title: Barbara McClintock

text: Later, she made an extensive study of the cytogenetics and ethnobotany of maize races from South America. McClintock's research became well understood in the 1960s and 1970s, as other scientists confirmed the mechanisms of genetic change and protein expression that she had demonstrated in her maize research in the 1940s and 1950s. Awards and recognition for her contributions to the field followed, including the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, awarded to her in 1983 for the discovery of genetic transposition; as of 2022, she remains the only woman who has received an unshared Nobel Prize in that category.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Barbara McClintock was born Eleanor McClintock on June 16, 1902, in Hartford, Connecticut, the third of four children born to homeopathic physician Thomas Henry McClintock and Sara Handy McClintock. Thomas McClintock was the child of British immigrants; Sara Ryder Handy was descended from an old American "Mayflower" family. Marjorie, the oldest child, was born in October 1898; Mignon, the second daughter, was born in November 1900. The youngest, Malcolm Rider (called Tom), was born 18 months after Barbara. When she was a young girl, her parents determined that Eleanor, a "feminine" and "delicate" name, was not appropriate for her, and chose Barbara instead. McClintock was an independent child beginning at a very young age, a trait she later identified as her "capacity to be alone". From the age of three until she began school, McClintock lived with an aunt and uncle in Brooklyn, New York in order to reduce the financial burden on her parents while her father established his medical practice. She was described as a solitary and independent child. She was close to her father, but had a difficult relationship with her mother, tension that began when she was young.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: The McClintock family moved to Brooklyn in 1908 and McClintock completed her secondary education there at Erasmus Hall High School; she graduated early in 1919. She discovered her love of science and reaffirmed her solitary personality during high school. She wanted to continue her studies at Cornell University's College of Agriculture. Her mother resisted sending McClintock to college for fear that she would be unmarriageable, a common attitude at the time. McClintock was almost prevented from starting college, but her father allowed her to just before registration began, and she matriculated at Cornell in 1919.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: McClintock began her studies at Cornell's College of Agriculture in 1919. There, she participated in student government and was invited to join a sorority, though she soon realized that she preferred not to join formal organizations. Instead, McClintock took up music, specifically jazz. She studied botany, receiving a BSc in 1923. Her interest in genetics began when she took her first course in that field in 1921. The course was based on a similar one offered at Harvard University, and was taught by C. B. Hutchison, a plant breeder and geneticist. Hutchison was impressed by McClintock's interest, and telephoned to invite her to participate in the graduate genetics course at Cornell in 1922. McClintock pointed to Hutchison's invitation as a catalyst for her interest in genetics: "Obviously, this telephone call cast the die for my future. I remained with genetics thereafter." Although it has been reported that women could not major in genetics at Cornell, and therefore her MS and PhD—earned in 1925 and 1927, respectively—were officially awarded in botany, recent research has revealed that women were permitted to earn graduate degrees in Cornell's Plant Breeding Department during the time that McClintock was a student at Cornell.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: During her graduate studies and postgraduate appointment as a botany instructor, McClintock was instrumental in assembling a group that studied the new field of cytogenetics in maize. This group brought together plant breeders and cytologists, and included Marcus Rhoades, future Nobel laureate George Beadle, and Harriet Creighton. Rollins A. Emerson, head of the Plant Breeding Department, supported these efforts, although he was not a cytologist himself.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: She also worked as a research assistant for Lowell Fitz Randolph and then for Lester W. Sharp, both Cornell botanists.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: McClintock's cytogenetic research focused on developing ways to visualize and characterize maize chromosomes. This particular part of her work influenced a generation of students, as it was included in most textbooks. She also developed a technique using carmine staining to visualize maize chromosomes, and showed for the first time the morphology of the 10 maize chromosomes. This discovery was made because she observed cells from the microspore as opposed to the root tip. By studying the morphology of the chromosomes, McClintock was able to link specific chromosome groups of traits that were inherited together. Marcus Rhoades noted that McClintock's 1929 "Genetics" paper on the characterization of triploid maize chromosomes triggered scientific interest in maize cytogenetics, and attributed to her 10 of the 17 significant advances in the field that were made by Cornell scientists between 1929 and 1935.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: In 1930, McClintock was the first person to describe the cross-shaped interaction of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The following year, McClintock and Creighton proved the link between chromosomal crossover during meiosis and the recombination of genetic traits. They observed how the recombination of chromosomes seen under a microscope correlated with new traits. Until this point, it had only been hypothesized that genetic recombination could occur during meiosis, although it had not been shown genetically. McClintock published the first genetic map for maize in 1931, showing the order of three genes on maize chromosome 9. This information provided necessary data for the crossing-over study she published with Creighton; they also showed that crossing-over occurs in sister chromatids as well as homologous chromosomes. In 1938, she produced a cytogenetic analysis of the centromere, describing the organization and function of the centromere, as well as the fact that it can divide.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: McClintock's breakthrough publications, and support from her colleagues, led to her being awarded several postdoctoral fellowships from the National Research Council. This funding allowed her to continue to study genetics at Cornell, the University of Missouri, and the California Institute of Technology, where she worked with E. G. Anderson. During the summers of 1931 and 1932, she worked at the University of Missouri with geneticist Lewis Stadler, who introduced her to the use of X-rays as a mutagen. Exposure to X-rays can increase the rate of mutation above the natural background level, making it a powerful research tool for genetics. Through her work with X-ray-mutagenized maize, she identified ring chromosomes, which form when the ends of a single chromosome fuse together after radiation damage. From this evidence, McClintock hypothesized that there must be a structure on the chromosome tip that would normally ensure stability. She showed that the loss of ring-chromosomes at meiosis caused variegation in maize foliage in generations subsequent to irradiation resulting from chromosomal deletion. During this period, she demonstrated the presence of the nucleolus organizer region on a region on maize chromosome 6, which is required for the assembly of the nucleolus. In 1933, she established that cells can be damaged when nonhomologous recombination occurs. During this same period, McClintock hypothesized that the tips of chromosomes are protected by telomeres.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: McClintock received a fellowship from the Guggenheim Foundation that made possible six months of training in Germany during 1933 and 1934. She had planned to work with Curt Stern, who had demonstrated crossing-over in "Drosophila" just weeks after McClintock and Creighton had done so; however, Stern emigrated to the United States. Instead, she worked with geneticist Richard B. Goldschmidt, who was a director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology in Berlin. She left Germany early amidst mounting political tension in Europe, and returned to Cornell, remaining there until 1936, when she accepted an Assistant Professorship offered to her by Lewis Stadler in the Department of Botany at the University of Missouri in Columbia. While still at Cornell, she was supported by a two-year Rockefeller Foundation grant obtained for her through Emerson's efforts.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: During her time at Missouri, McClintock expanded her research on the effect of X-rays on maize cytogenetics. McClintock observed the breakage and fusion of chromosomes in irradiated maize cells. She was also able to show that, in some plants, spontaneous chromosome breakage occurred in the cells of the endosperm. Over the course of mitosis, she observed that the ends of broken chromatids were rejoined after the chromosome replication. In the anaphase of mitosis, the broken chromosomes formed a chromatid bridge, which was broken when the chromatids moved towards the cell poles. The broken ends were rejoined in the interphase of the next mitosis, and the cycle was repeated, causing massive mutation, which she could detect as variegation in the endosperm. This breakage–rejoining–bridge cycle was a key cytogenetic discovery for several reasons. First, it showed that the rejoining of chromosomes was not a random event, and second, it demonstrated a source of large-scale mutation. For this reason, it remains an area of interest in cancer research today.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Although her research was progressing at Missouri, McClintock was not satisfied with her position at the University. She recalled being excluded from faculty meetings, and was not made aware of positions available at other institutions. In 1940, she wrote to Charles Burnham, "I have decided that I must look for another job. As far as I can make out, there is nothing more for me here. I am an assistant professor at $3,000 and I feel sure that that is the limit for me." Initially, McClintock's position was created especially for her by Stadler, and might have depended on his presence at the university. McClintock believed she would not gain tenure at Missouri, even though according to some accounts, she knew she would be offered a promotion from Missouri in the spring of 1942. Recent evidence reveals that McClintock more likely decided to leave Missouri because she had lost trust in her employer and in the University administration, after discovering that her job would be in jeopardy if Stadler were to leave for Caltech, as he had considered doing. The university's retaliation against Stadler amplified her sentiments.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: In early 1941, she took a leave of absence from Missouri in hopes of finding a position elsewhere. She accepted a visiting Professorship at Columbia University, where her former Cornell colleague Marcus Rhoades was a professor. Rhoades also offered to share his research field at Cold Spring Harbor on Long Island. In December 1941, she was offered a research position by Milislav Demerec, the newly appointed acting director of the Carnegie Institution of Washington's Department of Genetics Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; McClintock accepted his invitation despite her qualms and became a permanent member of the faculty.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: After her year-long temporary appointment, McClintock accepted a full-time research position at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. There, she was highly productive and continued her work with the breakage-fusion-bridge cycle, using it to substitute for X-rays as a tool for mapping new genes. In 1944, in recognition of her prominence in the field of genetics during this period, McClintock was elected to the National Academy of Sciences—only the third woman to be elected. The following year she became the first female president of the Genetics Society of America; she had been elected its vice-president in 1939. In 1944 she undertook a cytogenetic analysis of "Neurospora crassa" at the suggestion of George Beadle, who used the fungus to demonstrate the one gene–one enzyme relationship. He invited her to Stanford to undertake the study. She successfully described the number of chromosomes, or karyotype, of "N. crassa" and described the entire life cycle of the species. Beadle said, "Barbara, in two months at Stanford, did more to clean up the cytology of "Neurospora" than all other cytological geneticists had done in all previous time on all forms of mold." "N. crassa" has since become a model species for classical genetic analysis.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: In the summer of 1944 at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, McClintock began systematic studies on the mechanisms of the mosaic color patterns of maize seed and the unstable inheritance of this mosaicism. She identified two new dominant and interacting genetic loci that she named "Dissociation" ("Ds") and "Activator" ("Ac"). She found that the "Dissociation" did not just dissociate or cause the chromosome to break, it also had a variety of effects on neighboring genes when the "Activator" was also present, which included making certain stable mutations unstable. In early 1948, she made the surprising discovery that both "Dissociation" and "Activator" could transpose, or change position, on the chromosome.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: She observed the effects of the transposition of "Ac" and "Ds" by the changing patterns of coloration in maize kernels over generations of controlled crosses, and described the relationship between the two loci through intricate microscopic analysis. She concluded that "Ac" controls the transposition of the "Ds" from chromosome 9, and that the movement of "Ds" is accompanied by the breakage of the chromosome. When "Ds" moves, the aleurone-color gene is released from the suppressing effect of the "Ds" and transformed into the active form, which initiates the pigment synthesis in cells. The transposition of "Ds" in different cells is random, it may move in some but not others, which causes color mosaicism. The size of the colored spot on the seed is determined by stage of the seed development during dissociation. McClintock also found that the transposition of "Ds" is determined by the number of "Ac" copies in the cell.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Between 1948 and 1950, she developed a theory by which these mobile elements regulated the genes by inhibiting or modulating their action. She referred to "Dissociation" and "Activator" as "controlling units"—later, as "controlling elements"—to distinguish them from genes. She hypothesized that gene regulation could explain how complex multicellular organisms made of cells with identical genomes have cells of different function. McClintock's discovery challenged the concept of the genome as a static set of instructions passed between generations. In 1950, she reported her work on "Ac/Ds" and her ideas about gene regulation in a paper entitled "The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize" published in the journal "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences". In summer 1951, she reported her work on the origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize at the annual symposium at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, presenting a paper of the same name. The paper delved into the instability caused by "Ds" and "Ac" or just "Ac" in four genes, along with the tendency of those genes to unpredictably revert to the wild phenotype. She also identified "families" of transposons, which did not interact with one another.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Her work on controlling elements and gene regulation was conceptually difficult and was not immediately understood or accepted by her contemporaries; she described the reception of her research as "puzzlement, even hostility". Nevertheless, McClintock continued to develop her ideas on controlling elements. She published a paper in "Genetics" in 1953, where she presented all her statistical data, and undertook lecture tours to universities throughout the 1950s to speak about her work. She continued to investigate the problem and identified a new element that she called "Suppressor-mutator" ("Spm"), which, although similar to "Ac/Ds", acts in a more complex manner. Like "Ac/Ds", some versions could transpose on their own and some could not; unlike "Ac/Ds", when present, it fully suppressed the expression of mutant genes when they normally would not be entirely suppressed. Based on the reactions of other scientists to her work, McClintock felt she risked alienating the scientific mainstream, and from 1953 was forced to stop publishing accounts of her research on controlling elements.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: In 1957, McClintock received funding from the National Academy of Sciences to start research on indigenous strains of maize in Central America and South America. She was interested in studying the evolution of maize through chromosomal changes, and being in South America would allow her to work on a larger scale. McClintock explored the chromosomal, morphological, and evolutionary characteristics of various races of maize. After extensive work in the 1960s and 1970s, McClintock and her collaborators published the seminal study "The Chromosomal Constitution of Races of Maize", leaving their mark on paleobotany, ethnobotany, and evolutionary biology.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: McClintock officially retired from her position at the Carnegie Institution in 1967, and was made a Distinguished Service Member of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. This honor allowed her to continue working with graduate students and colleagues in the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory as "scientist emerita"; she lived in the town. In reference to her decision 20 years earlier to stop publishing detailed accounts of her work on controlling elements, she wrote in 1973:


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Over the years I have found that it is difficult if not impossible to bring to consciousness of another person the nature of his tacit assumptions when, by some special experiences, I have been made aware of them. This became painfully evident to me in my attempts during the 1950s to convince geneticists that the action of genes had to be and was controlled. It is now equally painful to recognize the fixity of assumptions that many persons hold on the nature of controlling elements in maize and the manners of their operation. One must await the right time for conceptual change.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: The importance of McClintock's contributions was revealed in the 1960s, when the work of French geneticists François Jacob and Jacques Monod described the genetic regulation of the "lac" operon, a concept she had demonstrated with "Ac/Ds" in 1951. Following Jacob and Monod's 1961 "Journal of Molecular Biology" paper "Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of proteins", McClintock wrote an article for "American Naturalist" comparing the "lac" operon and her work on controlling elements in maize. Even late in the twentieth century, McClintock's contribution to biology was still not widely acknowledged as amounting to the discovery of genetic regulation.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: McClintock was widely credited with discovering transposition after other researchers finally discovered the process in bacteria, yeast, and bacteriophages in the late 1960s and early 1970s. During this period, molecular biology had developed significant new technology, and scientists were able to show the molecular basis for transposition. In the 1970s, "Ac" and "Ds" were cloned by other scientists and were shown to be class II transposons. "Ac" is a complete transposon that can produce a functional transposase, which is required for the element to move within the genome. "Ds" has a mutation in its transposase gene, which means that it cannot move without another source of transposase. Thus, as McClintock observed, "Ds" cannot move in the absence of "Ac". "Spm" has also been characterized as a transposon. Subsequent research has shown that transposons typically do not move unless the cell is placed under stress, such as by irradiation or the breakage-fusion-bridge cycle, and thus their activation during stress can serve as a source of genetic variation for evolution. McClintock understood the role of transposons in evolution and genome change well before other researchers grasped the concept. Nowadays, "Ac/Ds" is used as a tool in plant biology to generate mutant plants used for the characterization of gene function.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: In 1947, McClintock received the Achievement Award from the American Association of University Women. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959. In 1967, McClintock was awarded the Kimber Genetics Award; three years later, she was given the National Medal of Science by Richard Nixon in 1970. She was the first woman to be awarded the National Medal of Science.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Cold Spring Harbor named a building in her honor in 1973. She received the Louis and Bert Freedman Foundation Award and the Lewis S. Rosensteil Award in 1978. In 1981, she became the first recipient of the MacArthur Foundation Grant, and was awarded the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research, the Wolf Prize in Medicine and the Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal by the Genetics Society of America. In 1982, she was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University for her research in the "evolution of genetic information and the control of its expression."


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Most notably, she received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1983, the first woman to win that prize unshared, and the first American woman to win any unshared Nobel Prize. It was given to her by the Nobel Foundation for discovering "mobile genetic elements"; this was more than 30 years after she initially described the phenomenon of controlling elements. She was compared to Gregor Mendel in terms of her scientific career by the Swedish Academy of Sciences when she was awarded the Prize.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: She was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1989. McClintock received the Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society in 1993. She had been previously elected to the APS in 1946. She was awarded 14 Honorary Doctor of Science degrees and an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters. In 1986 she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. During her final years, McClintock led a more public life, especially after Evelyn Fox Keller's 1983 biography of her, "A Feeling for the Organism," brought McClintock's story to the public. She remained a regular presence in the Cold Spring Harbor community, and gave talks on mobile genetic elements and the history of genetics research for the benefit of junior scientists. An anthology of her 43 publications "The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock" was published in 1987.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: The McClintock Prize is named in her honour. Laureates of the award include David Baulcombe, Detlef Weigel, Robert A. Martienssen, Jeffrey D. Palmer and Susan R. Wessler.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: McClintock spent her later years, post Nobel Prize, as a key leader and researcher in the field at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island, New York. McClintock died of natural causes in Huntington, New York, on September 2, 1992, at the age of 90; she never married or had children.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: McClintock was the subject of a 1983 biography by physicist Evelyn Fox Keller, titled "A Feeling for the Organism". Keller argued that because McClintock felt like an outsider within her field, (in part, because of her sex) she was able to look at her scientific subjects from a perspective different from the dominant one, leading to several important insights. Keller shows how this led many of her colleagues to reject her ideas and undermine her abilities for many years. For example, when McClintock presented her findings that the genetics of maize did not conform to Mendelian distributions, geneticist Sewall Wright expressed the belief that she did not understand the underlying mathematics of her work, a belief he had also expressed towards other women at the time. In addition, geneticist Lotte Auerbach recounted that Joshua Lederberg returned from a visit to McClintock's lab with the remark: 'By God, that woman is either crazy or a genius.' " As Auerbach recounts, McClintock had thrown Lederberg and his colleagues out after half an hour 'because of their arrogance. She was intolerant of arrogance ... She felt she had crossed a desert alone and no one had followed her.'"


title: Barbara McClintock

text: In 2001, a second biography by science historian Nathaniel C. Comfort's "The Tangled Field: Barbara McClintock's Search for the Patterns of Genetic Control" challenged this narrative. Comfort's biography contests the claim that McClintock was marginalized by other scientists, which he calls the "McClintock Myth" and argues was perpetuated both by McClintock herself as well as in the earlier biography by Keller. Comfort, however, asserts that McClintock was not discriminated against because of her gender, citing that she was well regarded by her professional peers, even in the early years of her career.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Many recent biographical works on women in science feature accounts of McClintock's work and experience. She is held up as a role model for girls in such works of children's literature as Edith Hope Fine's "Barbara McClintock, Nobel Prize Geneticist", Deborah Heiligman's "Barbara McClintock: Alone in Her Field" and Mary Kittredge's "Barbara McClintock". A recent biography for young adults by Naomi Pasachoff, "Barbara McClintock, Genius of Genetics", provides a new perspective, based on the current literature.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: On May 4, 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the "American Scientists" commemorative postage stamp series, a set of four 37-cent self-adhesive stamps in several configurations. The scientists depicted were Barbara McClintock, John von Neumann, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Richard Feynman. McClintock was also featured in a 1989 four-stamp issue from Sweden which illustrated the work of eight Nobel Prize-winning geneticists. A small building at Cornell University and a laboratory building at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory were named for her. A street has been named after her in the new "Adlershof Development Society" science park in Berlin. Barbara McClintock Hall, a residence hall at Cornell University, was named for her.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Some of McClintock's personality and scientific achievements were referred to in Jeffrey Eugenides's 2011 novel "The Marriage Plot," which tells the story of a yeast geneticist named Leonard who suffers from bipolar disorder. He works at a laboratory loosely based on Cold Spring Harbor. The character reminiscent of McClintock is a reclusive geneticist at the fictional laboratory, who makes the same discoveries as her factual counterpart.


title: Barbara McClintock

text: Judith Pratt wrote a play about McClintock, called MAIZE, which was read at Artemesia Theatre in Chicago in 2015, and was produced in Ithaca NY, the home of Cornell University, in February–March 2018.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Lee Anderson Grant (born 27 January 1983) is an English football coach and former professional footballer, who is a first-team coach at EFL League One side Ipswich Town.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: As a player, he was a goalkeeper and began his professional career with Derby County, making his Football League debut in September 2002. Grant spent five seasons with Derby, during which time he went out on loan to Burnley and Oldham Athletic. He joined Sheffield Wednesday in July 2007 and established himself as first-choice goalkeeper, playing in 136 consecutive matches. He moved to Burnley in July 2010, where he made 126 appearances in three seasons, before returning to Derby County in May 2013. Grant joined Stoke City in August 2016, initially on loan, before a permanent transfer in January 2017. He spent two seasons at Stoke before moving to Manchester United in July 2018 where he remained before retiring in at the end of the 2021–22 season.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant began his career at Watford in 1998 but did not make any appearances and joined Derby County as a trainee in 2000. He made his debut for the Rams in the 2002–03 season in a First Division game against Burnley on 7 September 2002, replacing the injured Andy Oakes. He went on to win the club's Young Player of the Year award at the end of the season after playing a total of 30 games. By the end of the season, Grant had established himself as a regular in the England youth set-up, and joined the under-21 team for a training session in Sardinia prior to the European Championship qualifying games against Serbia & Montenegro and Slovakia in June 2003.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant finally made his debut for England under-21s on 9 September 2003 after Chris Kirkland injured himself during the pre-match warm-up prior to the European Championship qualifier against Portugal, and went on to make a further three appearances for the youth side. Meanwhile, a string of good performances for Derby following another injury to Andy Oakes earned him a three-and-a-half-year contract extension on 29 January 2004. Grant was voted into fourth place in the fan's "Player of the Year" award at the end of the 2003–04 season.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Derby's young 'keeper Lee Camp was given a chance during the 2004–05 pre-season after a highly successful loan spell at Queens Park Rangers the previous season. Camp impressed in the game and as a result Grant found himself on the bench at the start of the season despite his recent good form. The move led to press reports that Grant was surplus to requirements at Pride Park, however manager George Burley dismissed the story as "total speculation with no basis in fact". Around the same time, Grant also found himself ousted from the England under-21 squad by Camp.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant would have to wait until 19 October to make his first appearance of the season for Derby, when he replaced Lee Camp in goal following Camp's sending-off against Wolves. Grant went on to start the following match against Burnley whilst Camp served a suspension for the red card, but would not play another first team game for the remainder of the season. Lee Camp sympathised with Grant at the time, saying: "It's tough for Granty and I would be frustrated in his situation. He came in for the Burnley game and did nothing wrong but I think I've done enough this season to warrant my place in the side". Grant's woes were added to when he suffered a wrist injury in training in March 2005. The injury was followed by a shoulder problem the following month which required surgery and kept the goalkeeper out of action for several months.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant was given a chance by new Derby boss Phil Brown during the 2005–06 pre-season, but was again relegated to the bench by the start of the season. He played his first game of the season on 24 August 2005 as Derby crashed out of the League Cup at the hands of Grimsby Town. Another injury followed a fortnight later when Grant fractured his metatarsal during training, and was out of action for another two weeks.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: After playing just three games in 18 months, Grant was allowed to join Championship club Burnley on a one-month loan on 15 November 2005 as cover for the suspended Brian Jensen. Grant went straight into the team and made his debut for Burnley against Leicester City on 19 November, but despite a one-month extension to the loan, Grant failed to force Jensen out as first-choice 'keeper and did not play again for the first team before returning to Derby. Grant returned to his parent club on 14 January 2006 with Burnley manager Steve Cotterill claiming that the club were unable to continue to pay his high wages and that "he may go on loan somewhere else where he will play all the time".


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: On 31 January 2006 he was loaned by Derby to League One team Oldham Athletic on a deal until the end of the season. Oldham manager Ronnie Moore revealed at the time that he feared that the deal would collapse after being agreed by Phil Brown following Brown's sacking as Derby manager on 30 January, however Derby honoured the deal which had already been agreed and the transfer was completed. The deal forced Lance Cronin out of the club as Oldham were unable to pay the wages of three senior goalkeepers. Grant made his debut for the Lactics in the 1–0 home defeat to Port Vale on 4 February 2006. He quickly established himself as first-choice goalkeeper and went on to make a total of sixteen league appearances for Oldham. In March 2006 Moore revealed that he was looking at making Grant's transfer permanent, but despite the player stating that he would like to make the switch permanent, no offer was made following Moore departing Oldham on 1 June 2006.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant was again given a chance during the 2006–07 pre-season, and Derby manager Billy Davies awarded him with a starting place for the club's second league game of the season against Stoke City on 8 August 2006. However, the arrival of Stephen Bywater on 12 August 2006 further limited Grant's first team opportunities. Following Bywater picking up a thigh injury and Camp's loan move to Norwich City, Grant was able to string together six appearances in September and October 2006, but after Bywater's return to fitness he was again left out of the team until his final appearance for Derby against Ipswich Town on 14 April 2007 when he came on a substitute after Bywater had been shown a red card. Bywater was handed a one-match ban, however Lee Camp was recalled from his loan and took his place in the following match. Grant's contract expired on 2 July 2007 and an extension was not offered by Derby.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant signed a three-year contract with Championship club Sheffield Wednesday on 2 July 2007, joining at the same time as another young 'keeper, Robert Burch. Despite goalkeeping coach Billy Mercer stating that there would be "no number one or number two", Grant was given the number one shirt and, despite some poor early form, established himself as first-choice goalkeeper.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant was praised by Brian Laws after the Queens Park Rangers game on 24 November 2007 after making a string of excellent saves, with the manager stating "It was a performance which gives encouragement to everybody and shows what a good goalkeeper Lee Grant can be." Laws again heaped praise on his goalkeeper on 1 January 2008, claiming that he has "probably been the most outstanding keeper in the league in terms of current form." Grant played an integral part in maintaining Sheffield Wednesday's Championship status during the 2007–08 campaign with many excellent performances including a crucial and memorable save on the final day against Norwich City at Hillsborough. In the 2008–09 campaign, Grant won PFA Fans' Championship player of the Month on top of being Wednesdays' current player of the year. In the second Steel City derby of the season Grant pulled off another memorable save from Billy Sharp holding onto Wednesdays' 2–1 lead and complete their first League double over the Blades for 95 years.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: On 27 July 2010, Grant completed a return to his former loan club for around £1 million, after three earlier bids failed. He linked up with former Owls boss Brian Laws as his fourth summer signing at Turf Moor as backup to Brian Jensen. Grant played 130 times for Burnley in a three-year spell and won the fans' player of the season award in 2012–13.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: On 7 May 2013, it was confirmed the Grant would return to Derby County on a three-year contract after his contract with Burnley expired on 1 July 2013. Grant went into the 2013–14 season as the first-choice goalkeeper and has played every minute of every league and cup game so far this season. He made his first appearance for Derby in over six years in a 1–1 draw at home to Blackburn Rovers on 4 August and kept his first clean sheet of the season two days later, pulling off several saves as Derby beat Oldham Athletic 1–0 in the first round of the League Cup. In the following game, he made an important late save to ensure the club's first league victory of the season, in a 2–1 win at Brighton & Hove Albion.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: He made another good save in a 3–0 win at Yeovil Town on 24 August and kept his third clean sheet of the season in a 5–0 win over Brentford on 27 August but was at fault for a goal in Derby's 2–2 draw at Bolton Wanderers on 17 September. He made a string of saves and denied Darius Henderson from the penalty spot during "The Rams"' match against fierce rivals Nottingham Forest on 28 September, but could not stop 10-man Derby from losing 1–0. He recorded back-to-back clean sheets on 9 and 23 November, in a 3–0 win against Sheffield Wednesday and a 1–0 win at AFC Bournemouth, respectively. His sixth clean sheet of the season came in a 2–0 win against Charlton Athletic on 14 December.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant conceded four goals as Derby lost 4–1 to rivals Leicester City on 10 January, but was powerless to stop them and made several good saves to keep the score down. In the following game, a 1–0 win against Brighton & Hove Albion, Grant made a "stunning" reaction save to deny Matthew Upson's header from a corner and made a great late save to prevent Leonardo Ulloa from equalising. Grant's form drew praise from Derby's goalkeeping coach Eric Steele, who lauded Grant's concentration and said that Grant "will be delighted with his performance and he was part of a [defence] that kept us in the game."


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: On 31 August 2016, Grant joined Premier League club Stoke City on a six-month loan to provide cover for the injured Jack Butland. On 24 September, he made his Premier League debut at the age of 33 in a 1–1 home draw against West Bromwich Albion. Grant then put in a man of the match performance against Manchester United on 2 October 2016 as Stoke earned their first point at Old Trafford since 1980. Grant then kept back-to-back clean sheets in wins over Sunderland and Hull City earning praise from Stoke chairman Peter Coates.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: On 4 January 2017, after impressing during his loan spell with six clean sheets in 15 league appearances in the 2016–17 season, Grant joined Stoke City on a two-and-a-half-year deal for a fee of £1.3 million. Grant retained his place in the team until Butland returned from injury in April 2017. Grant played 30 times in 2016–17 as Stoke finished in 13th position and his performances earned him the player of the year award. Grant was second-choice to Jack Butland in 2017–18, playing five times as Stoke were relegated to the EFL Championship.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: Grant signed for Premier League club Manchester United on 3 July 2018 on a two-year contract for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £1.5 million. He was assigned the number 13 shirt. Grant made his debut for Manchester United on 25 September 2018, as a substitute for Juan Mata, after Sergio Romero was sent off, in an EFL Cup tie against Derby County, United lost 8–7 on penalties following a 2–2 draw.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: He made his first start for the club, and his European debut, on 28 November 2019 in a 2–1 loss away to Astana in the UEFA Europa League.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: On 5 March, 2020, Grant signed a contract extension with Manchester United until the end of the 2020–21 season. On 2 July 2021, he signed another contract extension with the club until the end of the 2021–22 season. He retired in May 2022.


title: Lee Grant (footballer, born 1983)

text: On 26 May 2022, after announcing his retirement from playing, Grant was appointed first-team coach at Ipswich Town.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Sub-replacement fertility is a total fertility rate (TFR) that (if sustained) leads to each new generation being less populous than the older, previous one in a given area. The United Nations Population Division defines sub-replacement fertility as any rate below approximately 2.1 children born per woman of childbearing age, but the threshold can be as high as 3.4 in some developing countries because of higher mortality rates. Taken globally, the total fertility rate at replacement was 2.33 children per woman in 2003. This can be "translated" as 2 children per woman to replace the parents, plus a "third of a child" to make up for the higher probability of males born and mortality prior to the end of a person's fertile life. In 2020, the average global fertility rate was around 2.4 children born per woman.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Replacement-level fertility in terms of the net reproduction rate (NRR) is exactly one, because the NRR takes both mortality rates and sex ratios at birth into account.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: As of 2010, about 48% (3.3 billion people) of the world population lives in nations with sub-replacement fertility. Nonetheless most of these countries still have growing populations due to immigration, population momentum and increase of the life expectancy. This includes most nations of Europe, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Russia, Iran, Tunisia, China, India, the United States and many others. In 2016, all European Union countries had a sub-replacement fertility rate, ranging from a low of 1.3 in Portugal, Poland, Greece, Spain and Cyprus to a high of 2.0 in France. The countries or areas that have the lowest fertility are in developed parts of East and Southeast Asia: Singapore, Hong Kong and South Korea. Only a few countries have had, for the time being, sufficiently sustained sub-replacement fertility (sometimes combined with other population factors like higher emigration than immigration) to have population decline, such as Japan, Germany, Lithuania, and Ukraine. As of 2020, the total fertility rate varied from 0.84 in South Korea to 7.0 in Niger.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: There have been a number of explanations for the general decline in fertility rates in much of the world, and the true explanation is almost certainly a combination of different factors.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: The fact that more people are going to colleges and universities, and are working to obtain more post-graduate degrees there, along with the soaring costs of education, have contributed greatly to postponing marriage in many cases, and bearing children at all, or fewer numbers of children. And the fact that the number of women getting higher education has increased has contributed to fewer of them getting married younger, if at all. In the US, for example, females make up more than half of all college students, which is a reversal from a few decades back.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: The relationship between higher education and childbearing varies by country: for example, in Switzerland by age 40, childlessness among women who had completed tertiary education is 40%, while in France it is only 15%. In some countries, childlessness has a longer tradition, and was common even before educational levels increased, but in others, such as Southern European ones, it is a recent phenomenon; for instance in Spain the childlessness rate for women aged 40–44 in 2011 was 21.60%, but historically throughout the 20th century it was around 10%. Not all countries show a relationship between low fertility and education: in Czech Republic, of women born in 1961–1965, low educated women were more likely to be childless than high educated women. In the United States in 2019, women with a graduate or professional degree had the highest birthrate (61 births per 1,000 women), whereas women with less than a high school graduate had the lowest birthrate (34 births per 1,000 women) among all levels of educational attainment of the mother.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: The growth of wealth and human development are related to sub-replacement fertility, although a sudden drop in living conditions, such as the great depression, can also lower fertility.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: In Eastern European countries, the fall of communism was followed by an economic collapse in many of these countries in the 1990s. Some countries, such as those that experienced violent conflicts in the 1990s, were badly affected. Large numbers of people lost their jobs, and massive unemployment, lack of jobs outside the big cities, and economic uncertainty discourages people from having children. For instance, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the total fertility rate in 2016 was only 1.28 children born/woman.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Some consider the increase of urbanization around the world a central cause. In recent times, residents of urban areas tend to have fewer children than people in rural areas. The need for extra labour from children on farms does not apply to urban-dwellers. Cities tend to have higher property prices, making a large family more expensive, especially in those societies where each child is now expected to have their own bedroom, rather than sharing with siblings as was the case until recently. Rural areas also tend to be more conservative, with less contraception and abortion than urban areas.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Countries which have a high fertility rate are usually less developed countries, where families rely on children to help them, with labour such as agricultural work, tending to livestock, or even paid work. In such countries child labour is quite common, with children bringing money at home, or actively supporting the family through physical work. By contrast, in high-income nations, child labour is banned, and it is parents who invest very high costs into their children.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Although fertility rates are often discussed in terms of state policies (e.g. financial benefits, combining work with family etc.), the deeply entrenched social views on what constitutes an "ideal" family may play a crucial role: if parents do not envision large families in a positive way, it is difficult to "convince" them to have many children. In this regard, there are major differences between European countries: while 50.23% of women aged 15–39 state that the "ideal" family has 3 or more children in Estonia, and 46.43% say this in Finland; only 11.3% say this in Czech Republic, and 11.39% in Bulgaria.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Changes in contraception are also an important cause, and one that has seen dramatic changes in the last few generations. Legalization and widespread acceptance of contraception in the developed world is a large factor in decreased fertility levels; however, for instance in a European context where its prevalence has always been very high in the modern era, the fertility rates do not seem to be influenced significantly by availability of contraception.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: While contraception can reduce the number of unwanted births and contribute to a smaller ideal family size, contraception does not start fertility reductions nor substantially effect their size, with these being attributable to other factors.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: The availability of assisted reproductive technology (ART) may foster delay of childbearing, because many couples think that it can solve any future fertility problems. Its effect on total fertility rate is extremely small but government support for it is beneficial for families.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. A country scores higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, and the GDP per capita is higher. There is a strong inverse correlation between the HDI and the fertility rate of the population: the higher the HDI, the lower the fertility rate. As of 2016, the countries with the highest fertility rate are Burundi, Mali, Somalia, Uganda, Burkina Faso, Zambia, Malawi, Angola, and Afghanistan; while most high-income countries have sub-replacement fertility rates. This is part of the fertility-income paradox, as these high fertility countries are very poor, and it may seem counter-intuitive for families there to have so many children. The inverse relationship between income and fertility has been termed a "demographic-economic "paradox"" by the notion that greater means would enable the production of more offspring as suggested by the influential Thomas Malthus.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Some governments have launched programmes to reduce fertility rates and curb population growth. The People's Republic of China implemented a one-child policy for 35 years (from 1979 to 2015); this was relaxed to a two-child policy in 2016 and relaxed further to a three child policy in 2021.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Although today Singapore has a low fertility rate, and the government encourages parents to have more children because birth rates have fallen below the replacement rate, in the 1970s the situation was the opposite: the government wished to slow and reverse the boom in births that started after World War II.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: The total fertility rate is also influenced by the ability to choose what type of family to have, if and when to have children, and the number of children to have - free from coercion, pressure, or interference from the community, extended family, state or church. This includes prohibition on practices such as child marriage, forced marriage or bride price. In some cultures for instance, the payment of the bride price creates an obligation on the wife to have children, and failure to do so often results in threats and violence. High-income countries have substantially lower fertility rates, and increased childlessness, because people who remain childless or who have small families are less likely to be stigmatized. In many cultures childless women suffer discrimination, stigma, ostracism, and social isolation.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: It has been shown, both historically and in the present day, that societies engaged in a prolonged state of war experience a substantial lag in fertility rate. The most notable examples of this phenomenon are accredited to the First and Second World Wars. Modeled by these examples, total war subjects individuals to intense social upheavals and a heavy psychological impact that forcefully prioritizes survival and economic stability over the need to reproduce for the duration of the conflict. Events like these subsequently pave way for an active effort to repopulate, such as the "baby boom" after the Second World War.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Total fertility rate (TFR) is affected by a phenomenon called the tempo effect, which describes "distortions due to changes in the timing of births." John Bongaarts and Griffith Feeney have suggested that this tempo effect is driving the decline of measured fertility rate in the developed world. Specifically, the trend in developed countries of having children at later ages can cause the TFR to be underestimated. For example, as measured by the Human Fertility Database the United States adjusted total fertility rates have been at replacement levels since 1992.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: A study of the United States and multiple countries in Europe came to the result that women who continue to cohabit rather than get married after birth have significantly lower probability of having a second child than married women in all countries except those in Eastern Europe. Another study, on the contrary, came to the result that cohabiting couples in France have equal fertility as married ones.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: A large survey in the United States came to the result that married women had an average of 1.9 children, compared to 1.3 among those cohabiting. The corresponding numbers for men were 1.7 and 1.1, respectively. The difference of 0.6 children for both sexes was expected to decrease to between 0.2 and 0.3 over the lifetime when correcting for the confounder that married people have their children earlier in life.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: In the United States, those who cohabit without marrying had increased fertility when the male earns considerably more than the female.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Another explanation for falling fertility could be a reduction in the frequency of sex. For example, according to the Japan Family Planning Association 2016 survey, 47.3% of the men and 47.1% of the women had not had sex with their spouse in the previous month.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: People are more likely in modern society to invest strongly in the needs of their children, such as offering them the best education, shelter (a room only for the child), travel, cultural activities etc. In the past, when child mortality was high, people had more children, but invested less in them. Today, parents usually experience much less doubt about whether the child will live to adulthood, and so are more likely to strongly invest in that child. But strongly investing in each child makes it more difficult to have large numbers of children—a "quantity vs. quality trade-off" effect.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: The quality of couple relations in terms of support given to the woman matters, with studies on fertility in the high-income world showing a U-shaped relationship between gender equity within the couple and fertility: in countries with very low fertility rates, the probability of a woman to have the second child occurs at the extremes - either very low gender equality or very high gender equality. This is also reflected at a social level: countries that are neither sufficiently patriarchal to coerce women into having large families, nor sufficiently egalitarian to incentivize women to have more children through strong support (such as subsidized childcare and good support of working mothers), have very low fertility rates, especially among educated women. Where women are expected to 'choose' between their professional and public life, or having children, the more educated the woman is, the more likely she is to choose the former. The strong emphasis on the domestic role of women in Germany (unlike Scandinavia and France) was described as the cause of the very low fertility in that country.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: The Greek historian Polybius largely blamed the decline of the Hellenistic world on low fertility rates, writing in his work "The Histories" that:


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: In a speech to Roman nobles, the Emperor Augustus commented on the low birthrates of the Roman elite:


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Upon the establishment of the Roman Empire, Emperor Augustus would introduce legislation to increase the birthrates of the Roman nobility.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Some believe that not only the Great Recession, but the Great Depression, may have been the result of a decline in birthrates overall. Clarence L. Barber, an economist at the University of Manitoba, pointed out how demand for housing in the US, for example, began to decline in 1926, due to a decline in 'household formation' (marriage), due, he believed, to the effects of World War I upon society. In early 1929, US housing demand declined precipitously and the stock market crash followed in October of that same year.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: One of the most forceful attempts to increase the TFR occurred in communist Romania between 1967 and 1990. Communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu adopted a very aggressive natalist policy that included outlawing abortion and contraception, routine pregnancy tests for women, taxes on childlessness, and legal discrimination against childless people. This period was depicted in movies and documentaries (such as "4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days", "Children of the Decree"). These policies increased birth rates during the period of policy implementation, but was followed by a decline due to increased illegal abortion. Ceaușescu's policy resulted in over 9,000 women who died due to illegal abortions, large numbers of children put into orphanages by parents who could not cope with raising them, street children in the 1990s (when many orphanages were closed and the children ended on the streets), and overcrowding in homes and schools. In addition, Ceaușescu's demographic policies are feared of having very serious effects in the future, because the generations born under Ceaușescu are large (especially the late 1960s and the 1970s), while those born in the 1990s and 2000s are very small. This is believed to cause a very serious demographic shock when the former generations retire, as there will be insufficient young people in the workforce to support the elderly. Apart from Romania, a relatively similar policy of restricted reproductive rights during that period also existed in Communist Albania, under Enver Hoxha (see Abortion in Albania).


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: In 2002, the government of Australia gave financial incentives to parents to have more children. This Baby Bonus was introduced explicitly to increase the birth rate. The birth rate in Australia did increase in the years after (see below).


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Population aging may pose an economic challenge to governments as the number of retired citizens drawing public pensions rises in relation to the number of workers. This has been raised as a political issue in France, Germany, and the United States where many people have advocated policy changes to encourage higher birth and immigration rates.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Analysing data for 40 countries, Lee et al. show that typically fertility well above replacement and population growth would be most beneficial for government budgets. Fertility near replacement and population stability, however, would be most beneficial for standards of living when the analysis includes the effects of age structure on families as well as governments. Fertility moderately below replacement and population decline would maximize standards of living when the cost of providing capital for a growing labour force is taken into account.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Sub-replacement fertility does not automatically translate into a population decline because of increasing life expectancy and population momentum: recently high fertility rates produce a disproportionately young population, and younger populations have higher birth rates. This is why some nations with sub-replacement fertility still have a growing population, because a relatively large fraction of their population are still of child-bearing age. But if the fertility trend is sustained (and not compensated by immigration), it results in population ageing and/or population decline. This is already happening and impacts most of the countries of Europe and East Asia.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Current estimates expect the world's total fertility rate to fall below replacement levels by 2050. There are several projections of population growth after 2050. The UN Population Division projects the world population, which is 7.8 billion as of 2020, to level out around 2100 at 10.9 billion A 2020 study published by The Lancet from researchers funded by the Global Burden of Disease Study promotes a lower growth scenario, projecting that world population will peak in 2064 at 9.7 billion and then decline to 8.8 billion in 2100. An analysis from the Wittgenstein Center IIASA predicts global population to peak in 2070 at 9.4 billion and then decline to 9.0 billion in 2100.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Some governments, fearful of a future pensions crisis, have developed natalist policies to attempt to encourage more women to have children. Measures include increasing tax allowances for working parents, improving child-care provision, reducing working hours/weekend working in female-dominated professions such as healthcare and a stricter enforcement of anti-discrimination measures to prevent professional women's promotion prospects being hindered when they take time off work to care for children. Over recent years, the fertility rate has increased to around 2.0 in France and 1.9 in Britain and some other northern European countries, but the role of population policies in these trends is debated. In Italy, for example, natalist policies may have actually discouraged the Italian population from having more children. This "widespread resistance" was the result of the Italian government, at one point, taxing single persons and criminalizing abortion and even contraception.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: European analysts hope, with the help of government incentives and large-scale change towards family-friendly policies, to stall the population decline and reverse it by around 2030, expecting that most of Europe will have a slight natural increase by then. C. D. Howe Institute, for example, tries to demonstrate that immigration cannot be used to effectively counter population ageing.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: For twenty years, the total fertility rate in the United States remained relatively stable compared to much of the world. However, US TFR declined from 2.12 in 2007 to 1.64 in 2020.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Some other developed countries experienced temporary increases in their birth rate in the first decade of the 21st century before seeing TFR steadily decline to all-time lows in the subsequent decade, including France, which recorded a TFR of over 2.00 in 2008, though it has since declined to 1.8 as 2020; the United Kingdom where TFR increased from 1.64 in 2000 to 1.98 in 2010, and then declined to 1.6 in 2020; Australia, where the birth rate rose from 1.73 in 2001 to 1.93 in 2007 before declining to 1.6 in 2020, and New Zealand, where the TFR was 2.2 in 2008 and then declined to 1.6 in 2020.


title: Sub-replacement fertility

text: Israel is the only developed country that has never had sub-replacement fertility; a declining Arab and Bedouin fertility rate is countered by religious Jewish groups (mostly Haredim) with higher than average fertility rates. In addition, the (mostly non-religious) aliyah Jews from the former USSR shifted from a 1 child per woman fertility rate to an average fertility rate close to 2.2 children per woman. As of 2008, Israel's Jewish fertility rate is the highest among the industrial nations.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 (CFAA) is a United States cybersecurity bill that was enacted in 1986 as an amendment to existing computer fraud law (), which had been included in the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984. The law prohibits accessing a computer without authorization, or in excess of authorization. Prior to computer-specific criminal laws, computer crimes were prosecuted as mail and wire fraud, but the applying law was often insufficient.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: The original 1984 bill was enacted in response to concern that computer-related crimes might go unpunished. The House Committee Report to the original computer crime bill characterized the 1983 techno-thriller film "WarGames"—in which a young teenager (played by Matthew Broderick) from Seattle breaks into a U.S. military supercomputer programmed to predict possible outcomes of nuclear war and unwittingly almost starts World War III—as "a realistic representation of the automatic dialing and access capabilities of the personal computer."


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: The CFAA was written to extend existing tort law to intangible property, while, in theory, limiting federal jurisdiction to cases "with a compelling federal interest—i.e., where computers of the federal government or certain financial institutions are involved or where the crime itself is interstate in nature.", but its broad definitions have spilled over into contract law. (see "Protected Computer", below). In addition to amending a number of the provisions in the original "section 1030", the CFAA also criminalized additional computer-related acts. Provisions addressed the distribution of malicious code and denial-of-service attacks. Congress also included in the CFAA a provision criminalizing trafficking in passwords and similar items.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: Since then, the Act has been amended a number of times—in 1989, 1994, 1996, in 2001 by the USA PATRIOT Act, 2002, and in 2008 by the Identity Theft Enforcement and Restitution Act. With each amendment of the law, the types of conduct that fell within its reach were extended.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: In January 2015, then-President Barack Obama proposed expanding the CFAA and the RICO Act in his "Modernizing Law Enforcement Authorities to Combat Cyber Crime" proposal. DEF CON organizer and Cloudflare researcher Marc Rogers, Senator Ron Wyden, and Representative Zoe Lofgren have stated opposition to this on the grounds it will make many regular Internet activities illegal, and moves further away from what they were trying to accomplish with Aaron's Law.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: The only computers, in theory, covered by the CFAA are defined as "protected computers". They are defined under section to mean a computer:


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: In practice, any ordinary computer has come under the jurisdiction of the law, including cellphones, due to the interstate nature of most Internet communication.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act is both a criminal law and a statute that creates a private right of action, allowing compensation and injunctive or other equitable relief to anyone harmed by a violation of this law. These provisions have allowed private companies to sue disloyal employees for damages for the misappropriation of confidential information (trade secrets).


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: There have been criminal convictions for CFAA violations in the context of civil law, for breach of contract or terms of service violations. Many common and insignificant online acts, such as password-sharing and copyright infringement, can transform a CFAA misdemeanor into a felony. The punishments are severe, similar to sentences for selling or importing drugs, and may be disproportionate. Prosecutors have used the CFAA to protect private business interests and to intimidate free-culture activists, deterring undesirable, yet legal, conduct.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: One such example regarding the harshness of the law was shown in United States vs. Tyler King, where King refused initial offers by the government for involvement in a conspiracy to "gain unauthorized access" to a computer system for a small company that an ex-girlfriend of King worked for. His role, even while not directly involved, resulted in 6.5 years imprisonment. No financial motivate was established. A non-profit was started to advocate against further harshness against others targeted under the broad law.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: Professor of Law Ric Simmons notes that many provisions of the CFAA merely combine identical language to pre-existing federal laws with "the element of “access[ing] a protected computer without authorization, or [by] exceed[ing] authorized access," meaning that "the CFAA merely provides an additional charge for prosecutors to bring if the defendant used a computer while committing the crime." Professor Joseph Olivenbaum has similarly criticized the CFAA's "computer-specific approach," noting both the risk of redundancy and resultant definitional problems.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: The CFAA increasingly presents real obstacles to journalists reporting stories important to the public’s interest. As data journalism increasingly becomes “a good way of getting to the truth of things . . . in this post-truth era,” as one data journalist told Google, the need for further clarity around the CFAA increases.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: In the wake of the prosecution and subsequent suicide of Aaron Swartz (who used a script to download scholarly research articles in excess of what JSTOR terms of service allowed), lawmakers proposed amending the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Representative Zoe Lofgren drafted a bill that would help "prevent what happened to Aaron from happening to other Internet users". Aaron's Law (, ) would exclude terms of service violations from the 1984 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud statute.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: In addition to Lofgren's efforts, Representatives Darrell Issa and Jared Polis (also on the House Judiciary Committee) raised questions in the immediate aftermath of Swartz's death regarding the government's handling of the case. Polis called the charges "ridiculous and trumped up," referring to Swartz as a "martyr." Issa, chair of the House Oversight Committee, announced an investigation of the Justice Department's prosecution.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: By May 2014, Aaron's Law had stalled in committee. Filmmaker Brian Knappenberger alleges this occurred due to Oracle Corporation's financial interest in maintaining the status quo.


title: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

text: Aaron's Law was reintroduced in May 2015 (, ) and again stalled. There has been no further introduction of related bills at this time.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one chemical element or an isotope into another chemical element. Nuclear transmutation occurs in any process where the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is changed.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: A transmutation can be achieved either by nuclear reactions (in which an outside particle reacts with a nucleus) or by radioactive decay, where no outside cause is needed.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Natural transmutation by stellar nucleosynthesis in the past created most of the heavier chemical elements in the known existing universe, and continues to take place to this day, creating the vast majority of the most common elements in the universe, including helium, oxygen and carbon. Most stars carry out transmutation through fusion reactions involving hydrogen and helium, while much larger stars are also capable of fusing heavier elements up to iron late in their evolution.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Elements heavier than iron, such as gold or lead, are created through elemental transmutations that can naturally occur in supernova. One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by chemical means but possible by physical means. As stars begin to fuse heavier elements, substantially less energy is released from each fusion reaction. This continues until it reaches iron which is produced by an endothermic reaction consuming energy. No heavier element can be produced in such conditions.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: One type of natural transmutation observable in the present occurs when certain radioactive elements present in nature spontaneously decay by a process that causes transmutation, such as alpha or beta decay. An example is the natural decay of potassium-40 to argon-40, which forms most of the argon in the air. Also on Earth, natural transmutations from the different mechanisms of "natural nuclear reactions" occur, due to cosmic ray bombardment of elements (for example, to form carbon-14), and also occasionally from natural neutron bombardment (for example, see natural nuclear fission reactor).


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Artificial transmutation may occur in machinery that has enough energy to cause changes in the nuclear structure of the elements. Such machines include particle accelerators and tokamak reactors. Conventional fission power reactors also cause artificial transmutation, not from the power of the machine, but by exposing elements to neutrons produced by fission from an artificially produced nuclear chain reaction. For instance, when a uranium atom is bombarded with slow neutrons, fission takes place. This releases, on average, 3 neutrons and a large amount of energy. The released neutrons then cause fission of other uranium atoms, until all of the available uranium is exhausted. This is called a chain reaction.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Artificial nuclear transmutation has been considered as a possible mechanism for reducing the volume and hazard of radioactive waste.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: The term "transmutation" dates back to alchemy. Alchemists pursued the philosopher's stone, capable of chrysopoeia – the transformation of base metals into gold. While alchemists often understood chrysopoeia as a metaphor for a mystical, or religious process, some practitioners adopted a literal interpretation, and tried to make gold through physical experiment. The impossibility of the metallic transmutation had been debated amongst alchemists, philosophers and scientists since the Middle Ages. Pseudo-alchemical transmutation was outlawed and publicly mocked beginning in the fourteenth century. Alchemists like Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote tracts exposing fraudulent claims of gold making. By the 1720s, there were no longer any respectable figures pursuing the physical transmutation of substances into gold. Antoine Lavoisier, in the 18th century, replaced the alchemical theory of elements with the modern theory of chemical elements, and John Dalton further developed the notion of atoms (from the alchemical theory of corpuscles) to explain various chemical processes. The disintegration of atoms is a distinct process involving much greater energies than could be achieved by alchemists.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: It was first consciously applied to modern physics by Frederick Soddy when he, along with Ernest Rutherford in 1901, discovered that radioactive thorium was converting itself into radium. At the moment of realization, Soddy later recalled, he shouted out: "Rutherford, this is transmutation!" Rutherford snapped back, "For Christ's sake, Soddy, don't call it "transmutation". They'll have our heads off as alchemists."


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Rutherford and Soddy were observing natural transmutation as a part of radioactive decay of the alpha decay type. The first artificial transmutation was accomplished in 1925 by Patrick Blackett, a research fellow working under Rutherford, with the transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p. Rutherford had shown in 1919 that a proton (he called it a hydrogen atom) was emitted from alpha bombardment experiments but he had no information about the residual nucleus. Blackett's 1921-1924 experiments provided the first experimental evidence of an artificial nuclear transmutation reaction. Blackett correctly identified the underlying integration process and the identity of the residual nucleus. In 1932, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7 to split the nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the atom," although it was not the modern nuclear fission reaction discovered in 1938 by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and their assistant Fritz Strassmann in heavy elements. In 1941, Rubby Sherr, Kenneth Bainbridge and Herbert Lawrence Anderson reported the nuclear transmutation of mercury into gold.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Later in the twentieth century the transmutation of elements within stars was elaborated, accounting for the relative abundance of heavier elements in the universe. Save for the first five elements, which were produced in the Big Bang and other cosmic ray processes, stellar nucleosynthesis accounted for the abundance of all elements heavier than boron. In their 1957 paper "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars", William Alfred Fowler, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, and Fred Hoyle explained how the abundances of essentially all but the lightest chemical elements could be explained by the process of nucleosynthesis in stars.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Under true nuclear transmutation, it is far easier to turn gold into lead than the reverse reaction, which was the one the alchemists had ardently pursued. It would be easier to convert gold into lead via neutron capture and beta decay by leaving gold in a nuclear reactor for a long period of time.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: The Big Bang is thought to be the origin of the hydrogen (including all deuterium) and helium in the universe. Hydrogen and helium together account for 98% of the mass of ordinary matter in the universe, while the other 2% makes up everything else. The Big Bang also produced small amounts of lithium, beryllium and perhaps boron. More lithium, beryllium and boron were produced later, in a natural nuclear reaction, cosmic ray spallation.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Stellar nucleosynthesis is responsible for all of the other elements occurring naturally in the universe as stable isotopes and primordial nuclide, from carbon to uranium. These occurred after the Big Bang, during star formation. Some lighter elements from carbon to iron were formed in stars and released into space by asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars. These are a type of red giant that "puffs" off its outer atmosphere, containing some elements from carbon to nickel and iron. All elements with atomic weight greater than 64 atomic mass units are produced in supernova stars by means of neutron capture, which sub-divides into two processes: r-process and s-process.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: The Solar System is thought to have condensed approximately 4.6 billion years before the present, from a cloud of hydrogen and helium containing heavier elements in dust grains formed previously by a large number of such stars. These grains contained the heavier elements formed by transmutation earlier in the history of the universe.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: All of these natural processes of transmutation in stars are continuing today, in our own galaxy and in others. Stars fuse hydrogen and helium into heavier and heavier elements in order to produce energy. For example, the observed light curves of supernova stars such as SN 1987A show them blasting large amounts (comparable to the mass of Earth) of radioactive nickel and cobalt into space. However, little of this material reaches Earth. Most natural transmutation on the Earth today is mediated by cosmic rays (such as production of carbon-14) and by the radioactive decay of radioactive primordial nuclides left over from the initial formation of the solar system (such as potassium-40, uranium and thorium), plus the radioactive decay of products of these nuclides (radium, radon, polonium, etc.). See decay chain.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Transmutation of transuranium elements (i.e. actinides minus actinium to uranium) such as the isotopes of plutonium (about 1wt% in the light water reactors' used nuclear fuel or the minor actinides (MAs, i.e. neptunium, americium, and curium), about 0.1wt% each in light water reactors' used nuclear fuel) has the potential to help solve some problems posed by the management of radioactive waste by reducing the proportion of long-lived isotopes it contains. (This does not rule out the need for a deep geological repository for high level radioactive waste.) When irradiated with fast neutrons in a nuclear reactor, these isotopes can undergo nuclear fission, destroying the original actinide isotope and producing a spectrum of radioactive and nonradioactive fission products.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Ceramic targets containing actinides can be bombarded with neutrons to induce transmutation reactions to remove the most difficult long-lived species. These can consist of actinide-containing solid solutions such as , , , , or just actinide phases such as , , , mixed with some inert phases such as , , and . The role of non-radioactive inert phases is mainly to provide stable mechanical behaviour to the target under neutron irradiation.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: The new study led by Satoshi Chiba at Tokyo Tech (called "Method to Reduce Long-lived Fission Products by Nuclear Transmutations with Fast Spectrum Reactors") shows that effective transmutation of long-lived fission products can be achieved in fast spectrum reactors without the need for isotope separation. This can be achieved by adding a yttrium deuteride moderator.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: For instance, plutonium can be reprocessed into mixed oxide fuels and transmuted in standard reactors. However, this is limited by the accumulation of Plutonium-240 in spent MOX fuel, which is neither particularly fertile (transmutation to fissile Plutonium-241 does occur, but at lower rates than production of more Plutonium-240 from neutron capture by Plutonium-239) nor fissile with thermal neutrons. Even countries like France which practice nuclear reprocessing extensively, usually do not reuse the Plutonium content of used MOX-fuel. The heavier elements could be transmuted in fast reactors, but probably more effectively in a subcritical reactor which is sometimes known as an energy amplifier and which was devised by Carlo Rubbia. Fusion neutron sources have also been proposed as well suited.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: There are several fuels that can incorporate plutonium in their initial composition at their beginning of cycle and have a smaller amount of this element at the end of cycle. During the cycle, plutonium can be burnt in a power reactor, generating electricity. This process is not only interesting from a power generation standpoint, but also due to its capability of consuming the surplus weapons grade plutonium from the weapons program and plutonium resulting of reprocessing used nuclear fuel.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Mixed oxide fuel is one of these. Its blend of oxides of plutonium and uranium constitutes an alternative to the low enriched uranium fuel predominantly used in light water reactors. Since uranium is present in mixed oxide, although plutonium will be burnt, second generation plutonium will be produced through the radiative capture of U-238 and the two subsequent beta minus decays.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Fuels with plutonium and thorium are also an option. In these, the neutrons released in the fission of plutonium are captured by Th-232. After this radiative capture, Th-232 becomes Th-233, which undergoes two beta minus decays resulting in the production of the fissile isotope U-233. The radiative capture cross section for Th-232 is more than three times that of U-238, yielding a higher conversion to fissile fuel than that from U-238. Due to the absence of uranium in the fuel, there is no second generation plutonium produced, and the amount of plutonium burnt will be higher than in mixed oxide fuels. However, U-233, which is fissile, will be present in the used nuclear fuel. Weapons-grade and reactor-grade plutonium can be used in plutonium-thorium fuels, with weapons-grade plutonium being the one that shows a bigger reduction in the amount of Pu-239.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Some radioactive fission products can be converted into shorter-lived radioisotopes by transmutation. Transmutation of all fission products with half-life greater than one year is studied in Grenoble, with varying results.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Sr-90 and Cs-137, with half-lives of about 30 years, are the largest radiation (including heat) emitters in used nuclear fuel on a scale of decades to ~305 years (Sn-121m is insignificant because of the low yield), and are not easily transmuted because they have low neutron absorption cross sections. Instead, they should simply be stored until they decay. Given that this length of storage is necessary, the fission products with shorter half-lives can also be stored until they decay.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: The next longer-lived fission product is Sm-151, which has a half-life of 90 years, and is such a good neutron absorber that most of it is transmuted while the nuclear fuel is still being used; however, effectively transmuting the remaining Sm-151 in nuclear waste would require separation from other isotopes of samarium. Given the smaller quantities and its low-energy radioactivity, Sm-151 is less dangerous than Sr-90 and Cs-137 and can also be left to decay for ~970 years.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Finally, there are 7 long-lived fission products. They have much longer half-lives in the range 211,000 years to 15.7 million years. Two of them, Tc-99 and I-129, are mobile enough in the environment to be potential dangers, are free (Technetium has no known stable isotopes) or mostly free of mixture with stable isotopes of the same element, and have neutron cross sections that are small but adequate to support transmutation.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Also, Tc-99 can substitute for U-238 in supplying Doppler broadening for negative feedback for reactor stability.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Most studies of proposed transmutation schemes have assumed Tc, I, and transuranium elements as the targets for transmutation, with other fission products, activation products, and possibly reprocessed uranium remaining as waste. Technetium-99 is also produced as a waste product in nuclear medicine from Technetium-99m, a nuclear isomer that decays to its ground state which has no further use. Due to the decay product of (the result of capturing a neutron) decaying with a relatively short half life to a stable isotope of Ruthenium, a precious metal, there might also be some economic incentive to transmutation, if costs can be brought low enough.


title: Nuclear transmutation

text: Of the remaining 5 long-lived fission products, Se-79, Sn-126 and Pd-107 are produced only in small quantities (at least in today's thermal neutron, U-235-burning light water reactors) and the last two should be relatively inert. The other two, Zr-93 and Cs-135, are produced in larger quantities, but also not highly mobile in the environment. They are also mixed with larger quantities of other isotopes of the same element. Zirconium is used as cladding in fuel rods due to being virtually "transparent" to neutrons, but a small amount of is produced by neutron absorption from the regular zircalloy without much ill effect. Whether could be reused for new cladding material has not been subject of much study thus far.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: Matthew Tuck (born 20 January 1980) is a Welsh musician, best known as the lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist of the metal band Bullet for My Valentine. He is also a singer and guitarist in the supergroup AxeWound, which was formed in 2012.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: Bullet for My Valentine formed in 1998 under the name Jeff Killed John and were originally a nu metal band. After bassist Nick Crandle left in 2003, they picked up Jason James as their new bassist and renamed the band Bullet for My Valentine. They have released six studio albums and four EPs. The band has sold over one million albums in the United States and over three million worldwide and are the most-successful act in the "Kerrang!" Awards category of "Best British Band", with three wins.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: Tuck is also the backing vocalist and rhythm guitarist in the supergroup AxeWound. He plays alongside Liam Cormier of Cancer Bats, Mike Kingswood of Glamour of the Kill, Joe Copcutt of ZOAX and formerly of Rise to Remain, and Jason Bowld of Pitchshifter.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: In November 2006, while on tour with As I Lay Dying and Protest the Hero, Tuck suffered from laryngitis, which led to a series of concert cancellations, until early January 2007 when he was able to sing after his recovery period.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: On 22 June 2007 it was announced that he needed a tonsillectomy. The band was forced to cancel all of their shows, including their tour as a support band for Metallica. Unable to speak, Tuck wrote that as soon as doctors cleared him he would be in the studio working on the band's next album.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: Tuck's earliest influences as a child would involve the music his parents listened to. In particular, his father's favourite band was Status Quo who he would hear the vinyl of a lot as a little kid, as well as Bruce Springsteen's records.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: Tuck's main influences would go on to consist of Nirvana, Pantera, Slayer, Machine Head, Iron Maiden, Motley Crue, Def Leppard, Limp Bizkit and Jimmy Eat World.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: However, his biggest influence growing up was Metallica, with their eponymous "Black Album" being the first record he ever bought after he heard the song "Enter Sandman" for the first time. They would also be the main reason as to why he would start to play the guitar, learning the riffs by ear; eventually paving the way for his musical career.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: During the period from Bullet for My Valentine's debut album "The Poison" in 2005 to the making of "Temper Temper" seven years later, Tuck was using Jackson Randy Rhoads V models. During the tour cycle for "Temper Temper", he revealed he has left Jackson and was now endorsing B.C. Rich who made him a Signature V based upon their JRV models.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: More recently, Tuck acquired a pair of Kirk Hammett ultra-limited edition Gibson Flying Vs, for his self-titled seventh album he used Gibson Explorer. He also uses black Gibson Les Pauls from time to time. Currently, for his backline he uses Fractal Audio Axe FX guitar effects modelling systems in lieu of a conventional setup.


title: Matthew Tuck

text: Tuck married Charlotte Beedell on 7 September 2013 in London. The couple have two sons; born in 2010 and 2022. They filed for divorce in early 2016 but later reconciled.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: Pima County ( ) is a county in the south central region of the U.S. state of Arizona. As of the 2020 census, the population was 1,043,433, making it Arizona's second-most populous county. The county seat is Tucson, where most of the population is centered. The county is named after the Pima Native Americans who are indigenous to this area.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: Pima County includes the entirety of the Tucson Metropolitan Statistical Area, and it is the third largest metropolitan area in the Southwestern United States.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: Pima County contains parts of the Tohono O'odham Nation, as well as all of the San Xavier Indian Reservation, the Pascua Yaqui Indian Reservation, Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Ironwood Forest National Monument and Saguaro National Park.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: The vast majority of the county population lies in and around the city of Tucson (2021 city population: 543,242), filling much of the eastern part of the county with urban development. Tucson, Arizona's second largest city, is a major commercial and academic center. Other urban areas include the Tucson suburbs of Marana (population 44,792), Oro Valley (population 44,350), Sahuarita (population 29,318), and South Tucson (population 5,643), a large ring of unincorporated urban development, and the growing satellite town Green Valley. The rest of the county is sparsely populated; the largest towns are Sells, the capital of the Tohono O'odham Nation, and Ajo in the county's far western region.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: Pima County, one of the four original counties in Arizona, was created by the 1st Arizona Territorial Legislature with land acquired through the Gadsden Purchase from Mexico in 1853. The original county consisted of all of Arizona Territory east of longitude 113° 20' and south of the Gila River. Soon thereafter, the counties of Cochise, Graham and Santa Cruz were carved from the original Pima County.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (0.02%) is water.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 843,746 people, 332,350 households, and 212,039 families living in the county. The population density was 92 people per square mile (35/km). There were 366,737 housing units at an average density of 40 per square mile (15/km). The racial makeup of the county was 75.1% White, 3.0% Black or African American, 3.2% Native American, 2.0% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 13.3% from other races, and 3.2% from two or more races. 29.3% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 22.8% reported speaking Spanish at home.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: There were 332,350 households, out of which 29.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.7% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.2% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.06.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: In the county, the population was spread out, with 24.6% under the age of 18, 10.9% from 18 to 24, 28.4% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 95.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.7 males.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: The median income for a household in the county was $36,758, and the median income for a family was $44,446. Males had a median income of $32,156 versus $24,959 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,785. About 10.5% of families and 14.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.4% of those under age 18 and 8.2% of those age 65 or over.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 980,263 people, 388,660 households, and 243,167 families living in the county. The population density was . There were 440,909 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 74.3% white, 3.5% black or African American, 3.3% American Indian, 2.6% Asian, 0.2% Pacific islander, 12.3% from other races, and 3.7% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 34.6% of the population.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: Of the 388,660 households, 29.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.5% were married couples living together, 12.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 37.4% were non-families, and 29.2% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.06. The median age was 37.7 years.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: The median income for a household in the county was $45,521 and the median income for a family was $57,377. Males had a median income of $42,313 versus $33,487 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,093. About 11.2% of families and 16.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.6% of those under age 18 and 8.5% of those age 65 or over.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: The United States Office of Management and Budget has designated Pima County as the Tucson, AZ Metropolitan Statistical Area. The United States Census Bureau ranked the Tucson, AZ Metropolitan Statistical Area as the 53rd most populous metropolitan statistical area of the United States as of July 1, 2012.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: The Office of Management and Budget has further designated the Tucson, AZ Metropolitan Statistical Area as a component of the more extensive Tucson-Nogales, AZ Combined Statistical Area, the 53rd most populous combined statistical area and the 59th most populous primary statistical area of the United States as of July 1, 2012.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: Pima County is governed by a five-member Board of Supervisors who set ordinances and run services for the areas that do not fall within any city or town's jurisdiction.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: In Arizona, counties are creatures of the state, and do not have charters of their own. The county Board of Supervisors acts under powers delegated by state law, mainly related to minor ordinances and revenue collection. With few exceptions, these powers are narrowly construed. The state legislature devotes considerable time to local matters, with legislative approval required for many of the most basic local issues.


title: Pima County, Arizona

text: The Pima County Board of Supervisors is responsible for steering public policy in the region. The five-member board provides direction to the County Administrator and the county's various departments as they work to ensure safe communities, nurture economic development, sustainably manage natural resources and protect public health. In addition to overseeing the delivery of a host of municipal services, from roads to parks and libraries and law enforcement, board members also are responsible for approving the county budget. Elected to four-year terms, board members also set the amount of taxes to be levied.