text: On October 19, 2007, the IMSLP closed following legal demands from Universal Edition of Vienna, Austria. The cease and desist letter expressed concern that some works that are in public domain in the server's location in Canada with copyright protection of 50 years following death, but are protected by the 70 years following death term in some other countries, were available in those countries. The administrator of the website, Edward W. Guo, also known under the nickname Feldmahler, decided to close down the repository, but left the forums online so that discussions into the best way to proceed could be made:


title: International Music Score Library Project

text: In response, director Michael S. Hart of Project Gutenberg offered support to keep the project online. This offer was declined by Guo, who voiced concern about having the project hosted in the United States, and consulted the Canadian wing of Project Gutenberg. On November 2, 2007, Michael Geist, a prominent Canadian copyright academic, wrote an article for the BBC discussing the specifics and the wider implications of this case.


text: IMSLP went back online on June 30, 2008. Since its reopening, the site has been using a strict copyright policy wherein uploaded files are made accessible for download only after the copyright status for three most frequent copyright regimes has been reviewed by staff members. Although the server is located in Canada, files that are not public domain in the US were until July 2010 flagged [TB], for 'Technical Block' or 'Temporary Block', and could not be viewed. The FAQ posted in their forum stated, "Unfortunately, these 'temporary' blocks will be until further notice – possibly all the way until the expiration of term in the USA." After an initial phase, [TB] flagged items have essentially disappeared thanks to the introduction of regional servers operated by unaffiliated organizations (see next).


text: On 21 April 2011, the Music Publishers Association (UK) issued a DMCA takedown notice against the IMSLP. Go Daddy, the domain name registrar for the IMSLP, removed the domain name "imslp.org", leaving it inaccessible. The MPA's argument was similar to that made in 2007 by Universal Edition. In particular, the MPA claimed that Rachmaninoff's 1913 choral symphony "The Bells" violated US and EU copyright. According to the IMSLP, the action is without any merit. Almost 24 hours later, the MPA (UK) announced on Twitter that they had asked Go Daddy to reinstate the domain name.


text: On November 7, 2017, the IMSLP received a cease and desist letter from the heirs of Sergei Prokofiev expressing concern that the composer's music was available for download in countries where his music was still under copyright protection. This demand was followed up by a separate letter from the National Music Publishers Association on January 19, 2018. On February 23, 2018, access to all compositions by Prokofiev was blocked by the IMSLP in response to these legal threats. The issues were partially resolved on the IMSLP forums in July 2018, resulting in the reupload of Prokofiev's pre-1923 works. In August, the remainder of Prokofiev's works were reuploaded so that they would only be available in the countries they are allowed in.


text: On December 27, 2015, the IMSLP moved to a subscription-based model, where users are expected to pay to avoid a waiting period on some of the files available on the site, and to access certain newly uploaded files. Users who have not paid are subject to a 15-second waiting period on certain files (excluding Creative Commons-licensed files that constitute a majority of the site's files), are required to wait up to two days to access newly uploaded files, and are shown advertising.


text: The project leader Edward Guo claimed the changes were made because the level of funding was "not sustainable in the long run", but also noted:


text: Guo attributed the change in funding to discussions with librarians at an IAML conference in June 2015. Some contributors to the website expressed concerns that Guo had not properly attempted to raise donations, but without any prior warning, introduced the membership system to monetize their work.


text: On April 18, 2016, the IMSLP announced on its Twitter account that all subscribers will have access to the Naxos Music Library.


text: On July 10, 2010, a forum thread announced the opening of a new server located in the Netherlands. This server allows works that are public domain in Canada and the EU to be downloaded legally, even if they are under copyright in the US. The server was initially run by an unaffiliated European organization, while a forum thread later announced that operations had been handed over to Project Leonardo, a new unaffiliated company incorporated in New Zealand to "provide web hosting services to online libraries that distribute free contents in any fields of arts and science". Files on the EU server are flagged (EU).


text: A similar, also unaffiliated, US server allows users to download works that are in the public domain only in the US. Unlike the other servers, this one can only be contributed to by administrators and users who have asked for the privilege, though the files are freely accessible for download.


text: On July 1, 2013, a forum thread announced the opening of a new server located in Canada and operated by Project Leonardo, the unaffiliated company that also runs the EU server. This server is especially intended for users located in countries where copyright lasts 50 years from the death of the author, such as Canada, China, Japan, New Zealand, South Africa, and many others. Files on the CA server are flagged (CA).


text: On August 23, 2011, an announcement was made that the Werner Icking Music Archive would merge with the IMSLP. WIMA had announced the merge on its own site five days before in an open letter to contributors. After working out some technical issues, the IMSLP decided to officially commence the merge on August 28. The merge was announced to be complete on July 21, 2012.


text: IMSLP is now owned by Project Petrucci LLC, a private company created to run the website. Project Petrucci LLC was registered as a Delaware limited-liability company on June 28, 2008, when the site founder was studying at the New England Conservatory. The website provides an e-mail address for the site's founder ("preferred"), and a physical address for the company's registered agent in the United States (for "any legal or formal correspondence").


text: Project Leonardo is an internet service provider that hosts free online content in the arts or sciences.


title: Combat boot

text: Combat boots are military boots designed to be worn by soldiers during combat or combat training, as opposed to during parades and other ceremonial duties. Modern combat boots are designed to provide a combination of grip, ankle stability, and foot protection suitable for a rugged environment. They are traditionally made of hardened and sometimes waterproofed leather. Today, many combat boots incorporate technologies originating in civilian hiking boots, such as Gore-Tex nylon side panels, which improve ventilation and comfort. They are also often specialized for certain climates and conditions, such as jungle boots, desert boots, and cold weather boots as well as specific uses, such as tanker boots and jump boots.


title: Combat boot

text: The legionnaires of the Roman Empire wore hobnail boots, called "caligae". By the late 1st century the army began to transition into an enclosed boot called "calceus"; calcei offered more protection and warmth than the caligae. They quickly became a staple in both Roman military and civilian dress.


title: Combat boot

text: During the English Civil War, each soldier of the New Model Army was issued three shoes or ankle boots. After every march, the soldier would change them around to ensure they received even wear. Following the Restoration, shoes and uniforms followed the civilian pattern: shoes with buckles were used by most armies from 1660 until around 1800. Hessian boots were used by cavalry from the 18th century until World War I.


title: Combat boot

text: Late in the Napoleonic Wars, the British army began issuing ankle boots that replaced the buckle shoes. These types of boots remained in use throughout the 19th century and were used in conflicts including the Crimean War (1853–1856), First Zulu War (1879), and First Boer War (1880–1881).


title: Combat boot

text: These in turn were replaced by ammunition boots, which were used in a variety of similar design patterns from the late 1880s until the late 1960s. The "George Boots" worn with the Officers' dress uniform and mess dress are similar, but they lack the leather counter (heel cap), the toe case (toe-cap) and omit the hobnails, and the steel heel and toe plates.


title: Combat boot

text: Infantry regiments of the US military were equipped with calf-high boots in the War of 1812. From the 1820s until before the American Civil War soldiers were issued ankle-high boots, which were made on straight lasts. There was no "left" or "right" boot; instead, they shaped themselves to the wearer's feet over time. As a result, these boots were very uncomfortable until broken in and often resulted in blisters. They were replaced in 1858 with an improved version generally known as Jeff Davis boots after Jefferson Davis, the Secretary of War who re-equipped the army in the 1850s. These were used until the 1880s.


title: Combat boot

text: Since 2000, the Australian Defence Force, primarily uses the Redback Terra Combat Boot as a replacement for the Vietnam War-era General Purpose combat boots. It was given a limited number of tests in 1999, and was later distributed in 2000. Despite the boot's general aptitude for the tasks which the ADF had first put it in place for, it still had major flaws. 90% of all negative feedback from soldiers was about its inappropriate sizing, having only 43 different sizes. Many also claimed that its sole would rot under worst-case tropical circumstances. Various military personnel have also used Rossi boots.


title: Combat boot

text: In mid 2013 a boot trial was undertaken by the ADF to find a replacement for the issued Redback Combat Boot. Boots trialled included updated versions of the Redback Boot as well as various off the shelf boots. At the conclusion of the trial the Danner TFX 8 was selected as the new ADF combat boots: they were comfortable in hot weather and provided good support. However these were found to fail prematurely and were never issued on a large scale.


title: Combat boot

text: As a result, Redback were tasked with once again providing a range of combat boots to the ADF including a General Purpose boot, a Jungle Style boot and a Flame Resistant boot. These boots are being issued on a very limited basis and are currently undergoing limited testing. However early reports are not favourable with complaints of failing eyelets and lack of water resistance. Danners are still being retained as a 'Desert' boot or for those who don't fit the current boot.


title: Combat boot

text: In the early 20th century, Argentine soldiers wore hobnail boots with leather gaiters as well as jackboots. The combat boots worn during the Falklands War came with durable stitched rubber soles. These boots continue to be worn today in addition to the later pattern with "EA" stamped on the leg.


title: Combat boot

text: Belgian combat boots are marked by the abbreviation "ABL" (Armée Belge / Belgisch Leger), i.e. "Belgian armed forces" in French and Dutch languages. The soles of Belgian combat boots have different markings, according to the soles manufacturers: Rugak, Rubex and Solidor (models of 1970-s). Leather uppers have markings of "GESKA" ("Geska" NV) or "ARWY NV". Belgian Combats of the years 1970-90s come with stitched rubber soles.


title: Combat boot

text: Later pattern made by Urban Body Protection International and come with British type "tyre tread" soles.


title: Combat boot

text: Combat boots of the French army are nicknamed "rangers" because of their similarity to the M 43 American model. Since the end of World War 2, three models have been manufactured. The first model was based on the 1952 combat ankle-boots on which a leather high-top cuff with two buckles were added. It was made of sturdy but very stiff brown colored cowhide leather. It was called "brodequin à jambière attenante Mle 1952" and was widely distributed from 1956 on, in priority to airborne troops engaged in Algeria. In 1961, a simplified version was introduced, the boot and the leather cuff being made in one piece. In 1965 a new version of the 1961 model was introduced made of shined black grained leather more flexible than the original one. Their soles were of a direct molded type. In 1986 a transitory model with laces and enhanced waterproofing was experimented with under the designation "combat boots model F 2" but was not adopted. The first two models had to be blackened with colored grease and shoe polish. They were issued to French soldiers; including Foreign legionnaires, until the beginning of the 1990s, and then were kept in store in case of conflict. A lot of them have been released on the market after the gendarmerie dropped the territorial defense mission at the beginning of the 21st Century. A winter model, with laces and a Gore-Tex lining was introduced in 1998. The third model and a winter model are still in service in the French army but are progressively being replaced in operation by more modern Meindl type boots.


title: Combat boot

text: By the end of the 2000s, following the FÉLIN equipment program, the venerable Mle 1965 pattern was replaced by a Gore-Tex boot designed by Meindl (based on Meindl "Army Pro" tactical boot and itself derived from "Island" civilian boots) as the main army boot. The boot is known as "Botte Félin" (Felin boot) and, while there are several contractor beyond Meindl for the actual production of the design including historical French boot provider "Argueyrolles", the design is colloquially known as "the Meindl". Progressive replacement of Mle 65 was planned starting with combat units sent on missions abroad.


title: Combat boot

text: In 2014, the German company Haix won the contract to supply French army standard issue shoes with its Nepal Pro model.


title: Combat boot

text: The leather combat boots used by the Indian Army "remained unchanged in design for 130 years," other than the addition of a directly moulded sole. Combat boots were manufactured exclusively by the India's Ordnance Factories Board. In 2017, the Ministry of Defence authorized procurement of combat boots from private companies. The Defence Research and Development Organisation is also developing boots which will enable the tracking of soldiers in snowy locations.


title: Combat boot

text: The current combat boot used by the Norwegian Armed Forces is the M77. It was introduced in 1977 and is produced by Alfa Skofabrikk AS.


title: Combat boot

text: The M77 boot took ten years to develop and strict requirements were set for weight, durability, water resistance, comfort, as well as ease of maintenance and good heat resistance to facilitate quicker drying.


title: Combat boot

text: The Norwegian army frequently test boots from other manufacturers, however they have not made any plans to change boots for their soldiers. The M77 boot has notches along the sole and in the heel made for the NATO issue skis used by the Norwegian Armed Forces. The bindings for these skis fit the M77 boots as well as the thick waterproof outer shoes they can be put in. The boots can be used for skis as well as snowshoes.


title: Combat boot

text: The military started using boots in 1779. The current model is boot mod. 90 that is designed to be both comfortable and light as well as giving ankle support. They are part of the UNI (Uniform) 90 combat uniform system and are available in a lighter summer version and an insulated winter version with a heavier sole, designed for skiing, using Swedish standard army wood skies.


title: Combat boot

text: The Swiss Armed Forces use three models of combat boots. The KS (from the German Kampfstiefel) 90, made from black leather and with a flat sole and used for marching on paved roads. The KS14 Schwer, made by the Italian enterprise AKU, is a heavy duty combat boot specially designed for the Swiss Army but also sold to civilians, with metal inserts to protect the foot. Every soldier receives, at the beginning of boot camp, two pairs of KS90 and one pair of KS14. Special Forces corpsmen are outfitted with another custom made boot, developed by the German Meindl for the Swiss Army, the KS08 Schwer AGFA. The KS08 is suitable for every environment, for parachute jumps and fast roping. It allows the mounting of crampons for rock climbing and, like the KS14, it has metal inserts to protect the feet. The army will introduce new boots (KS19 and KS19 Schwer) in the near future.


title: Combat boot

text: Members of The South African National Defense Force (SANDF) are issued brown combat boots with 18 lace holes, pimple print leather and stitched rubber soles.


title: Combat boot

text: Paratroopers (Parabats) wear a variant known as "Jumpers." These boots are taller, having 22 lace holes, and are heavier, due to the steel plate housed within their double soles. The steel plate prevents the foot from flexing during hard landings when parachuting. They are usually polished with red polish. The colour combination of the brown leather with the red polish creates a shade of maroon that matches their maroon berets.


title: Combat boot

text: The boots are ankle height, having 12 lace holes and an ankle strap at the top which is fastened with a buckle. The leather is thin and breathable and has a smooth wax finish, hence the name. The boots are lightweight, and have stitched rubber anti-tracking soles. These soles are completely flat, leaving behind shallow footprints that appear old and faded.


title: Combat boot

text: There are a few models of combat boots currently produced for Singapore Armed Forces servicemen, namely the Army Combat Boot (ACB), Enhanced Combat Boot (ECB), RSAF Combat Safety Boot, and RSN Combat Safety Boot.


title: Combat boot

text: New enlistees are generally issued the ACB, of which there are two variations, one manufactured by Wellco Peruana, a Peruvian brand, and another manufactured by Altama, a United States brand. Both variations have a near-identical construction, with variations in quality. They feature a part-leather, part-fabric construction for breathability, directly molded soles, and two holes that allow drainage of any water that may have entered. The outsoles are designed to suit jungle environments. These boots are similar in design to the U.S. Army hot weather combat boots and jungle boots.


title: Combat boot

text: The ECB is the Spartan XTB by Magnum , and is issued to more combat focused units in the Singapore Army, such as the infantry, armoured infantry, guards, and commandos. It has a hybrid leather-fabric upper like the ACB, but with a lighter weight, fully stitched cupsoles, and an outsole design that is more suited for both urban and jungle environments.


title: Combat boot

text: Past versions of boots issued within the Singapore Armed Forces include a full leather upper boot with a reinforced toecap (in service until 1993), an improved version that removed the reinforced toecap, reducing weight, and had improved insoles that provided more support and offered better hygiene (in service 1993-2002), the 'Gore-Tex' boots, a revised design with parts of the upper made of Gore-Tex, making it waterproof (in service 2002-2012), and the 'Frontier' boots (named after the manufacturer), of which the Gore-Tex material was replaced with a porous nylon fabric for quick drying, and featured water drainage holes, thus no longer making the boots waterproof (in service 2012-2016). The Frontier boots also had a redesigned sole that were supposed to give improved agility and comfort.


title: Combat boot

text: The Frontier boots had received criticism from some Singapore Army reserve conscripts who were previously issued the Gore-Tex boots. Unlike its predecessor, the Gore-Tex boots, which were padded and waterproof, the Frontier boots did not feature the padding, and instead had an added ankle support strip, which some servicemen claimed made the boot more uncomfortable. The revised design also lost its waterproof properties, which also drew criticism. However, it allowed water to drain out of the boot after a river-crossing. Also, the boot became more ventilated and thus cooler with the revised design. Durability was also an issue in both the 2nd Generation Gore-Tex and also some batches of the Frontiers. At times, the sole of the boot will come apart since it is only glued to the shell of the boot and not stitched. Some servicemen would also find their Frontier boots' stitching coming apart after some weeks of usage, or even the soles disintegrating and cracking after prolonged use or storage. The succeeding ACB addressed the durability issue with directly molded soles, and is also purportedly more comfortable.


title: Combat boot

text: Non-aircrew servicemen of the Republic of Singapore Air Force are issued the RSAF Combat Safety Boots, manufactured by Frontier, for use in airbases. The RSAF boots feature padded sides, an outsole that is more suited to urban environments, a side-zip with a Velcro fastener, and a composite toe. Aircrew are instead issued the 800ST flight boots by Belleville that are waterproof, have a full leather upper, are steel-toed, and have a similar design to the U.S. Army temperate weather combat boots, albeit with different materials.


title: Combat boot

text: The Republic of Singapore Navy servicemen are issued the modified version of the RSAF's safety boots. The modifications include the two water outlets (similar to the Singapore Army's standard issue boots), and a reduction in height from a high-cut boot to a mid-cut.


title: Combat boot

text: Before 1979, the Spanish army had issued triple-buckled boots, with full lace-up boots becoming common from 1984 to 1986. During the 1980s Spain changed boot suppliers and had many variations of design including Vibram or Panamá sole, buckles or laces, and eyelets or speed lace. There were three common models:


title: Combat boot

text: This was the general approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s. During this period the manufacturer, Segarra, had various major problems which prevented regular deliveries on their supply contract with the Ministry of Defence. This eventually led to Segarra's closure, with Imipiel chosen as an alternative provider.


title: Combat boot

text: Imipiel-manufactured boots were copies of the Segarra models but proved to be inferior, with poorly-attached soles that opened and peeled-off with relative ease, greatly shortening their useful lifetime. In an attempt to overcome the debonding problem, Imipiel changed the outsole, removing the cleats, and incorporated "panamá" type soles.


title: Combat boot

text: The Ministry initiated parallel studies for the final adoption of a new model boot, accepting new concepts on the original boot of instruction and campaign and benefits of the paratrooper-styled boot.


title: Combat boot

text: In late World War I, the standard Ammunition boots were replaced from 1917 to 1918 with the high-lacing calf-length Field Service Boots for service in the trenches to combat trench foot.


title: Combat boot

text: The British Army introduced the DMS (Direct Moulded Sole) ankle boot in 1958. This had a moulded plastic sole and was externally similar to the World War Two Ammo Boot. However, as the leather was of shoddy quality at best, the boots leaked and could not be made satisfactorily water-resistant. The low sideless tongue also allowed water to get in over the top of the foot. Once water had got into the boot, it would evaporate through the top of the boot but not through the plastic sole, thereby keeping the foot wet and accelerating trench-foot. Although mesh insoles were issued to combat this, they were themselves fragile and could lead to 'burning' of the sole of the foot, with the result that most soldiers used commercially available sports-shoe insoles instead. This type of boot continued in service until the mid-1980s, after its unsatisfactory characteristics became a matter of public concern owing to the severe cases of trench-foot incurred during the Falklands War. The DMS boot was worn with anklets or wind-around puttees.


title: Combat boot

text: The immediate successor of the DMS boot was the "Boot, Combat High" – or as the soldiers themselves described it, the Boot Cardboard Horrible. Basically little more than a toecapless DMS boot extended up to mid-calf length, it was scarcely better than its predecessor. Theoretically waterproofed, it was therefore sweaty and unpleasant, and could cause acute tendinitis. A MkII version was introduced to solve this, but found little favour. Its only real advantage was that it was not supposed to be 'bulled' to a mirror shine.


title: Combat boot

text: The Combat Assault Boots (CAB) were current issue until 2012, and were used primarily for combat training and general service although privately purchased boots were often deemed acceptable as long as they are made of black leather. The Foot Guards still use modified ammunition boots. These boots, being primarily made of leather, can be brought to a high shine for the ceremonial purpose, although boots used as every-day military footwear tend to be left comparatively dull, but clean.


title: Combat boot

text: Various levels of shine can be achieved with CAB. However, when on exercise (in the field) or on operations, soldiers are only required to shine their boots to combat high.


title: Combat boot

text: Jungle boots supplied by various manufacturers are also commonly worn in barracks due to the ability to carry out loaded marches faster and for longer.


title: Combat boot

text: From 2012 Armed Forces personnel will have a newly designed range of brown combat boots to replace the black and desert combat footwear they currently wear. Personnel will have the choice of five different boots depending on where they are based and what role they are in.


title: Combat boot

text: Each of the five boot types comes in two different styles, so personnel can wear whichever one is more comfortable for them. The new brown boots, which have been developed to match the MTP uniform worn by Service personnel, will be made in two different fittings designed for the first time to take account of the different shapes of men's and women's feet. The current black boots will carry on to be worn with most non-camouflage uniforms as well as by units on parade in full dress uniform, such as regiments performing ceremonial duties in central London.


title: Combat boot

text: As of 2018, the five categories previously issued, have been changed to simplify the choices available. The Italian manufacturer AKU now supply their Pilgrim model as an option for a high liability boot alongside Altberg.


title: Combat boot

text: The 1917 Trench Boot was an adaptation of the boots American manufacturers were selling to the French and Belgian armies at the beginning of World War I. In American service, it replaced the Russet Marching Shoe. The boot was made of tanned cowhide with a half middle sole covered by a full sole. Iron plates were fixed to the heel. It was a great improvement, however it lacked waterproofing. It soon evolved into the 1918 Trench Boot, also called the Pershing Boot after General John Pershing, who oversaw its creation. The boot used heavier leather in its construction, and had several minor changes from the 1917 Boot.


title: Combat boot

text: The first true modern combat boots in the US Army, officially titled "Boots, Combat Service", were introduced in conjunction with the M-1943 Uniform Ensemble during World War II. They were modified service shoes, with an extended, rough-out or, more commonly, a smooth leather high-top cuff added. The cuff was closed using two buckles, allowing the boots to replace the existing service shoes and leggings worn by most soldiers with a more convenient and practical solution. The boots, and the service shoes from which they were made, had a one piece sole and heel, made from molded synthetic or reclaimed rubber. These "double buckle" boots were worn through the Korean War as a substitute for the Boots, Russet, Leather Lace Up introduced in 1948. The first type of Combat Boots, or Combat Tropical boots were based on the "buckle boot" design and worn during the early parts of the Vietnam War.


title: Combat boot

text: In 1957, the US Army switched to shined black combat boots, although the transition to black boots was not completed until late in the Vietnam War, which also saw the introduction of the jungle boot. Both of these boots had a direct molded sole. The jungle boot had a black leather lower and an olive drab canvas (later nylon) upper. Black boots continued to be worn following Vietnam, with the M81 BDU, although non-shine boots were considered by the Army. As the BDU was replaced with the MCCUU, Army Combat Uniform, and Airman Battle Uniform the services moved to more practical, non-shine footwear. The only current military service mandating shined black combat boots are the United States Naval Sea Cadet Corps, the Auxiliary Cadet Detachment of the Naval forces, and the Civil Air Patrol, the Auxiliary of the U.S. Air Force, in conjunction with the BDU utility uniform.


title: Combat boot

text: As the United States Marine Corps made the transition from its utility uniform to the MCCUU, they discarded shined black combat boots, and switched to more functional tan rough-out (non-shine) combat boots, with either hot weather or temperate weather versions. The standard-issue boot is the Bates Waterproof USMC combat boot. Commercial versions of this boot are authorized without limitation other than they must be at least eight inches in height and bear the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor on the outer heel of each boot. Beginning on October 1, 2016, Marine Corps personnel were authorized to wear various Marine Corps Combat Boot models from Danner, Belleville, McRae and Bates, and Rugged all-terrain boots from Danner.


title: Combat boot

text: The United States Army followed suit in 2002 with the introduction of the Army Combat Uniform, which also switched to tan rough-out combat boots, called the Army Combat Boot, and cotton socks. Commercial versions of this boot are authorized without limitation other than they must be at least eight inches in height and are no longer authorized to have a 'shoe-like' appearance. Two versions exist, a 2.5 lb temperate weather boot, and a 2 lb hot weather (desert) boot. Current manufacturers include (but are not limited to) Altama, Bates, Belleville Boot, McRae, Rocky, Warson Brands/Converse and Wellco.


title: Combat boot

text: The US Air Force used a sage green suede combat boot with its Airman Battle Uniform, although a tan version was authorized until 2011, when the green boot became mandatory. The Airman Battle Uniform was phased out in 2021 and replaced with the Army Combat Uniform in Operational Camouflage Pattern, with the boots authorized only in Coyote Brown.


title: Combat boot

text: Combat boots are also popular as fashion clothing in the goth, punk, grunge, heavy metal, industrial, skinhead, and BDSM subcultures, and as work boots; however, they are becoming more and more mainstream. Beyond fashion as such, many individuals choose to wear combat boots simply due to durability, comfort and other utilities, as the boots are specifically designed to be comfortable to wear in a variety of changing conditions for long durations without significant long-term wear. Combat boots have a longer lifespan than fashion boots, which can give them a vintage feel, even after recrafting. For these and other reasons, they can be purchased at military surplus stores.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: Essie Mae Washington-Williams (née Butler; October 12, 1925 – February 4, 2013) was an American teacher and author. She is best known as the eldest child of Strom Thurmond, Governor of South Carolina (1947–1951) and longtime United States senator, known for his pro-segregation politics. Of mixed race, she was born to Carrie Butler, a 16-year-old African-American girl who worked as a domestic servant for Thurmond's parents, and Thurmond, then 22 and unmarried. Washington-Williams grew up in the family of one of her mother's sisters, not learning of her biological parents until 1938 when her mother came for a visit and informed Essie Mae she was her mother. She graduated from college, earned a master's degree, married, raised a family, and had a 30-year professional career in education.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: Washington-Williams did not reveal her biological father's identity until she was almost 78 years old, after Thurmond's death at the age of 100 in 2003. Though he had little to do with her upbringing, he had paid for her college education and took an interest in her and her family all his life. In 2005, she published her autobiography, "Dear Senator: A Memoir by the Daughter of Strom Thurmond", which was nominated for the National Book Award and a Pulitzer Prize.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: Washington was the daughter of Carrie Butler, who was 15 or 16 when her daughter was born, and Strom Thurmond, then 22. Carrie Butler worked as a domestic servant for Thurmond's parents. She sent her daughter from South Carolina to her older sister Mary and her husband John Henry Washington to be raised in Coatesville, Pennsylvania. The girl was named Essie after another of Carrie's sisters, who fostered her briefly as an infant. Essie Mae grew up with her cousin, seven years older than she, who she believed was her half-brother. Washington was unaware of the identity of her biological parents until 1938, when she was 13 and her mother told her the full story. In 1941, her mother took her to meet Thurmond in person.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: Washington and her mother met infrequently with Thurmond after that, although they had some contact for years. After high school, Washington-Williams worked as a nurse at Harlem Hospital in New York City, and took a course in business education at New York University.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: She did not visit the segregated South until 1942, when she met relatives in Edgefield. After having grown up in Pennsylvania, Washington was shocked by the racial restrictions of the South. She returned to the North to live with relatives during the war years. After Thurmond returned from World War II, she started college at the all-black South Carolina State College (SCSC) in the fall of 1947. Thurmond quietly paid for her college education. She met and married future lawyer Julius Williams at SCSC in 1948. Her first child, Julius Williams Jr., was born in 1949. As a result, Essie Mae Washington-Williams dropped out of college in the summer of 1949 to begin raising the first of her four children.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: During the late 1950s and 1960s, the years of national activism in the civil rights movement, Washington occasionally tried to discuss racism with Thurmond, who was known for his long-time political support for segregation, but he brushed off her complaints about segregated facilities. Nevertheless, Washington-Williams felt that she made a significant impact on Thurmond during their private conversations on race and race relations and that Thurmond's policies towards African Americans were affected as a result. In 1976, for example, Thurmond nominated Matthew J. Perry, whom Essie Mae dated in 1947 shortly before she met her husband, to the U.S. Court of Military Appeals. Thurmond became the first Southern senator to nominate an African American for a federal judgeship.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: Following the death of her husband in 1964, Washington moved again to Los Angeles, California, where she completed her undergraduate studies to receive a bachelor's degree from California State University, Los Angeles in 1969 and earned a master's degree in education at the University of Southern California, She had a 30-year career as a teacher in the Los Angeles Unified School District from 1967 through 1997. She was a longtime member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority, which she joined while at South Carolina State.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: In 1949, Washington left college before her junior year after marrying Julius T. Williams, a law student at SCSC, the previous year. After his graduation from law school, they moved to his home town, Savannah, Georgia, where he established a law practice and was active in the NAACP. They had two sons and two daughters together. He died in 1964. Three children live in the Seattle, Washington, area, and one daughter lives near Los Angeles. Washington-Williams has numerous grandchildren.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: In 2004, Washington-Williams said that she intended to be active on behalf of the Black Patriots Foundation, which was raising funds to build a monument on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., to honor American blacks who served in the Revolutionary War. This organization became defunct the following year. Another group is now raising funds for the monument.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: In 2004, Washington-Williams applied for membership in the United Daughters of the Confederacy based on her heritage through Thurmond to ancestors who fought as Confederate soldiers. She died before being accepted. She also intended to join the Daughters of the American Revolution.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: When Washington-Williams announced her family connection, it was acknowledged by the Thurmond family. In 2004, the state legislature approved the addition of her name to the list of Thurmond children on a monument for Senator Thurmond on the South Carolina Statehouse grounds.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: In 2005, Washington-Williams was awarded an honorary Doctorate in education from South Carolina State University at Orangeburg when she was invited to speak at their commencement ceremony.


title: Essie Mae Washington-Williams

text: She published a memoir, "Dear Senator: A Memoir by the Daughter of Strom Thurmond" (2005), written with William Stadiem. It explored her sense of dislocation based on her mixed heritage, as well as going to college in the segregated South after having grown up in Pennsylvania. It was nominated for both a National Book Award and a Pulitzer Prize.


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: The first season of "How I Met Your Mother", an American sitcom created by Carter Bays and Craig Thomas, premiered on CBS in the United States on September 19, 2005, and concluded on May 15, 2006. The season was directed by Pamela Fryman and produced by Bays & Thomas Productions and 20th Century Fox Television. It consists of 22 episodes, each running approximately 22 minutes in length.


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: The season introduces Ted Mosby (voiced by former "Full House" actor Bob Saget) in the year 2030 as he sits his daughter and son down to tell them the story of how he met their mother. The story begins in 2005 with Ted (Josh Radnor) as a single, 27-year-old architect living in Manhattan with his two best friends from college: Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel), a law student, and Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan), a kindergarten teacher, who have been dating for almost nine years when Marshall proposes. Their engagement causes Ted to think about marriage and finding his soul mate, much to the disgust of his self-appointed best friend Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris). Ted begins his search for his perfect mate and meets an ambitious young reporter, Robin Scherbatsky (Cobie Smulders), whom he quickly falls in love with. Robin, however, doesn't want to rush into a relationship and the two decide to be friends. However, Robin begins to develop feelings for Ted while he begins dating a baker, Victoria, but when she moves to Germany for a culinary fellowship, Ted leads Robin to believe that she broke up with him. As a result, Victoria breaks up with Ted and Robin begins to distance herself from him, though they eventually reconcile. As her wedding date approaches, Lily begins to wonder if she's missed any opportunities because of her relationship with Marshall and decides to pursue an art fellowship in San Francisco, breaking her engagement in the process. At the end of the season, Marshall is seen looking desolate and miserable, while Ted and Robin agree to pursue a relationship.


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: The first season garnered mixed-to-positive reviews. On the review aggregation site, Rotten Tomatoes reported that 63% of 16 critics gave the show a positive review. Despite the mixed reception, the show appeared on several television best lists, including "Time" magazine and "Chicago Tribune". The first season garnered an average of 9.47 million viewers per all 22 episodes in the U.S. Out of all regular primetime programming that aired during the 2005–2006 American television season, "How I Met Your Mother" ranked 51st out of 156, according to the Nielsen ratings system. The pilot was watched by 10.94 million viewers, while the finale was watched by 8.64 million viewers.


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: The first season features a cast of five actors who receive star billing. Josh Radnor portrays Ted, a young architect who is searching for his future wife. Jason Segel and Alyson Hannigan portray Marshall Eriksen and Lily Aldrin, respectively, a newly engaged couple. Cobie Smulders plays Robin Scherbatsky, an ambitious reporter whom Ted falls for. Barney Stinson, Ted's self-appointed best friend and a womanizer, is played by Neil Patrick Harris. Season one also introduced several recurring cast members, including Lyndsy Fonseca and David Henrie as Ted's children, and Ashley Williams as Victoria, Ted's love interest for the second half of the season. The season one pilot episode was recognized by the Casting Society of America with a nomination for the Best Comedy Pilot Casting Artios Award.


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: "How I Met Your Mother" was inspired by creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas's idea to "write about our friends and the stupid stuff we did in New York", where they previously worked as writers for "Late Show with David Letterman". The two drew from their friendship in creating the characters. Ted is based loosely on Bays, and Marshall and Lily are based loosely on Thomas and his wife. Thomas's wife Rebecca was initially reluctant to have a character based on her, but agreed if they could get Hannigan to play her. Radnor and Segel were relative unknowns, but Smulders, another relatively little-known actress, was cast as Robin after Jennifer Love Hewitt turned down the role in favor of "Ghost Whisperer". Bays and Thomas commented on her casting by saying, "thank God we did for a million reasons ... when Ted's seeing her for the first time, America's seeing her for the first time — the intriguingness of that propelled the show going forward and kept the show alive".


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: The role of Barney was initially envisioned as a "John Belushi-type character" before Neil Patrick Harris won the role after being invited to an audition by the show's casting director Megan Branman. Harris's character was widely reported to be the breakout character, with "Variety" calling him "the major breakout" and "Boston.com" noting that his character was the "most buzzed about element of the show". Robert Bianco from "USA Today" observed that Harris "sparkled" in his role, and further praised Hannigan's performance as equally "delightful" as her role in "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: Season one of "How I Met Your Mother" received mixed reviews from television critics. Metacritic, a review aggregation site that collects critical opinions, gave the first season a score of 69 out of 25 reviews collected, signifying "generally favorable reviews". Many critics compared the show to the recently concluded sitcom "Friends", with some calling it a "worthy successor" and others a "well-executed ... rip-off". Including it on his annual "Best of Television" list, James Poniewozik of "Time" observed that "just a few episodes into the show's run, the writers know these characters inside and out". However, Poniewozik derided the premise of the show, Future Ted's narration, as a "gimmicky distraction". Hal Boedeker of "The Orlando Sentinel" disagreed, saying that "the twist should keep viewers coming back" and praises the five leads as "irresistible". The A.V. Club also called the premise "a winner" and the actors "appealing", but complained that the show stuck too closely to standard sitcom one-liners, as did Doug Elfman of the "Chicago Sun-Times", who disparaged the script as little more than a series of "cheap jokes".


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: Robert Bianco from "USA Today" was more upbeat, praising the "fine cast" and "humorous script", and calling the show the "most inventive" of new series that year. "The New York Times" said that the show was "pleasant to watch" has "potential to improve", but will not "revolutionize" sitcoms or start a pop culture phenomenon. Charlie McCollum of "The San Jose Mercury News" writes that "How I Met Your Mother" was a prime candidate for replacing "Friends" in the sitcom category, praising the show as "something with real wit and considerable charm". He praised the writers for "giving a fresh spin to bits and pieces of the sitcom formula" and the cast for "hitting on all cylinders from the very first scene", predicting that the show could be an unexpected creative breakout with audiences.


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: The first season was nominated for four awards, winning two. Both wins were from the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards, where the show won the Outstanding Art Direction for a Multi-Camera Series and the Outstanding Cinematography for a Multi-Camera Series categories. In addition, the show was nominated for the People's Choice Awards for Favorite New Television Comedy and was recognized by the Casting Society of America for Best Comedy Pilot Casting.


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: CBS premiered the show in the United States on September 19, 2005. Internationally, the show premiered in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on May 7, 2006, and is aired by Citytv in Canada and Seven Network in Australia. Season one also runs in syndication in the United States.


title: How I Met Your Mother (season 1)

text: The first season was released on DVD in the U.S. under the name "How I Met Your Mother Season One" with the tagline "A Love Story in Reverse" on November 21, 2006, as a three-disc box set. The DVD cropped the original widescreen broadcast to a full frame format, and no widescreen format has been released. The set was released in Region 2 on May 7, 2007, and Region 4 on January 10, 2007. Every episode in this season is available for purchase from the U.S. iTunes store.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The Early Dynastic period (abbreviated ED period or ED) is an archaeological culture in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) that is generally dated to c. 2900–2350 BC and was preceded by the Uruk and Jemdet Nasr periods. It saw the development of writing and the formation of the first cities and states. The ED itself was characterized by the existence of multiple city-states: small states with a relatively simple structure that developed and solidified over time. This development ultimately led to the unification of much of Mesopotamia under the rule of Sargon, the first monarch of the Akkadian Empire. Despite this political fragmentation, the ED city-states shared a relatively homogeneous material culture. Sumerian cities such as Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Umma, and Nippur located in Lower Mesopotamia were very powerful and influential. To the north and west stretched states centered on cities such as Kish, Mari, Nagar, and Ebla.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The study of Central and Lower Mesopotamia has long been given priority over neighboring regions. Archaeological sites in Central and Lower Mesopotamia—notably Girsu but also Eshnunna, Khafajah, Ur, and many others—have been excavated since the 19th century. These excavations have yielded cuneiform texts and many other important artifacts. As a result, this area was better known than neighboring regions, but the excavation and publication of the archives of Ebla have changed this perspective by shedding more light on surrounding areas, such as Upper Mesopotamia, western Syria, and southwestern Iran. These new findings revealed that Lower Mesopotamia shared many socio-cultural developments with neighboring areas and that the entirety of the ancient Near East participated in an exchange network in which material goods and ideas were being circulated.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Dutch archaeologist Henri Frankfort coined the term Early Dynastic (ED) period for Mesopotamia, the naming convention having been borrowed from the similarly named Early Dynastic (ED) period for Egypt. The periodization was developed in the 1930s during excavations that were conducted by Henri Frankfort on behalf of the University of Chicago Oriental Institute at the archaeological sites of Tell Khafajah, Tell Agrab, and Tell Asmar in the Diyala Region of Iraq.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The ED was divided into the sub-periods ED I, II, and III. This was primarily based on complete changes over time in the plan of the Abu Temple of Tell Asmar, which had been rebuilt multiple times on exactly the same spot. During the 20th century, many archaeologists also tried to impose the scheme of ED I–III upon archaeological remains excavated elsewhere in both Iraq and Syria, dated to 3000–2000 BC. However, evidence from sites elsewhere in Iraq has shown that the ED I–III periodization, as reconstructed for the Diyala river valley region, could not be directly applied to other regions.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Research in Syria has shown that developments there were quite different from those in the Diyala river valley region or southern Iraq, rendering the traditional Lower Mesopotamian chronology useless. During the 1990s and 2000s, attempts were made by various scholars to arrive at a local Upper Mesopotamian chronology, resulting in the Early Jezirah (EJ) 0–V chronology that encompasses everything from 3000 to 2000 BC. The use of the ED I–III chronology is now generally limited to Lower Mesopotamia, with the ED II sometimes being further restricted to the Diyala river valley region or discredited altogether.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The ED was preceded by the Jemdet Nasr and then succeeded by the Akkadian period, during which, for the first time in history, large parts of Mesopotamia were united under a single ruler. The entirety of the ED is now generally dated to approximately 2900–2350 BC according to the widely accepted middle chronology or 2800–2230 BC according to the short chronology, which is increasingly less accepted by scholars. The ED was divided into the ED I, ED II, ED IIIa, and ED IIIb sub-periods. ED I–III were more or less contemporary with the Early Jezirah (EJ) I–III in Upper Mesopotamia. The exact dating of the ED sub-periods varies between scholars—with some abandoning ED II and using only Early ED and Late ED instead and others extending ED I while allowing ED III begin earlier so that ED III was to begin immediately after ED I with no gap between the two.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Many historical periods in the Near East are named after the dominant political force at that time, such as the Akkadian or Ur III periods. This is not the case for the ED period. It is an archaeological division that does not reflect political developments, and it is based upon perceived changes in the archaeological record, e.g. pottery and glyptics. This is because the political history of the ED is unknown for most of its duration. As with the archaeological subdivision, the reconstruction of political events is hotly debated among researchers.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The ED I (2900–2750/2700 BC) is poorly known, relative to the sub-periods that followed it. In Lower Mesopotamia, it shared characteristics with the final stretches of the Uruk (c. 3300–3100 BC) and Jemdet Nasr (c. 3100–2900 BC) periods. ED I is contemporary with the culture of the Scarlet Ware pottery typical of sites along the Diyala in Lower Mesopotamia, the Ninevite V culture in Upper Mesopotamia, and the Proto-Elamite culture in southwestern Iran.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: New artistic traditions developed in Lower Mesopotamia during the ED II (2750/2700–2600 BC). These traditions influenced the surrounding regions. According to later Mesopotamian historical tradition, this was the time when legendary mythical kings such as Lugalbanda, Enmerkar, Gilgamesh, and Aga ruled over Mesopotamia. Archaeologically, this sub-period has not been well-attested to in excavations of Lower Mesopotamia, leading some researchers to abandon it altogether.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The ED III (2600–2350 BC) saw an expansion in the use of writing and increasing social inequality. Larger political entities developed in Upper Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran. ED III is usually further subdivided into the ED IIIa (2600–2500/2450 BC) and ED IIIb (2500/2450–2350 BC). The Royal Cemetery at Ur and the archives of Fara and Abu Salabikh date back to ED IIIa. The ED IIIb is especially well known through the archives of Girsu (part of Lagash) in Iraq and Ebla in Syria.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The end of the ED is not defined archaeologically but rather politically. The conquests of Sargon and his successors upset the political equilibrium throughout Iraq, Syria, and Iran. The conquests lasted many years into the reign of Naram-Sin of Akkad and built on ongoing conquests during the ED. The transition is much harder to pinpoint within an archaeological context. It is virtually impossible to date a particular site as being that of either ED III or Akkadian period using ceramic or architectural evidence alone.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The contemporary sources from the Early Dynastic period do not allow the reconstruction of a political history. Royal inscriptions only offer a glimpse of the military conflicts and relations among the different city-states. Instead, rulers were more interested in glorifying their pious acts, such as the construction and restoration of temples and offerings to the gods.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: For the ED I and ED II periods, there are no contemporary documents shedding any light on warfare or diplomacy. Only for the end of the ED III period are contemporary texts available from which a political history can be reconstructed. The largest archives come from Lagash and Ebla. Smaller collections of clay tablets have been found at Ur, Tell Beydar, Tell Fara, Abu Salabikh, and Mari. They show that the Mesopotamian states were constantly involved in diplomatic contacts, leading to political and perhaps even religious alliances. Sometimes one state would gain hegemony over another, which foreshadows the rise of the Akkadian Empire.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The well-known Sumerian King List dates to the early second millennium BC. It consists of a succession of royal dynasties from different Sumerian cities, ranging back into the Early Dynastic Period. Each dynasty rises to prominence and dominates the region, only to be replaced by the next. The document was used by later Mesopotamian kings to legitimize their rule. While some of the information in the list can be checked against other texts such as economic documents, much of it is probably fictional, and its use as a historical document for the Early Dynastic period is limited to none.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: There may have been a common or shared cultural identity among the Early Dynastic Sumerian city-states, despite their political fragmentation. This notion was expressed by the terms "kalam" or "ki-engir". Numerous texts and cylinder seals seem to indicate the existence of a league or amphictyony of Sumerian city-states. For example, clay tablets from Ur bear cylinder seal impressions with signs representing other cities. Similar impressions have also been found at Jemdet Nasr, Uruk, and Susa. Some impressions show exactly the same list of cities. It has been suggested that this represented a system in which specific cities were associated with delivering offerings to the major Sumerian temples, similar to the "bala" system of the Ur III period.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The texts from Shuruppak, dating to ED IIIa, also seem to confirm the existence of a "ki-engir" league. Member cities of the alliance included Umma, Lagash, Uruk, Nippur, and Adab. Kish may have had a leading position, whereas Shuruppak may have been the administrative center. The members may have assembled in Nippur, but this is uncertain. This alliance seems to have focused on economic and military collaboration, as each city would dispatch soldiers to the league. The primacy of Kish is illustrated by the fact that its ruler Mesilim (c. 2500 BC) acted as arbitrator in a conflict between Lagash and Umma. However, it is not certain whether Kish held this elevated position during the entire period, as the situation seems to have been different during later conflicts between Lagash and Umma. Later, rulers from other cities would use the title 'King of Kish' to strengthen their hegemonic ambitions and possibly also because of the symbolic value of the city.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The texts of this period also reveal the first traces of a wide-ranging diplomatic network. For example, the peace treaty between Entemena of Lagash and Lugal-kinishe-dudu of Uruk, recorded on a clay nail, represents the oldest known agreement of this kind. Tablets from Girsu record reciprocal gifts between the royal court and foreign states. Thus, Baranamtarra, wife of king Lugalanda of Lagash, exchanged gifts with her peers from Adab and even Dilmun.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The first recorded war in history took place in Mesopotamia in around 2700 B.C. during the ED period, between the forces of Sumer and Elam. The Sumerians, under the command of Enmebaragesi, the King of Kish, defeated the Elamites and is recorded ""carried away as spoils the weapons of Elam"".


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: It is only for the later parts of the ED period that information on political events becomes available, either as echoes in later writings or from contemporary sources. Writings from the end of the third millennium, including several Sumerian heroic narratives and the Sumerian King List, seem to echo events and military conflicts that may have occurred during the ED II period. For example, the reigns of legendary figures like king Gilgamesh of Uruk and his adversaries Enmebaragesi and Aga of Kish possibly date to ED II. These semi-legendary narratives seem to indicate an age dominated by two major powers: Uruk in Sumer and Kish in the Semitic country. However, the existence of the kings of this "heroic age" remains controversial.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Somewhat reliable information on then-contemporary political events in Mesopotamia is available only for the ED IIIb period. These texts come mainly from Lagash and detail the recurring conflict with Umma over control of irrigated land. The kings of Lagash are absent from the Sumerian King List, as are their rivals, the kings of Umma. This suggests that these states, while powerful in their own time, were later forgotten.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The royal inscriptions from Lagash also mention wars against other Lower Mesopotamian city-states, as well as against kingdoms farther away. Examples of the latter include Mari, Subartu, and Elam. These conflicts show that already in this stage in history there was a trend toward stronger states dominating larger territories. For example, king Eannatum of Lagash was able to defeat Mari and Elam around 2450 B.C. Enshakushanna of Uruk seized Kish and imprisoned its king Embi-Ishtar around 2350 B.C. Lugal-zage-si, king of Uruk and Umma, was able to seize most of Lower Mesopotamia around 2358 B.C. This phase of warring city-states came to an end with the emergence of the Akkadian Empire under the rule of Sargon of Akkad in 2334 B.C. .


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The political history of Upper Mesopotamia and Syria is well known from the royal archives recovered at Ebla. Ebla, Mari, and Nagar were the dominant states for this period. The earliest texts indicate that Ebla paid tribute to Mari but was able to reduce it after it won a military victory. Cities like Emar on the Upper Euphrates and Abarsal (location unknown) were vassals of Ebla. Ebla exchanged gifts with Nagar, and a royal marriage was concluded between the daughter of a king of Ebla and the son of his counterpart at Nagar. The archives also contain letters from more distant kingdoms, such as Kish and possibly Hamazi, although it is also possible that there were cities with the same names closer to Ebla. In many ways, the diplomatic interactions in the wider Ancient Near East during this period resemble those from the second millennium BC, which are particularly well known from the Amarna letters.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: In March 2020, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 5,000-year-old cultic area filled with more than 300 broken ceremonial ceramic cups, bowls, jars, animal bones and ritual processions dedicated to Ningirsu at the site of Girsu. One of the remains was a duck-shaped bronze figurine with eyes made from bark which is thought to be dedicated to Nanshe.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The Early Dynastic period is preceded by the Uruk Period (ca. 4000—3100 BCE) and the Jemdet Nasr period (ca. 3100—2900 BCE). The Early Dynastic period is followed by the rise of the Akkadian Empire.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The preceding Uruk period in Lower Mesopotamia saw the appearance of the first cities, early state structures, administrative practices, and writing. Evidence for these practices was attested to during the Early Dynastic period.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The ED period is the first for which it is possible to say something about the ethnic composition of the population of Lower Mesopotamia. This is due to the fact that texts from this period contained sufficient phonetic signs to distinguish separate languages. They also contained personal names, which can potentially be linked to an ethnic identity. The textual evidence suggested that Lower Mesopotamia during the ED period was largely dominated by Sumer and primarily occupied by the Sumerian people, who spoke a non-Semitic language isolate (Sumerian). It is debated whether Sumerian was already in use during the Uruk period.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Textual evidence indicated the existence of a Semitic population in the upper reaches of Lower Mesopotamia. The texts in question contained personal names and words from a Semitic language, identified as Old Akkadian. However, the use of the term "Akkadian" before the emergence of the Akkadian Empire is problematic, and it has been proposed to refer to this Old Akkadian phase as being of the "Kish civilization" named after Kish (the seemingly most powerful city during the ED period) instead. Political and socioeconomic structures in these two regions also differed, although Sumerian influence is unparalleled during the Early Dynastic period.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Agriculture in Lower Mesopotamia relied on intensive irrigation. Cultivars included barley and date palms in combination with gardens and orchards. Animal husbandry was also practiced, focusing on sheep and goats. This agricultural system was probably the most productive in the entire ancient Near East. It allowed the development of a highly urbanized society. It has been suggested that, in some areas of Sumer, the population of the urban centers during ED III represented three-quarters of the entire population.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The dominant political structure was the city-state in which a large urban center dominated the surrounding rural settlements. The territories of these city-states were in turn delimited by other city-states that were organized along the same principles. The most important centers were Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Adab, and Umma-Gisha. Available texts from this period point to recurring conflicts between neighboring kingdoms, notably between Umma and Lagash.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The situation may have been different further north, where Semitic people seem to have been dominant. In this area, Kish was possibly the center of a large territorial state, competing with other powerful political entities such as Mari and Akshak.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The Diyala River valley is another region for which the ED period is relatively well-known. Along with neighboring areas, this region was home to Scarlet Ware—a type of painted pottery characterized by geometric motifs representing natural and anthropomorphic figures. In the Jebel Hamrin, fortresses such as Tell Gubba and Tell Maddhur were constructed. It has been suggested that these sites were established to protect the main trade route from the Mesopotamian lowlands to the Iranian plateau. The main Early Dynastic sites in this region are Tell Asmar and Khafajah. Their political structure is unknown, but these sites were culturally influenced by the larger cities in the Mesopotamian lowland.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: At the beginning of the third millennium BC, the Ninevite V culture flourished in Upper Mesopotamia and the Middle Euphrates River region. It extended from Yorghan Tepe in the east to the Khabur Triangle in the west. Ninevite V was contemporary with ED I and marked an important step in the urbanization of the region. The period seems to have experienced a phase of decentralization, as reflected by the absence of large monumental buildings and complex administrative systems similar to what had existed at the end of the fourth millennium BC.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Starting in 2700 BC and accelerating after 2500, the main urban sites grew considerably in size and were surrounded by towns and villages that fell inside their political sphere of influence. This indicated that the area was home to many political entities. Many sites in Upper Mesopotamia, including Tell Chuera and Tell Beydar, shared a similar layout: a main tell surrounded by a circular lower town. German archaeologist Max von Oppenheim called them "Kranzhügel", or "cup-and-saucer-hills". Among the important sites of this period are Tell Brak (Nagar), Tell Mozan, Tell Leilan, and Chagar Bazar in the Jezirah and Mari on the middle Euphrates.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Urbanization also increased in western Syria, notably in the second half of the third millennium BC. Sites like Tell Banat, Tell Hadidi, Umm el-Marra, Qatna, Ebla, and Al-Rawda developed early state structures, as evidenced by the written documentation of Ebla. Substantial monumental architecture such as palaces, temples, and monumental tombs appeared in this period. There is also evidence for the existence of a rich and powerful local elite.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The two cities of Mari and Ebla dominate the historical record for this region. According to the excavator of Mari, the circular city on the middle Euphrates was founded "ex nihilo" at the time of the Early Dynastic I period in Lower Mesopotamia. Mari was one of the main cities of the Middle East during this period, and it fought many wars against Ebla during the 24th century BC. The archives of Ebla, capital city of a powerful kingdom during the ED IIIb period, indicated that writing and the state were well-developed, contrary to what had been believed about this area before its discovery. However, few buildings from this period have been excavated at the site of Ebla itself.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The territories of these kingdoms were much larger than in Lower Mesopotamia. Population density, however, was much lower than in the south where subsistence agriculture and pastoralism were more intensive. Towards the west, agriculture takes on more "Mediterranean" aspects: the cultivation of olive and grape was very important in Ebla. Sumerian influence was notable in Mari and Ebla. At the same time, these regions with a Semitic population shared characteristics with the Kish civilization while also maintaining their own unique cultural traits.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: In southwestern Iran, the first half of the Early Dynastic period corresponded with the Proto-Elamite period. This period was characterized by indigenous art, a script that has not yet been deciphered, and an elaborate metallurgy in the Lorestan region. This culture disappeared toward the middle of the third millennium, to be replaced by a less sedentary way of life. Due to the absence of written evidence and a lack of archaeological excavations targeting this period, the socio-political situation of Proto-Elamite Iran is not well understood. Mesopotamian texts indicated that the Sumerian kings dealt with political entities in this area. For example, legends relating to the kings of Uruk referred to conflicts against Aratta. Aratta had not been identified, but it is believed to have been located somewhere in southwestern Iran.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: In the middle third millennium BC, Elam emerged as a powerful political entity in the area of southern Lorestan and northern Khuzestan. Susa (level IV) was a central place in Elam and an important gateway between southwestern Iran and southern Mesopotamia. Hamazi was located in the Zagros Mountains to the north or east of Elam, possibly between the Great Zab and the Diyala River, near Halabja.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: This is also the area where the still largely unknown Jiroft culture emerged in the third millennium BC, as evidenced by excavation and looting of archaeological sites. The areas further north and to the east were important participants in the international trade of this period due to the presence of tin (central Iran and the Hindu Kush) and lapis lazuli (Turkmenistan and northern Afghanistan). Settlements such as Tepe Sialk, Tureng Tepe, Tepe Hissar, Namazga-Tepe, Altyndepe, Shahr-e Sukhteh, and Mundigak served as local exchange and production centres but do not seem to have been capitals of larger political entities.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The further development of maritime trade in the Persian Gulf led to increased contacts between Lower Mesopotamia and other regions. Starting in the previous period, the area of modern-day Oman—known in ancient texts as Magan—had seen the development of the oasis settlement system. This system relied on irrigation agriculture in areas with perennial springs. Magan owed its good position in the trade network to its copper deposits. These deposits were located in the mountains, notably near Hili, where copper workshops and monumental tombs testifying to the area's affluence has been excavated.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Further to the west was an area called Dilmun, which in later periods corresponds to what is today known as Bahrain. However, while Dilmun was mentioned in contemporary ED texts, no sites from this period have been excavated in this area. This may indicate that Dilmun may have referred to the coastal areas that served as a place of transit for the maritime trade network.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The maritime trade in the Gulf extended as far east as the Indian subcontinent, where the Indus Valley civilisation flourished. This trade intensified during the third millennium and reached its peak during the Akkadian and Ur III periods.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The artifacts found in the royal tombs of the First Dynasty of Ur indicate that foreign trade was particularly active during this period, with many materials coming from foreign lands, such as Carnelian likely coming from the Indus or Iran, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan, silver from Turkey, copper from Oman, and gold from several locations such as Egypt, Nubia, Turkey or Iran. Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Ur tombs dating to 2600–2450, in an example of Indus-Mesopotamia relations. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique developed by the Harappans. These materials were used in the manufacture of ornamental and ceremonial objects in the workshops of Ur.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The First Dynasty of Ur had enormous wealth as shown by the lavishness of its tombs. This was probably due to the fact that Ur acted as the main harbour for trade with India, which put her in a strategic position to import and trade vast quantities of gold, carnelian or lapis lazuli. In comparison, the burials of the kings of Kish were much less lavish. High-prowed Sumerian ships may have traveled as far as Meluhha, thought to be the Indus region, for trade.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Each city was centered around a temple that was dedicated to a particular patron deity. A city was governed by both/either a "lugal" (king) and/or an "ensi" (priest). It was understood that rulers were determined by the deity of the city and rule could be transferred from one city to another. Hegemony from the Nippur priesthood moved between competing dynasties of the Sumerian cities. Traditionally, these included Eridu, Bad-tibira, Larsa, Sippar, Shuruppak, Kish, Uruk, Ur, Adab, and Akshak. Other relevant cities from outside the Tigris–Euphrates river system included Hamazi, Awan (in present-day Iran), and Mari (in present-day Syria but which is credited on the "SKL" as having "exercised kingship" during the ED II period).


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Thorkild Jacobsen defined a "primitive democracy" with reference to Sumerian epics, myths, and historical records. He described a form of government determined by a majority of men who were free citizens. There was little specialisation and only a loose power structure. Kings such as Gilgamesh of the first dynasty of Uruk did not yet hold an autocracy. Rather, they governed together with councils of elders and councils of younger men, who were likely free men bearing arms. Kings would consult the councils on all major decisions, including whether to go to war. Jacobsen's definition of a democracy as a relationship between primitive monarchs and men of the noble classes has been questioned. Jacobsen conceded that the available evidence could not distinguish a "Mesopotamian democracy" from a "primitive oligarchy".


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: "Lugal" (Sumerian: 𒈗, a Sumerogram ligature of two signs: "𒃲" meaning "big" or "great" and "𒇽" meaning "man") (a Sumerian language title translated into English as either "king" or "ruler") was one of three possible titles affixed to a ruler of a Sumerian city-state. The others were "EN" and "ensi".


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The sign for "lugal" became the understood logograph for "king" in general. In the Sumerian language, "lugal" meant either an "owner" of property such as a boat or a field, or alternatively, the "head" of an entity or a family. The cuneiform sign for "lugal" serves as a determinative in cuneiform texts, indicating that the following word would be the name of a king.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The definition of "lugal" during the ED period of Mesopotamia is uncertain. The ruler of a city-state was usually referred to as "ensi". However, the ruler of a confederacy may have been referred to as "lugal". A lugal may have been "a young man of outstanding qualities from a rich landowning family".


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Jacobsen made a distinction between a "lugal" as an elected war leader and "EN" as an elected governor concerned with internal issues. The functions of a lugal might include military defense, arbitration in border disputes, and ceremonial and ritualistic activities. At the death of the lugal, he was succeeded by his eldest son. The earliest rulers with the title "lugal" include Enmebaragesi and Mesilim of Kish and Meskalamdug, Mesannepada, and several of Mesannepada's successors at Ur.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: "Ensi" (Sumerian: 𒑐𒋼𒋛, meaning "Lord of the Plowland") was a title associated with the ruler or prince of a city. The people understood that the ensi was a direct representative of the city's patron deity. Initially, the term "ensi" may have been specifically associated with rulers of Lagash and Umma. However, in Lagesh, "lugal" sometimes referred to the city's patron deity, "Ningirsu". In later periods, the title "ensi" presupposed subordinance to a "lugal".


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: "EN" (Sumerian: 𒂗; Sumerian cuneiform for "lord" or "priest") referred to a high priest or priestess of the city's patron deity. It may also have been part of the title of the ruler of Uruk. "Ensi", "EN", and "Lugal" may have been local terms for the ruler of Lagash, Uruk, and Ur, respectively.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The centers of Eridu and Uruk, two of the earliest cities, developed large temple complexes built of mud-brick. Developed as small shrines in the earliest settlements, by the ED the temples became the most imposing structures in their cities, each dedicated to its own deity.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Each city had at least one major deity. Sumer was divided into about thirteen independent cities which were divided by canals and boundary stones during the ED.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Uruk, which was one of Sumer's largest cities, has been estimated to have had a population of 50,000 – 80,000 at its peak. Given the other cities in Sumer and its large agricultural population, a rough estimate for Sumer's population might have been somewhere between 800,000 and 1,500,000. The global human population at this time has been estimated to have been about 27,000,000.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The énsi Urukagina, of the city-state of Lagash, is best known for his reforms to combat corruption, and the Code of Urukagina is sometimes cited as the earliest known example of a legal code in recorded history. The Code of Urukagina has also been widely hailed as the first recorded example of government reform, as it sought to achieve a higher level of freedom and equality. Although the actual Code of Urukagina text has yet to be discovered, much of its content may be surmised from other references to it that have been found. In the Code of Urukagina, Urukagina exempted widows and orphans from taxes, compelled the city to pay funeral expenses (including the ritual food and drink libations for the journey of the dead into the lower world), and decreed that the rich had to use silver when purchasing from the poor. If the poor did not wish to sell, the powerful man (the rich man or the priest) could not force him to do so. The Code of Urukagina limited the power of both the priesthood and large property owners and established measures against usury, burdensome controls, hunger, theft, murder, and seizure of people's property and persons—as Urukagina stated: "The widow and the orphan were no longer at the mercy of the powerful man."


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Despite these attempts to curb the excesses of the elite class, elite or royal women may have had even greater influence and prestige in Urukagina's reign than previously. Urukagina greatly expanded the royal "Household of Women" from about 50 persons to about 1,500 persons and renamed it to "Household of Goddess Bau". He gave it ownership of vast amounts of land confiscated from the former priesthood and placed it under the supervision of Urukagina's wife Shasha, or Shagshag. During the second year of Urukagina's reign, his wife presided over the lavish funeral of his predecessor's queen Baranamtarra, who had been an important personage in her own right.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: In addition to such changes, two of Urukagina's other surviving decrees, first published and translated by Samuel Kramer in 1964, have attracted controversy in recent decades:


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: No comparable laws from Urukagina addressing penalties for adultery by men have survived. The discovery of these fragments has led some modern critics to assert that they provide "the first written evidence of the degradation of women."


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Imports to Ur came from the Near East and the Old World. Goods such as obsidian from Turkey, lapis lazuli from Badakhshan in Afghanistan, beads from Bahrain, and seals inscribed with the Indus Valley script from India have been found in Ur. Metals were imported. Sumerian stonemasons and jewelers used gold, silver, lapis lazuli, chlorite, ivory, iron, and carnelian. Resin from Mozambique was found in the tomb of Queen Puabi at Ur.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The cultural and trade connections of Ur are reflected by archaeological finds of imported items. In the ED III period, items from geographically distant places were found. These included gold, silver, lapis lazuli and carnelian. These types of items were not found in Mesopotamia.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Gold items were located in graves at the Royal Cemetery of Ur, royal treasuries and temples, indicating prestigious and religious functions. Gold items discovered included personal ornaments, weapons, tools, sheet-metal cylinder seals, fluted bowls, goblets, imitation cockle shells, and sculptures.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Silver was found as items such as belts, vessels, hair ornaments, pins, weapons, cockle shells, and sculptures. There are very few literary references or physical clues as to the sources of the silver.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Lapis lazuli has been found in items such as jewelry, plaques, gaming boards, lyres, ostrich-egg vessels, and also in parts of a larger sculpture known as "Ram in a Thicket". Some of the larger objects included a spouted cup, a dagger-hilt, and a whetstone. It indicates high status.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Chlorite stone artifacts from the ED are commonly found. they include disc beads, ornaments, and stone vases. The vases rarely exceed 25 cm in height. They often have human and animal motifs and semiprecious stone inlays. They may have carried precious oils.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Early Dynastic stone sculptures have mainly been recovered from excavated temples. They can be separated into two groups: three-dimensional prayer statues and perforated bas-reliefs. The so-called Tell Asmar Hoard is a well-known example of Early Dynastic sculpture. It was recovered in a temple and consists of standing figures with their hands folded in prayer or holding a goblet for a libation ritual. Other statues feature seated figures also in devotional postures. Male figures wear a plain or fringed dress, or kaunakes. The statues usually represent notables or rulers. They served as ex-votos and were placed in temples to pray on behalf of the spender. The Sumerian style clearly influenced neighbouring regions, as similar statues have been recovered from sites in Upper Mesopotamia, including Assur, Tell Chuera, and Mari. However, some statues showed greater originality and had less stylistic characteristics in common with Sumerian sculpture.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Bas-reliefs created from perforated stone slabs are another hallmark of Early Dynastic sculpture. They also served a votive purpose, but their exact function is unknown. Examples include the votive relief of king Ur-Nanshe of Lagash and his family found at Girsu and that of Dudu, a priest of Ningirsu. The latter showed mythological creatures such as a lion-headed eagle. The Stele of the Vultures, created by Eannatum of Lagash, is remarkable in that it represents different scenes that together tell the narrative of the victory of Lagash over its rival Umma. Reliefs like these have been found in Lower Mesopotamia and the Diyala region but not in Upper Mesopotamia or Syria.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Sumerian metallurgy and goldsmithing were highly developed. This is all the more remarkable for a region where metals had to be imported. Known metals included gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead, electrum, and tin. The use of binary, tertiary, and quaternary alloys was already present during the Uruk period. Sumerians used bronze, although the scarcity of tin meant that they used arsenic instead. Metalworking techniques included lost-wax casting, plating, filigree, and granulation.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Numerous metal objects have been excavated from temples and graves, including dishes, weapons, jewelry, statuettes, foundation nails, and various other objects of worship. The most remarkable gold objects come from the Royal Cemetery at Ur, including musical instruments and the complete inventory of Puabi’s tomb. Metal vases have also been excavated at other sites in Lower Mesopotamia, including the Vase of Entemena at Lagash.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Cylinder seals were used to authenticate documents like sales and to control access by sealing a lump of clay on doors of storage rooms. The use of cylinder seals increased significantly during the ED period, suggesting an expansion and increased the complexity of administrative activities.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: During the preceding Uruk period, a wide variety of scenes were engraved on cylinder seals. This variety disappeared at the start of the third millennium, to be replaced by an almost exclusive focus on mythological and cultural scenes in Lower Mesopotamia and the Diyala region. During the ED I period, seal designs included geometric motifs and stylized pictograms. Later on, combat scenes between real and mythological animals became the dominant theme, together with scenes of heroes fighting animals. Their exact meaning is unclear. Common mythological creatures include anthropomorphic bulls and scorpion-men. Real creatures include lions and eagles. Some anthropomorphic creatures are probably deities, as they wear a horned tiara, which was a symbol of divinity.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Scenes with cultic themes, including banquet scenes, became common during ED II. Another common ED III theme was the so-called god-boat, but its meaning is unclear. During the ED III period, ownership of seals was started to be registered. Glyptic development in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria was strongly influenced by Sumerian art.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Examples of inlay have been found at several sites and used materials such as nacre (mother of pearl), white and coloured limestone, lapis lazuli, and marble. Bitumen was used to attach the inlay in wooden frames, but these have not survived in the archaeological record. The inlay-panels usually showed mythological or historical scenes. Like bas-reliefs, these panels allow the reconstruction of early forms of narrative art. However, this type of work seems to have been abandoned in subsequent periods.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The best preserved inlaid object is the Standard of Ur found in one of the royal tombs of this city. It represents two principal scenes on its two sides: a battle and a banquet that probably follows a military victory. The "dairy frieze" found at Tell al-'Ubaid represents, as its name suggests, dairy activities (milking cows, cowsheds, preparing dairy products). It is our source of the most information on this practice in ancient Mesopotamia


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: Similar mosaic elements were discovered at Mari, where a mother-of-pearl engraver's workshop was identified, and at Ebla where marble fragments were found from a 3-meter-high panel decorating a room of the royal palace. The scenes of the two sites have strong similarities in their style and themes. In Mari the scenes are military (a parade of prisoners) or religious (a ram's sacrifice). In Ebla, they show a military triumph and mythological animals.


title: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

text: The Lyres of Ur (or Harps of Ur) are considered to be the world's oldest surviving stringed instruments. In 1929, archaeologists led by Leonard Woolley discovered the instruments when excavating the Royal Cemetery of Ur between from 1922 and 1934. They discovered pieces of three lyres and one harp in Ur located in what was Ancient Mesopotamia and now is Iraq. They are over 4,500 years old from ancient Mesopotamia during the ED III. The decorations on the lyres are fine examples of the court Art of Mesopotamia of the period.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: Ali Acun Ilıcalı (; born 29 May 1969) is a Turkish broadcaster, entrepreneur, international TV producer, and businessman of Azerbaijani origin. He is the owner of the TV channels TV8 and , Turkey's digital platform Exxen. He is the founder and director of ACUNMEDYA, an international television production company. He is also the owner "of Exatlon", which is the first sports reality television show in the world.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: Several documentaries and programs have been made about Ilıcalı's life, covering his career from sports reporter to media mogul.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: He has been awarded more than 1000 prizes in various categories and has been described as one of the most reliable names in Turkey. From 2018 to 2021, he was listed among the 500 most influential businessmen in the media and entertainment sector by "Variety" magazine.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: Acun Ilıcalı, whose family comes from Turkey's northeast Erzurum Province, was born in Edirne on 29 May 1969. He has paternal Azerbaijani ancestry. After completing his primary education in Edirne, he completed his middle and high school education in Istanbul. He graduated from Kadıköy Anatolian High School. Ilıcalı began his higher education in English teaching at Istanbul University, but left to go into business.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: Ilıcalı entered the media sector at the age of 22 (year 1991 or 1992) and began working for Turkish television channel Show TV as a sports reporter. In 2002, Ilıcalı produced several programs and content for a number of Turkey's most popular television channels.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: His travel/entertainment program, "Acun Firarda", which he prepared and presented himself by travelling to more than 100 countries, was particularly successful. He quickly became one of the most recognized names in Turkey, where his shows typically enjoyed very high ratings. Jennifer Şebnem Schaefer took part in the fashion-related parts of the program.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: In 2004, Ilıcalı founded his own production company ACUNMEDYA. The company purchased the broadcasting rights to famous shows and adapted them for Turkish viewers. The shows included "Deal or No Deal?", "Fear Factor", "Survivor", "MasterChef", "Got Talent", "The Voice", "Dancing with the Stars", "Rising Star" and "Ninja Warrior", all of which were broadcast on popular prime-time slots.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: In 2013, ACUNMEDYA acquired the television channel TV8. With ACUNMEDYA productions, TV8's ratings increased rapidly, soon becoming Turkey's most widely viewed TV channel. ACUNMEDYA subsequently forged a partnership with Doğuş Production Group, one of Turkey's most prominent media companies.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: In 2016, Ilıcalı launched the entertainment and sports channel TV8.5, which quickly became one of the country's most highly viewed thematic TV channels.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: In 2016, Ilıcalı produced projects in Greece, marking his first foray into the international media sector. ACUNMEDYA produced a number of television programs in Greece, including "The Voice", "Survivor", "Got Talent" and "My Style Rocks" for broadcast on Skai TV. The programs had ratings of 70% and were some of the most-viewed programs in Greek television history.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: As a result of its successes in Greece, ACUNMEDYA developed a format bringing sports and reality programming together for the first time. "Exatlon", a new reality sports competition program, began broadcasting in 2017 to an international audience. was broadcasting in a number of countries, including USA, Mexico, Romania, Slovenia, Colombia, Brazil and Hungary. At the 2017 Brazil edition, presented by the local host Luís Ernesto Lacombe, Ilıcalı and some partners menaced the local presenter hours before the grand final and took the stage himself. "Exatlon" currently remains among the most highly viewed programs in the countries in which it is broadcast. Following the success of "Exatlon", Ilıcalı concluded an agreement with Ricardo Salinas, owner of Mexico's largest media group, for the production of television content for a three-year period. These productions are currently being broadcast in both daytime and evening slots on Azteca Uno, Mexico's most popular television channel.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: Today, through the formats he has developed and the global program rights he has purchased, ACUNMEDYA produces content on four continents and in more than 10 countries.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: ACUNMEDYA also launched Exxen a digital broadcasting platform that focused on family-oriented content. Exxen has more than 1 million subscribers. Exxen has acquired broadcasting rights for UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League and UEFA Europa Conference League. These organizations have been broadcast in Turkey for three seasons on Exxen.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: In 2020, Ilıcalı purchased a partnership in Dutch football team Fortuna Sittard in the Eredivisie League. In 2021, he ended his partnership with the team.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: In 2022, Ilıcalı's company ACUNMEDYA purchased the English football team Hull City A.F.C. from Assem Allam.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: Ilıcalı has been married three times, and has four daughters. In 1989, he married Seda Başbuğ with whom he has a daughter.


title: Acun Ilıcalı

text: Ilıcalı's hobbies include riding and collecting speedboats, sports cars and motorcycles. He is also interested in e-sports, a global trend that has become increasingly popular in recent years. A lover of both football and basketball, Ilıcalı follows both sports very closely and frequently attends matches all over the world. He is also a huge fan of Turkey's Fenerbahçe football team and is the owner of English football club Hull City.


title: Amphoterism

text: In chemistry, an amphoteric compound () is a molecule or ion that can react both as an acid and as a base. What exactly this can mean depends on which definitions of acids and bases are being used.


title: Amphoterism

text: One type of amphoteric species are amphiprotic molecules, which can either donate or accept a proton (). This is what "amphoteric" means in Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory. For example, amino acids and proteins are amphiprotic molecules because of their amine () and carboxylic acid () groups. Self-ionizable compounds like water are also amphiprotic.


title: Amphoterism

text: Ampholytes are amphoteric molecules that contain both acidic and basic functional groups. For example, an amino acid has both a basic group and an acidic group , and exists as several structures in chemical equilibrium:


title: Amphoterism

text: In approximately neutral aqueous solution (pH ≅ 7), the basic amino group is mostly protonated and the carboxylic acid is mostly deprotonated, so that the predominant species is the zwitterion . The pH at which the average charge is zero is known as the molecule's "isoelectric point". Ampholytes are used to establish a stable pH gradient for use in isoelectric focusing.


title: Amphoterism

text: Metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known as amphoteric oxides. Many metals (such as zinc, tin, lead, aluminium, and beryllium) form amphoteric oxides or hydroxides. Aluminium oxide () is an example of an amphoteric oxide. Amphoterism depends on the oxidation states of the oxide. Amphoteric oxides include lead (II) oxide and zinc (II) oxide, among many others.


title: Amphoterism

text: Amphoteric is derived from the Greek word () meaning "both". Related words in acid-base chemistry are amphichromatic and amphichroic, both describing substances such as acid-base indicators which give one colour on reaction with an acid and another colour on reaction with a base.


title: Amphoterism

text: According to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors. An amphiprotic molecule (or ion) can either donate or accept a proton, thus acting either as an acid or a base. Water, amino acids, hydrogencarbonate ion (or bicarbonate ion) , dihydrogen phosphate ion , and hydrogensulfate ion (or bisulfate ion) are common examples of amphiprotic species. Since they can donate a proton, all amphiprotic substances contain a hydrogen atom. Also, since they can act like an acid or a base, they are amphoteric.


title: Amphoterism

text: The water molecule is amphoteric in aqueous solution. It can either gain a proton to form a hydronium ion , or else lose a proton to form a hydroxide ion .