title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: NCGS is the most common syndrome of gluten-related disorders with prevalence rates between 0.5%–13% in the general population. As no biomarker for diagnosing this condition is available, its diagnosis is made by exclusion of other gluten-related disorders such as celiac disease and wheat allergy. Many people have not been diagnosed following strict criteria, and there is a "fad component" to the recent rise in popularity of the gluten-free diet, leading to debate surrounding the evidence for this condition and its relationship to celiac disease and irritable bowel syndrome. People with NCGS are often unrecognized by specialists and lack adequate medical care and treatment. They often have a long history of health complaints and unsuccessful consultations with physicians, and thus many resort to a gluten-free diet and a self-diagnosis of gluten sensitivity.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Reported symptoms of NCGS are similar to those of celiac disease, with most patients reporting both gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal symptoms. In the "classical" presentation of NCGS, gastrointestinal symptoms are similar to those of irritable bowel syndrome, and are also not distinguishable from those of wheat allergy, but there is a different interval between exposure to wheat and onset of symptoms. Wheat allergy has a fast onset (from minutes to hours) after the consumption of food containing wheat and can be anaphylaxic.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Gastrointestinal symptoms may include any of the following: abdominal pain, bloating, bowel habit abnormalities (either diarrhea or constipation), nausea, aerophagia, flatulence, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and aphthous stomatitis.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: NCGS can cause a wide range of extraintestinal symptoms, which can be the only manifestation of NCGS in absence of gastrointestinal symptoms. These include any of the following: headache, migraine, "foggy mind", fatigue, fibromyalgia, joint and muscle pain, leg or arm numbness, tingling of the extremities, dermatitis (eczema or skin rash), atopic disorders such as asthma, rhinitis, other allergies, depression, anxiety, iron-deficiency anemia, folate deficiency, or autoimmune diseases.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: NCGS is also linked to a wide spectrum of neurological and psychiatric disorders, including ataxia, schizophrenia, epilepsy, peripheral neuropathy, encephalopathy, vascular dementia, eating disorders, autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), hallucinations (so-called "gluten psychosis"), and various movement disorders (restless legs syndrome, chorea, parkinsonism, Tourette syndrome, palatal tremor, myoclonus, dystonia, opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome, paroxysms, dyskinesia, myorhythmia, myokymia).


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Above 20% of people with NCGS have IgE-mediated allergy to one or more inhalants, foods, or metals, among which most common are mites, graminaceae, parietaria, cat or dog hair, shellfish, and nickel. Approximately 35% of patients suffer other food intolerances, mainly lactose intolerance.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The pathogenesis of NCGS is not yet well understood, but the activation of the innate immune system, the direct cytotoxic effects of gluten, and probably the cytotoxicity of other wheat molecules are implicated. Besides gluten, other components in wheat, rye, barley, and their derivatives, including amylasetrypsin inhibitors (ATIs) and FODMAPs, may cause symptoms.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: It was hypothesized that gluten, as occurs in celiac disease, is the cause of NCGS. In addition to its ability to elicit abnormal responses of the immune system, in vitro studies on cell cultures showed that gluten is cytotoxic and causes direct intestinal damage. Gluten and gliadin promote cell apoptosis (a form of programmed cell death) and reduce the synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and proteins, leading to a reduction in the viability of cells. Gluten alters cellular morphology and motility, cytoskeleton organization, oxidative balance and intercellular contact (tight junction proteins).


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Some people may have a reaction to other proteins (α-amylase/trypsin inhibitors [ATIs]) present in gluten-containing cereals that are able to inhibit amylase and trypsin. They have been identified as the possible activator of the innate immune system in celiac disease and NCGS.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: ATIs are part of the plant's natural defence against insects and may cause toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated intestinal inflammation in humans. These TLR4-stimulating activities of ATIs are limited to gluten-containing cereals (wheat, rye, barley, and derivatives) and may induce innate immunity in people with celiac disease or NCGS. ATIs resist proteolytic digestion. ATIs are about 2%–4% of the total protein in modern wheat and are present in commercial gluten. A 2017 study in mice demonstrated that ATIs exacerbate preexisting inflammation and may also worsen it at extraintestinal sites. This may explain why there is an increase of inflammation in people with preexisting diseases upon ingestion of ATI-containing grains.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Modern wheat cultivation, by breeding for high ATI content, may play a role in the onset and course of disorders such as celiac disease and gluten sensitivity. However, it has been questioned whether there is sufficient empirical evidence to support this claim, because as of 2018 we lack studies that directly compare modern wheat versus ancient cultivars with low ATI content (such as einkorn wheat) in people with NCGS.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: FODMAPs (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols) that are present in gluten-containing grains (mainly fructans) have been identified as a possible cause of gastrointestinal symptoms in people with NCGS, in place of, or in addition to, gluten.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The amount of fructans in gluten-containing cereals is relatively small and their role has been controversial. In rye they account for 3.6%–6.6% of dry matter, 0.7%–2.9% in wheat, and barley contains only trace amounts. They are only minor sources of FODMAPs when eaten in the usual standard amounts in the daily diet. Wheat and rye may comprise a major source of fructans when consumed in large amounts. They may cause mild wheat intolerance at most, limited to certain gastrointestinal symptoms, such as bloating, but do not justify the NCGS extradigestive symptoms. A 2018 review concluded that although fructan intolerance may play a role in NCGS, it only explains some gastrointestinal symptoms, but not the extradigestive symptoms that people with NCGS may develop, such as neurological disorders, fibromyalgia, psychological disturbances, and dermatitis. FODMAPs cause digestive symptoms when the person is hypersensitive to luminal distension. A 2019 review concluded that wheat fructans can cause certain IBS-like symptoms, such as bloating, but are unlikely to cause immune activation or extra-digestive symptoms. Many people with NCGS report resolution of their symptoms after removing gluten-containing cereals while continue to eat fruits and vegetables with high FODMAPs content.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Absence of reliable biomarkers and the fact that some people do not have digestive symptoms make the recognition and diagnosis of non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) difficult.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Diagnosis is generally performed only by exclusion criteria. NCGS diagnostic recommendations have been established by several consensus conferences. Exclusion of celiac disease and wheat allergy is important because these two conditions also appear in people who experience symptoms similar to those of NCGS, which improve with a gluten withdrawal and worsen after gluten consumption.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The onset of NCGS symptoms may be delayed hours to a few days after gluten ingestion, whereas in celiac disease it can take days to weeks. Wheat allergy has a fast onset (from minutes to hours) after the consumption of food containing wheat and can lead to anaphylaxis.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The presence of related extraintestinal manifestations has been suggested to be a feature of NCGS. When symptoms are limited to gastrointestinal effects, there may be an overlap with wheat allergy, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and (less likely) intolerance to FODMAPs.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Proposed criteria for a diagnosis of NCGS suggest an improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms and extra-intestinal manifestations higher than 30% with a gluten-free diet (GFD), assessed through a rating scale, is needed to make a clinical diagnosis of NCGS. To exclude a placebo effect, a double-blind placebo-controlled gluten challenge is a useful tool, although it is expensive and complicated for routine clinical use, and so is usually performed in research studies.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: These suggestions were incorporated in the Salerno expert consensus on diagnostic criteria for NCGS. These recommend assessment of the response to a 6-week trial of a gluten-free diet using a defined rating scale (Step 1), followed by a double-blind, placebo-controlled challenge of gluten (or placebo) for a week of each (Step 2). A variation of greater than 30% in the main symptoms when challenged by gluten or placebo is needed for a positive result. Further research on possible biomarkers was also identified.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Examinations evaluating celiac disease and wheat allergy should be performed before patients remove gluten from their diet. It is critical to make a clear distinction between celiac disease and NCGS.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The main goal in diagnosing NCGS is to exclude celiac disease. NCGS and celiac disease cannot be separated in diagnosis because many gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal symptoms are similar in both diseases, and there are people with celiac disease having negative serology (absence of specific celiac disease antibodies in serum) or without villus atrophy. There is no test capable of eliminating a diagnosis of a celiac disease, but such a diagnosis is unlikely without confirming HLA-DQ2 and/or HLA-DQ8 haplotypes.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The prevalence of undiagnosed celiac disease has increased fourfold during the past half-century, with most cases remaining unrecognized, undiagnosed and untreated, leaving celiac patients with the risk of long-term complications. Some people with NCGS may indeed have celiac disease. A 2015 systematic review found that 20% of people with NCGS presenting with HLA-DQ2 and/or HLA-DQ8 haplotypes, negative serology, and normal histology or duodenal lymphocytosis had celiac disease.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The presence of autoimmune symptoms in people with NCGS suggests the possibility of undiagnosed celiac disease. Autoimmune diseases typically associated with celiac disease are diabetes mellitus type 1, thyroiditis, gluten ataxia, psoriasis, vitiligo, autoimmune hepatitis, dermatitis herpetiformis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and others.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: To evaluate the possible presence of celiac disease, specific serology and duodenal biopsies are required while the person is still on a diet that includes gluten.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Serological CD markers (IgA tissue transglutaminase , IgA endomysial [EmA] and IgG deamidated gliadin peptide [DGP] antibodies) are always negative in those with NCGS; in addition to specific IgA autoantibody levels, it is necessary to determine total IgA levels. IgG antibodies should be checked in selective IgA deficiency, which can be associated with celiac disease and occurs in as many as one in 40 celiac patients.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Nevertheless, the absence of serological markers does not certainly exclude celiac disease. In those with celiac disease before diagnosis (on a gluten-containing diet), celiac disease serological markers are not always present. As the age of diagnosis increases, these antibody titers decrease, and may be low or even negative in older children and adults. The absence of celiac disease-specific antibodies is more common in patients without villous atrophy who only have duodenal lymphocytosis (Marsh 1 lesions) and who respond to a gluten-free diet with histological and symptomatic improvement.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: According to the diagnostic criteria established by the consensus conferences (2011 and 2013), it is necessary to perform duodenal biopsies to exclude celiac disease in symptomatic people with negative specific celiac disease antibodies. Because of the patchiness of the celiac disease lesions, four or more biopsies are taken from the second and third parts of the duodenum, and at least one from the duodenal bulb. Even in the same biopsy fragments, different degrees of pathology may exist.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Duodenal biopsies in people with NCGS are always almost normal – an essential parameter for diagnosis of NCGS, although is generally accepted that a subgroup of people with NGCS may have an increased number of duodenal intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) ( ≥25/100 enterocytes), which represent Marsh I lesions. Nevertheless, Marsh I is considered compatible with celiac disease and the most frequent cause of these findings, especially in people positive for HLA DQ2 and/or DQ8 haplotypes, is celiac disease, with a prevalence of 16-43%.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: In people with duodenal lymphocytosis – following guidelines from the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) – a high count of celiac disease cells (or CD/CD3 ratio) in immunohistochemical assessment of biopsies, or the presence of IgA anti-TG2 and/or anti-endomysial intestinal deposits, might be specific markers for celiac disease. Catassi and Fasano proposed in 2010 that in patients without celiac disease antibodies, either lymphocytic infiltration associated with IgA subepithelial deposits or a histological response to a gluten-free diet, could support a diagnosis of celiac disease.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The clinical presentation may be sufficient in most cases to distinguish a wheat allergy from other entities. It is excluded when there are normal levels of serum IgE antibodies to gluten proteins and wheat fractions, and no skin reaction to prick tests for wheat allergy. Nevertheless, these tests are not always completely reliable.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: If an allergic reaction can not be clearly identified, the diagnosis should be confirmed by food provocation tests, ideally performed in a double-blinded and placebo-controlled manner. Delayed allergic reactions may occur with these type of tests, which have to be negative over time, but there are no international consensus statements on diagnosing delayed wheat/food-related symptoms. Usually, reactions that appear between two hours and five days after the oral challenge are considered delayed. Mucosal challenge followed by confocal endomicroscopy is a complementary diagnostic technique, but this technology is not yet generally available and remains experimental.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Evaluating the presence of antigliadin antibodies (AGA) can be a useful complementary diagnostic test. Up to 50% NCGS patients may have elevated AGA IgG antibodies, but rarely AGA IgA antibodies (only 7% of the cases). In these patients, unlike in those with celiac disease, the IgG AGA became undetectable within six months of following a gluten-free diet.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Many people remove gluten from their diet after a long history of health complaints and unsuccessful consultations with numerous physicians, who simply consider them to be suffering from irritable bowel syndrome, and some may eliminate gluten before seeking medical attention. This fact can diminish the CD serological markers titers and may attenuate the inflammatory changes found in the duodenal biopsies. In these cases, patients should be tested for the presence of HLA-DQ2/DQ8 genetic markers because a negative HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 result has a high negative predictive value for celiac disease. If these markers are positive, it is advisable to undertake a gluten challenge under medical supervision, followed by serology and duodenal biopsies. However, gluten challenge protocols have significant limitations, because a symptomatic relapse generally precedes the onset of a serological and histological relapse, and therefore becomes unacceptable for many patients. Gluten challenge is also discouraged before the age of five and during pubertal growth.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: It remains unclear what daily intake of gluten is adequate and how long the gluten challenge should last. Some protocols recommend eating a maximum of 10 g of gluten per day for six weeks. Nevertheless, recent studies have shown that a two-week challenge of 3 g of gluten per day may induce histological and serological abnormalities in most adults with proven celiac disease. This new proposed protocol has shown higher tolerability and compliance. It has been calculated that its application in secondary-care gastrointestinal practice would identify celiac disease in 7% of patients referred for suspected NCGS, while the remaining 93% would be confirmed as NCGS; this is not yet universally adopted.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: For people on a gluten-free diet who are unable to perform an oral gluten challenge, an alternative to identify possible celiac disease is an in vitro gliadin challenge of small bowel biopsies, but this test is only available at selected specialized tertiary-care centers.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: After exclusion of celiac disease and wheat allergy, the subsequent step for diagnosis and treatment of NCGS is to start a strict gluten-free diet (GFD) to assess if symptoms improve or resolve completely. This may occur within days to weeks of starting a GFD, but improvement may also be due to a non-specific, placebo response. The recovery of the nervous system is slow and sometimes incomplete.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Recommendations may resemble those for celiac disease, for the diet to be strict and maintained, with no transgression. The degree of gluten cross contamination tolerated by people with NCGS is not clear but there is some evidence that they can present with symptoms even after consumption of small amounts. Sporadic accidental contaminations with gluten can reactivate movement disorders. A part of people with gluten-related neuropathy or ataxia appears not to be able to tolerate even the traces of gluten allowed in most foods labeled as "gluten-free".


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Whereas celiac disease requires adherence to a strict lifelong gluten-free diet, it is not yet known whether NCGS is a permanent or a transient condition. The results of a 2017 study suggest that NCGS may be a chronic disorder, as is the case with celiac disease. A trial of gluten reintroduction to observe any reaction after one to two years of strict gluten-free diet might be performed.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: A strict gluten-free diet is effective in most of the neurological disorders associated with NCGS, ameliorating or even resolving the symptoms. It should be started as soon as possible to improve the prognosis. The death of neurons in the cerebellum in ataxia is the result of gluten exposure and is irreversible. Early treatment with a strict gluten-free diet can improve ataxia symptoms and prevent its progression. When dementia has progressed to an advanced degree, the diet has no beneficial effect. Cortical myoclonus appears to be treatment-resistant on both gluten-free diet and immunosuppression.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Approximately one third of presumed NCGS patients continue to have symptoms, despite gluten withdrawal. Apart from a possible diagnostic error, there are multiple possible explanations.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: One reason is poor compliance with gluten withdrawal, whether voluntary and/or involuntary. There may be ingestion of gluten, in the form of cross contamination or food containing hidden sources. In some cases, the amelioration of gastrointestinal symptoms with a gluten-free diet is only partial, and these patients could significantly improve with the addition of a low-FODMAP diet.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: A subgroup may not improve when eating commercially available gluten-free products, as these can be rich in preservatives and additives such as sulfites, glutamates, nitrates and benzoates, which can also have a role in triggering functional gastrointestinal symptoms. Furthermore, people with NCGS may often present with IgE-mediated allergies to one or more foods. It has been estimated that around 35% suffer other food intolerances, mainly lactose intolerance.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The subject of "food intolerance", including gluten sensitivity and elimination diets, was discussed in 1976.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Patients with symptoms including abdominal pain and diarrhea, which improved on gluten withdrawal, and who did not have celiac disease were initially described in 1976 and 1978 with the first series in 1980. Debate regarding the existence of a specific condition has continued since then, but the three consensus conferences held since 2010 produced consistent definitions of NCGS and its diagnostic criteria.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: NCGS has been a topic of popular interest. Gluten has been named "the new diet villain". The gluten-free diet has become popular in the United States and other countries. Clinicians worldwide have been challenged by an increasing number of people who do not have celiac disease nor wheat allergy, with digestive or extra-digestive symptoms which improved after removing wheat / gluten from the diet. Many of these persons began a gluten-free diet on their own, without having been previously evaluated. Another reason that contributed to this trend was the publication of several books that demonize gluten and point to it as a cause of type 2 diabetes, weight gain and obesity, and a broad list of conditions ranging from depression and anxiety to arthritis and autism. The book that has had the most impact is "Grain Brain: The Surprising Truth about Wheat, Carbs, and Sugar – Your Brain's Silent Killers", by the American neurologist David Perlmutter, published in September 2013. Another book that has had great impact is "Wheat Belly: Lose the Wheat, Lose the Weight, and Find Your Path Back to Health", by cardiologist William Davis. The gluten-free diet has been advocated and followed by many celebrities to lose weight, such as Miley Cyrus and Gwyneth Paltrow, and some elite athletes to improve performance.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Estimates suggest that in 2014, 30% of people in the US and Australia were consuming gluten-free foods, with estimates that by 2016 approximately 100 million Americans would consume gluten-free products. Data from a 2015 Nielsen survey of 30,000 adults in 60 countries around the world showed that 21% of people prefer to buy gluten-free foods, with interest highest among younger generations. Another school of thought suggests that many people may be unnecessarily avoiding gluten when they do not need to.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Debate around NCGS as a genuine clinical condition can be heightened because often patients are self diagnosed, or a diagnosis is made by alternative health practitioners. Many people who are making a gluten-free diet did not previously exclude celiac disease or, when they are fully evaluated, other alternative diagnoses can be found such as fructose intolerance or small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, or a better response to a low-FODMAP diet obtained.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: There are many open questions on gluten sensitivity, emphasized in one review that "it is still to be clarified whether this disorder is permanent or transient and whether it is linked to autoimmunity". It has not yet been established whether innate or adaptive immune responses are involved in NCGS, nor whether the condition relates specifically to gluten or rather relates to other components of grains.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Studies indicate that AGA IgG is high in slightly more than half of NCGS patients and that, unlike for celiac disease patients, the IgG AGA decreases strongly over 6 months of gluten-free diet; AGA IgA is usually low or absent in NCGS patients.


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: The need for developing biomarkers for NCGS is frequently emphasized; for example, one review indicated: "There is a desperate need for reliable biomarkers ... that include clinical, biochemical and histopathological findings which support the diagnosis of NCGS."


title: Non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: Research has also attempted to discern, by double-blind placebo-controlled trials, between a "fad component" to the recent popularity of the gluten-free diet and an actual sensitivity to gluten or other components of wheat. In a 2013 double-blind, placebo-controlled challenge (DBPC) by Biesiekierski "et al." in a few people with IBS, the authors found no difference between gluten or placebo groups and the concept of NCGS as a syndrome was questioned. Nevertheless, this study had design errors and an incorrect selection of participants, and probably the reintroduction of both gluten and whey protein had a nocebo effect similar in all people, and this could have masked the true effect of gluten/wheat reintroduction. In a 2015 double-blind placebo cross-over trial, small amounts of purified wheat gluten triggered gastrointestinal symptoms (such as abdominal bloating and pain) and extra-intestinal manifestations (such as foggy mind, depression and aphthous stomatitis) in self-reported NCGS. Nevertheless, it remains elusive whether these findings specifically implicate gluten or proteins present in gluten-containing cereals. In a 2018 double-blind, crossover research study on 59 persons on a gluten-free diet with challenges of gluten, fructans or placebo, intestinal symptoms (specifically bloating) were borderline significantly higher after challenge with fructans, in comparison with gluten proteins (). Although the differences between the three interventions was very small, the authors concluded that fructans (the specific type of FODMAP found in wheat) are more likely to be the cause of NCGS gastrointestinal symptoms, rather than gluten. In addition, fructans used in the study were extracted from chicory root, so it remains to be seen whether the wheat fructans produce the same effect.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: Bangui Wind Farm is a wind farm in Bangui, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. The wind farm uses 20 units of high Vestas V82 1.65 MW wind turbines, arranged in a single row stretching along a shoreline off Bangui Bay, facing the South China Sea.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: Phase I of the NorthWind power project in Bangui Bay consisted of 15 of those wind turbines, each with a maximum production capacity of 1.65 MW of electric power, making a total of 24.75 MW. These 15 on-shore turbines are spaced apart, each high, with long blades, with a rotor diameter of and a wind swept area of .


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: Phase II was completed in August 2008, and added five more of the same wind turbines, bringing the total maximum capacity to 33 MW.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: Ayala Corporation energy platform AC Energy, which already holds the controlling shares in Bangui Wind Farm as of 2021, has announced its intent to acquire 100% of the shares of NorthWind in order to boost their renewable energy portfolio, pending approvals from oversight entities like the Philippine Competition Commission.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: The NorthWind Bangui Bay Project is located in the municipality of Bangui, Ilocos Norte, Philippines, at the northwest tip of Luzon island. The turbines face the sea from where the prevailing wind blows towards the land. Its location along the shore is optimal, due to a lack of windbreaks and limited terrain roughness. The site consists of 20 Vestas Wind Systems stretching over the shoreline of the bay. The location of the Philippines near the Asia-Pacific monsoon belt is ideal for installing wind turbines.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: State meteorological agency Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration states that the Philippines has a mean average of about 31 watts per square meter (W/m) of wind power density.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: In 1996, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducted a wind resource analysis and mapping study. It concluded that various areas in the Philippines are ideal for wind power installation. These areas include Bangui and Burgos towns in Ilocos Norte, Batanes and Babuyan Islands, which are north of Luzon and the higher interior terrain of Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Palawan and Eastern Mindanao.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: The study led to the inception of the wind farm project. NorthWind Power Development Corp. developed (and maintains and operates) the project, while Vestas Wind Systems, a Danish firm, supplied the wind turbine-generator units (WTGs) for the site, similar to those already found in Denmark. The project was to have been developed in three phases, with Phase I of the project inaugurated on June 18, 2005.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: Engineer Niels Jacobsen, president and chief executive of the Northwind Power Development Corp., started work on the 24.75-megawatt project in 1999.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: Ratified by the NorthWind Power Development Corp and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development through the World Bank Prototype Carbon Fund, the Northwind Bangui Bay Project was the first project in the Philippines to have the Emissions Reduction Purchase Agreement (ERPA) under the Clean Development Mechanism. The Bangui Bay Project is also the first Philippine recipient of the Carbon Emission Reduction Certificates (CER's) from the executive board of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: Phase I consisted of 15 turbines, placed 326 meters apart, was completed on May 7, 2005, generating 24.74 megawatts. An additional 5 turbines brought the capacity to 33 megawatts, which was transmitted to an electrical substation in Laoag City. Connected to the Luzon Grid, the windmills supply 40% of Ilocos Norte's electricity needs. Each windmill is tall, with long blades.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: In 2006, the project produced a 5% discount of the weighted average price in the wholesale electricity spot market (WESM) or a generated savings of approximately US$1.4 million (PhP 70 million) for the INEC electricity consumers. The project cost for Phase I amounted to US$23 million.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: AC Energy, the listed energy platform of the Ayala Group, eventually took control of Northwind and of the Bangui Wind Farm in 2017, acquiring a total of 67.79% of Northwind stocks.


title: Bangui Wind Farm

text: In 2021, AC Energy announced its intent to acquire 100% of the shares of NorthWind in order to boost the renewable energy portfolio of the Ayala Group in anticipation of its plans to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The purchase is pending approvals from Philippine government oversight entities like the Philippine Competition Commission.


title: The Chameleons

text: The Chameleons are an English rock band, formed in Middleton, Greater Manchester in 1981. The band's classic line-up consisted of lead vocalist and bassist Mark Burgess, guitarists Reg Smithies and Dave Fielding, and drummer John Lever.


title: The Chameleons

text: The band released their debut studio album, "Script of the Bridge", in 1983. They followed it with "What Does Anything Mean? Basically" and "Strange Times" in 1985 and 1986, respectively, before abruptly breaking-up in 1987 due to the sudden death of the band's manager. After the break-up, Burgess and Lever formed the Sun and the Moon, while Fielding and Smithies formed the Reegs. Burgess also had a short solo career with backing band the Sons of God.


title: The Chameleons

text: The Chameleons reformed in 2000, releasing their fourth studio album "Why Call It Anything" (2001) as well as the acoustic albums "Strip" (2000) and "This Never Ending Now" (2002). Renewed tensions caused the group to break-up again in 2003. Burgess and Lever continued to play Chameleons songs live with their new project ChameleonsVox, although Lever later left that group and died in 2017. Burgess and Smithies reformed the Chameleons in 2021 with two members of Burgess' ChameleonsVox group.


title: The Chameleons

text: Known for their atmospheric, guitar-based sound, the Chameleons are regarded as one of the most underrated Manchester bands of the 1980s. They did not attain the commercial success of other groups from the Manchester scene but developed a cult following.


title: The Chameleons

text: The Chameleons were formed in Middleton, Greater Manchester, England in 1981 by Mark Burgess, Reg Smithies and Dave Fielding. Burgess previously played with the Cliches, while Smithies and Fielding had performed with Years. They started as a trio—Burgess as lead vocalist and bassist, Smithies and Fielding both on guitar—without a drummer. They later recruited fellow Middletonian Brian Schofield, who was soon replaced by Dukinfield-based John Lever, previously of the Politicians. Former Magazine drummer Martin Jackson briefly replaced Lever during 1982–83 while the latter was on sabbatical. The band were then inspired by U2's early recordings : "U2's first record was a big album for us. Edge's guitar opened it up in terms of how you could build an ambient atmosphere".


title: The Chameleons

text: After performing several radio sessions for BBC Radio 1 DJ John Peel, - the first session was recorded in June 1981, the band signed a recording contract with Epic Records, which was then a subsidiary of CBS Records International. Their debut single "In Shreds" released in March 1982, was produced by Steve Lillywhite. The single's cover – a harrowing painting by Smithies, who created the artwork for all of their releases – mirrored the band's tense, atmospheric sound. During this time, the Chameleons' independent style clashed with their label's visions for the band. Wary of the loss of credibility Altered Images had suffered due to buckling to CBS' demands on packaging, the Chameleons were protective of their image and consequently were dropped by the label soon after the release of "In Shreds".


title: The Chameleons

text: The Chameleons subsequently signed to UK label Statik Records, a subsidiary of Virgin Records, on which they released their debut studio album, "Script of the Bridge", in 1983. "Script of the Bridge", featuring the singles "Up the Down Escalator", "As High as You Can Go" and "A Person Isn't Safe Anywhere These Days", showcased Burgess's strong vocals and the band's guitar-based sound, with careful use of synthesisers. Upon its release, the UK press said that the artwork looked like a "seventies Genesis style drawing rather unhappily adorning the sleeve". A "NME" concert review described their music as "guitars slipping and sliding on slopes of echo, snapping their wires, fussing and fretting over stampeding drums, getting angry and staccato and falling to harmonic whispers". Concerning the guitar playing, it was said that there was an influence of U2 and Echo & the Bunnymen.


title: The Chameleons

text: Statik's status as a subsidiary of Virgin prevented the band from qualifying for the independent charts, which resulted in reduced coverage by the British music press. MCA Records released the album in the United States in an abridged form, minus four songs, which angered the band. However, the US release and a 1984 American tour did earn them significant college radio airplay and a loyal fanbase.


title: The Chameleons

text: Their second studio album, "What Does Anything Mean? Basically", was released in 1985 by Statik, which also reissued "In Shreds" and its B-side "Less Than Human" as the 12" "Nostalgia" EP, adding the previously unreleased track "Nostalgia". "Basically" established the band as a promising, guitar-based group.


title: The Chameleons

text: Regular touring after the release of "Basically" (1985), along with efforts by the band's manager, Tony Fletcher, persuaded David Geffen to sign the band to Geffen Records, which released their third studio album, "Strange Times", in 1986. A dark, complex work, it contained the singles "Tears" and "Swamp Thing", but proved to be their final record of the period. A rift existed within the band, particularly between Burgess and Fielding, and Fletcher's sudden death in 1987 due to cardiac arrest led to the group disbanding.


title: The Chameleons

text: After the break-up, numerous spin-off bands emerged, none of which achieved much success. Burgess and Lever formed the Sun and the Moon, recruiting Andy Whitaker and Andy Clegg to replace Smithies and Fielding. They released an eponymous studio album on Geffen in 1988, but separated the next year. Burgess then embarked on a solo career, while the remaining members briefly continued on as Weaveworld. Smithies and Fielding formed the Reegs with the help of vocalist Gary Lavery and a drum machine, and released two studio albums, "Return of the Sea Monkeys" (1991) and "Rock the Magic Rock" (1992), on the independent label Imaginary Records.


title: The Chameleons

text: Burgess released his debut solo studio album, "Zima Junction", in 1993, and toured America the following year with his backing band the Sons of God. He released another studio album, "Spring Blooms Tra-La" (1994), as well as a live album, "Manchester 93" (1994), before partnering with Yves Altana in 1995, releasing "Paradyning" the same year. Afterwards, he founded Invincible with Altana and drummer Geoff Walker. They self-released their debut studio album, "Venus", in 1999, with most sales being digital. He also worked with Bird, the Messengers and Black Swan Lane. Lever later joined Bushart, who released the album "Yesterday Is History" (2008).


title: The Chameleons

text: In 1990, the Chameleons posthumously released an EP, "Tony Fletcher Walked on Water... La La La La La-La La-La-La", with the title paying tribute to their former manager. They also issued numerous live albums and compilations.


title: The Chameleons

text: The Chameleons reconvened in January 2000 to prepare for a series of concerts in The Witchwood, Ashton-under-Lyne, one of the band's favourite venues, in May. May 2000 also saw the release of the album "Strip", which featured old material in an acoustic format. The concerts were a success, and they expanded the reunion tour to include European dates in the summer and two California dates that fall. They released a new studio album, "Why Call It Anything", in 2001, followed by another unplugged album, "This Never Ending Now", in 2002 and a full American tour. Renewed tensions led to the band dissolving once again in early 2003.


title: The Chameleons

text: In 2009, Burgess and Lever reformed to play Chameleons back catalogue material under the name ChameleonsVox. They issued an EP, "M+D=1(8)", in November 2013. In addition to Burgess and Lever, ChameleonsVox line-ups have included guitarists Roger Lavallee, Justin Lomery, Andrew Abernathy, Neil Dwerryhouse and Chris Oliver; bassists Frank Deserto and Jessica Espeleta; and drummers Glenn Maryansky, Yves Altana and Stephen Rice. Lever later went on to leave the band.


title: The Chameleons

text: In 2014, Lever and Fielding reunited to record an album, "Endless Sea", as Red-Sided Garter Snakes. The album, featuring contributions from vocalist James Mudriczki of Puressence and Clegg, was released in July 2015.


title: The Chameleons

text: The Chameleons reformed under the official name in May 2021 when Burgess and Smithies recorded a live album, "Edge Sessions (Live from the Edge)", with guitarist Chris Oliver and drummer Stephen Rice, who had been members of Burgess' ChameleonsVox group. The live album was released on April 25, 2022 on Metropolis Records.


title: The Chameleons

text: With Oliver and Rice, the Chameleons announced their first tour in 20 years, they were planning to play the United States in fall 2022 with the Mission and Theatre of Hate but the tour was postponed to 2023. Instead, the band opened for She Wants Revenge in fall 2022.


title: The Chameleons

text: During the Chameleons' early career, the British music press often used terms such as "sonic architects" and "sonic cathedrals" when describing the band, due to their atmospheric sound. Smithies and Fielding provided shimmering guitar riffs, while Lever and Burgess on drums and bass, respectively, gave the band a solid, rhythmic foundation.


title: The Chameleons

text: The Chameleons emerged as Thatcherism was beginning to have its effect on England's former industrial towns, and their music was imbued with a sense of anxiety and a longing for the security of innocence. Burgess's impassioned vocal delivery complemented his lyrics, which touched on the alienation created in many British communities by the decline of manufacturing and industry, and the consequent disruption of social order. Despite the bleak landscapes they were surrounded by, the band were not weighed down by their environment, but attempted to triumph over it. Burgess said in 2013 that, though growing up in a post-industrial, northern town must have some influence on one's music, he felt the Chameleons would have sounded similar regardless of where they originated from.


title: The Chameleons

text: The Chameleons have inspired the likes of Oasis, the Verve, Editors, White Lies, the Slow Readers Club, the Flaming Lips and Interpol. Oasis's songwriter Noel Gallagher has expressed his liking for the album "Strange Times" (1986) saying, "It must have influenced my early years as a song writer because I can hear me in it everywhere!". Guitarist Nick McCabe of the Verve named "Script of the Bridge" (1983) as one of his ten favorite albums. The Flaming Lips included "Up the Down Escalator" in the track listing of a CD compilation they did for Late Night Tales. The band have also been cited by the Charlatans's lead vocalist Tim Burgess. Moby has been quoted expressing admiration for their work. Interpol's frontman Paul Banks has said that their bassist Carlos [Dengler] was "a fan" of the band. Sweet Trip vocalist Valerie Cooper listed "Script of the Bridge" as a musical influence. The Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan named the Chameleons as one of the formative British bands he listened to in the 1980s.


title: The Chameleons

text: The core quartet were augmented by keyboardists Alistair Lewthwaite and Andy Clegg for live shows in the 1980s, and by percussionist-vocalist Kwasi Asante during their reunion period.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Khamoshiyan (stylised as KHAMOSHIYAN: Silences Have Secrets) () is a 2015 Indian romantic thriller horror film, written by Vikram Bhatt and directed by debutant, Karan Darra. Mahesh Bhatt and Mukesh Bhatt produced the film in association with Vishesh Films.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: The film stars Gurmeet Choudhary, Ali Fazal and Sapna Pabbi in lead roles. Initially, the film was scheduled for release on 23 January 2015 but was postponed to 30 January 2015. According to Box Office India the film was declared "Average".


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Kabir Walia is a novelist whose failed career and relationship with Simran made him move to Kashmir in search of an inspirational story. During his journey, he stops at a guesthouse run by the beautiful but mysterious Meera Sharma Dhanrajgir. Meera is married to Jaidev Dhanrajgir, an ill man confined to his bed. On his first night there, Kabir sees strange apparitions. He becomes attracted to Meera and finds out that she has not left the house for two years.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Kabir, now in love with her, tries to take her away from the house. While driving away, an evil force comes before their car and they meet with an accident. Curious, Kabir calls a "Tantrik", who discovers an evil spirit in the house. He claims that the spirit is of Jaidev, who is dead. Realization dawns upon Kabir, and he recalls Meera speaking on the phone in a man's voice and never seeing Jaidev in person. He sneaks into Jaidev's room, only to find Jaidev sleeping. Furious with Kabir, Meera tells him to leave.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Kabir returns to apologise to Meera and writes a love poem for her; she reads it and suddenly kisses him, realising that she is in love with him. She reveals that she was involved in a hit and run case two years ago and to evade imprisonment, ran away to a small town in Kashmir, where she met Jaidev, a rich industrialist. They fell in love and got married. One night, she saw him performing a ritual slaughter and praying to the devil. Scared and shocked, she tried to run away but was caught by him; in a struggle to stop her, Jaidev fell from the balcony and was paralyzed below the waist. He later committed suicide and left a letter for Meera, stating that she will have to live in the house forever with his soul, and if she ever tried to run away, his lawyer was instructed to open a letter which will detail that Meera has killed him and was the culprit in the hit and run. Thus, she stays in the house with Jaidev's soul and deludes the world into thinking her husband is still alive.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Kabir decides to steal the letter from the lawyer's office; however, he finds that there is no lawyer – Jaidev was bluffing. After this, the two plan to set Jaidev's spirit to rest. While they cremate his body, a painting of Jaidev smiles sadistically. He returns to haunt Meera and captures her in the painting. Kabir goes to the "Tantrik" for help, who, it turns out, is also a spirit. The "Tantrik" tells Kabir that the painting is a portal to the world of spirits and gives Kabir holy water. After a deadly struggle involving a butterfly and paintings of wolves, Kabir drinks a drop of Jaidev's blood to get Jaidev's spirit to enter his body. He then drinks holy water, which makes Jaidev's evil spirit perish, setting Meera free.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Kabir is shown at a book launch for "Khamoshiyan", his latest novel. Meera is also at the party but the two leave to spend some time alone together.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: The main cast of Gurmeet Choudhary, Ali Fazal and Sapna Pabbi was finalized in mid-2014. In May 2014, it was reported that Gurmeet Choudhary will be playing a negative role in the film. In June 2014, actress Sapna Pabbi signed a three-film deal with Vishesh Films and committed to work on the film as her first movie of the contract. In an interview, Fazal stated that he plays a romantic writer with grey shades in the film. Producer Mahesh Bhatt in an interview said "With a recipe of great music, state-of-art digital effects and a love story that brings back the intrigue of Mahal, it will repackage and raise the bar for the horror genre in Bollywood". Bhatt further added that the film has the potential of becoming a franchise. Ankit Tiwari was hired to compose the film's music.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: The shoot of the film's first schedule began on 5 June 2014 and ended in August 2014. Shooting for the film's second schedule took place in Kashmir in September 2014 for 15 days. Due to a high flood in Kashmir, the producers had to shift the shoot to South Africa, as a replacement for Kashmir. On 21 October 2014, filming took place in Cape Town. The pre-climax was filmed at the forests of Legacy Estates in Cape Town.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: A video was created to announce the launch date of a trailer of Khamoshiyan. It was uploaded on the video sharing platform, YouTube. The video only featured background music and was used to introduce the characters, unveil the logo and the tagline. The film's music launch was held in a venue below ground level, making it the first underground music launch event for a Hindi film.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: The filmmakers also announced the launch of a novel and a video game. The novel will feature the story of Khamoshiyan and two other stories penned by Vikram Bhatt – 1920 and . On the other hand, the video game will feature different characters who will all unveil a dark secret and tell a different story as the player advances.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: The soundtrack of Khamoshiyan was composed by Ankit Tiwari, Jeet Gannguli, Navad Zafar & Bobby Imraan. The lyrics for the soundtrack were penned by Rashmi Singh and Sayeed Quadri.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: The first single from the album, "Khamoshiyan", composed by Jeet Gannguli and crooned by Arijit Singh was released on 10 December 2014. The second single from the album, "Tu Har Lamha", composed by Bobby Imraan and sung by Arijit Singh, was released on 19 December 2014.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Additionally, the filmmakers purchased the rights to the song "Aayega Aane Wala" from the film "Mahal" (1949).


title: Khamoshiyan

text: The song "Beegh Loon" was Sung by Prakriti Kakar to Describe Meera and Jaidev's Love Story and how they Got Married.


title: Khamoshiyan

text: "Rediff.com" wrote that "the album gets off to a superb start with the man for all seasons, Arijit Singh's title song Khamoshiyan. This romantic song has a pleasant feel and maintains a good pace throughout. The rendition of "Tu Har Lamha" is heartfelt and the lyrics are simple yet effective. Tu Har Lamha is a winner in both its original as well as remix version. "Baatein Ye Kabhi Na" reminds of one of the songs in "Aashiqui 2", with its themes of love, separation and longing."


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Surabhi Redkar of "Komoi" gave the soundtrack three stars out of five and wrote that it was a "love-filled album" but its "varied song versions" didn't favor the album instead "[leaving] the listener a little startled". She praised the title track "Khamoshiyan" writing that it was "a beautiful composition".


title: Khamoshiyan

text: In a negative review, Sankhayan Ghosh of "The Indian Express" gave the soundtrack two stars out of five writing that the tunes were "worn out" and that their arrangement and melody sounded so similar that "one can actually stitch all of them seamlessly into one song."


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Shakti Shetty of "Mid-Day.com" noted similarities between "Khamoshiyan" and Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho" and Robert Zemeckis' "What Lies Beneath", but commented, "the Indianisation doesn't really come out great." On the story's pacing, Shetty wrote, "If the first half was building up tension with sub-plots of mysteries, the second half does a tedious job of chronicling what happened in the past."


title: Khamoshiyan

text: Renuka Vyavahare of "The Times of India" gave the movie 1.5 stars out of five writing that Fazal and Pabbi were "decent" but the horror track failed miserably and comprised "standard scares, [an] over-stretched climax, formulaic ‘dark secrets’ and a clichéd story."


title: Khamoshiyan

text: For "The Indian Express", Shubhra Gupta gave "Khamoshiyan" 1.5 stars out of five, writing that the movie "does exactly what you expect" and "plays out familiar erotic-horror-thriller ingredients."


title: Aquaslash

text: Aquaslash is a 2019 Canadian slasher film directed by Renaud Gauthier, who also co-wrote the film with Philip Kalin. It stars Nicolas Fontaine, Brittany Drisdelle, Madelline Harvey, Lanisa Dawn, Paul Zinno, Nick Walker, and Chip Chuipka. The film is set at a water park, where a killer targets a group of recent high school graduates who are in competition for a cash prize for the fastest team to slide down the park's water slides.


title: Aquaslash

text: One night at the Wet Valley Water Park, two teenagers are killed by a machete wielding assailant while having sex.


title: Aquaslash

text: Some time later, the 2018 graduating class of Valley Hills High visits the water park, owned and supervised by Paul Wilkinson, for a weekend-long celebration of their graduation. Among those present are Josh, a member of a band called the Blades; Josh's bandmates Chad and Slim; Priscilla, Paul's wife; Alice, a graduate with whom Paul is cheating on Priscilla; Tommy, one of the park's employees; Conrad, an elderly pool cleaner; and Kimberly, who is Tommy's girlfriend and Josh's ex-girlfriend. Rumours circulate amongst the students about Priscilla supposedly choosing one graduate to have sex with each year.


title: Aquaslash

text: Two drunk graduates go down one of the park's water slides, and are injured when one impacts with a glass bottle held by the other. They leave in an ambulance, and Paul orders Conrad to clean the pool without draining it. That night, Priscilla joins Josh's father, a real estate developer named Michael, in a restaurant for dinner. Josh and Kimberly have sex in the showers, and are secretly recorded on video by another graduate named Phil. Later, the Blades perform a song in the park. During their performance, the video of Josh and Kimberly having sex is sent to the other graduates, including Tommy, who punches Josh and is fired from the park.


title: Aquaslash

text: Shortly thereafter, Michael tells Josh that he is negotiating ownership of the park with Paul. Elsewhere, an unseen individual installs a pair of large, metal blades, arranged in an "X" shape, in one of the park's water slides. The next day, Michael is fatally shot by an unseen attacker, and a boy uncovers a portable music player in a sandy area of the park. Later that day, an annual competition begins: teams of three members are to race down one of three slides, and whichever team reaches the pool below fastest wins a cash prize. Tommy worries that one of the slides will collapse, but his concerns are ignored.


title: Aquaslash

text: The first set of teams each go down one of the slides. Alice and two other graduates go down the slide containing the blades, and are cut to pieces. Tommy, while attempting to warn his fellow graduates not to go down the slides, is pushed down the weaponised slide; he becomes stuck against the blades and the bodies caught therein. The pool below begins to fill with blood and limbs from the weaponised slide, causing spectators to panic. Paul and Priscilla, unaware of the danger, continue to send teams down the slides, and eventually decide to slide down themselves. Josh unsuccessfully attempts to save Paul from sliding into the blades. Josh and Conrad both climb to the top of the slide to try to prevent other people from sliding down the slide, but are pushed down the slide.


title: Aquaslash

text: Following the massacre, a surviving Josh meets with a lawyer, who informs Josh that Michael left him his estate, and has him authorise the replacement of the Wet Valley Water Park with a shopping complex. It is then revealed that the individual who installed the blades in the slide and killed Michael was Priscilla, who, 35 years prior, witnessed her father die in the water park.


title: Aquaslash

text: The film was distributed by Red Hound Films and released at drive-in theatres and on video on demand on June 23, 2020.


title: Aquaslash

text: Cody Hamman of Arrow in the Head gave "Aquaslash" a score of seven out of ten, writing: "Once people start going down the slide those blades are in, "Aquaslash" delivers a sequence of bloodshed and insanity that lasts for several minutes, and that sequence earns the movie a recommendation." "Dread Central"s Josh Millican called the film an "irreverent, retro slasher throwback from Canada. Unique in its build towards a singularly shocking sequence, "Aquaslash" is way more exciting than your typical trip to the water park".


title: Aquaslash

text: Rob Hunter of Film School Rejects gave "Aquaslash" a negative review, criticising its story and characters and calling it "a barely watchable misfire [...] but it still finds some unintentional laughs in its serious nonsense."


title: Establishment Clause

text: In United States law, the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, together with that Amendment's Free Exercise Clause, form the constitutional right of freedom of religion. The relevant constitutional text is:


title: Establishment Clause

text: The Establishment Clause acts as a double security, prohibiting both religious abuse of government and political control of religion. Under it the federal government of the United States as well as the governments of all U.S. states and U.S. territories are prohibited from establishing or sponsoring religion.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The clause was based on a number of precedents, including the Constitutions of Clarendon, the Bill of Rights 1689, and the Pennsylvania and New Jersey colonial constitutions. An initial draft by John Dickinson was prepared in conjunction with his drafting the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, then-congressman James Madison prepared another draft which, following discussion and debate in the First Congress, would become part of the text of the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights. The Establishment Clause is complemented by the Free Exercise Clause, which allows individual citizens freedom from governmental interference in both private and public religious affairs.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The Establishment Clause is a limitation placed upon the United States Congress preventing it from passing legislation forcing an establishment of religion, broadly making it illegal for the government to promote theocracy or promote a specific religion with taxes. The Free Exercise Clause prohibits the government from preventing the free exercise of religion. While the Establishment Clause does prohibit Congress from preferring or elevating one religion over another, it does not prohibit the government's entry into the religious domain to make accommodations for religious observances and practices in order to achieve the purposes of the Free Exercise Clause.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The Constitutions of Clarendon, a 12th-century English law, had prohibited criminal defendants' using religious laws (at that time, in medieval England, canon law of the Roman Catholic Church) to seek exemption from criminal prosecution.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The 1689 English Bill of Rights secured the rights of all "persons" to be free from establishment of Roman Catholic laws in the government of England.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The original Mason-Dixon line was the demarcation line between the Catholic colony of Maryland and the New Jersey and Pennsylvania colonies, which followed the 1689 Bill of Rights and their own colonial constitutions which provided similar protections against the establishment of Catholic laws in government.


title: Establishment Clause

text: A possible additional precursor of the Free Exercise Clause was the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. The statute was drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1777 and was introduced in the Virginia General Assembly in 1779. It did not pass the General Assembly until 1786. James Madison played an important role in its passage. The statute disestablished the Church of England in Virginia and guaranteed freedom of religion exercise to men of all religious faiths, including Catholics and Jews as well as members of all Protestant denominations.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The First Amendment is part of a group of 10 Amendments to the United States Constitution known as the Bill of Rights. The idea of adding a Bill of Rights to the Constitution was proposed by George Mason five days before the conclusion of the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia in 1787. His proposal was rejected by the other delegates. Alexander Hamilton later argued in "The Federalist Papers" that a Bill of Rights was unnecessary, claiming that since the Constitution granted limited powers to the federal government, it did not grant the new government the power to abuse the rights that would be secured by a Bill of Rights. Nevertheless, the supporters of the Constitution (known as Federalists) in order to secure its ratification in Massachusetts, agreed to add a group of Amendments to the Constitution after its ratification that would serve as a Bill of Rights. Later, six more states likewise recommended the addition of a Bill of Rights, and the idea also gained the support of Jefferson and Madison. When the First Federal Congress met in 1789, Madison implemented the idea by introducing 17 Amendments to the Constitution. By December 1791, ten of his Amendments were ratified by the necessary three quarters of the states, and they became part of the US Constitution, thereafter becoming known as "the Bill of Rights".


title: Establishment Clause

text: The Establishment Clause addressed the concerns of members of minority faiths who did not want the federal government to establish a state religion for the entire nation. The Baptists in Virginia, for example, had suffered discrimination prior to the disestablishment of the Anglican church in 1786. As Virginia prepared to hold its elections to the state ratifying convention in 1788, the Baptists were concerned that the Constitution had no safeguard against the creation of a new national church. In Orange County, Virginia, two federalist candidates, James Madison and James Gordon Jr., were running against two anti-federalists (opponents of the Constitution), Thomas Barbour and Charles Porter. Barbour requested to John Leland, an influential Baptist preacher and fervent lifelong proponent of religious liberty, that he write a letter to Barbour outlining his objections to the proposed Constitution. Leland stated in the letter that, among his other concerns, the Constitution had no Bill of Rights and no safeguards for religious liberty and freedom of the press. A number of historians have concluded on the basis of compelling circumstantial evidence that, just prior to the election in March 1788, Madison met with Leland and gained his support of ratification by addressing these concerns and providing him with the necessary reassurances. In any event, Leland cast his vote for Madison. Leland's support, according to Scarberry, was likely key to the landslide victory of Madison and Gordon.


title: Establishment Clause

text: Prior to the enactment of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1868, the Supreme Court generally held that the substantive protections of the Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments. Subsequently, under the Incorporation doctrine, the Bill of Rights has been broadly applied to limit state and local government as well. The process of incorporating the two Religion Clauses in the First Amendment was twofold. The first step was the Supreme Court's conclusion in 1940 that the Free Exercise Clause was made applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Conceptually, this raised few difficulties: the Due Process Clause protects those rights in the Bill of Rights "implicit in the concept of ordered liberty," and free exercise of religion is a quintessential individual right (and had been recognized as such at the state level from the beginning).


title: Establishment Clause

text: Incorporation of the Establishment Clause in 1947 proved to be problematic in several ways and subject to critique. The controversy surrounding Establishment Clause incorporation primarily stems from the fact that one of the intentions of the Establishment Clause was to prevent Congress from interfering with state establishments of religion that existed at the time of the founding (at least six states had established religions at the founding) – a fact conceded by even those members of the Court who believe the Establishment Clause was made applicable to the states through incorporation. Critics, such as Clarence Thomas, have also argued that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment is understood to incorporate only individual rights found in the Bill of Rights; the Establishment Clause, unlike the Free Exercise Clause (which critics readily concede protects individual rights), does not purport to protect individual rights.


title: Establishment Clause

text: Prior to American independence, most of the original colonies supported religious activities with taxes, with each colony often choosing a single church as their official religion. These official churches enjoyed privileges not granted to other religious groups. Massachusetts and Connecticut supported the Congregational church through tax. In colonial South Carolina, the Anglican Church benefited from church taxes. Other colonies would more generally support religion by requiring taxes that would partially fund religious institutions - taxpayers could direct payments to the Protestant denomination of their choosing. Only the colonies of Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island did not require a tax to support religion. During and after the American Revolution, religious minorities, such as the Methodists and the Baptists, argued that taxes to support religion violated freedoms won from the British. Defenders of the practice argued that government needed to fund religious institutions because public virtue depended on these institutions which could not survive purely on private support.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The Supreme Court first considered the question of financial assistance to religious organizations in "Bradfield v. Roberts" (1899). The federal government had funded a hospital operated by a Roman Catholic institution. In that case, the Court ruled that the funding was to a secular organizationthe hospitaland was therefore permissible.


title: Establishment Clause

text: In the twentieth century, the Supreme Court more closely scrutinized government activity involving religious institutions. In "Everson v. Board of Education" (1947), the Supreme Court upheld a New Jersey statute funding student transportation to schools, whether parochial or not. Justice Hugo Black held,


title: Establishment Clause

text: The New Jersey law was upheld, for it applied "to all its citizens without regard to their religious belief." After "Everson", lawsuits in several states sought to disentangle public monies from religious teaching, the leading case being the 1951 Dixon School Case out of New Mexico.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The Jefferson quotation cited in Black's opinion is from a Jefferson wrote in 1802 to the Baptists of Danbury, Connecticut, that there should be "a wall of separation between church and state." Critics of Black's reasoning (most notably, former Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist) have argued that the majority of states did have "official" churches at the time of the First Amendment's adoption and that James Madison, not Jefferson, was the principal drafter. However, Madison himself often wrote of "perfect separation between the ecclesiastical and civil matters" (1822 letter to Livingston), which means the authority of the church (that which comes from the church) is decided by church authority, and that which is decided in civil government is decided by civil authorities; neither may decree law or policy in each other's realm. Another description reads: "line of separation between the rights of religion and the civil authority... entire abstinence of the government" (1832 letter Rev. Adams), and "practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government as essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States" (1811 letter to Baptist Churches).


title: Establishment Clause

text: In "Lemon v. Kurtzman" (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that government may not "excessively entangle" with religion. The case involved two Pennsylvania laws: one permitting the state to "purchase" services in secular fields from religious schools, and the other permitting the state to pay a percentage of the salaries of private school teachers, including teachers in religious institutions. The Supreme Court found that the government was "excessively entangled" with religion, and invalidated the statutes in question. The excessive entanglement test, together with the secular purpose and primary effect tests thereafter became known as the Lemon test, which judges have often used to test the constitutionality of a statute on establishment clause grounds.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The Supreme Court decided "Committee for Public Education & Religious Liberty v. Nyquist" and "Sloan v. Lemon" in 1973. In both cases, states—New York and Pennsylvania—had enacted laws whereby public tax revenues would be paid to low-income parents so as to permit them to send students to private schools. It was held that in both cases, the state unconstitutionally provided aid to religious organizations. The ruling was partially reversed in "Mueller v. Allen" (1983). There, the Court upheld a Minnesota statute permitting the use of tax revenues to reimburse parents of students. The Court noted that the Minnesota statute granted such aid to parents of all students, whether they attended public or private schools.


title: Establishment Clause

text: While the Court has prevented states from directly funding parochial schools, it has not stopped them from aiding religious colleges and universities. In "Tilton v. Richardson" (1971), the Court permitted the use of public funds for the construction of facilities in religious institutions of higher learning. It was found that there was no "excessive entanglement" since the buildings were themselves not religious, unlike teachers in parochial schools, and because the aid came in the form of a one-time grant, rather than continuous assistance.


title: Establishment Clause

text: One of the largest recent controversies over the amendment centered on school vouchers—government aid for students to attend private and predominantly religious schools. The Supreme Court, in "Zelman v. Simmons-Harris" (2002), upheld the constitutionality of private school vouchers, turning away an Establishment Clause challenge.


title: Establishment Clause

text: Further important decisions came in the 1960s, during the Warren Court era. One of the Court's most controversial decisions came in "Engel v. Vitale" in 1962. The case involved the mandatory daily recitation by public school officials of a prayer written by the New York Board of Regents, which read "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our Country". The Supreme Court deemed it unconstitutional and struck it down, with Justice Black writing "it is no part of the official business of government to compose official prayers for any group of American people to recite as part of a religious program carried out by the Government." The reading of the Lord's Prayer or of the Bible in the classroom of a public school by the teacher was ruled unconstitutional in 1963. The ruling did not apply to parochial or private schools in general. The decision has been met with both criticism and praise. Many social conservatives are critical of the court's reasoning, including the late Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist. Conversely, the ACLU and other civil libertarian groups hailed the court's decision.


title: Establishment Clause

text: In "Abington Township v. Schempp" (1963), the case involving the mandatory reading of the Lord's Prayer in class, the Supreme Court introduced the "secular purpose" and "primary effect" tests, which were to be used to determine compatibility with the establishment clause. Essentially, the law in question must have a valid secular purpose, and its primary effect must not be to promote or inhibit a particular religion. Since the law requiring the recital of the Lord's Prayer violated these tests, it was struck down. The "excessive entanglement" test was added in "Lemon v. Kurtzman" ("vide supra").


title: Establishment Clause

text: In "Wallace v. Jaffree" (1985), the Supreme Court struck down an Alabama law whereby students in public schools would observe daily a period of silence for the purpose of private prayer. The Court did not, however, find that the moment of silence was itself unconstitutional. Rather, it ruled that Alabama lawmakers had passed the statute solely to advance religion, thereby violating the secular purpose test.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The 1990s were marked by controversies surrounding religion's role in public affairs. In "Lee v. Weisman" (1992), the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional the offering of prayers by religious officials before voluntarily attending ceremonies such as graduation. Thus, the Court established that the state could not conduct religious exercises at public occasions even if attendance was not strictly compulsory. In "Lee" the Court developed the coercion test. Under this test the government does not violate the establishment clause unless it (1) provides direct aid to religion in a way that would tend to establish a state church, or (2) coerces people to support or participate in religion against their will. In "Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe" (2000), the Court ruled that a vote of the student body could not authorize student-led prayer prior to school events.


title: Establishment Clause

text: In 2002, controversy centered on a ruling by the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in "Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow" (2002), which struck down a California law providing for the recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance (which includes the phrase "under God") in classrooms. Each House of Congress passed resolutions reaffirming their support for the pledge; the Senate vote was 99–0 and the House vote was 416–3. The Supreme Court heard arguments on the case, but did not rule on the merits, instead reversing the Ninth Circuit's decision on standing grounds.


title: Establishment Clause

text: The inclusion of religious symbols in public holiday displays came before the Supreme Court in "Lynch v. Donnelly" (1984), and again in "Allegheny County v. Greater Pittsburgh ACLU" (1989). In the former case, the Court upheld the public display of a crèche, ruling that any benefit to religion was "indirect, remote, and incidental." In "Allegheny County", however, the Court struck down a crèche display, which occupied a prominent position in the county courthouse and bore the words "Gloria in Excelsis Deo", the words sung by the angels at the Nativity (Luke 2:14 in the Latin Vulgate translation). At the same time, the "Allegheny County" Court upheld the display of a nearby menorah, which appeared along with a Christmas tree and a sign saluting liberty, reasoning that "the combined display of the tree, the sign, and the menorah ... simply recognizes that both Christmas and Hanukkah are part of the same winter-holiday season, which has attained a secular status in our society." In "Lynch v. Donnelly" the Supreme Court also developed with the endorsement test a further test to determine the constitutionality under the Establishment Clause of certain government actions.


title: Establishment Clause

text: In 2001, Roy Moore, then Chief Justice of Alabama, installed a monument to the Ten Commandments in the state judicial building. In 2003, he was ordered in the case of "Glassroth v. Moore" by a federal judge to remove the monument, but he refused to comply, ultimately leading to his removal from office. The Supreme Court refused to hear the case, allowing the lower court's decision to stand.


title: Establishment Clause

text: On March 2, 2005, the Supreme Court heard arguments for two cases involving religious displays, "Van Orden v. Perry" and "McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky". These were the first cases directly dealing with display of the Ten Commandments the Court had heard since "Stone v. Graham" (1980). These cases were decided on June 27, 2005. In "Van Orden", the Court upheld, by a 5–4 vote, the legality of a Ten Commandments display at the Texas State Capitol due to the monument's "secular purpose". In "McCreary County", however, the Court ruled 5–4 that displays of the Ten Commandments in several Kentucky county courthouses were unconstitutional because they were not clearly integrated with a secular display, and thus were considered to have a religious purpose.


title: Establishment Clause

text: In the 1964 case "McGowan v. Maryland", the Supreme Court held that blue laws which restricted the sale of goods on Sundays (and were originally intended to increase Church attendance) did not violate the Establishment Clause because they served a present secular purpose of providing a uniform day of rest for everyone.


title: Regulation

text: Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. For example:


title: Regulation

text: Regulation in the social, political, psychological, and economic domains can take many forms: legal restrictions promulgated by a government authority, contractual obligations (for example, contracts between insurers and their insureds), self-regulation in psychology, social regulation (e.g. norms), co-regulation, third-party regulation, certification, accreditation or market regulation.


title: Regulation

text: State-mandated regulation is government intervention in the private market in an attempt to implement policy and produce outcomes which might not otherwise occur, ranging from consumer protection to faster growth or technological advancement.


title: Regulation

text: The regulations may prescribe or proscribe conduct ("command-and-control" regulation), calibrate incentives ("incentive" regulation), or change preferences ("preferences shaping" regulation). Common examples of regulation include limits on environmental pollution , laws against child labor or other employment regulations, minimum wages laws, regulations requiring truthful labelling of the ingredients in food and drugs, and food and drug safety regulations establishing minimum standards of testing and quality for what can be sold, and zoning and development approvals regulation. Much less common are controls on market entry, or price regulation.


title: Regulation

text: One critical question in regulation is whether the regulator or government has sufficient information to make ex-ante regulation more efficient than ex-post liability for harm and whether industry self-regulation might be preferable. The economics of imposing or removing regulations relating to markets is analysed in empirical legal studies, law and economics, political science, environmental science, health economics, and regulatory economics.


title: Regulation

text: Power to regulate should include the power to enforce regulatory decisions. Monitoring is an important tool used by national regulatory authorities in carrying out the regulated activities.


title: Regulation

text: In some countries (in particular the Scandinavian countries) industrial relations are to a very high degree regulated by the labour market parties themselves (self-regulation) in contrast to state regulation of minimum wages etc.


title: Regulation

text: Regulations may create costs as well as benefits and may produce unintended reactivity effects, such as defensive practice. Efficient regulations can be defined as those where total benefits exceed total costs.


title: Regulation

text: The study of formal (legal or official) and informal (extra-legal or unofficial) regulation constitutes one of the central concerns of the sociology of law.


title: Regulation

text: Regulation of businesses existed in the ancient early Egyptian, Indian, Greek, and Roman civilizations. Standardized weights and measures existed to an extent in the ancient world, and gold may have operated to some degree as an international currency. In China, a national currency system existed and paper currency was invented. Sophisticated law existed in Ancient Rome. In the European Early Middle Ages, law and standardization declined with the Roman Empire, but regulation existed in the form of norms, customs, and privileges; this regulation was aided by the unified Christian identity and a sense of honor regarding contracts.


title: Regulation

text: Modern industrial regulation can be traced to the Railway Regulation Act 1844 in the United Kingdom, and succeeding Acts. Beginning in the late 19th and 20th centuries, much of regulation in the United States was administered and enforced by regulatory agencies which produced their own administrative law and procedures under the authority of statutes. Legislators created these agencies to allow experts in the industry to focus their attention on the issue. At the federal level, one of the earliest institutions was the Interstate Commerce Commission which had its roots in earlier state-based regulatory commissions and agencies. Later agencies include the Federal Trade Commission, Securities and Exchange Commission, Civil Aeronautics Board, and various other institutions. These institutions vary from industry to industry and at the federal and state level. Individual agencies do not necessarily have clear life-cycles or patterns of behavior, and they are influenced heavily by their leadership and staff as well as the organic law creating the agency. In the 1930s, lawmakers believed that unregulated business often led to injustice and inefficiency; in the 1960s and 1970s, concern shifted to regulatory capture, which led to extremely detailed laws creating the United States Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Secret Army is a British television drama made by the BBC and the Belgian national broadcaster BRT (now VRT) created by Gerard Glaister. It tells the story of a fictional Belgian resistance movement in German-occupied Belgium during the Second World War dedicated to returning Allied airmen, usually having been shot down by the Luftwaffe, to Great Britain. It was made in the UK and Belgium and three series were broadcast on BBC1 between 7 September 1977 and 15 December 1979.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Fay Weldon said of the series: "There is, in the making of such programmes, a level of professionalism, and sheer patient, largely unacclaimed, hard work from producer to script editor to writer to designer to vision mixer to editor by way of sound and lighting engineers that is probably equalled only in a heart transplant theatre".


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Lisa Colbert runs Lifeline, a Brussels-based evasion organisation. It helps Allied aircrew to evade capture and return to Britain via neutral Switzerland or Spain. She is helped by Albert Foiret, proprietor of the "Cafe Candide", his mistress Monique Duchamps, and waitress Natalie Chantrens.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Their operations are placed under strain when the fervent Nazi, Gestapo "Sturmbannführer" Ludwig Kessler is assigned to work with Luftwaffe Major Erwin Brandt and close down the evasion line.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Flight Lieutenant John Curtis, a former evader, is sent back by London as a Special Operations Executive liaison officer to coordinate its activity. At first he is greeted with hostility and suspicion; there is also romantic tension between him and Lisa.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The series highlights the risks that the main characters take to rescue the young airmen whilst under German occupation, protecting their safe houses, and evading investigation. By the end of this series, Kessler and Brandt are closing in on Curtis as their investigation into a murder in France has led them to the name 'Monsieur Maurice', which is Curtis's pseudonym. Brandt and Kessler pay their first visit to the Candide to locate him. Kessler's interest in Curtis poses a significant threat to Lifeline and so it is agreed that Curtis will return to England. Kessler orders a troop encirclement of Brussels, but Curtis manages to escape to Switzerland by posing as bus driver for a local Hitler Youth group that is travelling out of the city on a day trip.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Albert is having an affair with barmaid Monique Duchamps, while his wife Andrée is bedridden, following an accident two years prior (an out-of-control lorry had ploughed into Albert's car, with Andrée as a passenger). In the final episode Andrée finds out by spotting Monique going into Albert's bedroom. She tries to speak to Albert and gets into her wheelchair for the first time, but falls down the stairs and breaks her neck, dying instantly.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Albert has sold the Cafe Candide and owns an upper-class black-market restaurant, called the "Restaurant Candide", which is prominently located in the Grand-Place. This venture is 60% clandestinely owned and financed by London, so as to enable the members of Lifeline to cater for senior German officers, allowing them to overhear indiscretions and to provide better cover for their activities. Albert takes over running Lifeline when Lisa is killed (in the first episode) by Allied bombing, whilst travelling in occupied France.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The German officers frequent the new establishment regularly, allowing the principal characters to interact and increasing the dramatic tension. To capitalise on actress Angela Richards's singing talent, Monique performs regularly for the diners, and this becomes a feature of the series. These scenes transform the character of Monique from a dowdy waitress to a sultry chanteuse, and contrast with their stressful undercover activities.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Secondary storylines include Kessler's developing romance with lonely Belgian 'society woman' Madeleine Duclos, whom he meets while dining alone at Le Candide, and Brandt being asked to join a conspiracy to assassinate Hitler. Although he declines, he comes to be seen as guilty by association. This, and the death of his family in a British air raid on Berlin, results in his suicide to avoid a court-martial, on the same day as the Normandy landings.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The series also introduces a new character, restaurant pianist and forger Max Brocard, a Communist infiltrator of Lifeline who wishes for the Belgian Communist Resistance to take over Lifeline, in order to use its money and political influence from London to establish a Communist takeover of Belgium at the end of the war. His skills are required after the death of Gaston, but he becomes responsible for the death of Natalie's boyfriend François. Along with almost all the other Communist saboteurs, Max is shot dead by the Germans and the civil police whilst taking part in resistance activities, their whereabouts having been tipped off by Albert after he has confirmed that Max is a Communist mole. His death leads to terrible repercussions for Albert in the third series.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The series is set during the final weeks of German occupation. Paul Vercors, the leader and sole survivor of the Communist cell to which Max belonged, begins a conspiracy of revenge against Albert. He lodges an accusation with the authorities that Albert murdered his wife. With Albert in prison for much of the series, responsibility for Lifeline falls to Monique. She becomes more independent and eventually her relationship with Albert collapses, owing to his aloofness and her realising that he is more concerned about money than her. After the Germans severely restrict travel to and from Brussels and the Communists sabotage the main railway line, the evasion lines are closed. The rescued airmen can now only be hidden while they all await the end of the war. With Albert away, Monique and Natalie face accusations of being German collaborators, prostitutes and black-marketeers. As news of the Allied troops' imminent arrival reaches the streets, the Germans find it increasingly difficult to keep order and eventually they leave the Belgians to their own devices.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Kessler, promoted to "Standartenführer", finds himself in constant conflict with new arrival Major Hans Dietrich Reinhardt, who has been sent to replace Brandt. The pair clash because Reinhardt can see the desperate situation the Germans face, whereas Kessler remains blinded by patriotism and Nazi ideology. Reinhardt is a cynical and world-weary war hero (he has been awarded the Knight's Cross), whose unorthodox approach is at odds with Kessler's by-the-book methods. Reinhart begins to get results and near the end of the series succeeds in identifying Le Candide as the headquarters of Lifeline.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: In Albert's absence, Lifeline is helped by Major Nicholas "Nick" Bradley, a charismatic British agent who previously appeared during the second series. Monique resents his presence, believing he threatens her new authority, whereas Natalie has been attracted to Bradley since his earlier visit. Bradley's job is to make sure the remaining evaders are fed and armed to protect themselves whilst they hide in the Ardennes. During his time in Belgium, Bradley succeeds in saving Alain from torture by the Gestapo, blows up a convoy, destroys a V-2 site and discovers where the Germans have laid explosives in the city. Bradley is later shot dead the day before the German withdrawal, being found in the streets after curfew.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: When the order for German withdrawal is finally given, Kessler tries to escape with his Belgian mistress, Madeleine. Realizing that his capture could lead to execution, Kessler assumes the identity of a lower-ranking officer, shortly before he is captured by British soldiers and put in a prisoner-of-war camp. Rather than evacuate Brussels, Reinhardt satisfies his own curiosity and visits the Candide. As he suspects, he discovers that this has been the headquarters of Lifeline all along. He chooses not to execute Albert, Monique, Alain and Pascal but hands himself over to Albert as his prisoner. At the same time, Paul Vercors and his communists arrive and take Albert, Reinhardt and Monique captive. Albert is hanged after a Communist-run 'kangaroo court' finds him guilty of treachery for his part in the death of Max Brocard; just in time, he is cut down and saved by British troops. Monique is captured by Brussels residents and held as a collaborator, waiting to have her head shaved in front of the angry crowds. Natalie and the newly arrived British Captain Stephen Durnford manage to rescue her. Monique and the Captain fall in love and Monique realises that she no longer loves Albert; she decides to marry the captain instead.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: Having been arrested by the British officers who saved Albert, Reinhardt is put in the same camp as Kessler. To protect his new identity and with the grudging support of the senior officers, Kessler engineers a court-martial of Reinhardt for allowing himself to be captured and disobeying the orders of a superior officer. Despite there being only flimsy evidence, Kessler arranges for Reinhardt to be found guilty and he is shot dead by a German firing squad. This scene reflects an actual incident in Amsterdam on 13 May 1945.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: At the same time Kessler's mistress Madeleine bribes Staff Sergeant Dexter to allow her lover's freedom and the couple escape together. For the members of the evasion line, their happiness is tinged with sadness as they all say goodbye to a tearful Monique, who says her final goodbyes to the Candide and to Albert before starting a new life with her husband.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The final episode in the series, "What Did You Do in the War, Daddy?", was set in 1969 and was never broadcast. It looked at how the characters had fared after the war. The reasons for its non-broadcast are unknown. It is possible it was because of the episode's anti-Communist message. BBC historian, Professor Jean Seaton, was interviewed on the subject in 2009 and expressed the belief the tone would have offended BBC executives who had served in the war. Shaun Ley, the presenter of a BBC Radio 4 radio programme "Shelved", discussing this and other suppressed drama programmes from the period, wrote an article for the corporation's website stating: "It questioned the whole point of the resistance and went so far as to suggest that fighting the Nazis had led the allies to miss the main threat - communism."


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The main themes of the episode were subsequently incorporated into a sequel, "Kessler", a series which was transmitted in 1981 and explored Kessler's fate.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: "Secret Army" was created by Gerard Glaister as a follow-up to his drama series "Colditz". Glaister was a former RAF pilot and his experiences provided the inspiration for the series. "Lifeline" loosely resembled Comet line. The character of John Curtis was influenced by the experiences of the series's technical consultant, Group Captain William Randle, who escaped from occupied Europe in 1942 and was later Keeper of the Battle of Britain Museum.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The series followed the timeline of the war to show how it affected Belgium. Filming took place in Belgium, with the assistance of BRT. Other locations were in London and Norfolk. The aircraft type that featured throughout the series was the Westland Lysander.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The title sequence was created by Alan Jeapes, whose credits include "EastEnders". The theme music was by Robert Farnon.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The series was later parodied in the BBC comedy series "'Allo 'Allo!", with some cast members appearing in both series.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: John Brason wrote a prequel novel entitled "Secret Army", and two novelisations of his episodes entitled "Secret Army Dossier" and "The End of the Line".


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: As stated on its back cover, "Secret Army Dossier" 'brings together two episodes from the first series ["Good Friday" and "Be the First Kid in Your Block to Rule the World"], three from the second [mostly material from "Russian Roulette" and "Day of Wrath"], and a specially written story to cover the events between'.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: "The End of the Line" covers several series three episodes, principally "Revenge, Ring of Rosies, Just Light the Blue Touch Paper, Collaborator, Bridgehead" and "The Execution".


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: An unofficial guidebook to the series is available entitled "The Complete Secret Army". This features reviews of every episode, information on the real-life events that inspired the series, behind-the-scenes production material, a location guide, and reminiscences and photos from cast and crew. The book is written by "Secret Army" fan Andy Priestner, and was published by Classic TV Press in December 2008.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: In 1991 the retailer WHSmith released an exclusive double-tape compilation of seven selected episodes between – and including – the first and last of Series Two, running to 326 minutes in total.


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The complete three series set of "Secret Army" is available on DVD (Region 2, UK) from DD Home Entertainment. This also carries interviews with cast members Angela Richards, Clifford Rose, Juliet Hammond-Hill, Terrence Hardiman and Hazel McBride. It does not include the final unbroadcast episode (see above).


title: Secret Army (TV series)

text: The songs performed by Angela Richards and pianist Ken Moule proved so popular with audiences that a BBC soundtrack album entitled "Au Café Candide" was released. Long since deleted, the songs are now available on a new CD recorded some 25 years after the first, entitled "An Evening at Le Candide". Tracks include Richards's own compositions "Memories Come Gently" and "If This Is The Last Time I See You", together with popular Forties numbers such as "Lilli Marlene" and "J'attendrai".


title: Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque

text: Philippe François Marie Leclerc de Hauteclocque (22 November 1902 – 28 November 1947) was a Free-French general during the Second World War. He became Marshal of France posthumously in 1952, and is known in France simply as le maréchal Leclerc or just Leclerc.


title: Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque

text: The son of an aristocratic family, Hauteclocque graduated from the "École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr", the French military academy, in 1924. After service with the French Occupation of the Ruhr and in Morocco, he returned to Saint-Cyr as an instructor. He was awarded the "croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures" for leading "goumiers" in an attack on caves and ravines on Bou Amdoun on 11 August 1933. During the Second World War he fought in the Battle of France. He was one of the first who defied his government's Armistice to make his way to Britain to fight with the Free French under General Charles de Gaulle, adopting the "nom de guerre" of Leclerc so that his wife and children would not be put at risk if his name appeared in the papers. He was sent to French Equatorial Africa, where he rallied local leaders to the rebel Free French cause, and led a force against Gabon, whose leaders supported the French Government. From Chad he led raids into Italian Libya. After his forces captured Kufra, he had his men swear an oath known today as the "Serment de Koufra", in which they pledged to fight on until their flag flew over the Strasbourg Cathedral.