributed to René Descartes (d.1650), who had tried to explain it by supposing that light was a force that propagated "instantaneously", or that light was analogous to a tennis ball that traveled "faster" in the denser medium, either premise being inconsistent with Fermat's.  Descartes' most prominent defender, Claude Clerselier, criticized Fermat for apparently ascribing knowledge and intent to nature, and for failing to explain why nature should prefer to economize on time rather than distance. Clerselier wrote in part:


title: Fermat's principle

text: 1. The principle that you take as the basis of your demonstration, namely that nature always acts in the shortest and simplest ways, is merely a moral principle and not a physical one; it is not, and cannot be, the cause of any effect in nature... For otherwise we would attribute knowledge to nature; but here, by "nature", we understand only this order and this law established in the world as it is, which acts without foresight, without choice, and by a necessary determination.


title: Fermat's principle

text: 2. This same principle would make nature irresolute... For I ask you... when a ray of light must pass from a point in a rare medium to a point in a dense one, is there not reason for nature to hesitate if, by your principle, it must choose the straight line as soon as the bent one, since if the latter proves shorter in time, the former is shorter and simpler in length? Who will decide and who will pronounce?


title: Fermat's principle

text: Fermat, being unaware of the mechanistic foundations of his own principle, was not well placed to defend it, except as a purely geometric and kinematic proposition.  The wave theory of light, first proposed by Robert Hooke in the year of Fermat's death, and rapidly improved by Ignace-Gaston Pardies and (especially) Christiaan Huygens, contained the necessary foundations; but the recognition of this fact was surprisingly slow.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Huygens repeatedly referred to the envelope of his secondary wavefronts as the "termination" of the movement, meaning that the later wavefront was the outer boundary that the disturbance could reach in a given time, which was therefore the minimum time in which each point on the later wavefront could be reached. But he did not argue that the "direction" of minimum time was that from the secondary source to the point of tangency; instead, he deduced the ray direction from the extent of the common tangent surface corresponding to a given extent of the initial wavefront. His only endorsement of Fermat's principle was limited in scope: having derived the law of ordinary refraction, for which the rays are normal to the wavefronts, Huygens gave a geometric proof that a ray refracted according to this law takes the path of least time. He would hardly have thought this necessary if he had known that the principle of least time followed "directly" from the same common-tangent construction by which he had deduced not only the law of ordinary refraction, but also the laws of rectilinear propagation and ordinary reflection (which were also known to follow from Fermat's principle), and a previously unknown law of extraordinary refraction — the last by means of secondary wavefronts that were spheroidal rather than spherical, with the result that the rays were generally oblique to the wavefronts. It was as if Huygens had not noticed that his construction implied Fermat's principle, and even as if he thought he had found an exception to that principle. Manuscript evidence cited by Alan E.Shapiro tends to confirm that Huygens believed the principle of least time to be invalid "in double refraction, where the rays are not normal to the wave fronts".


title: Fermat's principle

text: Shapiro further reports that the only three authorities who accepted "Huygens' principle" in the 17th and 18th centuries, namely Philippe de La Hire, Denis Papin, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, did so because it accounted for the extraordinary refraction of "Iceland crystal" (calcite) in the same manner as the previously known laws of geometrical optics. But, for the time being, the corresponding extension of Fermat's principle went unnoticed.


title: Fermat's principle

text: On 30 January 1809, Pierre-Simon Laplace, reporting on the work of his protégé Étienne-Louis Malus, claimed that the extraordinary refraction of calcite could be explained under the corpuscular theory of light with the aid of Maupertuis's principle of least action: that the integral of speed with respect to distance was a minimum. The corpuscular speed that satisfied this principle was proportional to the reciprocal of the ray speed given by the radius of Huygens' spheroid. Laplace continued:


title: Fermat's principle

text: According to Huygens, the velocity of the extraordinary ray, in the crystal, is simply expressed by the radius of the spheroid; consequently his hypothesis "does not agree" with the principle of the least action: but "it is remarkable" that it agrees with the principle of Fermat, which is, that light passes, from a given point without the crystal, to a given point within it, in the least possible time; for it is easy to see that this principle coincides with that of the least action, if we invert the expression of the velocity.


title: Fermat's principle

text: The principle of Fermat, although it was assumed by that mathematician on hypothetical, or even imaginary grounds, is in fact a fundamental law with respect to undulatory motion, and is the basis of every determination in the Huygenian theory...  Mr. Laplace seems to be unacquainted with this most essential principle of one of the two theories which he compares; for he says, that "it is remarkable," that the Huygenian law of extraordinary refraction agrees with the principle of Fermat; which he would scarcely have observed, if he had been aware that the law was an immediate consequence of the principle.


title: Fermat's principle

text: In fact Laplace "was" aware that Fermat's principle follows from Huygens' construction in the case of refraction from an isotropic medium to an anisotropic one; a geometric proof was contained in the long version of Laplace's report, printed in 1810.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Young's claim was more general than Laplace's, and likewise upheld Fermat's principle even in the case of extraordinary refraction, in which the rays are generally "not perpendicular" to the wavefronts. Unfortunately, however, the omitted middle sentence of the quoted paragraph by Young began "The motion of every undulation must necessarily be in a direction "perpendicular" to its surface..." (emphasis added), and was therefore bound to sow confusion rather than clarity.


title: Fermat's principle

text: No such confusion subsists in Augustin-Jean Fresnel's "Second Memoir" on double refraction (Fresnel, 1827), which addresses Fermat's principle in several places (without naming Fermat), proceeding from the special case in which rays are normal to wavefronts, to the general case in which rays are paths of least time or stationary time. (In the following summary, page numbers refer to Alfred W.Hobson's translation.)


title: Fermat's principle

text: Thus Fresnel showed, even for anisotropic media, that the ray path given by Huygens' construction is the path of least time between successive positions of a plane or diverging wavefront, that the ray velocities are the radii of the secondary "wave surface" after unit time, and that a stationary traversal time accounts for the direction of maximum intensity of a beam. However, establishing the general equivalence between Huygens' construction and Fermat's principle would have required further consideration of Fermat's principle in point-to-point terms.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Hendrik Lorentz, in a paper written in 1886 and republished in 1907, deduced the principle of least time in point-to-point form from Huygens' construction. But the essence of his argument was somewhat obscured by an apparent dependence on aether and aether drag.


title: Fermat's principle

text: Lorentz's work was cited in 1959 by Adriaan J. de Witte, who then offered his own argument, which "although in essence the same, is believed to be more cogent and more general." De Witte's treatment is more original than that description might suggest, although limited to two dimensions; it uses calculus of variations to show that Huygens' construction and Fermat's principle lead to the same differential equation for the ray path, and that in the case of Fermat's principle, the converse holds. De Witte also noted that "The matter seems to have escaped treatment in textbooks."


title: Shot noise

text: In electronics shot noise originates from the discrete nature of electric charge. Shot noise also occurs in photon counting in optical devices, where shot noise is associated with the particle nature of light.


title: Shot noise

text: In a statistical experiment such as tossing a fair coin and counting the occurrences of heads and tails, the numbers of heads and tails after many throws will differ by only a tiny percentage, while after only a few throws outcomes with a significant excess of heads over tails or vice versa are common; if an experiment with a few throws is repeated over and over, the outcomes will fluctuate a lot. From the law of large numbers, one can show that the relative fluctuations reduce as the reciprocal square root of the number of throws, a result valid for all statistical fluctuations, including shot noise.


title: Shot noise

text: Shot noise exists because phenomena such as light and electric current consist of the movement of discrete (also called "quantized") 'packets'. Consider light—a stream of discrete photons—coming out of a laser pointer and hitting a wall to create a visible spot. The fundamental physical processes that govern light emission are such that these photons are emitted from the laser at random times; but the many billions of photons needed to create a spot are so many that the brightness, the number of photons per unit of time, varies only infinitesimally with time. However, if the laser brightness is reduced until only a handful of photons hit the wall every second, the relative fluctuations in number of photons, i.e., brightness, will be significant, just as when tossing a coin a few times. These fluctuations are shot noise.


title: Shot noise

text: The concept of shot noise was first introduced in 1918 by Walter Schottky who studied fluctuations of current in vacuum tubes.


title: Shot noise

text: Shot noise may be dominant when the finite number of particles that carry energy (such as electrons in an electronic circuit or photons in an optical device) is sufficiently small so that uncertainties due to the Poisson distribution, which describes the occurrence of independent random events, are significant. It is important in electronics, telecommunications, optical detection, and fundamental physics.


title: Shot noise

text: The term can also be used to describe any noise source, even if solely mathematical, of similar origin. For instance, particle simulations may produce a certain amount of "noise", where because of the small number of particles simulated, the simulation exhibits undue statistical fluctuations which don't reflect the real-world system. The magnitude of shot noise increases according to the square root of the expected number of events, such as the electric current or intensity of light. But since the strength of the signal itself increases more rapidly, the "relative" proportion of shot noise decreases and the signal-to-noise ratio (considering only shot noise) increases anyway. Thus shot noise is most frequently observed with small currents or low light intensities that have been amplified.


title: Shot noise

text: For large numbers, the Poisson distribution approaches a normal distribution about its mean, and the elementary events (photons, electrons, etc.) are no longer individually observed, typically making shot noise in actual observations indistinguishable from true Gaussian noise. Since the standard deviation of shot noise is equal to the square root of the average number of events "N", the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is given by:


title: Shot noise

text: Thus when "N" is very large, the signal-to-noise ratio is very large as well, and any "relative" fluctuations in "N" due to other sources are more likely to dominate over shot noise. However, when the other noise source is at a fixed level, such as thermal noise, or grows slower than formula_2, increasing "N" (the DC current or light level, etc.) can lead to dominance of shot noise.


title: Shot noise

text: Shot noise in electronic circuits consists of random fluctuations of the electric current in a DC current which originate due to fact that current actually consists of a flow of discrete charges (electrons). Because the electron has such a tiny charge, however, shot noise is of relative insignificance in many (but not all) cases of electrical conduction. For instance 1 ampere of current consists of about electrons per second; even though this number will randomly vary by several billion in any given second, such a fluctuation is minuscule compared to the current itself. In addition, shot noise is often less significant as compared with two other noise sources in electronic circuits, flicker noise and Johnson–Nyquist noise. However, shot noise is temperature and frequency independent, in contrast to Johnson–Nyquist noise, which is proportional to temperature, and flicker noise, with the spectral density decreasing with increasing frequency. Therefore, at high frequencies and low temperatures shot noise may become the dominant source of noise.


title: Shot noise

text: With very small currents and considering shorter time scales (thus wider bandwidths) shot noise can be significant. For instance, a microwave circuit operates on time scales of less than a nanosecond and if we were to have a current of 16 nanoamperes that would amount to only 100 electrons passing every nanosecond. According to Poisson statistics the "actual" number of electrons in any nanosecond would vary by 10 electrons rms, so that one sixth of the time less than 90 electrons would pass a point and one sixth of the time more than 110 electrons would be counted in a nanosecond. Now with this small current viewed on this time scale, the shot noise amounts to 1/10 of the DC current itself.


title: Shot noise

text: The result by Schottky, based on the assumption that the statistics of electrons passage is Poissonian, reads for the spectral noise density at the frequency formula_3,


title: Shot noise

text: where formula_5 is the electron charge, and formula_6 is the average current of the electron stream. The noise spectral power is frequency independent, which means the noise is white. This can be combined with the Landauer formula, which relates the average current with the transmission eigenvalues formula_7 of the contact through which the current is measured (formula_8 labels transport channels). In the simplest case, these transmission eigenvalues can be taken to be energy independent and so the Landauer formula is


title: Shot noise

text: commonly referred to as the Poisson value of shot noise, formula_12. This is a classical result in the sense that it does not take into account that electrons obey Fermi–Dirac statistics. The correct result takes into account the quantum statistics of electrons and reads (at zero temperature)


title: Shot noise

text: It was obtained in the 1990s by Khlus, Lesovik (independently the single-channel case), and Büttiker (multi-channel case). This noise is white and is always suppressed with respect to the Poisson value. The degree of suppression, formula_14, is known as the Fano factor. Noises produced by different transport channels are independent. Fully open (formula_15) and fully closed (formula_16) channels produce no noise, since there are no irregularities in the electron stream.


title: Shot noise

text: At finite temperature, a closed expression for noise can be written as well. It interpolates between shot noise (zero temperature) and Nyquist-Johnson noise (high temperature).


title: Shot noise

text: While this is the result when the electrons contributing to the current occur completely randomly, unaffected by each other, there are important cases in which these natural fluctuations are largely suppressed due to a charge build up. Take the previous example in which an average of 100 electrons go from point A to point B every nanosecond. During the first half of a nanosecond we would expect 50 electrons to arrive at point B on the average, but in a particular half nanosecond there might well be 60 electrons which arrive there. This will create a more negative electric charge at point B than average, and that extra charge will tend to "repel" the further flow of electrons from leaving point A during the remaining half nanosecond. Thus the net current integrated over a nanosecond will tend more to stay near its average value of 100 electrons rather than exhibiting the expected fluctuations (10 electrons rms) we calculated. This is the case in ordinary metallic wires and in metal film resistors, where shot noise is almost completely cancelled due to this anti-correlation between the motion of individual electrons, acting on each other through the coulomb force.


title: Shot noise

text: However this reduction in shot noise does not apply when the current results from random events at a potential barrier which all the electrons must overcome due to a random excitation, such as by thermal activation. This is the situation in p-n junctions, for instance. A semiconductor diode is thus commonly used as a noise source by passing a particular DC current through it.


title: Shot noise

text: In other situations interactions can lead to an enhancement of shot noise, which is the result of a super-poissonian statistics. For example, in a resonant tunneling diode the interplay of electrostatic interaction and of the density of states in the quantum well leads to a strong enhancement of shot noise when the device is biased in the negative differential resistance region of the current-voltage characteristics.


title: Shot noise

text: Shot noise is distinct from voltage and current fluctuations expected in thermal equilibrium; this occurs without any applied DC voltage or current flowing. These fluctuations are known as Johnson–Nyquist noise or thermal noise and increase in proportion to the Kelvin temperature of any resistive component. However both are instances of white noise and thus cannot be distinguished simply by observing them even though their origins are quite dissimilar.


title: Shot noise

text: Since shot noise is a Poisson process due to the finite charge of an electron, one can compute the root mean square current fluctuations as being of a magnitude


title: Shot noise

text: where "q" is the elementary charge of an electron, Δ"f" is the single-sided bandwidth in hertz over which the noise is considered, and "I" is the DC current flowing.


title: Shot noise

text: c is the speed of light, and h is the planck constant. Following Poisson statistics, the photon noise is calculated as the square root of the signal:


title: Shot noise

text: In optics, shot noise describes the fluctuations of the number of photons detected (or simply counted in the abstract) due to their occurrence independent of each other. This is therefore another consequence of discretization, in this case of the energy in the electromagnetic field in terms of photons. In the case of photon "detection", the relevant process is the random conversion of photons into photo-electrons for instance, thus leading to a larger effective shot noise level when using a detector with a quantum efficiency below unity. Only in an exotic squeezed coherent state can the number of photons measured per unit time have fluctuations smaller than the square root of the expected number of photons counted in that period of time. Of course there are other mechanisms of noise in optical signals which often dwarf the contribution of shot noise. When these are absent, however, optical detection is said to be "photon noise limited" as only the shot noise (also known as "quantum noise" or "photon noise" in this context) remains.


title: Shot noise

text: Shot noise is easily observable in the case of photomultipliers and avalanche photodiodes used in the Geiger mode, where individual photon detections are observed. However the same noise source is present with higher light intensities measured by any photo detector, and is directly measurable when it dominates the noise of the subsequent electronic amplifier. Just as with other forms of shot noise, the fluctuations in a photo-current due to shot noise scale as the square-root of the average intensity:


title: Shot noise

text: The shot noise of a coherent optical beam (having no other noise sources) is a fundamental physical phenomenon, reflecting quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field. In optical homodyne detection, the shot noise in the photodetector can be attributed to either the zero point fluctuations of the quantised electromagnetic field, or to the discrete nature of the photon absorption process. However, shot noise itself is not a distinctive feature of quantised field and can also be explained through semiclassical theory. What the semiclassical theory does not predict, however, is the squeezing of shot noise. Shot noise also sets a lower bound on the noise introduced by quantum amplifiers which preserve the phase of an optical signal.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: David Michael dos Santos Miranda (born 10 May 1985) is a Brazilian politician. He is a Federal Congressman representing the state of Rio de Janeiro, sworn in on 1 February 2019, and affiliated to the Democratic Labour Party (PDT), after switching parties from the Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL) in 2022. Prior to that, he was a City Councilman representing the city of Rio de Janeiro.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: Miranda led the campaign for the Brazilian government to grant political asylum to Edward Snowden and worked with his husband, American journalist Glenn Greenwald to publish the revelations contained in Snowden's leaks detailing mass surveillance by the National Security Agency (NSA). He met with Luciana Genro, the PSOL candidate for the 2014 Brazilian presidential election, and obtained her commitment to extend asylum to Snowden if elected. Numerous public Brazilian figures supported the campaign, which failed to convince the government of Dilma Rousseff.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: In August 2013, Miranda was detained over his work on the NSA program for nine hours by the British government at London's Heathrow Airport under Schedule 7 of the Terrorism Act 2000, after he had flown in from Berlin and was changing to a plane bound for Rio de Janeiro. His belongings were seized, including an external hard drive which, according to Greenwald, contained sensitive documents relevant to Greenwald's reporting, and which was encrypted with TrueCrypt encryption software. Greenwald described his partner's detention as "clearly intended to send a message of intimidation to those of us who have been reporting on the NSA and GCHQ". Miranda described his treatment by the UK authorities as "psychological torture". In 2014, Miranda interviewed Jair Bolsonaro for an article by Greenwald in "The Intercept". At the time, Bolsonaro was a former army captain and a little known representative.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: In 2016, Miranda and his friend Marielle Franco, were elected as the first LGBT councillors in Rio's history. Miranda focuses primarily on the issues of the LGBT community and other marginalized segments of the Rio population. Miranda and his family have travelled in a bulletproof car since Franco was assassinated in March 2018.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: In 2018, Miranda was elected as a substitute for PSOL deputy Jean Wyllys. When Wyllys, an LGBT member, announced in January 2019 that he had left the country due to death threats, Miranda, who was also a PSOL member, took Wyllys' place in the Chamber of Deputies. After taking his seat, Miranda began to receive "hundreds" of death threats. Joice Hasselmann, a representative of the now-President Bolsonaro's party, accused Miranda of buying his seat. Due to the intimidation from Hasselmann and Bolsonaro supporters during the Vaza Jato reporting Greenwald was engaged in, Miranda disclosed that he had begun taking anti-depressants and that he and Greenwald rarely leave their home, and then only with hired bodyguards.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: On January 22, 2022, Miranda announced he was leaving the PSOL and joining the Democratic Labour Party (PDT) and endorsing its leader Ciro Gomes in the 2022 Brazilian general election.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: Miranda was raised in Jacarezinho, Rio de Janeiro. His mother died when he was five, and he moved in with an aunt. He left home when he was 13, dropped out of school, and worked in menial jobs for the next 6 years. He was playing volleyball on Ipanema beach in February 2005 when he knocked over the drink of Glenn Greenwald. The couple moved in together within a week.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: Soon after they first met, Greenwald encouraged Miranda's return to education and he graduated from Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing (ESPM) in 2014. Both Greenwald and Miranda are openly gay, and are married. In 2017, the couple adopted two children who are siblings.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: On 11 September 2019, "O Globo" newspaper reported that an investigation by a division of the Brazilian Ministry of the Economy identified R$2.5 million in suspicious transactions in Miranda's personal bank account during a one year period from 2018 to 2019, including deposits from current and former employees. As a result, the Public Ministry opened an investigation into his finances. According to media reports, investigators suspect Miranda of "concealing the origin" of the funds and participating in an illegal practice known as "", in which public servants employed in the offices of elected officials kick back a portion of their salary to their boss. Jair Bolsonaro's sons, Flavio Bolsonaro and Carlos Bolsonaro, are also under investigation for this practice.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: Glenn Greenwald accused the Brazilian Public Ministry, which represents prosecutors, of launching the investigation and leaking it for political reasons, due to his involvement in uncovering corruption and political bias among Brazilian prosecutors and judges involved in the Lava Jato operation.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: 2018 center-left presidential candidate Ciro Gomes and center-right pundit Reinaldo Azevedo both described the investigation against Miranda as borne out of a spirit of police state and political persecution.


title: David Miranda (politician)

text: A few days afterwards, Miranda and Greenwald opened their bank accounts for public access, and challenged the Bolsonaro family to follow suit.


title: Portfolio (finance)

text: The term “portfolio” refers to any combination of financial assets such as stocks, bonds and cash. Portfolios may be held by individual investors or managed by financial professionals, hedge funds, banks and other financial institutions. It is a generally accepted principle that a portfolio is designed according to the investor's risk tolerance, time frame and investment objectives. The monetary value of each asset may influence the risk/reward ratio of the portfolio.


title: Portfolio (finance)

text: When determining asset allocation, the aim is to maximise the expected return and minimise the risk. This is an example of a multi-objective optimization problem: many efficient solutions are available and the preferred solution must be selected by considering a tradeoff between risk and return. In particular, a portfolio A is dominated by another portfolio A' if A' has a greater expected gain and a lesser risk than A. If no portfolio dominates A, A is a Pareto-optimal portfolio.


title: Portfolio (finance)

text: The set of Pareto-optimal returns and risks is called the Pareto efficient frontier for the Markowitz portfolio selection problem. Recently, an alternative approach to portfolio diversification has been suggested in the literatures that combines risk and return in the optimization problem.


title: Portfolio (finance)

text: There are many types of portfolios including the market portfolio and the zero-investment portfolio. A portfolio's asset allocation may be managed utilizing any of the following investment approaches and principles: dividend weighting, equal weighting, capitalization-weighting, price-weighting, risk parity, the capital asset pricing model, arbitrage pricing theory, the Jensen Index, the Treynor ratio, the Sharpe diagonal (or index) model, the value at risk model, modern portfolio theory and others.


title: Portfolio (finance)

text: There are several methods for calculating portfolio returns and performance. One traditional method is using quarterly or monthly money-weighted returns; however, the true time-weighted method is a method preferred by many investors in financial markets. There are also several models for measuring the performance attribution of a portfolio's returns when compared to an index or benchmark, partly viewed as investment strategy.


title: Buda

text: Buda (; , , Czech and , ) was the historic capital of the Kingdom of Hungary and since 1873 has been the western part of the Hungarian capital Budapest, on the west bank of the Danube. Buda comprises a third of Budapest's total territory and is mostly wooded. Landmarks include Buda Castle, the Citadella, and the president of Hungary's residence, Sándor Palace.


title: Buda

text: According to a legend recorded in chronicles from the Middle Ages, the name "Buda" comes from the name of Bleda (), brother of Hunnic ruler Attila.


title: Buda

text: The Buda fortress and palace were built by King Béla IV of Hungary in 1247, and were the nucleus around which the town of Buda was built, which soon gained great importance, and became in 1361 the capital of Hungary.


title: Buda

text: While Pest was mostly Hungarian in the 15th century, Buda had a German majority; however according to the Hungarian Royal Treasury, it had a Hungarian majority with a sizeable German minority in 1495. Buda became part of Ottoman-ruled central Hungary from 1541 to 1686. It was the capital of the province of Budin during the Ottoman era. By the middle of the seventeenth century Buda had become majority Muslim, largely resulting from an influx of Balkan Muslims.


title: Buda

text: In 1686, two years after the unsuccessful siege of Buda, a renewed European campaign was started to enter Buda, which was formerly the capital of medieval Hungary. This time, the Holy League's army was twice as large, containing over 74,000 men, including German, Dutch, Hungarian, English, Spanish, Czech, French, Croat, Burgundian, Danish and Swedish soldiers, along with other Europeans as volunteers, artillerymen, and officers, the Christian forces reconquered Buda (see Siege of Buda).


title: Buda

text: After the reconquest of Buda, bourgeoisie from different parts of southern Germany moved into the almost deserted city. Germans — also clinging to their language — partly crowded out, partly assimilated the Hungarians and Serbians they had found here. As the rural population moved into Buda, in the 19th century slowly Hungarians became the majority there.


title: Robert Singer (producer)

text: Robert Singer (born December 3) is an American television producer, director and writer. He is known for his work on "Supernatural" where he serves as an executive producer, director and occasional writer. The character Bobby Singer was named after him. A fictionalized version of Singer appears in the season 6 episode "The French Mistake" played by Brian Doyle-Murray. Singer also created the series "Reasonable Doubts" and has worked as a producer and director on various television series, including "". He also served as a producer for the films "Cujo" and "Burnt Offerings". His production company is December 3rd Productions, named after his birth date.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: The Dodge Ramcharger is a large sport utility vehicle built by Dodge from 1974 to 1993, based on a shortened-wheelbase version of the Dodge D Series/Ram pickup truck chassis. A Plymouth version, named the Plymouth Trail Duster, offered from 1974 to 1981, was Plymouth's only SUV.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: The Ramcharger was mostly produced as a two-door, 4x4 vehicle, although a two-wheel drive version was available. As a full-size SUV, it competed with the Chevrolet K5 Blazer and the 1978–1996 Ford Bronco.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: The Ramcharger was discontinued at the end of the 1993 model year in North America. In Mexico, however, production continued until 1996. It was then brought back from 1999 to 2001, still as a two-door SUV and sharing the design of the contemporary Ram pickup. Approximately 30,000 were produced and were all two-wheel drive.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: During development, it was known as the "Rhino". The Ramcharger/Trail Duster were built using a version of the Dodge Ram's Chrysler AD platform with a nine-inch shorter wheelbase. Originally available in four-wheel drive exclusively, a rear-wheel drive only version was available starting in 1975. The 1974 through 1980 models came without a roof, with a dealer-installed fabric top, or an optional removable steel roof with a flip up rear tailgate window. The early 1974 year model differs from the others in that its door pillars are attached to the removable roof. The "half doors" were used up to the build date of 6-10-74, afterwards the roof was changed to use normal pickup style doors. Marketed as a basic utility vehicle, only the driver's seat was standard equipment with the passenger seat optional up to 1976. Also available was an insulated center console for keeping items cool when filled with ice.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: The standard engine was a Slant Six. and versions of the "LA" series Chrysler small block V8 were available, along with the larger big-block "B" and "RB" wedge series in and . In 1978 the output was . In 1979, the , was rated at .


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: The Ramcharger and Trail Duster followed the D-series pickup's 1981 redesign into the Ram and is considered the second generation. They had an egg crate-style grille which was used until the 1986 model year, when the front was redesigned to the crosshair grille that remains common on many Dodges today. In 1991, there were another batch of grill changes that lasted until 1993 when American Ramcharger production stopped. The generation two trucks had a few different trim and interior option levels, but not much changed over the years. These models had a non-removable welded steel top instead of the removable top. The Trail Duster was only available for one year with the Ram design and steel non-removable top, as it was dropped after the 1981 model year.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: From 1981 through 1987, all models were carbureted, but in 1988, throttle-body fuel injection (TBI) was added to the 318 ci V8 engine. Fuel injection was added to the 360 ci V8 engine in 1989. Power output for the TBI 318 was and of torque. The 360 with TBI was rated at and of torque. In 1992, the multiport fuel injected Magnum 318 was the standard engine while the LA 360 with TBI was still offered as an option. In 1993, the Magnum 360 replaced the LA engine.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: Many manual transmissions were offered throughout the years, starting with the A-230 three-speed and ending with the A-535 five-speed in 1992. The NP435 "granny gear" 4 speed was the most common in 4WD models, as well as the close ratio version, the NP445. In 1988 the clutch was converted from a mechanical linkage to a hydraulic system. Automatic transmission models had the Chrysler Loadflite TF-727A or B until, in 1991, it was replaced with the A-500/A-518 four-speed.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: An all-wheel-drive NP-203 transfer case was standard until 1980, when it was replaced with the part-time NP-208. This was supplanted by the NP-241 in 1988. Axles were Dana 44 front and 9¼" or 8 1/4" Chrysler corporate rear. AWD models (1973–1979) were equipped with the full-time version of the Dana 44 that had no provision for locking hubs and had a front wheel bearing design with a somewhat dubious reputation. In 1978 when the part-time 4WD system was introduced, the front Dana 44 was equipped with a more conventional front wheel bearing design and automatic locking hubs. Late in the 1984 model year the Dana 44 was switched to a CAD (Center Axle Disconnect) version. The CAD Dana 44 was vacuum actuated by a switch on the transfer case and powered by engine vacuum. The CAD Dana 44 was carried on until the end of Ramcharger production in 1993. The vacuum switch on the transfer case would occasionally fail and either leave the CAD engaged or not engage the CAD at all. Limited slip differentials were available for the 9¼" rear axle. The AWD versions used a 5 on 4½" wheel bolt circle and the part-time 4WD models used a 5 on 5½" bolt circle. Two wheel drive models used the 5 on 4.5" wheel bolt circle and in 1985 changed to the 5 on 5.5" pattern.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: The Ramcharger continued to be sold in Mexico until 1996, with minor running changes from the last version sold in the U.S. and Canada in 1993.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: The third generation Ramcharger was produced in Mexico from 1998 for the 1999 model year, based on the same platform as the Dodge Ram pickup and sharing most of its componentry with the Ram as well. It had also shared some of its parts and components with the third generation Chrysler minivans (Chrysler Town & Country, Dodge Caravan/Plymouth Voyager) as well. It was only sold in Mexico where the previous generation Ramcharger had been successful. It was available in the ST, SLT, SLT Plus and Sport trim levels. Powered by the or Magnum V8 engines and offered only in rear-wheel drive versions, it was discontinued after the 2001 model year.


title: Dodge Ramcharger

text: One of the features of this generation was a small third row folding seat in the cargo area that faced sideways, making it less practical for long trips. The rear of the vehicle had looked very similar to the 1996-2000 model Chrysler minivans.


title: Matt Adler

text: Matthew D. Adler (born December 8, 1966) is an American film actor. He is best known for his supporting roles in the 1980s teenage films: "Teen Wolf", "White Water Summer", "North Shore", and "Dream a Little Dream". He currently works on additional dialogue recording for feature films.


title: Matt Adler

text: In 1986 he auditioned for the role of "Bill S. Preston Esquire" in "Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure" being one of the final picks along with Keanu Reeves, Donovan Leitch and Gary Riley. The role ultimately went to Alex Winter who had initially auditioned for the part of Ted "Theodore" Logan.


title: Matt Adler

text: Adler was married to actress Ria Pavia from 1993 to 1995. He is currently married to actress Laura San Giacomo and is a close friend and former housemate of actor George Clooney.


title: Bradford murders

text: The Bradford murders were the serial killings of three women in the city of Bradford, West Yorkshire, England in 2009 and 2010.


title: Bradford murders

text: 43-year-old Susan Rushworth disappeared on 22 June 2009, followed by 31-year-old Shelley Armitage on 26 April 2010 and 36-year-old Suzanne Blamires on 21 May of the same year. The women were all sex workers based in Bradford. Parts of Blamires's body were found in the River Aire in Shipley, near Bradford, on 25 May. Other human tissue found in the same river was later established to belong to Armitage. No remains of Rushworth were ever found.


title: Bradford murders

text: Stephen Shaun Griffiths, 40, was arrested on 24 May and subsequently charged with killing the three women. After being found guilty, he was sentenced to life imprisonment with a whole life order.


title: Bradford murders

text: Stephen Shaun Griffiths (born 24 December 1969 in Dewsbury, West Riding of Yorkshire) was arrested and in May 2010 he appeared in the magistrates' court giving his name as the Crossbow Cannibal.