title: Plasticity (physics)

text: Although the two crystallites A and B discussed in the above section have identical slip systems, they are misoriented with respect to each other, and therefore misoriented with respect to the applied force. Thus, microscopic yielding within a crystallite interior may occur according to the rules governing single crystal time-independent yielding. Eventually, the activated slip planes within the grain interiors will permit dislocation migration to the GB where many dislocations then pile up as geometrically necessary dislocations. This pile up corresponds to strain gradients across individual grains as the dislocation density near the GB is greater than that in the grain interior, imposing a stress on the adjacent grain in contact. When considering the AB bicrystal as a whole, the most favorably oriented slip system in A will not be the that in B, and hence τ ≠ τ. Paramount is the fact that macroscopic yielding of the bicrystal is prolonged until the higher value of τ between grains A and B is achieved, according to the GB constraint. Thus, for a given composition and structure, a polycrystal with five independent slip systems is stronger (greater extent of plasticity) than its single crystalline form. Correspondingly, the work hardening rate will be higher for the polycrystal than the single crystal, as more stress is required in the polycrystal to produce strains. Importantly, just as with single crystal flow stress, τ ~ρ, but is also inversely proportional to the square root of average grain diameter (τ ~d ). Therefore, the flow stress of a polycrystal, and hence the polycrystal’s strength, increases with small grain size. The reason for this is that smaller grains have a relatively smaller number of slip planes to be activated, corresponding to a fewer number of dislocations migrating to the GBs, and therefore less stress induced on adjacent grains due to dislocation pile up. In addition, for a given volume of polycrystal, smaller grains present more strong obstacle grain boundaries. These two factors provide an understanding as to why the onset of macroscopic flow in fine-grained polycrystals occurs at larger applied stresses than in coarse-grained polycrystals.


title: Plasticity (physics)

text: There are several mathematical descriptions of plasticity. One is deformation theory (see e.g. Hooke's law) where the Cauchy stress tensor (of order d-1 in d dimensions) is a function of the strain tensor. Although this description is accurate when a small part of matter is subjected to increasing loading (such as strain loading), this theory cannot account for irreversibility.


title: Plasticity (physics)

text: Ductile materials can sustain large plastic deformations without fracture. However, even ductile metals will fracture when the strain becomes large enough—this is as a result of work hardening of the material, which causes it to become brittle. Heat treatment such as annealing can restore the ductility of a worked piece, so that shaping can continue.


title: Plasticity (physics)

text: In 1934, Egon Orowan, Michael Polanyi and Geoffrey Ingram Taylor, roughly simultaneously, realized that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could be explained in terms of the theory of dislocations. The mathematical theory of plasticity, flow plasticity theory, uses a set of non-linear, non-integrable equations to describe the set of changes on strain and stress with respect to a previous state and a small increase of deformation.


title: Plasticity (physics)

text: If the stress exceeds a critical value, as was mentioned above, the material will undergo plastic, or irreversible, deformation. This critical stress can be tensile or compressive. The Tresca and the von Mises criteria are commonly used to determine whether a material has yielded. However, these criteria have proved inadequate for a large range of materials and several other yield criteria are also in widespread use.


title: Plasticity (physics)

text: The Tresca criterion is based on the notion that when a material fails, it does so in shear, which is a relatively good assumption when considering metals. Given the principal stress state, we can use Mohr's circle to solve for the maximum shear stresses our material will experience and conclude that the material will fail if


title: Plasticity (physics)

text: where "σ" is the maximum normal stress, "σ" is the minimum normal stress, and "σ" is the stress under which the material fails in uniaxial loading. A yield surface may be constructed, which provides a visual representation of this concept. Inside of the yield surface, deformation is elastic. On the surface, deformation is plastic. It is impossible for a material to have stress states outside its yield surface.


title: Plasticity (physics)

text: The Huber–von Mises criterion is based on the Tresca criterion but takes into account the assumption that hydrostatic stresses do not contribute to material failure. M. T. Huber was the first who proposed the criterion of shear energy. Von Mises solves for an effective stress under uniaxial loading, subtracting out hydrostatic stresses, and states that all effective stresses greater than that which causes material failure in uniaxial loading will result in plastic deformation.


title: Plasticity (physics)

text: Again, a visual representation of the yield surface may be constructed using the above equation, which takes the shape of an ellipse. Inside the surface, materials undergo elastic deformation. Reaching the surface means the material undergoes plastic deformations.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: Helen Hadsell Helene Hadsell (June 1, 1924 – October 30, 2010) was an American widely known as the "contest queen". She entered and won many contests for items and for all-expense paid trips. She also won a house which was showcased at the 1964–65 New York World's Fair. Later she lectured and held workshops on positive thinking. A "Doctor of Metaphysics", she was the author of the popular book "The Name It and Claim It Game: with WINeuvers for WISHcraft".


title: Helen Hadsell

text: Helen Barbara Daeschel was born in 1924 and raised in Aberdeen, South Dakota. She attended Central High School there, where she was a member of the school choir.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: At age 18, she left home for Vancouver, Washington, where she found employment as a file clerk in a shipping yard. She met and married Pat Hadsell, who was from Denton Texas, during World War II.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: The couple later settled in Grand Prairie, Texas, and they had three children. She was a homemaker who was also president of the Grand Prairie Community Chorus, a Girl Scout leader, and on the board of her local PTA. In 1958, she entered the Mrs. America Pagaent and made it past the first round, before losing in the Fort Worth division finals.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: In 1959, the family moved from Grand Prairie to Irving, Texas. She became the society news editor for the "Irving News-Record", which became the "Strictly Personal" column for the "Irving News Texan". After having been named to a supermarket magazine advisory board, a local paper described Hadsell as "an enterprising girl if ever there was one."


title: Helen Hadsell

text: In Hadsell's era, there was an activity known as "contesting", in which people would dedicate their time and efforts towards winning sweepstakes, where winners are chosen at random among those who have entered and the usual strategy was to submit as many entries as possible, and consumer skill contests, in which prizes were won by submitting some kind of writing extolling a particular product, often "In 25 words or less". Such enthusiasts were known as "contestors" or "contest bugs". There were national magazines and newsletters with contesters as the targeted audience.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: The Hadsells started entering contests in 1948, as a family hobby, focusing on the skill contests. In 1949 she won a Toni Home Permanent Kit as a 48th-through-168th place prize in a contest run by Skillern's Departmental Drug Stores. However, for the first ten years or so, they almost never won.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: However, this changed when Hadsell took a correspondence course in contest writing and learned that contest judges were, as she said in an interview a few years later, "looking for something different, coined words or phrases and humor. I'd say humor has won for me more than anything. I have another saying – pun for the money." Hadsell's husband Pat assisted with the writing of a number of the contest entries.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: By 1957, the family was starting to win contests more frequently, including the Hadsells' six-year-old son winning some toy guns for naming a pony. In 1959, Hadsell told a local newspaper columnist that she had just won an electric food mixer for coming up with a name for a new kind of cake, and that she had won two other mixers in contests during the preceding year.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: In 1963, Hadsell was selected as president of a Dallas area writing and contesting club, known as the Competriots, many of whose forty members were published writers of fiction, poetry, or textbooks who were now focusing on contests. The members traded contest information and entry blanks.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: By early 1964, the family said they had won many prizes, ranging from the mundane such as lawn-mower blade sharpeners to a trip to Disneyland; the latter was followed by trips to Washington, D.C., and Venice. Hadsell thought that they hadn't yet "won any of the big prizes, like cars or trips around the world."


title: Helen Hadsell

text: But that soon happened. The Formica Corporation had an exhibit at the 1964–65 New York World's Fair which showed a house where all interior walls, and many of the appointments and furnishings, were made of the company's laminated plastic. As part of this, the company ran a $100,000 contest, the grand prize of which was a $50,000 replica of the house to be built anywhere in the United States, lot included. Contestants had to fill out an entry form at either the World's Fair or at any of a number of Formica model homes that had been built around the country, one of which was in the Dallas area; the form itself asked the entrant for short responses regarding what they liked about the house and what suggestions they had for future Formica products. Hadsell was one of 1.5 million people to submit entries. She won the contest, a result announced when a marketing directory for Formica Corporation came to Dallas to present the Hadsell family with a model of the house to be built. She attributed the win to her creativity. At the time, the Hadsells said they were unsure regarding which town they would have the house built in; it was eventually built in Irving, and the Hadsells lived there for a number of years.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: Around two years after she won the house, Hadsell began to change her focus. In late 1967, Hadsell sponsored a seminar in Dallas on mind control, with the leader of the seminar coming from Mexico. In 1968 she was part of a lecture series in Dallas on subjects related to psychic abilities and mental potential; her topic was the power of positive thinking. By 1970 she was editor of the "Mind Control Newsletter" and had attended a conference on parapsychology in France. In early 1972 she said that she had entered no national contests at all the two years prior, saying "I've gone into so many more meaningful and exciting experiences." Her lecture appearances grew to the point where they took place throughout the Midwest.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: In 1971, she authored the book "The Name It and Claim It Game: with WINeuvers for WISHcraft", which gave some of her hints for how to win contests, and also delved into her philosophy of "believe you can win and you will". It was published by DeVorss & Company, an established California publisher known for its focus on New Thought topics. As of 1982, the book was on its seventh printing.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: By 1972, Hadsell had established a relationship with José Silva and his Silva Mind Control approach, and some of her talks then and in years to follow were sponsored by the Silva organization. Hadsell received training in the approach from Silva's Institute of Psychorientology in Laredo, Texas, and subsequently did teaching there. In 1980, she was the contact point for Silva's seminars in the Dallas area.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: By 1973, Hadsell had received a distance–learning "doctorate in metaphysics", specifically psychics and counseling, via correspondence education from the Brotherhood of the White Temple in Sedalia, Colorado, an unaccredited institution that had been founded by Maurice Doreal.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: During this period, she reframed some of her prior experiences. She said that in 1959 she read Norman Vincent Peale's book, "The Power of Positive Thinking" and she credited the book with much of her success. After reading the book she began entering and winning contests. Her first win was an outboard motor in a contest sponsored by Coca Cola. Next she won a bicycle for her daughter, and then trips to Europe, Disneyland and New York. She claimed that her ability to win contests came from the "projection of energy each person possess" which she called "auric energy". She championed the phrase "Anything the mind can conceive – and believe – it can achieve," which in a slightly different wording was earlier popularized by personal development guru Napoleon Hill and has been reformulated by many others. She lectured in England, Canada and throughout the United States. She further shared that the contests she won were something she felt ahead of time that she would win, including the Formica home. She reported that she had picked out a lot and had plans drawn up even before she was declared the winner. Similarly, she said she had acquired passports and required immunizations before winning a foreign trip.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: The cover of her 1971 book read under her name, "The Woman Who Wins Every Contest She Enters". This claim was repeated, in one form or another, in newspaper profiles about Hadsell during the 1970s. But as a 1982 "Orlando Sentinel" story on contesting pointed out in reference to Hadsell's claims, in reality even those who were good at winning contests did not win every time.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: She claimed to have developed telepathic communication with members for her family, especially her son Chris. She stated that the same projection of energy which she called "auric energy", also helped facilitate telepathy. In 1973 she taught a class which covered telepathy, clairvoyance and psychic healing at Tarrant County Junior College.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: Hadsell lectured and conducted workshops throughout the United States and Canada. Dallas area colleges hosted her lectures. Among the topics discussed: ESP and self awareness and positive thinking. She said that everyone had at least some powers of ESP and clairvoyance, if they were recognized and developed.


title: Helen Hadsell

text: Hadsell self-published two books during the 2000s, both dealing with her spiritual beliefs and episodes from her life. In 2007 she published a short humorous poem "Where's Grandma?" in the "Saturday Evening Post".


title: Angel Garza

text: Humberto Garza Solano (born September 23, 1992) is a Mexican professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the SmackDown brand under the ring name Angel (shortened from his previous ring name Angel Garza).


title: Angel Garza

text: He is a third-generation wrestler, the grandson of "luchador" Mario Segura, known as El Ninja. From his debut in 2008 until 2015, Garza worked under the name El Hijo del Ninja ("The Son of the Ninja"). He is the nephew of Héctor Garza and Humberto Garza Jr. and the grand-nephew of Humberto Segura Garza. He is the cousin of fellow WWE wrestler Humberto Carrillo, who was his tag team partner in Mexico and currently is in WWE. Garza originally worked as an "enmascarado", or masked wrestler, but voluntarily unmasked in 2012 in the series finale of a dating reality show and has worked unmasked ever since.


title: Angel Garza

text: As Garza Jr., he previously worked for Impact Wrestling in the United States, for Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide, and on the Mexican independent circuit for a number of promotions including The Crash Lucha Libre. Garza Jr., along with Penta el 0M, Rey Fénix and Daga formed "La Rebelión" on the independent circuit after leaving Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide. He signed with WWE in 2019 and was assigned to the NXT brand, wrestled under his current ring name, where he was a one-time NXT Cruiserweight Champion.


title: Angel Garza

text: Humberto Garza Solano was born on September 23, 1992, in Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico. He is the grandson of professional wrestler Mike Segura, also known as "El Ninja". Garza was named after his great-uncle, professional wrestler Humberto Garza (real name Humberto Segura Garza). He is the nephew of professional wrestlers Humberto Garza Jr., Héctor Garza, and El Ninja Jr. Two of his cousins are also professional wrestlers, Humberto Carrillo (son of Humberto Garza Jr.) and El Sultán (son of Héctor Garza).


title: Angel Garza

text: Garza was trained by his grandfather Mario Segura as well as El Hijo del Gladiador prior to his "lucha libre" debut on November 8, 2008, using the ring name El Hijo del Ninja ("The Son of the Ninja"), an "enmascarado", or masked wrestling character. Initially he worked for Federacion Internacional de Lucha Libre (FILL) as they promoted shows in his native Monterrey, Nuevo León. On August 25, 2009 El Hijo del Ninja won the 2009 "Copa Arena Coliseo Monterrey" defeating Pee-Wee, Kaientai, Angel Dorada Jr. and Hombre Sin Miedo in succession to win the cup. He followed up his tournament victory by winning the FILL Light Heavyweight Championship that same year. He would win his first "Lucha de Apuestas", or "bet match", on September 30, 2009 when he defeated Black Morse, forcing him to unmask as a result of the stipulation. A "Lucha de Apuestas" win is generally considered a bigger achievement than a championship victory and is an indicator of a promotional "push". He would close out the year in another "Lucha de Apuestas" match, this time a "Relevos Suicida" where he teamed up with Silver Star to face the team of Memo Valles and Coco Viper. Since both El Hijo del Ninja and Memo Valles were pinned in the match the two were forced to wrestle each other risking El Hijo del Ninja's mask and Memo Valles hair. With the victory El Hijo del Ninja forced Memo Valles to have all his hair shaved off. In 2010 he won another "Lucha de Apuestas", forcing Estrella Dorada Jr. to have all his hair shaved off. In 2011 El Hijo del Ninja won the FILL "Rey del Aire" ("King of the Air") tournament.


title: Angel Garza

text: By the late fall of 2011 a new promotion began holding shows in Monterrey, "Llaves y Candados" (LyC), taking over running shows in Arena Coliseo Monterrey. On September 18 of that year El Hijo del Ninja won the LyC Championship. He would later give up the championship as the promotion abandoned it. In 2012 El Hijo del Ninja participated in a Mexican dating reality TV show called "Mitad y Mitad: Lucha por el Amor" ("Half and Half: Fight for Love"), where he voluntarily unmasked in the show finale, taking the El Hijo del Ninja mask off on national television to publicly show his face for the first time during his professional wrestling career. From that point on he would wrestle without a mask. The TV show appearance led to a feud with local celebrity/wrestler Konan Big, a storyline feud that led to a "Lucha de Apuestas" match between the two. It was originally scheduled to be a one-on-one match where El Hijo del Ninja "bet" his hair while Konan Big "bet" his wife on the outcome of the match. During the lead up to the match itself both Silencio and Konan Big's show, El Hijo de Konan Big got involved, turning it into a four-way steel cage match. Silencio was the first wrestler to leave the cage, followed by Konan Big. In the end El Hijo del Ninja managed to escape the cage, forcing El Hijo de Konan Big to have all his hair shaved off.


title: Angel Garza

text: In 2014 some Mexican wrestling media sources reported that Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) was interested in signing El Hijo del Ninja to a contract, but nothing substantial came of the rumors at the time. In 2015 El Hijo del Ninja and his cousin Último Ninja won the LyC Tag Team championship, only to lose them to the team of "lucha libre" legends Dr. Wagner Jr. and Silver King, as part of an ongoing storyline feud between the Garza family and "La Dinastia Wagner". The storyline led to a six-man steel cage match where El Hijo del Ninja, El Ninja Jr. and Último Ninja took on Dr. Wagner Jr. El Hijo del Dr. Wagner Jr. and Silver King Jr., with the last man in the cage being forced to unmask. In the end El Hijo del Ninja was the last man to escape the cage, while Silver King Jr. was left in the ring and thus had to unmask as a result. During the spring of 2016 Garza Jr. was invited to the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida as part of WWE's research for their upcoming Cruiserweight Classic, but ended up not participating in the tournament. On August 13, 2016 the Garza cousins defeated Tony Casanova and Zarco to win The Crash Tag Team Championship on a show in Tijuana, Baja California.


title: Angel Garza

text: Garza began working for Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA), one of Mexico's largest wrestling promotions, in 2015 where was introduced under the ring name "Garza Jr.", abandoning the "El Hijo del Ninja" moniker from that point on. His first AAA match was at "Héroes Inmortales IX" held on October 4, 2015. He was introduced as "Garza Jr." for the first time, adopting both the ring gear and mannerisms resembling his uncle Héctor. Garza Jr. teamed up with Psycho Clown and Rey Mysterio Jr. to defeat the trio of Myzteziz, El Texano Jr. and El Hijo del Fantasma in the semi-main event of the show. Garza Jr. teamed up with La Parka and Electroshock to compete for the vacant AAA World Trios Championship at the 2016 "Guerra de Titanes" show. The match also was a three-way match that included the trio of El Hijo de Pirata Morgan, Hijo del Fantasma and Taurus and the winning trio of Dark Cuervo, Dark Scoria and El Zorro. Garza Jr. failed to qualify for the finals of the 2016 "Rey de Reyes" tournament as he was eliminated by Blue Demon Jr. In April 2016 Garza Jr. was defeated by El Texano Jr. and thus was not able to qualify for the 2016 Lucha Libre World Cup. Garza Jr. was teamed up with El Hijo del Fantasma for a four-way AAA World Tag Team Championship match at "Triplemanía XXIV" against champions "Los Güeros del Cielo" (Angélico and Jack Evans), Drago and Aero Star, Paul London and Matt Cross. In the end Drago and Aero Star won the match and the championship. After several mid-card matches Garza Jr. competed in the main event of "Héroes Inmortales X", just over a year after his AAA debut. Garza Jr. unsuccessfully challenged Johnny Mundo for the AAA Latin American Championship in a match that was originally scheduled to be lower on the card but was moved to the main event on the night of the show. Three months later Garza Jr. was involved in another featured match, this time at the 2017 "Guerra de Titanes" show, where he fought, and lost to El Hijo del Fantasma in a match where the AAA World Cruiserweight Championship was on the line.


title: Angel Garza

text: On January 21, 2017, the day after "Guerra de Titanes", Garza Jr. left AAA and made a surprise appearance at a "The Crash" show in Tijuana, Baja California alongside Daga and Pentagón Jr. who also left AAA. The trio was joined by Rey Fénix, stating that they were now independent of AAA and were forming a group. Later that night Garza Jr. teamed up with Daga to compete in a five-team match against Pentagón Jr./Rey Fénix, Matt Hardy/Jeff Hardy, Bestia 666/Nicho El Millonario and Juventud Guerrera/Super Crazy that was won by Pentagón Jr. and Rey Fénix. On the same night it was announced that The Crash Tag Team Championship was vacant, stripping Garza Jr. and Último Ninja of the championship to allow the Broken Hardys to win the championship in the main event of the show by defeating Juventud Guerrera and Super Crazy. In subsequent interviews Garza stated that AAA prevented him from earning more money; when promoters across Mexico inquired if Garza Jr. would be available to wrestle on their shows AAA often told the promoters that Garza Jr. was already booked, only to not give him work on those dates themselves. The group of Penta, Rey Fénix, Daga and Garza Jr. later announced that they would not be using the "Perros del Mal" name for the group, like Pentagón Jr. and Daga had used in AAA but instead come up with a new name for the group. The group was named "La Rebelión" and would later include El Zorro and Rey Mysterio Jr..


title: Angel Garza

text: Garza Jr., alongside Mexican wrestler Laredo Kid, made his surprise debut for the Orlando, Florida-based Impact Wrestling at their TV show taping on March 2, 2017. The two made their in-ring debut by defeating Eli Drake and Tyrus. Two days later Garza Jr. and Laredo Kid participated in a 4-team match for the Impact Wrestling World Tag Team Championship, against The Latin American Xchange, Decay and Reno SCUM, which was won by LAX represented by Santana and Ortiz. At Slammiversary XV, Garza Jr. and Laredo Kid competed in a Four-way tag team match for the Impact Wrestling World and GFW Tag Team Championships which was won by The Latin American Xchange. at Bound for Glory, Garza Jr. competed in a Six-way match for the Impact X Division Championship which was won by Trevor Lee.


title: Angel Garza

text: On April 18, 2019, it was announced that he signed a contract with WWE and begun working at their Performance Center, and his ring name was changed to Angel Garza. In June, it was announced that Garza will compete in a tournament named NXT Breakout Tournament, where he made his debut on the June 26 episode of "NXT" as a heel, defeating Joaquin Wilde in the first round of the tournament, but losing to A. C. H. in the semifinals on July 24 episode of "NXT". On the August 20 episode of "205 Live", Garza debuted on the brand while cementing his heel turn, competing on Drew Gulak's team in a ten–man tag team match against Oney Lorcan's team, where Lorcan's team was victorious.


title: Angel Garza

text: On the November 6 episode of "NXT", Garza defeated Tony Nese to become the number one contender for the NXT Cruiserweight Championship against Lio Rush, but Garza failed to defeat Rush the following week on "NXT". On the December 11 episode of NXT, Garza defeated Rush to win the NXT Cruiserweight Championship, his first title in the WWE. On January 25, 2020, at Worlds Collide, Garza lost the title to Jordan Devlin in a fatal four-way match, also involving Travis Banks and Isaiah "Swerve" Scott, who Devlin pinned. On the February 5 episode of "NXT", after defeating Isaiah "Swerve" Scott, he called out Jordan Devlin, wanting a rematch as Devlin did not pin Garza to win the title. The following week on "NXT", Garza was defeated by Lio Rush in a number one contender's match for the NXT Cruiserweight Championship.


title: Angel Garza

text: On the February 3 episode of "Raw", Garza made his debut on the brand as a heel associate of Zelina Vega and opposed his cousin Humberto Carrillo, viciously assaulting Carrillo until the latter was rescued by Rey Mysterio. Garza subsequently faced Mysterio, where Garza lost via disqualification, after performing a DDT to Mysterio on the concrete floor. Garza was scheduled to team with Vega's other associate, Andrade to face The Street Profits (Angelo Dawkins and Montez Ford) for the Raw Tag Team Championship at WrestleMania 36, but Andrade was removed from that match due to an injury and was replaced by Austin Theory, who is another associate of Vega. At WrestleMania, Garza and Theory were unsuccessful at capturing the titles. On the April 13 episode of "Raw", Garza, Andrade and Theory attacked Akira Tozawa as all three posed together, confirming their status as a faction. However on the May 18 episode of Raw they kicked Theory out of their faction for accidentally costing them a match against Kevin Owens and Apollo Crews. The following week on Raw, Garza defeated Kevin Owens in an upset victory. On the June 8 episode of Raw, Garza competed in a Triple Threat match against Andrade and Owens for an opportunity at the United States Championship at Backlash but was pinned by Andrade. During the match, Andrade and Garza accidentally knocked out Vega after getting in to an argument. At Backlash, Garza attempted to help Andrade defeat Crews but was stunned by Owens at ringside which led to Crews retaining the title. The following night on Raw, Garza lost to Owens after Andrade's interference on Garza's behalf backfired.


title: Angel Garza

text: On the June 22 episode of "Raw", Garza and Andrade attacked the Street Profits after their match with The Viking Raiders making their intentions known for the Raw Tag Team Titles. Over the next few weeks, Garza and Andrade would feud with The Viking Raiders defeating them in a Tag Team Elimination match but struggled to get on the same page as a tag team. Andrade and Garza would start to coexist as a tag team as they defeated The Viking Raiders and Cedric Alexander and Ricochet to earn a Raw Tag Team Title shot against Street Profits at SummerSlam. At the event they were defeated by the Street Profits after a miscommunication between Garza and Andrade. On the September 14 episode of Raw, Vega ended her association with Garza and Andrade having had enough of them constantly arguing and fighting with each other. The following week on Raw, Garza and Andrade (without Vega) defeated Seth Rollins and Murphy and Dominik Mysterio and Humberto Carrillo to once again become #1 Contenders for the Raw Tag Team Titles against the Street Profits at Clash of Champions. At the event they were once again unsuccessful at capturing the titles as Garza suffered a legitimate knee injury during the match thus causing an unexpected quick finish to the match, the following day Dave Meltzer reported that despite the botched ending The Street Profits were originally scheduled to Win the match and that plans did not change because of the legitimate injury.


title: Angel Garza

text: Garza returned on the October 12 episode of "Raw", defeating Andrade, thus officially splitting up the team. On December 31, 2020, Garza won his first WWE 24/7 Championship from R-Truth during a New Year's Eve party that was streamed live on TikTok. However on the January 4, 2021 episode of "Raw", The Boogeyman appeared and scared him, thus pinned by R-Truth to retain the 24/7 Championship title. On the May 3rd Edition of RAW Gulak confronted Garza which lead to a match. Which Garza won. During the post match Garza shoved a rose down Gulak's pants & then kicked it.


title: Angel Garza

text: In the following months, Garza would occasionally be seen backstage pursuing the 24/7 Championship. On the September 20 episode of "Raw", Garza formed a tag team with his cousin Humberto Carrillo, defeating Mansoor and Mustafa Ali. As part of the 2021 Draft, both Garza and Carrillo were drafted to the SmackDown brand. On the November 5 episode of "SmackDown", the team was named Los Lotharios, with both Garza and Carrillo shortening their ring names, being billed as Angel and Humberto.


title: Angel Garza

text: On December 11, 2019, immediately after winning the NXT Cruiserweight Championship, Garza proposed to sports journalist Zaide Lozano in the middle of the ring. They got married on July 23, 2020. They have a daughter named Dara (born July 2022).


title: Defacement (The Death of Michael Stewart)

text: The Death of Michael Stewart, known as Defacement, is a painting created by American artist Jean-Michel Basquiat in 1983. The artwork is Basquiat's response to anti-black racism and police brutality. It memorializes the death of Michael Stewart at the hands of New York City Transit Police for writing graffiti in the subway.


text: Aspiring artist and model Michael Stewart was arrested by transit police for writing graffiti in the First Avenue station of the New York subway on September 15, 1983. He was brought to Bellevue Hospital hogtied and in critical condition. After thirteen days in a coma, Stewart died from his injuries on September 28, 1983. His death sparked outrage concerning police brutality. Jean-Michel Basquiat was deeply affected by the story and said to friends that "it could have been me." He had started off as a street artist writing graffiti as SAMO. Basquiat was not close to Stewart, but they shared a circle of friends. At the time of his death, Stewart was dating Basquiat's former girlfriend, Suzanne Mallouk. Basquiat painted "Defacement" on the wall of artist Keith Haring's NoHo studio days after Stewart's death. Haring cut the artwork out of the drywall when he moved out in 1985. He had Sam Havadtoy add an ornate frame a year after Basquiat's death in 1989. It was hanging above Haring's bed at the time of his death in 1990.


text: "Defacement" depicts two pink-faced policemen in blue uniform, one with sharp predator teeth, with batons clobbering a black silhouette. The word "¿DEFACEMENT©?" is written above them. The shadowy figure is Stewart, but it could also represent any black man who has been brutalized by the police. The tags of graffiti artists Daze and Zephyr are on the artwork.


text: While Stewart was still in a coma, artist David Wojnarowicz created a flyer for a rally protesting Stewart's then "near-murder" in Union Square on September 26, 1983. The flyer portrays the officers with skeletal faces beating a handcuffed black man with batons. It was taped all around downtown which may have inspired Basquiat's "Defacement" painting.


text: In the years since "Defacement" was created, it has taken critical resonance with the Black Lives Matter movement.


text: "Defacement" was never sold and has seldom been displayed in public. It is owned by Nina Clemente, Keith Haring's goddaughter and daughter of the Italian painter Francesco Clement.


text: In 2016, Chaédria LaBouvier, an independent curator, partnered with her alma mater Williams College Museum of Art in Massachusetts to bring the painting to the campus. It hung in the Reading Room, which is part of the college's first library. In 2019, LaBouvier organized "Basquiat's 'Defacement': The Untold Story" at the Guggenheim Museum in New York. The exhibit centered around the painting and the reaction of the downtown community to the death of Michael Stewart. Artwork by Stewart was displayed for the first time.


text: Chaédria LaBouvier, Nancy Spector, J. Faith Almiron. "Basquiat's Defacement: The Untold Story", 2019.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: The Snowshoe is a breed of cat originating in the United States of America in the 1960s. Snowshoes were first produced in Philadelphia when a Siamese breeder's cat gave birth to three kittens with white feet. The breeder, Dorothy Hinds-Daugherty, then began a breeding program to produce what were originally called "Silver Laces", crossing the strangely marked Siamese cats with bi-color American Shorthair cats and other breeds. When Hinds-Daugherty left the program, Vikki Olander began working with the cats and recruited new breeders, as well as worked towards full recognition within cat associations. Despite having existed for 45 years, Snowshoes are rare due to the difficulty of reproducing the correct coat markings. The marks are based on recessive genes for color points and on the co-dominant but variably-expressed piebald pattern gene, making it difficult to predict the appearance of offspring.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: The coat coloration recognized by registries and associations is point coloration, and it comes in a variety of colors, though some organizations do not recognize certain colors. Snowshoe cats have an affectionate and docile disposition. Due to this, they do not do well under circumstances where they are left alone for long periods of time. Snowshoes are also very vocal, though their voices are not as loud as their Siamese ancestors. They are noted as being very intelligent and have the ability to learn tricks and open doors. These cats also enjoy water, and may swim.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: In the 1960s, a cat owned by Siamese cat breeder Dorothy Hinds-Daugherty produced a litter of Siamese kittens in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Three of the kittens had unique markings, consisting of white points and feet. Intrigued by their looks, she began working to breed cats like them, using seal point Siamese with bicolor American Shorthairs. The offspring of those cats lacked the Siamese points, but by breeding the offspring to Siamese cats, the desired look was accomplished. Hinds-Daugherty named the breed "Snowshoe" because of their white feet. Hinds-Daugherty promoted the Snowshoe at local cats shows, though they were not recognized at the time. Hinds-Daughtery eventually abandoned the Snowshoe breeding program, and it was taken up by Vikki Olander.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: Olander wrote the first breed standard for the Snowshoe, and succeeded in obtaining the Cat Fanciers Federation (CFF) and the American Cat Association's (ACA) "experimental breed" status for the Snowshoe in 1974. However, by 1977, Olander was the last breeder of the Snowshoe in the United States. After struggling to keep the breed alive, Olander was contacted by Jim Hoffman and Georgia Kuhnell, who were interested in the breed. Other breeders joined Olander, Hoffman, and Kuhnell, and they obtained the champion status from the CFF in 1983. In 1989, Olander left the program, as her fiancé was allergic to cats. However, by then the Snowshoe had a strong following, and the breed attained champion status with the American Cat Fanciers Association in 1990 and was recognized by The International Cat Association in 1993. Currently, breeders work to attain acceptance with the Cat Fanciers Association, but struggle with the lack of cats and breeders needed for the association's requirements.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: Snowshoes are also fully recognized by the Fédération Internationale Féline, and the Cat Fanciers Federation.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: The Snowshoe is a rare breed, partly due to the difficulty of breeding cats with markings and patterns that conform well to breed standards. The Snowshoe's pattern relies on recessive genes and other factors to produce desired results. One gene, which causes the "V" facial pattern is an example of incomplete dominance. If the offspring produced has two dominant genes for the marking, then the feature will be larger than a cat with one dominant gene. However, other factors may influence the feature, which makes it difficult to predict the outcome. Another issue is the white boots, which can be caused by a piebalding gene or a gloving gene. The genes are difficult to control, and many cats' boots extend too far up the leg, do not reach far enough up the leg, or the cat completely lacks white. As such, pet-quality Snowshoes usually have too much white, too little white, or white features are mismarked. The cats' body type further complicates breeding, as the breeder must achieve the correct head shape and ear set, while still maintaining the American Shorthair's body structure and the length of the Siamese.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: The ear size ranges from medium to medium-large with slightly rounded tips. The head may be triangular, however can be an "applehead" shape with a traditional cat look. The short-haired coat consists of solid and white patterns. Points (ears, tail, face-mask and sometimes legs) are solid black-based colors. White patterns vary, typically falling along the face, chest, stomach, and paws. The body is an even coloration, subtle shading to point color on back, shoulders and hips; toning to a lighter shade near chest and stomach. Paw pads may be white, point color, flesh tone, or mottled. Their color will darken with age, even to the point of turning a chocolate brown shade. In purebreds, the eyes are always blue. The tail is medium-sized. Snowshoe cats come in blue, lilac, lynx, fawn, chocolate, and seal points. The Snowshoe is a medium-large cat and longer length wise than many cats, with many males reaching 14  lbs or more.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: In registries and cat associations, the recognized Snowshoe coat color is point coloration, with a light body color and darker ears, face, legs, and tail. The American Cat Fanciers Association recognizes seal point coloration and blue point coloration while the Fédération Internationale Féline recognizes seal, blue, black, chocolate, red, cream, cinnamon, and fawn point coloration. Additionally, the FIF recognizes the colors in tortoiseshell, tabby, and tortoiseshell-tabby coat patterns. The International Cat Association recognizes all pointed colors. Snowshoe kittens are born white, and markings appear within 1 to 3 weeks. Each Snowshoe has a pattern unique to the individual cat.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: The Snowshoe's coat should be of medium to short in length, and should be bright and smooth with no noticeable undercoat. It is considered a fault within cat associations if the Snowshoe has a plush or double coat. The Snowshoe's coat undergoes seasonal changes and does not require much grooming.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: Snowshoes are generally affectionate, sweet-tempered, and mellow. They enjoy the company of humans and being given attention, and are compatible with children and other pets. Snowshoes are very social and docile, and show great devotion and love towards their owners. Consequently, the cats of this breed dislike being left alone for long periods of time and are able to cope with working hours better if they have another cat companion. Snowshoes may express themselves and their complaints vocally, though their meows are not as loud as the Siamese. It is not unusual for a snowshoe to look concerned, they generally have a worried or concerned expression on their face for the majority of the time. The cats are also noted as being intelligent; they can learn to open various types of doors, and can be taught tricks, especially fetch. Snowshoes also enjoy water, particularly running water, and may on occasion swim. Though very active, they are not restless or easily agitated, and they have a fondness for perching in high places.


title: Snowshoe cat

text: Dusty the Klepto Kitty is a domestic Snowshoe cat burglar from San Mateo, California. He earned the nickname Klepto Kitty after bringing home more than 600 items from the gardens he prowled at night.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Sacred Heart University (SHU) is a private, Catholic university in Fairfield, Connecticut. It was founded in 1963 by the Most Reverend Walter W. Curtis, Bishop of the Diocese of Bridgeport, Connecticut. Sacred Heart was the first Catholic university in the United States to be staffed by the laity.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Sacred Heart is the second-largest Catholic university in New England, behind Boston College, and offers more than 80 degree programs to over 8,500 students at the bachelor's, master's and doctoral levels.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Undergraduate students can study at Sacred Heart's international campuses in Dingle, Ireland and Luxembourg, including freshmen participating in pre-fall and Freshman Fall Abroad programs. On the main campus, academic facilities include the Frank and Marisa Martire Business & Communications Center and the Center for Healthcare Education.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Sacred Heart University was founded in 1963 by the Most Reverend Walter W. Curtis, Bishop of the Diocese of Bridgeport on the grounds of the former Notre Dame Catholic High School. The university is led and staffed by the laity independent and locally oriented. The founding president was William H. Conley (1907–1974). Former American ambassador and Diplomat Thomas Patrick Melady served as president of the university from 1976 to 1986.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Enrollment has risen from the original class of 173 to over 8,500 full and part-time undergraduate and graduate students, and the faculty has increased from 9 to 281 full-time professors and over 520 adjunct professors since 1963.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 1990, Sacred Heart built the first dorms, and began accepting residential. It now has 10 residential buildings with 50 percent of the full-time undergraduates residing in university housing.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The university has 32 varsity teams that compete in Division I. In 1997, The William H. Pitt Health and Recreation Center was opened.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 1981, then-United States vice president George H. W. Bush received an honorary degree from Sacred Heart.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 2006, Jack Welch, former CEO of General Electric, made a financial gift to the university and College of Business was named after him.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In recent years, Sacred Heart University has purchased land in the surrounding Fairfield, Connecticut area, and has built new academic buildings, dormitories, and is in the process of building a rink for its hockey team.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 2010, Sacred Heart announced plans to open a new Health and Wellness Center. The center was built on Park Avenue across from the main campus.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 2012, the university opened a new student commons building, named the Linda E. McMahon Student Commons, after McMahon donated $5 million to the university. The new Commons includes dining facilities, lounge space, and a bookstore.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 2014, Sacred Heart broke ground for a new learning center, called the Student Success Center. The center provides educational support for students at the university and from the surrounding region. In 2015, the university started construction of the Center for Healthcare Education.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 2015, the university opened the Frank and Marisa Martire Center for Business & Communications building, which houses the Jack Welch College of Business and the School of Communication & Media Arts. The building was designed Sasaki Associates, who also designed the Linda E. McMahon Student Commons.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 2016, Sacred Heart opened a new residence hall, called Bergoglio Hall, named after Pope Francis, whose birth name is Jorge Bergoglio.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In October 2016, Nikki Yovino reported to the police that she was raped by two black Sacred Heart University football players at an off-campus party. Yovino has admitted, months later, that the sexual assault was a lie in an attempt to gain the attention of another man. However, in 2018, she pled guilty to two counts of second-degree falsely reporting an incident and one count of interfering with police and was sentenced to one year in jail and three years of probation. The men Yovino accused, Malik St. Hilaire and Dhameer Bradley, were forced out of Sacred Heart University after losing their scholarships amid the false accusations. As of August 27, 2018, both men are no longer enrolled at Sacred Heart University and with no remediation for losing their scholarships.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In November 2016, Sacred Heart acquired the former GE corporate headquarters located near its main campus.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In April 2017, Sacred Heart and St. Vincent's College, another Catholic college in Connecticut, agreed to merge management operations. In 2018, the schools' merger was completed and St. Vincent's became known as St. Vincent's College at Sacred Heart University.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In 2019, Sacred Heart was ranked on Princeton Reviews list of best schools, including tenth for "Happiest Students". In 2020, Sacred Heart announced plans to build a $60 million hockey arena.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: In March 2020, at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, Sacred Heart moved classes online. In-person classes resumed for the fall 2020 semester, with all students being required to be tested before coming to campus and did random tests of students throughout the semester.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The university consists of five colleges: College of Arts & Sciences, which includes the School of Communication & Media Arts and the School of Computing; Jack Welch College of Business and Technology; College of Health Professions; College of Nursing and the Isabelle Farrington College of Education. Sacred Heart University is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Sacred Heart University offers more than 80 bachelor's, master's, and doctoral programs. Sacred Heart also offers qualified undergraduates the opportunity to complete an undergraduate degree and a graduate degree with five to six years depending on the degree program.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The main campus is located in suburban Fairfield, Connecticut; northeast of New York City and southwest of Boston.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The Theatre Arts Program began in 2009, with the premiere of Sacred Heart University's first musical production: "Rent". Other productions have included "Little Shop of Horrors" in 2011, "The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee in 2013," "Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street" in 2015, and "Jesus Christ Superstar" in 2017.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The Sacred Heart Theatre Arts program (“TAP”) Produces 6 full scale productions a year. Two which are performed on the Edgerton main stage, and four in the black box Little Theater.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The Theatre Arts Program has a student-produced, student-written, and student-performed festival called "Theatrefest". The program also has an improv team called The Pioneer Players. In 2016, the program began its own Repertory Theatre Company. Students are invited into this exclusive company beginning after their first semester. In 2017, Sacred Heart expanded its Theatre Arts Program by launching its National Playwriting Competition & Intern Program.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The Student Government consists of student leaders from all four class years. All full-time undergraduate students have the opportunity to be elected or appointed to a position.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: "The Spectrum" is a student-run newspaper printed and distributed to students each Wednesday and made available online.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: More than 1,200 students and members of the faculty and staff volunteer in excess of 31,000 hours each year largely within the City of Bridgeport, but also regionally, nationally, and internationally. The work of the Office of Volunteer Programs & Service Learning is at the heart of the overall mission of the university. The programs offered allow students to engage in the local community and in communities around the world. Nearly all of the programs are organized by student leaders who grow their leadership and professional skills as they work with community partners. There are weekly volunteer opportunities to local schools, soup kitchens and food banks, and senior centers. Students interested in a long-term weekly volunteer commitment can participate in a mentoring program, where SHU students work one-on-one with local Bridgeport students. The office also provides immersion programs and experiences.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: SHU has the only American-accredited MBA program in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and a residential study-abroad program in the Irish-speaking community of Dingle, County Kerry, Ireland. International experiences are available to students worldwide through programs located at The American University of Rome, in Italy, the University of Notre Dame in Fremantle, Australia, and the University of Granada, in Spain, as well as programs in Bermuda and the Bahamas.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: SHU allows students to participate in CCIS programs, programs affiliated with other schools across the U.S. These programs include, but are not limited to: France, Argentina, Germany, Belgium, and Japan.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The Pioneers compete in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in the Northeast Conference (NEC), Atlantic Hockey, the New England Women's Hockey Alliance (NEWHA), Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC), the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC), Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA), and the Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA). The NEC is the school's primary conference.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Nearly 800 students participate in the university's 32 athletic teams (18 female teams and 14 male teams) along with more than 500 students who participate in 23 Club Sports.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The football team plays at the Football Championship Subdivision level and claims an FCS title in 2001. Their biggest rivalry is with the oldest public university in Connecticut, Central Connecticut State University, in what has been dubbed the Constitution State Rivalry.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The men's fencing team won the Northeast Conference title five years in a row (2010–2014) and was ranked #9 in 2011.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: On February 21, 2013, the Sacred Heart University athletics department hired longtime Major League Baseball player and manager Bobby Valentine as the athletic director.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: On June 8, 2021, the Sacred Heart University athletics department named Judy Ann Riccio as its interim athletic director, replacing Bobby Valentine who took a leave of absence.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: The women's ice hockey program had competed as in independent from 2003 to 2019 at the National Collegiate level, with "National Collegiate" being the NCAA's official designation for championship events in sports in which members of Divisions I and II compete for a single national title. The Pioneers participate in the NEWHA, established in 2017–18 by Sacred Heart, fellow Division I member Holy Cross, and four Division II schools. Sacred Heart won the inaugural NEWHA tournament title in 2018. The NEWHA lost Holy Cross to Hockey East after that season, but returned to 6 members for 2019–20 with the arrival of LIU, a fellow NEC member that launched a new women's program. With the NEWHA soon to have the membership total required for an automatic bid to the NCAA women's tournament, the NEWHA formally organized as a conference in 2018, and received official NCAA recognition effective with LIU's arrival in 2019–20.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Women's wrestling will become a varsity sport in 2021, the second for a Division I institution and first in the Northeast.


title: Sacred Heart University

text: Sacred Heart is home to nine national sororities, five national fraternities, one local fraternity, and two professional fraternities. Greek Life is one of the largest and fastest growing organizations on campus. Greek Life at SHU is home to a chapter of Order of Omega, a national Greek academic honor society.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: Henry IV of Castile (Castilian: "Enrique IV"; 5 January 1425 – 11 December 1474), King of Castile and León, nicknamed the Impotent, was the last of the weak late-medieval kings of Castile and León. During Henry's reign, the nobles became more powerful and the nation became less centralised.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: Henry was born in 1425 at the Casa de las Aldabas (since destroyed) in Teresa Gil street of Valladolid. He was the son of John II of Castile and Maria of Aragon, daughter of King Ferdinand I of Aragon. He displaced his older sister, Eleanor, and became heir apparent to the Castilian throne as the Prince of Asturias.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: At the time of his birth, Castile was under control of Álvaro de Luna, Duke of Trujillo, who intended to select Henry's companions and direct his education. The companions of his own age included Juan Pacheco, who became his closest confidant. The struggles, reconciliations and intrigues for power among the aristocracy, Álvaro de Luna, and the Infantes of Aragon would be constant.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: On 10 October 1444, he became the first and only prince of Jaén. In 1445 he won the First Battle of Olmedo, defeating the Infantes of Aragon. After the victory at Olmedo, Álvaro de Luna's power waned, and Prince Henry and Juan Pacheco's influence grew.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: One of King Henry's first priorities was the alliance with Portugal. He achieved this by marrying a second time to Joan of Portugal, daughter of King Edward of Portugal, in 1455; and by meeting her brother King Afonso V of Portugal in Elvas in 1456. His other main concerns were the possibility of intervention from King John II of Navarre, establishing peace with France and Aragon, and pardoning various aristocrats. Henry IV convened the Cuéllar Courts to launch an offensive against the Emirate of Granada. The campaigns of 1455 and 1458 developed into a war of attrition based on punitive raids and avoiding pitched battles. It was not popular with the aristocracy or the people. Juan Pacheco, the Marquis of Villena, and his brother Pedro Girón were put in charge of government decisions. King Henry also took other advisors, such as Beltrán de la Cueva, Miguel Lucas de Iranzo, and Gómez de Cáceres to balance against their influence.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: In 1458, King Alfonso V of Aragon died and was succeeded by his brother, John II of Navarre. King John II resumed his interference in Castillian politics, supporting the aristocratic opposition to Juan Pacheco's ambitions. With the support of the King Henry, Pacheco moved to seize Álvaro de Luna's assets, but his widow allied herself with the Mendoza family, causing a division among the aristocracy. This process resulted in the formation of a League of Nobles in March 1460. They raised a large number of noblemen, took control of expenditure, and gained the acceptance of Alfonso of Castile, the King Henry's half-brother and Prince of Asturias.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: To counteract King John II's politicking, Henry IV reacted by invading Navarre in support of Charles, Prince of Viana. Charles was the heir to Navarre, and he revolted against his father John II in 1450 when he refused to cede the throne of Navarre. The campaign was a military success, but King Henry made peace with the League of Nobles in August 1461 to ward off the power of the Mendozas, which had allowed John II to intervene in Castile.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: King John II was in conflict with the Principality of Catalonia, and on the death of his eldest son, Charles of Viana, the principality elected Henry IV to be Count of Barcelona on 11 August 1462. King Henry's intervention was framed as a rivalry between him and John II, making Catalonia an unstable point in the Crown of Aragon. But he was unsuccessful, and the Castillian economy would suffer from an enmity with France, who had supported John II with the "Treaty of Bayonne". Henry IV therefore agreed to a settlement in the "Judgment of Bayonne", resulting in the abandonment of the Catalans.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: During his reign as king, Henry IV spent a lot of time at the Royal Alcázar of Madrid where he would stay there for long periods of time. The Royal Alcazar was later replaced with the Royal Palace of Madrid by the rulers of Spain.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: Prince Henry celebrated his marriage to Blanche of Navarre in 1440, when he was 15 years old. The cardinal Juan de Cervantes presided over the official ceremony. Her parents were Blanche I of Navarre and John II of Navarre. The marriage had been agreed in 1436 as part of the peace negotiations between Castile and Navarre. The dowry included territories and villas that had previously belonged to Navarre but had been won by the Castillian side during the war, and the Castilians agreed to hand the lands back provided they would be given them back again as part of this dowry.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: In May 1453, the bishop of Segovia Luis Vázquez de Acuña annulled the marriage of Henry and Blanche, on the grounds of Henry's sexual impotence due to a curse. This neatly reflected the recent political changes: Castile had supported Charles, Prince of Viana in his fight against John II of Aragon for the Navarrese throne since 1451, and Álvaro de Luna, Duke of Trujillo had been executed in May 1453, leaving Henry with greater control of Castile. Henry alleged that he had been incapable of sexually consummating the marriage, despite having tried for over three years, the minimum period required by the church. Other women, prostitutes from Segovia, testified that they had had sexual relations with Henry, which is why he blamed his inability to consummate the marriage on a spell. Henry's alleged "permanent impotence" only affected his relations with Blanche. Blanche and Henry were cousins, and he was also a cousin of Joan of Portugal, whom he wanted to marry instead. Therefore, the reason he used to seek the annulment was the sort of spell that only affected his ability to consummate this one marriage, and would not cause any problems for him with other women. Pope Nicholas V corroborated the decision in December of the same year in a papal bull and provided a papal dispensation for Henry's new marriage with the sister of the Portuguese king.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: One of Henry's detractors, the historian Alfonso de Palencia, wrote that the marriage had been a sham and accused Henry of despising his wife and planning to commit adultery to bear children. According to Palencia, Henry demonstrated "most extreme abhorrence" to his wife, and indifference to the confines of marriage. However, in 1462 Blanche gave up her right to the Navarre throne so Henry could take it, and selected him as her protector, against her own father John II of Aragon.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: The remoteness of Aragon led to an approach to Portugal. In March 1453, before his divorce from Blanche was finalised, there was no record of negotiations for the new marriage between Henry and Joan of Portugal, sister of the king Afonso V of Portugal. The first marital approaches were made in December of that year, although the negotiations were long and the proposal wasn't definitively agreed until February 1455. According to chroniclers of the time, Joan did not provide a dowry and would not have to return anything even if the marriage turned out to be a failure. The length of the negotiations and the concessions could be interpreted as caused by the concerns about the rumours of Henry's impotence. The wedding was celebrated in May 1455, but without an affidavit of official bull authorizing the wedding between them, although they were first cousins (their mothers were sisters) and half second cousins (their paternal grandmothers were half-sisters). On 28 February 1462, the queen gave birth to a daughter Joanna la Beltraneja, whose paternity came into question during the conflict for succession to the Castillian throne when Henry died.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: Henry IV was twenty-six years old when his half-sister Isabella was born. She was the daughter of his father's second marriage in 1447, to Isabella of Portugal. Henry made a number of attempts throughout his reign to arrange a politically advantageous marriage for his much younger sister. The first attempt was when the six-year-old Isabella was betrothed to Ferdinand, son of John II of Navarre (a cadet branch of the House of Trastámara). This arrangement, however, did not last long.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: Before the birth of his daughter, Henry convened the Court in Madrid and Joanna was sworn in as Princess of Asturias. But a conflict with the nobility was created when Beltrán de la Cueva deposed Juan Pacheco, the Marquis of Villena, and his brother Pedro Girón, Master of Calatrava from Henry's court. This caused a change in alliances: Mendoza began to support the king, and Pacheco revived the Aristocratic League aimed at eliminating the influence of Beltrán de la Cueva. They had doubts about the paternity of Henry's daughter, saying that she was in fact the daughter of the new favourite, and started referring to her as ""la Beltraneja"". The league of nobles, controlling the king's siblings Alfonso and Isabella, forced Henry at the 1464 Representation of Burgos to repudiate Joanna and recognize Alfonso as his official heir. Alfonso then became Prince of Asturias, a title previously held by Joanna. Henry agreed to the compromise with the stipulation that Alfonso someday marry Joanna, to ensure that they both would one day receive the crown.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: Not long after this, Henry reneged on his promise and began to support his daughter's claim once more. The nobles in league against him conducted a ceremonial deposition-in-effigy of Henry outside the city of Avila and crowned Alfonso as a rival king. This event is known in history as the Farce of Avila. Shortly thereafter, Alfonso began handing out land and titles as if he were already uncontested ruler. A civil war began. The most notable clash was at the Second Battle of Olmedo in 1467, which concluded as a draw.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: However, in 1468, at the age of only 14, Alfonso died, most likely from the plague (although poison and slit throat have been suggested). His will left his crown to his sister, Isabella, who was asked to take her brother's place as the champion of the rebels. Shortly thereafter at the negotiation of Toros de Guisando, in which she and her allies received most of what they desired, Henry agreed to exclude Joanna la Beltraneja from the succession, and to recognize Isabella as his official heir. Though Henry continued to resist this decision when possible, his actions were ineffective, and he remained at peace with Isabella for the rest of his reign. Isabella became Castile's next monarch when he died in 1474.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: After the death of the king, war broke out in Castile. Joanna was supported by Portugal, while the eventual winner, Henry's half-sister Isabella I of Castile, had the support of Aragon. France initially supported Joanna, yet in 1476, after losing the Battle of Toro, France refused to help Joanna, further and in 1478 signed a peace treaty with Isabella.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: In 1440, at the age of fifteen, he was married to Blanche II of Navarre. The marriage was never consummated. In 1453, after thirteen years, Henry sought an annulment. An official examination confirmed the virginity of Blanche, and a priest questioned the prostitutes of Segovia, who confirmed that Henry was sexually capable. Blanche was sent home; eight years later, she became "de jure" Queen of Navarre and died under strange circumstances.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: In 1455, Henry married Joan of Portugal, sister of Afonso V of Portugal. After six years of marriage, in 1462, she gave birth to a daughter, Joanna, nicknamed "La Beltraneja". Six years after the birth of the throne's heir, part of the nobility of Castile revolted against the king. The rebels claimed that the princess was not the daughter of the king, but actually the daughter of Beltrán de La Cueva, 1st Duke of Alburquerque (thus the nickname "Beltraneja"). This hypothesis was reinforced when the Queen had another two children with the nephew of a bishop. Though many contemporary historians and chroniclers believed Henry was impotent or homosexual, the royal chronicles of his reign were all written or revised during the reign (and under the influence) of Isabella I, his half-sister and ultimate successor, whose strong interest in proving Joanna illegitimate renders these accounts at least partially suspect, in addition to the fact that female prostitutes testified to having intercourse with Henry. The question of Joanna's paternity and right to the throne is therefore not firmly answerable, given the lack of available reliable sources.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: The doubt of her legitimacy as an heir, the weakness of the king, the adultery of the queen, and the unruliness of the nobility all set the stage for a struggle for succession after Henry's death. Henry divorced his wife after her scandalous behavior with Bishop Fonseca's nephew. After a long period of conflict between the rival factions, Henry finally agreed to name Isabella his successor, in Guisando (Ávila), provided she allow him to arrange her strategic marriage. Isabella would go on to break this stipulation of the agreement.


title: Henry IV of Castile

text: Henry was a striking man. Tall, blonde and well built, he had broken his nose as a child. The accident left him with an adult face that made him look, depending on to whom one listened, like either a terrifying lion or a foolish monkey.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The 1999 St. Louis Rams season was the team's 62nd year with the National Football League (NFL) and the fifth season in St. Louis, Missouri. The Rams finished the regular-season with a record of 13–3, and defeated the Tennessee Titans in Super Bowl XXXIV.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: It was the team's first playoff appearance in St. Louis, their first since 1989, and their first division title since 1985.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: In the post-season, they defeated the Minnesota Vikings, who had just posted one of the greatest offenses in NFL history the year before, by a score of 49–37 in the NFC Divisional Playoffs and went on to defeat the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 11–6 in the NFC Championship Game. These were the first NFL playoff games ever played in St. Louis. The Rams then won their first ever Super Bowl title, defeating the Tennessee Titans by a score of 23–16 in Super Bowl XXXIV. The game was played on January 30, 2000 at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta. It was also the franchise's first NFL championship since 1951, when the Rams played in Los Angeles. The Rams also became the first “dome-field” (indoor home games) team to win a Super Bowl. It was also the last time that the Rams won the Super Bowl prior to 2021.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: It was the first season of the Rams’ “Greatest Show on Turf” offense. The 1999 Rams remain one of only five teams in NFL history to score more than 30 points twelve separate times in a single season. On defense, the Rams recorded seven interceptions returned for touchdowns, third most in NFL history.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Rams were the third St. Louis-based pro sports team to win a major championship, joining the, then, nine-time World Series Champion St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball and the 1957–58 St. Louis (now Atlanta) Hawks of the NBA. They would be followed by two more World Series championships by the St. Louis Cardinals and a championship by the St. Louis Blues in the 2019 Stanley Cup Finals which made St. Louis the eighth city to win a championship in each of the four major U.S. sports.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: It was the final season the Rams wore their 1973–1999 uniforms that had been synonymous with their time in Los Angeles (they brought them back as their home uniform set beginning in 2018 after their return to L.A.). This season would start a period of strength for the Rams, as they would post a winning record in all but one season from this year to 2003. The 1999 Rams team ranked #11 on the 100 greatest teams of all time presented by the NFL on its 100th anniversary.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: After a poor showing from the Rams offense in the previous 1998 season, Rams VP John Shaw suggested the Rams hire Mike Martz, and Vermeil and the team agreed. Martz advocated for the Rams to sign quarterback Trent Green, which the team did. This made Tony Banks expendable, and he was traded, which moved Kurt Warner from third-string to backup quarterback. VP Shaw also acquired Marshall Faulk from the Indianapolis Colts in exchange for two draft picks. The team also signed guard Adam Timmerman and linebacker Todd Collins, both of whom became starters.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Quarterback Kurt Warner threw for 309 yards and three touchdowns in his first NFL start. The Rams pass defense notched five sacks and two interceptions against Ravens quarterback Scott Mitchell.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Kurt Warner was named NFC Offensive Player of the Week, completing 17 of 25 passes for 275 yards, three touchdown passes and also ran for another. Warner threw his first touchdown pass on the first play of the second quarter, hooking up with Torry Holt on a 38-yard strike. After an interception by defensive back Todd Lyght, Warner hit Isaac Bruce with a 46-yard touchdown. Bruce caught three passes for 68 yards. Marshall Faulk broke off with a 58-yard run down to the Falcons' 22-yard line. Three plays later, Warner's 17-yard scoring pass to Faulk gave the Rams a 28–0 lead. Faulk had his first 100-yard game for the Rams with 172 yards from scrimmage. After the Falcons got their only points midway through the third quarter. Warner broke loose for a 5-yard touchdown run as the Rams have their first win against Atlanta since 1996.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Rams got off to a strong start with Kurt Warner throwing touchdown passes to Isaac Bruce on each of the team’s first three possessions. Isaac Bruce totaled 134 receiving yards and four touchdowns during the game. This game ended the Rams’ 17-game losing streak against the 49ers that began in 1990. It was also the Rams' first home win against the 49ers since 1986, when they were located in Los Angeles.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Faulk gained 181 rushing yards, and the Rams defense generated two interceptions and four sacks. The Rams moved to 5–0 with this win over the 1998 NFC champions.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Marshall Faulk ran for 133 yards, and the Rams defense racked up three turnovers. The Rams ran their record to 6–0 against the revived Cleveland franchise.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Despite a second half comeback, 21 unanswered first half points by Titans, due in part to two first-quarter fumbles by Kurt Warner in the Rams’ own half that Tennessee converted into touchdowns, enables them to inflict the Rams’ first defeat in a Super Bowl preview. Rams right offensive tackle Fred Miller had a miserable game, committing five false starts and two holding penalties.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: With this win the Rams swept the 49ers for the first time since the 1980 season nineteen years previously.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Rams won their tenth game and clinched the NFC West Division title for the first time since 1985.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Rams pass defense pressured the Saints offense, racking up three interceptions and six sacks. The Rams clinched a first-round bye for the first time under the playoff format adopted in 1990.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: With a 12–2 record with two games remaining, the Rams clinched home field advantage for the first time since 1978.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Marshall Faulk racked up 204 receiving yards, in addition to 54 rushing yards on 10 carries. With this victory, the Rams set single-season franchise records for most home wins with 8 and most overall wins with 13 (a record they would break two years later). Additionally, the Rams finished with a perfect home record for the first time since the 1973 season.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Rams traveled to Philadelphia for their season finale against the struggling Eagles. The Rams rested a number of starters for much of the game, having already clinched home-field playoffs. Despite dominating Philadelphia offensively, St. Louis was doomed by a seven-turnover afternoon, with three lost fumbles and four interceptions, two of which were returned for Eagles touchdowns. The Rams lost, 38–31, but nevertheless earned the top seed in the NFC playoffs with a 13–3 record.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Warner was the backup quarterback for the St. Louis Rams during the 1998 regular season and the 1999 preseason. When starting quarterback Trent Green was injured in a preseason game, Warner took over as the starter. With the support of running back Marshall Faulk and wide receivers Isaac Bruce, Torry Holt, Az-Zahir Hakim and Ricky Proehl, Warner completed one of the top seasons by a quarterback in NFL history by throwing for 4,353 yards with 41 touchdown passes and a completion rate of 65.1 percent. The Rams' high-powered offense was nicknamed "The Greatest Show on Turf" and registered the first in a string of three consecutive 500-point seasons, an NFL record. Warner threw three touchdown passes in each of the first three games in the 1999 season, his first three NFL starts. He is the only NFL quarterback in history to accomplish that feat, and only the second other than Dan Marino to do it in his first two NFL starts.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Warner really drew attention, however, in the season's fourth game against the San Francisco 49ers, who had been NFC West Division champs for 12 of the previous 13 seasons. The Rams had lost 17 of their previous 18 meetings with the 49ers and had a 3–0 record along with the 49ers’ 3–1 record. Warner threw three touchdown passes on the Rams' first three possessions of the game and four in the first half to propel the Rams to a 28–10 halftime lead on the way to a 42–20 victory. Warner finished the game with five touchdown passes, giving him 14 in four games and, more importantly, the Rams a 4–0 record. After many years of defeats and losing records, football experts finally had to take notice.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Warner's breakout season from a career in anonymity was so unexpected that "Sports Illustrated" featured him on their October 18 cover with the caption “Who IS this guy?” He was named the 1999 NFL MVP at the season's end.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: In the NFL playoffs, Warner led the Rams to a Super Bowl XXXIV victory against the Tennessee Titans. He threw for two touchdowns and a then Super Bowl record 414 passing yards, including a 73-yard touchdown to Isaac Bruce when the game was tied with just over two minutes to play. Warner also set a Super Bowl record by attempting 45 passes without a single interception.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Warner was awarded the 1999 Super Bowl MVP, becoming one of only six players to win both the league MVP and Super Bowl MVP awards in the same year. The others are Bart Starr in 1966, Terry Bradshaw in 1978, Joe Montana in 1989, Emmitt Smith in 1993, and Steve Young in 1994.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: As expected, this match between the two high powered offenses produced a lot of points (86), and yards (880, 475 by St. Louis, 405 by Minnesota). But after falling behind 17–14, St. Louis stormed to victory with 35 consecutive second half points to open a 49–17 lead early in the fourth quarter. Warner threw for 391 yards and five touchdown passes to five different receivers, and Bruce accounted for 133 receiving yards.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Rams and Buccaneers, a rematch of the 1979 NFC Championship game, would slug it out for most of the game, with the Buccaneers defense holding the Rams highly-potent offense in check.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Tampa Bay, weak on offense, could only muster 163 passing yards all game against the Rams defense, with the Rams defense notching two interceptions and five sacks.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Buccaneers would only muster two field goals, and gave up a costly safety in the second quarter when a bad snap from center went over the head of rookie quarterback Shaun King and out of the endzone. Despite this, the Buccaneers nursed an unusual 6–5 lead into the 4th Quarter. The Rams broke open a defense dominated game when Kurt Warner threw a touchdown pass to Ricky Proehl, his first and only touchdown catch of the season, with 4:44 left in the game.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Buccaneers would mount a drive on their final possession, however a replay overturned what appeared to be a 2nd down reception by Buccaneers wide receiver Bert Emanuel which would have set up a short-yardage 3rd down. Emanuel dove for a catch and clasped the ball between two hands, then upon falling, the ball touched the turf while in Emanuel's hands. The ruling on the field was a completed catch, but was overturned on review because the ball had touched the ground before Emanuel was deemed in possession of it. Following this, the Buccaneers threw incomplete passes on 3rd and 4th down and the Rams were able to kneel out the clock.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The first half of Super Bowl XXXIV had been uncharacteristically low-scoring for St. Louis, as they scored only three Jeff Wilkins field goals in the first half. The Rams finally got into the end zone in the third quarter, with a 9-yard touchdown pass from Warner to Torry Holt, giving St. Louis a 16–0 lead. Tennessee, however, scored 16 unanswered points with two Eddie George touchdown runs (1- and 2-yards respectively, the first with a failed two-point conversion attempt), and a 43-yard Al Del Greco field goal.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: On St. Louis’ first play from scrimmage after Tennessee's tying field goal, Warner threw a 73-yard touchdown to Isaac Bruce to take a 23–16 lead with just under two minutes left in the game, which would give Tennessee one more chance to tie the game with a touchdown.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: The Titans took over the ball at their own 10-yard line with 1:54 left in the game after committing a holding penalty on the ensuing kickoff. McNair started out the drive with a pair of completions to Mason and Wycheck for gains of 9 and 7 yards to reach the 28-yard line. Then after throwing an incompletion, defensive back Dre' Bly’s 15-yard facemask penalty while tackling McNair on a 12-yard scramble gave the Titans a first down at the St. Louis 45-yard line. On the next play, St. Louis was penalized 5 yards for being offsides, moving the ball to the 40-yard line with 59 seconds left. McNair then ran for 2 yards, followed by a 7-yard completion to wide receiver Kevin Dyson. Three plays later, with the Titans facing 3rd down and 5 to go, McNair was hit by two Rams’ defenders, but he escaped and completed a 16-yard pass to Dyson to gain a first down at the Rams 10-yard line.


title: 1999 St. Louis Rams season

text: Tennessee then used up their final timeout with just 6 seconds left in the game, giving them a chance for one last play. McNair threw a short pass to Kevin Dyson down the middle, which looked certain to tie up the game until Rams linebacker Mike Jones tackled Dyson at the one-yard line as time expired. Dyson tried to stretch his arm and the football across the goal line, but he had already gone down, so it was too late. This final play has gone down in NFL history as simply “The Tackle”.


title: March 23 Movement

text: The March 23 Movement (), often abbreviated as M23 and also known as the Congolese Revolutionary Army ("Armée révolutionnaire du Congo"). is a rebel military group that is for the most part formed of ethnic Tutsi Based in eastern areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), it operates mainly in the province of North Kivu. The M23 rebellion of 2012 to 2013 against the DRC government led to the displacement of large numbers of people. On 20 November 2012, M23 took control of Goma, a provincial capital with a population of a million people, but it was requested to evacuate it by the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region because the DRC government had finally agreed to negotiate. In late 2012, Congolese troops, along with UN troops, retook control of Goma, and M23 announced a ceasefire and said that it wanted to resume peace talks.


title: March 23 Movement

text: A United Nations report found that Rwanda created and commanded the M23 rebel group. Rwanda ceased its support because of international pressure and the military defeat by the DRC and the UN in 2013.


title: March 23 Movement

text: In 2017, M23 elements resumed their insurgency in the DRC, but the operations of this splinter faction had little local impact.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On October 2022, the group launched its latest offensive in the east of DRC, which forced thousands to escape.


title: March 23 Movement

text: In 2022, a larger portion of M23 started an offensive, which eventually resulted in the capture of the Congolese border town of Bunagana by the rebels.


title: March 23 Movement

text: After the M23 attacks of 2022, the Congolese government blamed Rwanda and accused President Paul Kagame's government of supporting the rebels. Kigali denied the charges.


title: March 23 Movement

text: In November 2022, M23 rebels got close to the city of Goma and forced about 180,000 people to leave their homes after the Congolese Army had withdrawn from the region near the village of Kibumba.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 23 March 2009, the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP) signed a peace treaty with the DRC government, where it became a political party, and the M23 soldiers integrated into the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC). M23 takes its name from the date of these peace accords. The armed wing of the group is led by General Makenga Sultani, who has served as acting president of the group since the 28 February 2013 removal of Bishop Jean-Marie Runiga Lugerero, a former CNDP member.


title: March 23 Movement

text: The M23 was formed on 4 April 2012 when nearly 300 soldiers - the majority of them former members of the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP) - turned against the DRC government, citing poor conditions in the army and the government's unwillingness to implement the 23 March 2009 peace deal. General Bosco Ntaganda, also known as "The Terminator", was accused by the Government of Kinshasa of leading the group, and President Kabila called for his arrest on 11 April 2012. The government had threatened to redeploy former CNDP soldiers away from North Kivu before the full implementation of the peace agreement, which prompted many of them to defect from the army and create the M23.


title: March 23 Movement

text: The M23 is made up primarily of Tutsis and opposes the Hutu Power militia Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (a group that counts among its number the original members of the Interahamwe that carried out the 1994 Rwandan Genocide) as well as area Mai-Mai (community militias mostly created and supported by the Democratic Republic of Congo). To be able to upstaff the troops, occupied villages were asked to deliver youngsters for the formation of "village defence committees". This way, a larger number of more experienced soldiers could be stationed on the battlefield. However, this approach backfired when M23 troops tried to extort from the local population, since the armed youngsters defended their own villagers.


title: March 23 Movement

text: Following military successes, M23 rebels made additional demands, citing issues of human rights, democracy, as well as good governance. They have accused President Kabila of cheating in the November 2011 elections. The rebels have threatened to march on Kinshasa and depose the president.


title: March 23 Movement

text: The rebels were active in North Kivu province, fighting government forces in the Rutshuru and Masisi territories. On 6 June 2012 a Congolese spokesman reported that 200 M23 soldiers had died in the mutiny and that over 370 soldiers had surrendered to FARDC, including 25 Rwandan citizens. On 8 July 2012, Colonel Sultani Makenga announced that a government offensive to dislodge the group from their hideouts had failed, and that they had in turn captured several towns towards Goma, the provincial capital.


title: March 23 Movement

text: March 23 Movement forces had advanced to the outskirts of Goma by 18 November 2012 and warned the UN peacekeepers (MONUSCO) not to support government troops. Congolese government spokesman Lambert Mende accused Rwanda of backing the rebels. "The DRC has "not yet declared war, but we are ready to face it. This is our country, our duty".


title: March 23 Movement

text: M23 rebels advanced on Goma 20 November, and the Congolese Army retreated with little fighting. M23 forces paraded through the city, and some residents turned out to welcome them. Congolese customs officers abandoned their posts, leaving the border to Rwanda open. United Nations peacekeepers watched the occupation without intervening, stating that their mandate was limited to protecting the safety of civilians.


title: March 23 Movement

text: "Jeune Afrique" later reported that M23 rebels acquired as well as six artillery pieces (type 26 and BM-type rocket launchers)approximately ~20 shipping containers filled with arms and ammunitions of various caliber, all of which were abandoned by the FARDC during their retreat from Goma.


title: March 23 Movement

text: DR Congo president Joseph Kabila urged Goma's citizens to "resist" the M23 takeover. UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon criticized the M23 for alleged human rights violations during the takeover, including "intimidation of journalists", and abduction of women and children. Noting that the First Congo War had begun with fighting in the same region, the "New York Times" described the takeover of Goma as "raising serious questions about the stability of Congo as a whole".


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 21 November 2012, during the siege more than 2,000 Congolese soldiers and 700 policemen defected to M23.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 22 November, the FARDC, in cooperation with local Mai-Mai elements, routed the M23 rebels from the nearby town of Sake, 27 kilometers from Goma, as they marched towards Bukavu. Also 22 November, Kabila suspended General Gabriel Amisi's FARDC commission because of an inquiry into his alleged role in arms sales to various rebel groups, including the FDLR, in the eastern part of the country, so it implicated M23. On 23 November, M23 rebels retook Sake from the FARDC after an intense four-hour battle and reinforced their position in the town, as they reportedly moved toward Kirotshe to the south, Mushaki to the north-west, and Kingi to the north. Meanwhile, the FARDC reinforced their position in Minova, near the South Kivu provincial border, with more than 3500 soldiers. The UN has declared that it lost access to 30 of its 31 refugee camps in the area due to the M23 offensive.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 24 November in South Kivu, Colonel Albert Kahasha, who had surrendered and joined government troops along with other leaders of Mai-Mai militia groups Raïa Mutomboki and Nyatura. On 13 November he defected again from the FARDC. At a regional meeting in Kampala, leaders of the Great Lakes area gave M23 a two-day ultimatum to leave Goma. A combined force which would include international troops, a FARDC company, and a M23 company would be posted near Goma Airport and would take charge of security. When the ultimatum expired on 26 November, M23 still controlled the city.


title: March 23 Movement

text: The FARDC, had previously withdrawn after raping almost 126 women, some of them less than 10 years old, according to the United Nations and looting the money and possessions of the local population, came from Minova in a counteroffensive launched against M23 positions in the Masisi, North Kivu region on 27 November. M23 set up a road block on the road from Goma to Sake and reportedly extorted funds from drivers.


title: March 23 Movement

text: Following a peace deal negotiated in Uganda, the M23 said it would withdraw from Goma by 1 December. On 30 November, M23 troops began to withdraw from Sake and Masisi. A first contingent of 200 police officers also arrived in Goma on 30 November, in anticipation of M23’s withdrawal. M23 operatives allegedly kept a presence there, dressed in civilian police uniforms. On the eve of the withdrawal, FARDC forces accused M23 rebels of going door to door in some of Goma’s suburbs on the eve of their withdrawal, looting personal possessions, money and vehicles. The political wing of the movement denied this accusation, and said that criminal elements who had escaped from Munzenze prison were responsible for the looting.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 3 December 2012, FARDC and Congolese government officials re-enter Goma, two days after M23 left the city.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 24 February 2013, leaders of eleven African nations signed an agreement designed to bring peace to the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo, among them Rwanda and Uganda. Both had been accused of aiding the M23 rebellion, a charge they denied. M23 was not represented either in the negotiations, or at the signing.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 18 March 2013, Bosco Ntaganda handed himself in to the U.S. embassy in Kigali, Rwanda, where he requested transfer to the International Criminal Court in The Hague, Netherlands. Though the reasons for his surrender are unknown it was speculated that he was either pressured to do so by Rwanda or feared infighting within the M23 movement and its military leader Sulani Makenga, which had recently forced Ntaganda's forces to flee the DRC into Rwanda. Though Rwanda was not a signatory to the Rome Statute, the media speculated it would be forced to turn him over to the ICC. The U.S. also had listed him on its Rewards for Justice Program. On 22 March, he was detained by the ICC and appeared for the first time in front of the ICC on 26 March, to which he denied charges of rape, murder, and other offenses.


title: March 23 Movement

text: In March 2013, the United Nations Security Council authorized the deployment of an intervention brigade within MONUSCO to carry out targeted offensive operations, with or without the Congolese national army, against armed groups that threaten peace in eastern DRC. The brigade is based in North Kivu and is made up of a total of 3,069 peacekeepers. It is tasked with neutralizing armed groups, reducing the threat posed to State authority and civilian security and make space for stabilization activities. The FIB alongside the Government Forces (FARDC) engaged the M23 in July 2013, August 2013 and September to October 2013.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 6 November 2013 government forces launched an assault on M23 rebel position in the east of the country. This occurred one day after insurgents called for a ceasefire. The following day M23 issued a document that said they had "decided from this day to end its rebellion" and instead to pursue its goals "through purely political means". On 7 November, Sultani Makenga, the leader of M23, surrendered with about 1,500 M23 fighters in Mgahinga National Park, Uganda. They were eventually moved to refugee camps in Uganda.


title: March 23 Movement

text: After peace declarations were signed between the DRC Government and M23 rebels on 12 December 2013, issues of legal accountability for the rebellion remain because of international pressure.


title: March 23 Movement

text: In 2017, M23 commander Sultani Makenga and about 100 to 200 of his followers fled from Uganda to resume their insurgency, setting up camp at Mount Mikeno in the border area between Rwanda, Uganda, and the DR Congo. The operations of this splinter group remained marginal, and were not supported by the rest of M23. In March 2022, Makenga's group launched an offensive from their remote bases; these first attacks achieved little. After failed peace talks in April 2022, however, the M23 faction of Bisimwa joined the offensive. In May 2022, M23 fighters launched their most sustained attack since the start of their new offensive, overrunning a Congolese army base at Rumangabo. On 13 June, the rebels captured the important border town of Bunagana.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 20th October 2022 the group launched its latest offensive in the east of DRC forcing thousends to escape. After the M23 attacks of 2022, the Congolese government blamed Rwanda, and accused President Paul Kagame's government of supporting the rebels, charges which Kigali denied. In November 2022 M23 rebels got close to the city of Goma, forcing about 180,000 people to leave their homes after the Congolese army withdrew from the region close to the village of Kibumba.


title: March 23 Movement

text: On 25 February 2013, disagreement between factions of the M23 about how to react to the peace agreement led to violence. M23's political leader, Jean-Marie Runiga Lugerero, was sacked. In a statement signed by M23's military leader, Sultani Makenga, he was accused of treason because of "financial embezzlement, divisions, ethnic hatred, deceit and political immaturity". Makenga declared himself interim leader and clashes between those loyal to Sultani Makenga and those loyal to Jean-Marie Runiga Lugerero, who is allied with Bosco Ntaganda, have killed ten men and two others were hospitalized. M23 has denied that it is hit by dissent.


title: March 23 Movement

text: By 2022, M23 was splint into factions loyal to Bertrand Bisimwa, Jean-Marie Runiga, and Sultani Makenga.


title: Individualized Education Program

text: An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a legal document under United States law that is developed for each public school child in the U.S. who needs special education. It is created through a team of the child's parent(s) and district personnel who are knowledgeable about the child's needs. IEPs must be reviewed every year to keep track of the child's educational progress.