title: Paraphyly

text: The class Reptilia, as traditionally defined, is paraphyletic because it excludes birds (class Aves) and mammals. Under the ranks of the ICZN Code, these three taxa are separate classes. However, mammals hail from the synapsids (which were once described as "mammal-like reptiles") and birds are sister taxon to a group of dinosaurs (part of Diapsida), both of which are "reptiles". Alternatively, reptiles are paraphyletic because they gave rise to (only) birds. Birds and reptiles together make Sauropsids, a clade of Amniota that is the sister group of the clade that includes mammals.


title: Paraphyly

text: Osteichthyes, bony fish, are paraphyletic when circumscribed to include only Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) and Sarcopterygii (lungfish, etc.), and to exclude tetrapods; more recently, Osteichthyes is treated as a clade, including the tetrapods.


title: Paraphyly

text: The "wasps" are paraphyletic, consisting of the narrow-waisted Apocrita without the ants and bees. The sawflies (Symphyta) are similarly paraphyletic, forming all of the Hymenoptera except for the Apocrita, a clade deep within the sawfly tree.


title: Paraphyly

text: Crustaceans are not a clade because the Hexapoda (insects) are excluded. The modern clade that spans all of them is the Tetraconata.


title: Paraphyly

text: One of the goals of modern taxonomy over the past fifty years has been to eliminate paraphyletic "groups", such as the examples given here, from formal classifications.


title: Paraphyly

text: Species have a special status in systematics as being an observable feature of nature itself and as the basic unit of classification. Some articulations of the phylogenetic species concept require species to be monophyletic, but paraphyletic species are common in nature, to the extent that they do not have a single common ancestor. Indeed, for sexually reproducing taxa, no species has a "single common ancestor" organism. Paraphyly is common in speciation, whereby a mother species (a paraspecies) gives rise to a daughter species without itself becoming extinct. Research indicates as many as 20 percent of all animal species and between 20 and 50 percent of plant species are paraphyletic. Accounting for these facts, some taxonomists argue that paraphyly is a trait of nature that should be acknowledged at higher taxonomic levels.


title: Paraphyly

text: Cladists advocate a phylogenetic species concept that does not consider species to exhibit the properties of monophyly or paraphyly, concepts under that perspective which apply only to groups of species. They consider Zander's extension of the "paraphyletic species" argument to higher taxa to represent a category error


title: Paraphyly

text: When the appearance of significant traits has led a subclade on an evolutionary path very divergent from that of a more inclusive clade, it often makes sense to study the paraphyletic group that remains without considering the larger clade. For example, the Neogene evolution of the Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates, like deer, cows, pigs and hippopotamuses - note that Cervidae, Bovidae, Suidae and Hippopotamidae, the families that contain these various artiodactyls, are all monophyletic groups) has taken place in environments so different from that of the Cetacea (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) that the Artiodactyla are often studied in isolation even though the cetaceans are a descendant group. The prokaryote group is another example; it is paraphyletic because it is composed of two Domains (Eubacteria and Archaea) and excludes (the eukaryotes). It is very useful because it has a clearly defined and significant distinction (absence of a cell nucleus, a plesiomorphy) from its excluded descendants.


title: Paraphyly

text: Also, some systematists recognize paraphyletic groups as being involved in evolutionary transitions, the development of the first tetrapods from their ancestors for example. Any name given to these hypothetical ancestors to distinguish them from tetrapods—"fish", for example—necessarily picks out a paraphyletic group, because the descendant tetrapods are not included. Other systematists consider reification of paraphyletic groups to obscure inferred patterns of evolutionary history.


title: Paraphyly

text: Moreover, the concepts of monophyly, paraphyly, and polyphyly have been used in deducing key genes for barcoding of diverse group of species.


title: Paraphyly

text: Current phylogenetic hypotheses of tetrapod relationships imply that viviparity, the production of offspring without the external laying of a fertilized egg, developed independently in the lineages that led to humans ("Homo sapiens") and southern water skinks ("Eulampus tympanum", a kind of lizard). Put another way, viviparity is a synapomorphy for Theria within mammals, and an autapomorphy for "Eulamprus tympanum" (or perhaps a synapomorphy, if other "Eulamprus" species are also viviparous).


title: Paraphyly

text: "Groups" based on independently-developed traits such as these examples of viviparity represent examples of polyphyly, not paraphyly.


title: Paraphyly

text: The following list recapitulates a number of paraphyletic groups proposed in the literature, and provides the corresponding monophyletic taxa.


title: Paraphyly

text: The concept of paraphyly has also been applied to historical linguistics, where the methods of cladistics have found some utility in comparing languages. For instance, the Formosan languages form a paraphyletic group of the Austronesian languages because they consist of the nine branches of the Austronesian family that are not Malayo-Polynesian and are restricted to the island of Taiwan.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: "Hungry Like the Wolf" is a song by English new wave band Duran Duran. Written by the band members, the song was produced by Colin Thurston for the group's second studio album "Rio" (1982). The song was released on 4 May 1982 as the band's fifth single in the United Kingdom. It reached No. 5 on the UK Singles Chart, and received a gold certification by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI).


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: The music video for "Hungry Like the Wolf" was directed by Russell Mulcahy and filmed in the jungles of Sri Lanka. Although the band initially failed to break into the US market, MTV placed the "Hungry Like the Wolf" video into heavy rotation. Subsequently, the group gained much exposure; the song peaked at the number 3 spot on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in March 1983, and Duran Duran became an international sensation. The video won the first Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video in 1984.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: "Hungry Like the Wolf" was written and recorded on a Saturday in the spring of 1982 at the basement studios of EMI's London headquarters. The song was built throughout the day as each band member arrived, and by the evening it was essentially complete.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: "That track came from fiddling with the new technology that was starting to come in", guitarist Andy Taylor said in an interview with "Blender" magazine. This refers to the rhythmic backing track they came up with by joining a Roland TR-808 drum machine with a sequencer and a Roland Jupiter-8 keyboard.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: Rhodes came up with an idea for the backing track in the car while he was going to the studio. He started playing with the Roland Jupiter-8 keyboard, while lead vocalist Simon Le Bon was working with the lyrics. The lyrics were inspired by "Little Red Riding Hood", and the repeating of the word "do" at the end of each verse takes its melody from the instrumentals in Gordon Lightfoot's song "If You Could Read My Mind". Andy Taylor worked out a Marc Bolan-ish guitar part, a very Marshall-sounding Les Paul guitar lick that was added to the track. Then the bass and drums were added, and the whole track was finished that day, including Le Bon's vocal melody and lyrics. The laugh at the beginning of the song and the moans during the song's fade-out were performed and recorded live by Rhodes' girlfriend at the time.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: The group re-recorded the song for the "Rio" album a few months later at London's AIR Studios with producer Colin Thurston, who also recorded the hits "Too Shy" for Kajagoogoo, and "I Want Candy" for Bow Wow Wow. Andy Taylor remembers: "He was a great organizer and arranger, we gave him far more ideas and music than the track actually needed, and he was important in the process of whittling them down to the essential elements." Thurston and the band decided to keep the demo's original electronic backing track and just re-record the other instruments and vocals.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: John Taylor has stated that he "(doesn't) really know" what the lyrics mean, speculating that the song is probably about "meeting girls" and/or "wanting to have sex with someone".


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: Rob Mitchum of Pitchfork Media in a 2003 review of the "Singles Box Set 1981–1985", said that "singles don't come much stronger than 'Hungry Like the Wolf'," praising its "bubbly keys around a slashing guitar riff," adding that the song "show[s] off how Duran Duran was a band, not just a synthesizer." Jon Pareles from "The New York Times", said the song "put an oblique, sometimes apocalyptic spin on pop romance in the verses but kept the choruses clear and catchy, never disguising their pop intentions," adding that the "posing was always a little preposterous, but no less enjoyable for that."


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: AllMusic's Ned Raggett said the song "blended a tight, guitar-heavy groove with electronic production and a series of instant hooks," adding that it was one of "Rio"'s "biggest smashes" that "open[ed] the door in America for the New Romantic/synth rock crossover." Stewart Mason, also from AllMusic, called "Hungry Like the Wolf" a "spectacular pop single", and "the finest song Duran Duran ever wrote", adding that it was a "much more kinetic and exciting song than earlier flop singles like 'Planet Earth'."


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: In 2006, VH1 ranked "Hungry Like the Wolf" No. 3 on its list of the "100 Greatest Songs of the 80's". In 2021, "Rolling Stone" listed the song at number 398 on "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: In 1982, music video director Russell Mulcahy, who had directed the band's first video "Planet Earth," was brought back to make the music video for "Hungry Like the Wolf" and two other songs for the band's 1983 video album. The band had a vision of jungles and exotic women, and Mulcahy suggested Sri Lanka, a country he had just visited. EMI spent $200,000 to send the group to Sri Lanka; the band made a stopover there in April, en route to a scheduled Australian tour. Keyboardist Nick Rhodes and guitarist Andy Taylor remained behind to finish the mixing of the "Rio" album while the rest of the band began filming the video; they flew straight to Sri Lanka after handing over the final masters to EMI.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: As it was described in the pop culture book, "The 1980s", the video was lush and cinematic, with shots of jungles, rivers, elephants, cafes and marketplaces evoking the atmosphere of the film "Raiders of the Lost Ark" (1981). Andy Taylor, who contracted a stomach virus serious enough to require hospitalisation from accidentally drinking water in the lagoon during the shoot, describes the storyline as "Indiana Jones is horny and wants to get laid." In the video, lead vocalist Simon Le Bon's head rises in slow motion out of the river as rain pours down, evoking a scene in "Apocalypse Now" (1979). He then chases a beautiful tiger-like woman played by Bermudian model Sheila Ming, from open markets in the city through obstacles in the jungle. During the chase, Le Bon has his face mopped by a young boy and overturns a bar room table, culminating in a final chase and struggle in a jungle clearing, which is sexually suggestive. In the meantime, the other band members hunt for Le Bon.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: Less than 2 months after the shoot of the video, the American cable television network MTV put "Hungry Like the Wolf" into heavy rotation, playing it four times a day. The exposure eventually helped propel the single into the top 5 of the "Billboard" Hot 100, and the "Rio" album into the top 10 of the albums chart. Les Garland, senior executive vice-president of MTV, said: "I remember our director of talent and artist relations came running in and said, 'You have got to see this video that's come in.' Duran Duran were getting zero radio airplay at the time, and MTV wanted to try to break new music. 'Hungry Like the Wolf' was the greatest video I'd ever seen." MTV named "Hungry Like the Wolf" the 15th most-played video of the network, and was 11th on the century-end MTV "100 Greatest Videos Ever Made". "Hungry Like the Wolf" won the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 26th Grammy Awards in February 1984, making it the first video to ever win that award. In 2001, VH1 rated it 31st on the "VH1: 100 Greatest Videos".


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: "Hungry Like the Wolf" was released in the United Kingdom on 4 May 1982; the next week the song debuted at number 35 on the UK Singles Chart, 6 weeks later it reached its peak at number 5, remaining 6 weeks in the top 10, and 12 weeks in total. The release of the single helped the band's studio album "Rio" reach the 2nd position of the albums chart. In Ireland the single entered the chart on 23 May 1982; reaching the number 4 position on the Irish Singles Chart, becoming the band's first top 10 hit in that country. Despite achieving commercial success with several top hits in the United Kingdom, the band failed to enter in the US market. Their debut studio album did not chart and failed to yield a hit single. "Hungry Like the Wolf" was released in the United States on 7 June 1982 but did not chart. At first, US radio were reluctant to play the song, but influential stations such as KROQ in Los Angeles championed the band, hosting an in-person artist album signing at a Licorice Pizza in Canoga Park, Calif., to build support for the act. On the first day of WLIR in Garden City, N.Y.'s run as a Modern Rock station, "Hungry Like the Wolf" aired in morning drive, with John DeBella as host. It gained national popularity, however, only when the newly emerging MTV began playing the accompanying music video in heavy rotation, the exposure pushed "Hungry Like the Wolf" onto AOR playlists. The song entered "Billboard"'s Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in August 1982 and reached the top of the chart in January 1983.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: Following the release of the "Carnival" EP in September and the David Kershenbaum remaster of "Rio" in November, the Kershenbaum remix of "Hungry Like the Wolf" was released as a single on 3 December 1982. "Hungry Like the Wolf" entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 on 25 December 1982 at number 77, peaking at number 3 on 26 March 1983, and remaining 23 weeks on the chart. 10 years later in March 1993, the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In Canada, the song debuted at number 48 on the "RPM" singles chart on 22 January 1983, reaching the top of the chart for 1 week on 19 March 1983, staying on the chart for 19 weeks and ending at the 10th position of the 1983 year-end chart. It was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) in April 1983.


title: Hungry Like the Wolf

text: "Hungry Like the Wolf" remains one of Duran Duran's most popular songs and a fan favourite. As of October 2021 it was the band's most streamed song in the UK with 40,4 million streams.


title: Kolob

text: or planet described in the Book of Abraham, a sacred text of the Latter Day Saint movement. Several Latter Day Saint denominations hold the Book of Abraham to have been translated from an Egyptian papyrus scroll by Joseph Smith, the founder of the movement. According to this work, Kolob is the heavenly body nearest to the throne of God. While the Book of Abraham calls Kolob a "star", it also calls planets "stars", and therefore some Latter Day Saint commentators consider Kolob a planet. The body also appears in Latter Day Saint culture, including a reference to Kolob in an LDS hymn.


title: Kolob

text: The first published reference to Kolob is in the Book of Abraham, first published in 1842 in "Times and Seasons" and now included within the Pearl of Great Price as part of the canon of Mormonism. The Book of Abraham 1:1–2:18 were dictated in 1835 and the remaining part in 1842 by Smith after he purchased a set of Egyptian scrolls that accompanied a mummy exhibition. According to Smith, the scrolls described a vision of Abraham, in which Abraham:


title: Kolob

text: saw the stars, that they were very great, and that one of them was nearest unto the throne of God; ... and the name of the great one is Kolob, because it is near unto me, for I am the Lord thy God: I have set this one to govern all those which belong to the same order as that upon which thou standest.


title: Kolob

text: In an explanation of an Egyptian hypocephalus that was part of the Joseph Smith Papyri, Smith interpreted one set of hieroglyphics as representing:


title: Kolob

text: Kolob, signifying the first creation, nearest to the celestial, or the residence of God. First in government, the last pertaining to the measurement of time. The measurement according to celestial time, which celestial time signifies one day to a cubit. One day in Kolob is equal to a thousand years according to the measurement of the Earth, which is called by the Egyptians Jah-oh-eh.


title: Kolob

text: The Book of Abraham describes a hierarchy of heavenly bodies, including the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun, each with different movements and measurements of time, where at the pinnacle, the slowest-rotating body is Kolob, where one Kolob-day corresponds to 1000 Earth-years. The time also applies to other celestial bodies in the vicinity of Kolob, such as Oliblish, and other neighboring objects. This is similar to , which says, "For a thousand years in [God's] sight are but as yesterday when it is past" and , which says, "one day is with the Lord as a thousand years". Additional, similar information about Kolob is found in the Kirtland Egyptian Papers, constituting manuscripts in the handwriting of Smith and his scribes.


title: Kolob

text: According to the traditional, literal Mormon interpretation of the Book of Abraham, Kolob is an actual star in this universe that is, or is near, the physical throne of God. According to Smith, this star was discovered by Methuselah and Abraham by looking through Urim and Thummim, a set of seer stones bound into a pair of spectacles. LDS Church leader and historian B. H. Roberts (1857–1933) interpreted Smith's statements to mean that the Solar System and its governing "planet" (the Sun) revolved around a star known as Kae-e-vanrash, which itself revolved with its own solar system around a star called Kli-flos-is-es or Hah-ko-kau-beam, which themselves revolve around Kolob, which he characterized as "the great centre of that part of the universe to which our planetary system belongs". Roberts was confident that astronomers would confirm this hierarchy of stars orbiting other stars.


title: Kolob

text: The literal interpretation of Kolob as a star or planet had significant formative impact on Mormon belief and criticism, leading to conceptions such as that the Biblical creation is a creation of the local Earth, Solar System, or galaxy, rather than the entire known physical universe.


title: Kolob

text: The Book of Abraham is unclear as to whether Kolob is a star or a planet, and Mormon writings have taken both positions. One part of the Book of Abraham states that Abraham "saw the stars ... and that one of them was nearest unto the throne of God; ... and the name of the great one is Kolob." But the book defines the word "Kokaubeam" (a transliteration of the Hebrew "כּוֹכָבִים" [c.f., Gen. 15:5]) as meaning "all the great lights, which were in the firmament of heaven". This would appear to include planets as among the "stars", and the Book of Abraham calls Earth a star. In addition, it appears to classify Kolob among a hierarchy of "planets". On the other hand, in the Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar paper, Kolob is classified as one of 12 "fixed stars", as distinct from 15 "moving planets". The term "fixed stars" generally refers to the background of celestial objects that do not appear to move relative to each other in the night sky, including all stars other than the Sun, nebulae and other starlike objects. Though "fixed", such objects were proven to have proper motion by Edmund Halley in 1718. Apparently referring to proper motion, Smith said that Kolob moves "swifter than the rest of the twelve fixed stars". Also, the Book of Abraham refers to "fixed planets", thereby including planets in the set of celestial objects that may be "fixed". It also calls the Sun a "governing planet", further complicating the terminology. So it is unclear whether Smith understood Kolob to be a planet or a star.


title: Kolob

text: Writers in the Latter Day Saint movement have taken both positions on the issue. Brigham Young, second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), spoke of Kolob as a planet, as did LDS Church apostles John Taylor, Orson Pratt (a mathematician with an interest in astronomy), Orson F. Whitney, and Alvin R. Dyer. Other Mormon theologians have also viewed Kolob as a planet, but several Mormon writers have called Kolob a star, including B. H. Roberts and LDS Church president David O. McKay.


title: Kolob

text: According to several Mormon writers (such as W. Cleon Skousen in his book "The First 2000 Years"), the Earth was created near Kolob over a period of 6,000 years, then moved to its present position in the Solar System. This hypothesis is based on oral comments attributed to Smith. The hypothesis is also based on a passage from the Book of Abraham stating that in the Garden of Eden, time was measured "after the Lord's time, which was after the time of Kolob; for as yet the Gods had not appointed to Adam his reckoning". According to the hypothesis, the reason that Earth time was measured in Kolob time was that the Earth was near Kolob. As a corollary, some Mormon writers argue that at the end times, the Earth will be plucked from the Solar System and returned to its original orbit near Kolob.


title: Kolob

text: LDS Church apostle Bruce R. McConkie came to a different conclusion, arguing that during the first "day" of creation (not necessarily a 1,000-year "day" in Kolob time, a "day" meaning a phase of creation), Earth was formed and placed in orbit around the Sun.


title: Kolob

text: The idea that the Earth was formed elsewhere and then migrated to orbit around the Sun does not accord with the scientific understanding of Earth's formation, which is that the Earth formed in orbit around the Sun about 4.5 billion years ago by accretion from a protoplanetary disk, and has remained near its original orbit until the present.


title: Kolob

text: Several Mormon authors have attempted to situate Kolob within modern astronomy. Skousen speculated that Kolob is a star at the Galactic Center, Sagittarius A*, of our own galaxy. This view also had the support of several former general authorities of the LDS Church, including J. Reuben Clark and George Reynolds (with Janne M. Sjödahl). In the mid-19th century, early efforts to find a single "central sun" in the galaxy failed.


title: Kolob

text: Another Mormon author has hypothesized that Kolob exists outside the Milky Way at a place called the "metagalactic center", and that this galaxy and other galaxies rotate around it. Within mainstream astronomy, the idea of a metagalactic center was once assumed, but has been abandoned because on large scales, the expanding universe has no gravitational center.


title: Kolob

text: In addition to the literal interpretation of Kolob as an actual heavenly body, the LDS Church has proposed that Kolob is also "a symbol of Jesus Christ", in that like Kolob, Jesus "governs" all the stars and planets similar to the Earth.


title: Kolob

text: A metaphorical interpretation suggests that Kolob may be construed as a metaphor for Jesus. Hugh Nibley offered this interpretation in "The Temple and The Cosmos". Advocates of the symbolic interpretation believe it harmonizes better with other Mormon beliefs and beliefs in the greater Christian community, as it does not require that God have a physical throne within this universe.


title: Kolob

text: According to Mormon author James Ferrell, the metaphorical interpretation is supported by the parallel construction of the passages in the Book of Abraham's third chapter:


title: Kolob

text: 2 And I saw the stars, that they were very great, and that one of them was nearest unto the throne of God; and there were many great ones which were near unto it;


title: Kolob

text: 3 And the Lord said unto me: These are the governing ones; and the name of the great one is Kolob, because it is near unto me, for I am the Lord thy God: I have set this one to govern all ...


title: Kolob

text: After intervening passages that discuss how some souls are greater than others, just as some stars are greater than others, the theme is repeated in reference to Jesus:


title: Kolob

text: 23 And God saw these souls that they were good, and he stood in the midst of them, and he said: These I will make my rulers; for he stood among those that were spirits, and he saw that they were good...


title: Kolob

text: Some Mormon scholars have sought to link the Kolob doctrine to ancient astronomy. have sought to show that this astronomy is more consistent with ancient geocentrism than with 19th-century Copernican and Newtonian astronomy, and thus carries with it the misconceptions of ancient astronomy. For example, in their interpretation, Kolob is the highest and slowest moving of a series of concentric heavenly spheres, which are centered on Earth. These authors believe that Smith, in the 19th century, would not have made this geocentric mistake about Kolob, and therefore, they argue that the Book of Abraham is of ancient origin. John Tvedtnes suggested that "Another possible Hebrew etymology is the Hebrew KLB 'dog' originally pronounced kalb just as it is in Arabic. This is used to denote the star Regulus in Arabic while the Syriac, which is also kalb denotes the star Sirius, the brightest star in the heavens." He also suggested that the Hebraic use of "KLB" as both the word "dog" and an astronomical term refers to the universality of Sirius as the "Dog Star".


title: Kolob

text: According to Fawn Brodie, Smith's idea of Kolob may have been derived from the "throne of God" idea found in Thomas Dick's "The Philosophy of a Future State", which Brodie said Smith "had recently been reading" before dictating the Book of Abraham, and which "made a lasting impression" on him.


title: Kolob

text: "If You Could Hie to Kolob" (hie, "hurry") is a Latter-day Saint hymn by early Mormon W. W. Phelps. The music is taken from a well-known folk tune known as "Dives and Lazarus". It was originally published in 1842 in "Times and Seasons" and is hymn number 284 in the LDS Church's current hymnal. The hymn makes only one reference to Kolob, in its first line (from which the hymn's title is derived). It is the only hymn in the current hymnal that mentions Kolob.


title: Kolob

text: The hymn reflects doctrines unique to Mormonism, such as the eternal nature of spirit (including man's spirit) and matter. It also conveys doctrines elaborated by Smith, the first Latter-day Saint prophet, about the plurality of gods and eternal progression.


title: Kolob

text: The tune was arranged by Ralph Vaughan Williams (1906) for the "English Hymnal" and can be found in today's hymnals under the name "Kingsfold". The tune is also used in other hymns: "O Sing a Song of Bethlehem", "I Heard the Voice of Jesus", and "We Sing the Mighty Power of God".


title: Kolob

text: Some of the elements of the two "Battlestar Galactica" science-fiction television shows seem to be derived from the Mormon beliefs of its creator and chief producer, Glen A. Larson. In both the original series from 1978, and the 2003 new series, the planet Kobol is the ancient and distant mother world of the entire human race and the planet where life began, and the "Lords of Kobol" are sacred figures to the human race. They are treated as elders or patriarchs in the old series, and versions of the Twelve Olympians in the new series. According to academic Jana Riess, this is one of many plot points Larson has borrowed from Mormonism.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: In cryptography and computer security, self-signed certificates are public key certificates that are not issued by a certificate authority (CA). These self-signed certificates are easy to make and do not cost money. However, they do not provide any trust value.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: For instance, if a website owner uses a self-signed certificate to provide HTTPS services, people who visit that website cannot be certain that they are connected to their intended destination. For all they know, a malicious third-party could be redirecting the connection using another self-signed certificate bearing the same holder name. The connection is still encrypted, but does not lead to its intended target. In comparison, a certificate signed by a trusted CA prevents this attack because the user's web browser separately validates the certificate against the issuing CA. The attacker's certificate fails this validation.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: Self-signed certificates, however, have their own limited uses. They have full trust value when the issuer and the sole user are the same entity. For example, the Encrypting File System on Microsoft Windows issues a self-signed certificate on behalf of the encrypting user and uses it to transparently decrypt data on the fly. Another example is root certificate, which is a form of self-signed certificate.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: Self-signed certificates can be created for free, using a wide variety of tools including OpenSSL, Java's keytool, Adobe Reader, wolfSSL and Apple's Keychain. They are easy to customize; e.g, they can have larger key sizes or hold additional metadata. Their use doesn't involve the problems of trusting third parties that may improperly sign certificates. Self-signed certificate transactions usually present a far smaller attack surface by eliminating both the complex certificate chain validation, and CA revocation checks like CRL and OCSP.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: In a CA-based PKI system, parties engaged in secure communication must trust a CA, i.e. place the CA certificates in a whitelist of trusted certificates. Developers of web browsers may use procedures specified by the CA/Browser Forum to whitelist well-known, public certificate authorities. Individual groups and companies may whitelist additional, private CA certificates. The trust issues of an entity accepting a new self-signed certificate are similar to the issues of an entity trusting the addition of a new CA certificate. The parties in a self-signed PKI must establish trust with each other (using procedures outside the PKI), and confirm the accurate transfer of public keys e.g. compare the certificate's cryptographic hash out of band.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: There are many subtle differences between CA signed and self-signed certificates, especially in the amount of trust that can be placed in the security assertions of the certificate. Some CAs can verify the identity of the person to whom they issue a certificate; for example the US military issues their Common Access Cards in person, with multiple forms of other ID. The CA can attest identity values like these by including them in the signed certificate. The entity that validates the certificate can trust the information in that certificate, to the same extent that they trust the CA that signed it (and by implication, the security procedures the CA used to verify the attested information).


title: Self-signed certificate

text: With a self-signed certificate by contrast, trust of the values in the certificate are more complicated because the entity possesses the signing key, and can always generate a new certificate with different values. For example, the validity dates of a self-signed certificate might not be trusted because the entity could always create and sign a new certificate that contained a valid date range.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: The values in a self-signed certificate can only be trusted when the values were verified out-of-band during the acceptance of the certificate, and there is a method to verify the self-signed certificate has not changed after it was trusted. For example, the procedure of trusting a self-signed certificate includes a manual verification of validity dates, and a hash of the certificate is incorporated into the white list. When the certificate is presented for an entity to validate, they first verify the hash of the certificate matches the reference hash in the white-list, and if they match (indicating the self-signed certificate is the same as the one that was formally trusted) then the certificate's validity dates can be trusted. Special treatment of X.509 certificate fields for self-signed certificate can be found in RFC 3280.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: Revocation of self-signed certificates differs from CA-signed certificates. By nature, no entity (CA or others) can revoke a self-signed certificate. But one could invalidate a self-signed CA by removing it from the trust whitelist.


title: Self-signed certificate

text: Self-signed certificates have limited uses, e.g. in the cases where the issuer and the sole user are the same entity. For example, the Encrypting File System on Microsoft Windows issues a self-signed certificate on behalf of a user account to transparently encrypt and decrypt files on the fly. Another example is root certificate, which is a form of self-signed certificate.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil (also known as flumazepil, code name Ro 15-1788) is a selective GABA receptor antagonist administered via injection, otic insertion, or intranasally. Therapeutically, it acts as both an antagonist and antidote to benzodiazepines (particularly in cases of overdose), through competitive inhibition.


title: Flumazenil

text: It was first characterized in 1981, and was first marketed in 1987 by Hoffmann-La Roche under the trade name Anexate. However, it did not receive FDA approval until December 20, 1991. The developer lost its exclusive patent rights in 2008; so at present, generic formulations of this drug are available. Intravenous flumazenil is primarily used to treat benzodiazepine overdoses and to help reverse anesthesia. Administration of flumazenil by sublingual lozenge and topical cream has also been tested.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil benefits patients who become excessively drowsy after use of benzodiazepines for either diagnostic or therapeutic procedures.


title: Flumazenil

text: The drug has been used as an antidote in the treatment of benzodiazepine overdoses. It reverses the effects of benzodiazepines by competitive inhibition at the benzodiazepine (BZ) recognition site on the GABA/benzodiazepine receptor complex. There are many complications that must be taken into consideration when used in the acute care setting. These include lowered seizure threshold, agitation, and anxiousness. Flumazenil's short half-life requires multiple doses. Because of the potential risks of withdrawal symptoms and the drug's short half-life, patients must be carefully monitorered to prevent recurrence of overdose symptoms or adverse side effects.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil is also sometimes used after surgery to reverse the sedative effects of benzodiazepines. This is similar to naloxone's application to reverse the effect of opiates and opioids following surgery. Administration of the drug requires careful monitoring by an anesthesiologist due to potential side effects and serious risks associated with over-administeration. Likewise, post-surgical monitoring is also necessary because flumazenil can mask the apparent metabolization ("wearing off") of the drug after removal of patient life-support and monitoring equipment.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil has been effectively used to treat overdoses of non-benzodiazepine hypnotics, such as zolpidem, zaleplon and zopiclone (also known as "Z-drugs").


title: Flumazenil

text: It may also be effective in reducing excessive daytime sleepiness while improving vigilance in primary hypersomnias, such as idiopathic hypersomnia.


title: Flumazenil

text: The drug has also been used in hepatic encephalopathy. It may have beneficial short‐term effects in people with cirrhosis, but there is no evidence for long-term benefits.


title: Flumazenil

text: The onset of action is rapid, and effects are usually seen within one to two minutes. The peak effect is seen at six to ten minutes. The recommended dose for adults is 200 μg every 1–2 minutes until the effect is seen, up to a maximum of 3 mg per hour. It is available as a clear, colourless solution for intravenous injection, containing 500 μg in 5 mL.


title: Flumazenil

text: Many benzodiazepines (including midazolam) have longer half-lives than flumazenil. Therefore, in cases of overdose, repeat doses of flumazenil may be required to prevent recurrent symptoms once the initial dose of flumazenil wears off.


title: Flumazenil

text: It is hepatically metabolised to inactive compounds which are excreted in the urine. Individuals who are physically dependent on benzodiazepines may experience benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms, including seizure, upon rapid administration of flumazenil.


title: Flumazenil

text: In terms of drug enforcement initiatives, diversion control programs and required post-marketing surveillance of adverse events, orders for flumazenil may trigger a prescription audit to the search for benzodiazepine misuse and for clinically significant adverse reactions related to their use.


title: Flumazenil

text: Radiolabeled with the radioactive isotope carbon-11, flumazenil may be used as a radioligand in neuroimaging with positron emission tomography to visualize the distribution of GABA receptors in the human brain.


title: Flumazenil

text: Epileptic patients who have become tolerant to the anti-seizure effects of the benzodiazepine clonazepam became seizure-free for several days after treatment with 1.5 mg of flumazenil. Similarly, patients who were dependent on high doses of benzodiazepines (median dosage 333 mg diazepam-equivalent) were able to be stabilised on a low dose of clonazepam after 7–8 days of treatment with flumazenil.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil has been tested against placebo in benzo-dependent subjects. Results showed that typical benzodiazepine withdrawal effects were reversed with few to no symptoms. Flumazenil was also shown to produce significantly fewer withdrawal symptoms than saline in a randomized, placebo-controlled study with benzodiazepine-dependent subjects. Additionally, relapse rates were much lower during subsequent follow-up.


title: Flumazenil

text: In vitro studies of tissue cultured cell lines have shown that chronic treatment with flumazenil enhanced the benzodiazepine binding site where such receptors have become more numerous and uncoupling/down-regulation of GABA has been reversed. After long-term exposure to benzodiazepines, GABA receptors become down-regulated and uncoupled. Growth of new receptors and recoupling after prolonged flumazenil exposure has also been observed. It is thought this may be due to increased synthesis of receptor proteins.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil was found to be more effective than placebo in reducing feelings of hostility and aggression in patients who had been free of benzodiazepines for 4–266 weeks. This may suggest a role for flumazenil in treating protracted benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms.


title: Flumazenil

text: Low-dose, slow subcutaneous flumazenil administration is a safe procedure for patients withdrawing from long-term, high-dose benzodiazepine dependency. It has a low risk of seizures even amongst those who have experienced convulsions when previously attempting benzodiazepine withdrawal.


title: Flumazenil

text: In Italy, the gold standard for treatment of high-dose benzodiazepine dependency is 8–10 days of low-dose, slowly infused flumazenil. One addiction treatment centre in Italy has used flumazenil to treat over 300 patients who were dependent on high doses of benzodiazepines (up to 70 times higher than conventionally prescribed) with physicians being among the clinic's most common patients.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil, an imidazobenzodiazepine derivative, antagonizes the actions of benzodiazepines on the central nervous system. Flumazenil competitively inhibits the activity at the benzodiazepine recognition site on the GABA/benzodiazepine receptor complex. It also exhibits weak partial agonism of GABA receptor complexes that contain α-type monomers; the clinical relevance of this is unknown.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil does not antagonize all of the central nervous system effects of drugs affecting GABA-ergic neurons by means other than the benzodiazepine receptor (including ethanol, barbiturates, and most anesthetics) and does not reverse the effects of opioids. It will however antagonize the action of non-benzodiazepine z-drugs, such as zolpidem and zopiclone, because they act via the benzodiazepine site of the GABA receptor - it has been used to successfully treat z-drug overdose.


title: Flumazenil

text: Intravenous flumazenil has been shown to antagonize sedation, impairment of recall, psychomotor impairment and ventilatory depression produced by benzodiazepines in healthy human volunteers.


title: Flumazenil

text: The duration and degree of reversal of sedative benzodiazepine effects are related to the dose and plasma concentrations of flumazenil.


title: Flumazenil

text: Flumazenil is sold under a wide variety of brand names worldwide like Anexate, Lanexat, Mazicon, Romazicon. In India it is manufactured by Roche Bangladesh Pharmaceuticals and USAN Pharmaceuticals.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The Michelson interferometer is a common configuration for optical interferometry and was invented by the 19/20th-century American physicist Albert Abraham Michelson. Using a beam splitter, a light source is split into two arms. Each of those light beams is reflected back toward the beamsplitter which then combines their amplitudes using the superposition principle. The resulting interference pattern that is not directed back toward the source is typically directed to some type of photoelectric detector or camera. For different applications of the interferometer, the two light paths can be with different lengths or incorporate optical elements or even materials under test.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The Michelson interferometer (among other interferometer configurations) is employed in many scientific experiments and became well known for its use by Michelson and Edward Morley in the famous Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) in a configuration which would have detected the Earth's motion through the supposed luminiferous aether that most physicists at the time believed was the medium in which light waves propagated. The null result of that experiment essentially disproved the existence of such an aether, leading eventually to the special theory of relativity and the revolution in physics at the beginning of the twentieth century. In 2015, another application of the Michelson interferometer, LIGO, made the first direct observation of gravitational waves. That observation confirmed an important prediction of general relativity, validating the theory's prediction of space-time distortion in the context of large scale cosmic events (known as strong field tests).


title: Michelson interferometer

text: In Fig 2, a source "S" emits light that hits the beam splitter (in this case, a plate beamsplitter) surface "M" at point "C". "M" is partially reflective, so part of the light is transmitted through to point "B" while some is reflected in the direction of "A". Both beams recombine at point "C' "to produce an interference pattern incident on the detector at point "E" (or on the retina of a person's eye). If there is a slight angle between the two returning beams, for instance, then an imaging detector will record a sinusoidal "fringe pattern" as shown in Fig. 3b. If there is perfect spatial alignment between the returning beams, then there will not be any such pattern but rather a constant intensity over the beam dependent on the differential pathlength; this is difficult, requiring very precise control of the beam paths.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Fig. 2 shows use of a coherent (laser) source. Narrowband spectral light from a discharge or even white light can also be used, however to obtain significant interference contrast it is required that the differential pathlength is reduced below the coherence length of the light source. That can be only micrometers for white light, as discussed below.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: If a lossless beamsplitter is employed, then one can show that optical energy is conserved. At every point on the interference pattern, the power that is "not" directed to the detector at "E" is rather present in a beam (not shown) returning in the direction of the source.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: As shown in Fig. 3a and 3b, the observer has a direct view of mirror "M" seen through the beam splitter, and sees a reflected image "M'" of mirror "M". The fringes can be interpreted as the result of interference between light coming from the two virtual images "S'" and "S'" of the original source "S". The characteristics of the interference pattern depend on the nature of the light source and the precise orientation of the mirrors and beam splitter. In Fig. 3a, the optical elements are oriented so that "S'" and "S'" are in line with the observer, and the resulting interference pattern consists of circles centered on the normal to "M" and "M'" (fringes of equal inclination). If, as in Fig. 3b, "M" and "M'" are tilted with respect to each other, the interference fringes will generally take the shape of conic sections (hyperbolas), but if "M" and "M'" overlap, the fringes near the axis will be straight, parallel, and equally spaced (fringes of equal thickness). If S is an extended source rather than a point source as illustrated, the fringes of Fig. 3a must be observed with a telescope set at infinity, while the fringes of Fig. 3b will be localized on the mirrors.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: White light has a tiny coherence length and is difficult to use in a Michelson (or Mach–Zehnder) interferometer. Even a narrowband (or "quasi-monochromatic") spectral source requires careful attention to issues of chromatic dispersion when used to illuminate an interferometer. The two optical paths must be practically equal for all wavelengths present in the source. This requirement can be met if both light paths cross an equal thickness of glass of the same dispersion. In Fig. 4a, the horizontal beam crosses the beam splitter three times, while the vertical beam crosses the beam splitter once. To equalize the dispersion, a so-called compensating plate identical to the substrate of the beam splitter may be inserted into the path of the vertical beam. In Fig. 4b, we see using a cube beam splitter already equalizes the pathlengths in glass. The requirement for dispersion equalization is eliminated by using extremely narrowband light from a laser.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The extent of the fringes depends on the coherence length of the source. In Fig. 3b, the yellow sodium light used for the fringe illustration consists of a pair of closely spaced lines, D and D, implying that the interference pattern will blur after several hundred fringes. Single longitudinal mode lasers are highly coherent and can produce high contrast interference with differential pathlengths of millions or even billions of wavelengths. On the other hand, using white (broadband) light, the central fringe is sharp, but away from the central fringe the fringes are colored and rapidly become indistinct to the eye.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Early experimentalists attempting to detect the earth's velocity relative to the supposed luminiferous aether, such as Michelson and Morley (1887) and Miller (1933), used quasi-monochromatic light only for initial alignment and coarse path equalization of the interferometer. Thereafter they switched to white (broadband) light, since using white light interferometry they could measure the point of "absolute phase" equalization (rather than phase modulo 2π), thus setting the two arms' pathlengths equal. More importantly, in a white light interferometer, any subsequent "fringe jump" (differential pathlength shift of one wavelength) would always be detected.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Fig. 5 illustrates the operation of a Fourier transform spectrometer, which is essentially a Michelson interferometer with one mirror movable. (A practical Fourier transform spectrometer would substitute corner cube reflectors for the flat mirrors of the conventional Michelson interferometer, but for simplicity, the illustration does not show this.) An interferogram is generated by making measurements of the signal at many discrete positions of the moving mirror. A Fourier transform converts the interferogram into an actual spectrum. Fourier transform spectrometers can offer significant advantages over dispersive (i.e., grating and prism) spectrometers under certain conditions. (1) The Michelson interferometer's detector in effect monitors all wavelengths simultaneously throughout the entire measurement. When using a noisy detector, such as at infrared wavelengths, this offers an increase in signal-to-noise ratio while using only a single detector element; (2) the interferometer does not require a limited aperture as do grating or prism spectrometers, which require the incoming light to pass through a narrow slit in order to achieve high spectral resolution. This is an advantage when the incoming light is not of a single spatial mode. For more information, see Fellgett's advantage.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The Twyman–Green interferometer is a variation of the Michelson interferometer used to test small optical components, invented and patented by Twyman and Green in 1916. The basic characteristics distinguishing it from the Michelson configuration are the use of a monochromatic point light source and a collimator. Michelson (1918) criticized the Twyman–Green configuration as being unsuitable for the testing of large optical components, since the available light sources had limited coherence length. Michelson pointed out that constraints on geometry forced by the limited coherence length required the use of a reference mirror of equal size to the test mirror, making the Twyman–Green impractical for many purposes. Decades later, the advent of laser light sources answered Michelson's objections.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The use of a figured reference mirror in one arm allows the Twyman–Green interferometer to be used for testing various forms of optical component, such as lenses or telescope mirrors. Fig. 6 illustrates a Twyman–Green interferometer set up to test a lens. A point source of monochromatic light is expanded by a diverging lens (not shown), then is collimated into a parallel beam. A convex spherical mirror is positioned so that its center of curvature coincides with the focus of the lens being tested. The emergent beam is recorded by an imaging system for analysis.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The "LUPI" is a Twyman–Green interferometer that uses a coherent laser light source. The high coherence length of a laser allows unequal path lengths in the test and reference arms and permits economical use of the Twyman–Green configuration in testing large optical components. A similar scheme has been used by Tajammal M in his PhD thesis (Manchester University UK, 1995) to balance two arms of an LDA system. This system used fibre optic direction coupler.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The Michelson stellar interferometer is used for measuring the diameter of stars. In 1920, Michelson and Francis G. Pease used it to measure the diameter of Betelgeuse, the first time the diameter of a star other than the sun was measured.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Michelson interferometry is the leading method for the direct detection of gravitational waves. This involves detecting tiny strains in space itself, affecting two long arms of the interferometer unequally, due to a strong passing gravitational wave. In 2015 the first detection of gravitational waves was accomplished using the two Michelson interferometers, each with 4 km arms, which comprise the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory. This was the first experimental validation of gravitational waves, predicted by Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. With the addition of the Virgo interferometer in Europe, it became possible to calculate the direction from which the gravitational waves originate, using the tiny arrival-time differences between the three detectors. In 2020, India was constructing a fourth Michelson interferometer for gravitational wave detection.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Fig. 7 illustrates use of a Michelson interferometer as a tunable narrow band filter to create dopplergrams of the Sun's surface. When used as a tunable narrow band filter, Michelson interferometers exhibit a number of advantages and disadvantages when compared with competing technologies such as Fabry–Pérot interferometers or Lyot filters. Michelson interferometers have the largest field of view for a specified wavelength, and are relatively simple in operation, since tuning is via mechanical rotation of waveplates rather than via high voltage control of piezoelectric crystals or lithium niobate optical modulators as used in a Fabry–Pérot system. Compared with Lyot filters, which use birefringent elements, Michelson interferometers have a relatively low temperature sensitivity. On the negative side, Michelson interferometers have a relatively restricted wavelength range, and require use of prefilters which restrict transmittance. The reliability of Michelson interferometers has tended to favor their use in space applications, while the broad wavelength range and overall simplicity of Fabry–Pérot interferometers has favored their use in ground-based systems.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Another application of the Michelson interferometer is in optical coherence tomography (OCT), a medical imaging technique using low-coherence interferometry to provide tomographic visualization of internal tissue microstructures. As seen in Fig. 8, the core of a typical OCT system is a Michelson interferometer. One interferometer arm is focused onto the tissue sample and scans the sample in an X-Y longitudinal raster pattern. The other interferometer arm is bounced off a reference mirror. Reflected light from the tissue sample is combined with reflected light from the reference. Because of the low coherence of the light source, interferometric signal is observed only over a limited depth of sample. X-Y scanning therefore records one thin optical slice of the sample at a time. By performing multiple scans, moving the reference mirror between each scan, an entire three-dimensional image of the tissue can be reconstructed. Recent advances have striven to combine the nanometer phase retrieval of coherent interferometry with the ranging capability of low-coherence interferometry.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Others applications include delay line interferometer which convert phase modulation into amplitude modulation in DWDM networks, the characterization of high-frequency circuits, and low-cost THz power generation.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The Michelson Interferometer has played an important role in studies of the upper atmosphere, revealing temperatures and winds, employing both space-borne, and ground-based instruments, by measuring the Doppler widths and shifts in the spectra of airglow and aurora. For example, the Wind Imaging Interferometer, WINDII, on the Upper


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Atmosphere Research Satellite, UARS, (launched on September 12, 1991) measured the global wind and temperature patterns from 80 to 300 km by using the visible airglow emission from these altitudes as a target and employing optical Doppler interferometry to measure the small wavelength shifts of the narrow atomic and molecular airglow emission lines induced by the


title: Michelson interferometer

text: bulk velocity of the atmosphere carrying the emitting species. The instrument was an all-glass field-widened achromatically and thermally compensated phase-stepping Michelson interferometer, along with a bare CCD detector that imaged the airglow limb through the interferometer. A sequence of phase-stepped images was processed to derive the wind velocity for two orthogonal view directions, yielding the horizontal wind vector.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The principle of using a polarizing Michelson Interferometer as a narrow band filter was first described by Evans who developed a birefringent photometer where the incoming light is split into two orthogonally polarized components by a polarizing beam splitter, sandwiched between two halves of a Michelson cube. This led to the first polarizing wide-field Michelson interferometer described by Title and Ramsey which was used for solar observations; and led to the development of a refined instrument applied to measurements of oscillations in the sun's atmosphere, employing a network of observatories around the Earth known as the Global Oscillations Network Group (GONG).


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The Polarizing Atmospheric Michelson Interferometer, PAMI, developed by Bird et al., and discussed in "Spectral Imaging of the Atmosphere", combines the polarization tuning technique of Title and Ramsey with the Shepherd "et al." technique of deriving winds and temperatures from emission rate measurements at sequential path differences, but the scanning system used by PAMI is much simpler than the moving mirror systems in that it has no internal moving parts, instead scanning with a polarizer external to the interferometer. The PAMI was demonstrated in an observation campaign where its performance was compared to a Fabry–Pérot spectrometer, and employed to measure E-region winds.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: More recently, the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI), on the Solar Dynamics Observatory, employs two Michelson Interferometers with a polarizer and other tunable elements, to study solar variability and to characterize the Sun's interior along with the various components of magnetic activity. HMI takes high-resolution measurements of the longitudinal and vector magnetic field over the entire visible disk thus extending the capabilities of its predecessor, the SOHO's MDI instrument (See Fig. 9). HMI produces data to determine the interior sources and mechanisms of solar variability and how the physical processes inside the Sun are related to surface magnetic field and activity. It also produces data to enable estimates of the coronal magnetic field for studies of variability in the extended solar atmosphere. HMI observations will help establish the relationships between the internal dynamics and magnetic activity in order to understand solar variability and its effects.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: In one example of the use of the MDI, Stanford scientists reported the detection of several sunspot regions in the deep interior of the Sun, 1–2 days before they appeared on the solar disc. The detection of sunspots in the solar interior may thus provide valuable warnings about upcoming surface magnetic activity which could be used to improve and extend the predictions of space weather forecasts.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: This is a Michelson interferometer in which the mirror in one arm is replaced with a Gires–Tournois etalon. The highly dispersed wave reflected by the Gires–Tournois etalon interferes with the original wave as reflected by the other mirror. Because the phase change from the Gires–Tournois etalon is an almost step-like function of wavelength, the resulting interferometer has special characteristics. It has an application in fiber-optic communications as an optical interleaver.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Both mirrors in a Michelson interferometer can be replaced with Gires–Tournois etalons. The step-like relation of phase to wavelength is thereby more pronounced, and this can be used to construct an asymmetric optical interleaver.


title: Michelson interferometer

text: formula_1 to the opposite one formula_2. For this reason the interference pattern in twin-beam interferometer changes drastically. Compared to conventional Michelson interference curve with period of half-wavelength formula_3:


title: Michelson interferometer

text: where formula_5 is second-order correlation function, the interference curve in phase-conjugating interferometer


title: Michelson interferometer

text: The nontrivial features of phase fluctuations in optical phase-conjugating mirror had been studied via Michelson interferometer with two independent PC-mirrors


title: Michelson interferometer

text: . The phase-conjugating Michelson interferometry is a promising technology for coherent summation of laser amplifiers


title: Michelson interferometer

text: Constructive interference in an array containing formula_9 beamsplitters of formula_10 laser beams synchronized by


title: Bruno Campos

text: Bruno Campos () is a Brazilian-American lawyer and former actor, best known for his roles of Dr. Quentin Costa on the award-winning television show "Nip/Tuck", the voice of Prince Naveen in the animated film "The Princess and the Frog", and Massimo in the Academy Award-nominated Brazilian movie "O Quatrilho". In 2010, Campos attended law school, earning a J.D. in 2013, and works for the firm Covington & Burling.


title: Bruno Campos

text: Originally from Brazil, Campos spent parts of his childhood in Canada, Bahrain, and the United States. At age 17, he attended Michigan's Interlochen Arts Academy. He then studied drama at Northwestern University (north of Chicago in Evanston, Illinois) graduating with a bachelor's degree in 1995.


title: Bruno Campos

text: In 1995, he starred in the Brazilian film "O Quatrilho" which was nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards. That same year, he played the male lead at The Goodman Theatre in "All's Well That Ends Well", directed by Tony Award winner Mary Zimmerman.


title: Bruno Campos

text: From there, he became better known to American audiences for his roles as Diego on the NBC sitcom "Jesse", starring Christina Applegate; as attorney Joe Rivera in the Showtime series "Leap Years"; and for a recurring guest role as Dr. Eddie Dorset on "ER". In 2004, he joined the cast of "Nip/Tuck" playing plastic surgeon Quentin Costa.


title: Bruno Campos

text: In 2010, he made a guest appearance in "Private Practice". In Season 3 Episode 15, he played the brief boyfriend of Charlotte King, and is accused of abusing OxyContin. Campos also had a recurring role, during the first season of "Royal Pains", as Charlie Casey, the ex-husband of one of the lead characters, Jill Casey.


title: Bruno Campos

text: He voiced the character of Prince Naveen in the Disney film, "The Princess and the Frog", which was released in 2009 and went on to be nominated for three Academy Awards. In 2022, it was announced that he will be reprising the role in the upcoming attraction Tiana's Bayou Adventure, which will be opening at both Disneyland and Magic Kingdom in late 2024.


title: Bruno Campos

text: In the early 2010s, Campos stopped doing television and film work and enrolled in law school. He received a J. D. from the University of Michigan in 2013. While in law school, he held an internship with Judge Avern Cohn of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan. After graduating he passed the bar in New York. After passing the bar, he was an associate with the law firm Morgan, Lewis & Bockius. As of 2019 he is listed as being with the firm of Covington & Burling. According to his profile, he "represents client policyholders in a wide range of industries in complex insurance recovery matters", as well as "provid[ing] strategic guidance through the life of a claim, from claims presentation and mediation through disputes in courts and arbitrations."


title: Terai

text: The Terai or Tarai is a lowland region in northern India and southern Nepal that lies south of the outer foothills of the Himalayas, the Sivalik Hills, and north of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This lowland belt is characterised by tall grasslands, scrub savannah, sal forests and clay rich swamps. In North India, the Terai spreads from the Yamuna River eastward across Haryana, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. The Terai is part of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion. The corresponding lowland region in West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Assam in the Brahmaputra River basin is called 'Dooars'.


title: Terai

text: In Nepal, the term is applied to the part of the country situated north of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Nepal's Terai stretches over , about 23.1% of Nepal's land area, and lies at an elevation of between . The region comprises more than 50 wetlands. North of the Terai rises the Bhabar, a narrow but continuous belt of forest about wide.


title: Terai

text: The Urdu word तराई tarāʼī means "lands lying at the foot of a watershed" or "on the banks of a river; low ground flooded with water, valley, basin, marshy ground, marsh, swamp; meadow".


title: Terai

text: In Nepali, the region is called 'tarāi' meaning "the low-lying land, plain" and especially "the low-lying land at the foot of the Himālayas".


title: Terai

text: The Terai is crossed by the large perennial Himalayan rivers Yamuna, Ganges, Sarda, Karnali, Narayani and Kosi that have each built alluvial fans covering thousands of square kilometres below their exits from the hills. Medium rivers such as the Rapti rise in the Mahabharat Range. The geological structure of the region consists of old and new alluvium, both of which constitute alluvial deposits of mainly sand, clay, silt, gravels and coarse fragments. The new alluvium is renewed every year by fresh deposits brought down by active streams, which engage themselves in fluvial action. Old alluvium is found rather away from river courses, especially on uplands of the plain where silting is a rare phenomenon.


title: Terai

text: A large number of small and usually seasonal rivers flow through the Terai, most of which originate in the Sivalik Hills. The soil in the Terai is alluvial and fine to medium textured. Forest cover in the Terai and hill areas has decreased at an annual rate of 1.3% between 1978 and 1979, and 2.3% between 1990 and 1991.


title: Terai

text: With deforestation and cultivation increasing, a permeable mixture of gravel, boulders and sand evolves, which leads to a sinking water table. But where layers consist of clay and fine sediments, the groundwater rises to the surface and heavy sediment is washed out, thus enabling frequent and massive floods during monsoon, such as the 2008 Bihar flood.


title: Terai

text: In India, the Terai extends over the states of Haryana, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. These are mostly the districts of these states that are on the India–Nepal border:


title: Terai

text: The Inner Terai consists of five elongated valleys located between the Mahabharat and Sivalik ranges. From north-west to south-east these valleys are:


title: Terai

text: The Outer Terai begins south of the Sivalik Hills and extends to the Indo-Gangetic Plain. In the Far-Western Region, Nepal it comprises the Kanchanpur and Kailali districts, and in the Mid-Western Region, Nepal Bardiya and Banke districts. Farther east, the Outer Terai comprises the Kapilvastu, Rupandehi, Nawalparasi, Parsa, Bara, Rautahat, Sarlahi, Mahottari, Dhanusa, Siraha, Saptari, Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa districts.


title: Terai

text: Based on the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system, the Nepal Terai experiences a tropical savanna climate type with dry winters and hot summers, a mean annual temperature of , a mean annual rainfall of in the west and in the east.


title: Terai

text: Tharu and Dhimal people are the indigenous inhabitants of the Terai forests. Several Tharu subgroups are scattered over most of the Nepal and Indian Terai. They used to be semi-nomadic, practised shifting cultivation and collected wild fruits, vegetables and medicinal herbs. They have been living in the Terai for many centuries and reputedly had an innate resistance to malaria.


title: Terai

text: Dhimal reside in the eastern Nepal Terai, viz Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa districts. In the past, they lived in the fringes of the forest and conducted a semi-nomadic life to evade outbreaks of diseases. Today, they are subsistence farmers.


title: Terai

text: Maithils inhabit the Indian Terai in Bihar and the eastern Terai in Nepal. Bhojpuri people reside in the central and eastern Terai, and Awadhi people live in the central and western Terai. Bantawa people reside foremost in two districts of the eastern Terai in Nepal.


title: Terai

text: Following the malaria eradication program using DDT in the 1960s, a large and heterogeneous non-Tharu population settled in the Nepal Terai.


title: Terai

text: Pahari people from the mid-hills including Bahun, Chhetri and Newar moved to the plains in search of arable land. In the rural parts of the Nepal Terai, distribution and value of land determine economic hierarchy to a large extent. High caste migrants from the hills and traditional Tharu landlords who own agriculturally productive land constitute the upper level of the economic hierarchy. The poor are the landless or near landless Terai Dalits, including the Musahar, Chamar and Mallah. Several Chepang people also live in Nepal's central and eastern Terai districts.


title: Terai

text: As of June 2011, the human population in the Nepal Terai totalled 13,318,705 people in 2,527,558 households comprising more than 120 different ethnic groups and castes such as Badi, Chamling, Ghale, Kumal, Limbu, Magar, Muslim, Rajbanshi, Teli, Thakuri, Yadav and Majhi speaking people.


title: Terai

text: The Muslim invasion of northern India during the 14th century caused Hindu and Buddhist people to seek refuge from religious persecution. Rajput nobles and their entourage migrated to the Himalayan foothills and gained control over the region from Kashmir to the eastern Terai during the next three centuries.


title: Terai

text: Until the mid 18th century, the Nepal Terai was divided into several smaller kingdoms, and the forests were little disturbed.


title: Terai

text: By the 16th century, the rulers of Palpa and Makwanpur controlled the mid-western Terai and extended this control to the eastern Terai by the 17th century.


title: Terai

text: They controlled the area of today's districts of Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusa, Mahottari and Sarlahi. The rulers of Makwanpur controlled the central Terai region of present-day Nepal, and the rulers of Vijayapur controlled today's Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa Districts. The Shah rulers conquered the eastern Nepal Terai in the 1770s. They also conquered land in the eastern Terai that belonged to the Kingdom of Sikkim.


title: Terai

text: The Tulsipur State in the Dang Valley of Nepal's western Terai was also an independent kingdom, until it was conquered in 1785 by Bahadur Shah of Nepal during the unification of Nepal.


title: Terai

text: Since the late 18th century, the Shah rulers encouraged Indian people to settle in the Terai and supported famine-stricken Bihari farmers to convert and cultivate land in the eastern Nepal Terai.


title: Terai

text: From at least 1786 onward, they appointed government officers in the eastern Terai districts of Parsa, Bara, Rautahat, Mahottari, Saptari and Morang to levy taxes, collect revenues, and capture Indian elephants and Indian rhinoceros. At the end of the 18th century, between 200 and 300 elephants were caught annually using snares or nooses.


title: Terai

text: The far-western and mid-western regions of the Nepal Terai called 'Naya Muluk' (new country) lay on the northern periphery of the Awadh dynasty. After Nepal lost the Anglo–Nepalese War in 1816, the British annexed these regions in the Terai when the Sugauli Treaty was ratified. But as reward for Nepal's military aid in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, they returned some of this region in 1860, namely today's districts Kanchanpur, Kailali, Banke and Bardiya.


title: Terai

text: To promote economic development of the Nepal Terai, people from the hills were invited to settle in the region. Since only a few moved to the Terai, Indian people were encouraged to settle. Immigration of Indian people increased between 1846 and 1950. They settled in the eastern Nepal Terai together with native Terai peoples.


title: Terai

text: The Indian Terai remained largely uninhabited until the end of the 19th century, as it was arduous and dangerous to penetrate the dense and marshy malarial jungle.


title: Terai

text: Dacoit gangs retreated to the Terai jungles, and the area was considered lawless and primitive by the British, who sought control of the region's valuable timber reserves. The region was densely forested with stands of foremost Sal.


title: Terai

text: Heavy logging began in the 1920s. Extracted timber was exported to India to collect revenues. Cleared areas were subsequently used for agriculture.


title: Terai

text: Inner Terai valleys historically were agriculturally productive but extremely malarial. Some parts were left forested by official decree during the Rana dynasty as a defensive perimeter called "Char Kose Jhadi", meaning 'four kos forest'; one kos equals about . A British observer noted, "Plainsmen and paharis generally die if they sleep in the Terai before November 1 or after June 1." British travelers to Kathmandu went as fast as possible from the border at Raxaul to reach the hills before nightfall.


title: Terai

text: Malaria was eradicated using DDT in the mid-1950s. Subsequently, people from the hills migrated to the Terai.


title: Terai

text: About 16,000 Tibetan refugees settled in the Nepal Terai in 1959–1960, followed by refugees of Nepali origin from Burma in 1964, from Nagaland and Mizoram in the late 1960s, and about 10,000 Bihari Muslims from Bangladesh in the 1970s.


title: Terai

text: Timber export continued until 1969. In 1970, the king granted land to loyal ex-army personnel in the districts of Jhapa, Sunsari, Rupandehi and Banke, where seven colonies were developed for resettling about 7,000 people. They acquired property rights over uncultivated forest and 'waste' land, thus accelerating the deforestation process in the Terai.


title: Terai

text: Between 1961 and 1991, the annual population growth in the Terai was higher than the national average, which indicates that migration from abroad occurred at a large scale. Deforestation continued, and forest products from state-owned forest were partly smuggled to India. Community forestry was introduced in 1995.


title: Terai

text: Since the 1990s, migration from the Terai to urban centres is increasing and causing sociocultural changes in the region.


title: Terai

text: Since the early 1950s, several political parties advocated for autonomy and independence of the Nepal Terai, such as the Nepal Terai Congress and Janatantrik Terai Mukti Morcha.


title: Terai

text: In 2013, more than 24 Madheshi political parties were registered for the Constituent Assembly of Nepal election.


title: Terai

text: The most significant border dispute of the Indo-Nepal boundary in the Terai region is the Susta area. In the Susta region, 14,500 hectares of land is generally dominated by Indian side with support of Sashastra Seema Bal (Indian border patrol) forces.


title: Terai

text: After the 2008 Nepalese Constituent Assembly election, Indian politicians kept on trying to secure strategic interests in the Nepal Terai, such as over hydropower energy, development projects, business and trade. The government of Nepal has accused India of imposing an undeclared blockade in 2015.


title: Terai

text: Dhurmus Suntali Foundation handed over an integrated community containing 50 houses to Musahar community of Bardibas at a cost of Rs. 63 million.


title: Terai

text: The Terai is the most productive region in Nepal with the majority of the country's industries. Agriculture is the basis of the economy. Major crops include rice, wheat, maize, potato, peas, lentil, mustard, sugar cane, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, garlic and chili. Fruits comprise mango, lychee, guava, papaya, banana and jackfruit. The Terai is also known for beekeeping and honey production, with about 120,000 colonies of "Apis cerana".


title: Terai

text: In the Jhapa district, tea has been cultivated since 1960; the annual production of 2005 was estimated at 10.1 million kg.


title: Terai

text: The Mahendra Highway crosses the Nepal Terai from Kankarbhitta on the eastern border in Jhapa District, Province No. 1 to Mahendranagar near the western border in Kanchanpur District, Mahakali Zone. It is the only motor road spanning the country from east to west.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: The Wages of Fear () is a 1953 French thriller film directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot, starring Yves Montand, and based on the 1950 French novel "Le Salaire de la peur" (lit. "The Salary of Fear") by Georges Arnaud. When an oil well owned by an American company catches fire, the company hires four European men, down on their luck, to drive two trucks over mountain dirt roads, loaded with nitroglycerine needed to extinguish the flames.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: The film brought Clouzot international fame—winning both the Golden Bear and the Palme d'Or at the 1953 Berlin Film Festival and Cannes Film Festival, respectively—and enabled him to direct "Les Diaboliques" (1955). In France, it was the fourth highest-grossing film of the year with a total of nearly 7 million admissions.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: Frenchmen Mario and Jo, German Bimba and Italian Luigi are stuck in the isolated town of Las Piedras. Surrounded by desert, the town is linked to the outside world only by an airstrip, but the airfare is beyond the means of the men. There is little opportunity for employment aside from the American corporation that dominates the town, Southern Oil Company (SOC), which operates the nearby oil fields and owns a walled compound within the town. SOC is suspected of unethical practices such as exploiting local workers and taking the law into its own hands, but the townspeople's dependence upon it is such that they suffer in silence.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: Mario is a sarcastic Corsican playboy, who treats his devoted lover, Linda, with disdain. Jo is an aging ex-gangster who just recently found himself stranded in the town. Bimba is an intense, quiet man whose father was murdered by the Nazis, and who himself worked for three years in a salt mine. Luigi, Mario's roommate, is a jovial, hardworking man, who has just learned that he is dying from cement dust in his lungs. Mario befriends Jo due to their common background of having lived in Paris, but a rift develops between Jo and the other cantina regulars because of his combative, arrogant personality.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: A massive fire erupts at one of the SOC oil fields. The only way to extinguish the flames and cap the well is an explosion caused by nitroglycerine. With short notice and lack of proper equipment, it must be transported within jerrycans placed in two large trucks from the SOC headquarters, 500 km (300 miles) away. Due to the poor condition of the roads and the highly volatile nature of nitroglycerine, the job is considered too dangerous for the unionized SOC employees.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: The company foreman, Bill O'Brien, recruits truck drivers from the local community. Despite the dangers, many of the locals volunteer, lured by the high pay: US$2,000 per driver. This is a fortune to them, and the money is seen by some as the only way out of their dead-end lives. The pool of applicants is narrowed down to four handpicked drivers: Mario, Bimba and Luigi are chosen, along with a German named Smerloff. Smerloff fails to appear on the appointed day, so Jo, who knows O' Brien from his bootlegging days, is substituted in his place. The other drivers suspect that Jo intimidated Smerloff in some way to facilitate his own hiring.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: Jo and Mario transport the nitroglycerin in one vehicle; Luigi and Bimba are in the other, with thirty minutes separating them in order to limit potential casualties. The drivers are forced to deal with a series of physical and mental obstacles, including a stretch of extremely rough road called "the washboard", a construction barricade that forces them to teeter around a rotten platform above a precipice, and a boulder blocking the road. Jo finds that his nerves are not what they used to be, and the others confront Jo about his increasing cowardice. Finally, Luigi and Bimba's truck explodes without warning, killing them both.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: Mario and Jo arrive at the scene of the explosion only to find a large crater rapidly filling with oil from a pipeline ruptured in the blast. Jo exits the vehicle to help Mario navigate through the oil-filled crater. The truck, however, is in danger of becoming bogged down and during their frantic attempts to prevent it from getting stuck, Mario runs over Jo. Although the vehicle is ultimately freed from the muck, Jo is mortally wounded. On their arrival at the oil field, Mario and Jo are hailed as heroes, but Jo is dead and Mario collapses from exhaustion. Upon his recovery, Mario heads home in the same truck, now freed of its dangerous cargo. He collects double the wages following his friends' deaths, and refuses the appointed chauffeur offered by SOC. Mario jubilantly drives down a mountain road, while a party is being held at the cantina back in town where Mario's friends eagerly await his arrival, which is expected to be in two hours. Mario swerves recklessly and intentionally, having cheated death so many times on the same road. Linda, dancing in the cantina, faints. Mario takes one corner too fast and plunges through the guardrail to his death.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: "The Wages of Fear" was critically hailed upon its original release. Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote "The excitement derives entirely from the awareness of nitroglycerine and the gingerly, breathless handling of it. You sit there waiting for the theatre to explode." The film was also a hit with the public, selling 6,944,306 tickets in France where it was the fourth highest earning film of the year.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: In 1982, Pauline Kael called it "an existential thriller—the most original and shocking French melodrama of the 50s. ... When you can be blown up at any moment only a fool believes that character determines fate. ... If this isn't a parable of man's position in the modern world, it's at least an illustration of it. ... The violence ... is used to force a vision of human existence." In 1992, Roger Ebert stated that "The film's extended suspense sequences deserve a place among the great stretches of cinema." Leonard Maltin awarded the film out of 4 stars, calling it a "marvelously gritty and extremely suspenseful epic".


title: The Wages of Fear

text: In 2010, the film was ranked No. 9 in "Empire"s "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema." The website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 100% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 47 reviews, with a weighted average of 8.90/10. Its critics consensus reads: "An existential suspense classic, "The Wages of Fear" blends nonstop suspense with biting satire; its influence is still being felt on today's thrillers." Metacritic reports a score of 85 out of 100 based on 15 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: The Wages of Fear

text: The British-American filmmaker Christopher Nolan was strongly influenced by "The Wages of Fear" for his film "Dunkirk".


title: The Wages of Fear

text: The film was drastically cut for its 1955 U.S. release, losing around 35 minutes of its original running time. This included the cutting of several scenes giving a negative portrayal of the fictional American oil company "SOC" after the film was accused of anti-Americanism.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: One of the best known and most successful of Clouzot's films, "The Wages of Fear" has been widely released on every home video format. However, with the exception of a French DVD (TF1 Vidéo, 2001) featuring the original 153-minute French theatrical version, until recently most releases only contained a slightly edited 148-minute version. A comprehensive 4K restoration, based on the original negative and supervised by cinematographer Guillaume Schiffman, was completed in 2017. It has greatly improved audio and video quality, and has been released on Blu-ray, DVD and DCP in France, (TF1 Vidéo), the UK (BFI) and Japan (IVC).


title: The Wages of Fear

text: The film was colorized in 1996 with the approval of Clouzot's daughter. It was subsequently broadcast on French television and released on French VHS.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: "Violent Road" (aka "Hell's Highway"), directed by Howard W. Koch in 1958, and "Sorcerer", directed by William Friedkin in 1977, are American remakes, although the former is not credited as such. Friedkin described the latter as an adaptation of the original novel.


title: The Wages of Fear

text: The plot was adapted for an episode of the 1980s American TV series "MacGyver", ""Hellfire"" (S01E08).


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Patrick Cutrone (; born 3 January 1998) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a striker for club Como.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Cutrone was born in Como and began to play football at a young age. In 2005, the 7-year old Cutrone started his youth career at the local team GS Parediense. In the summer of 2007, he had trials at Internazionale, Monza, and AC Milan. On 29 June 2007 he officially joined Milan's academy, where he spent the following ten years, playing through the different age groups up to the "Primavera" (under-19) team. In March 2015, Cutrone signed his first professional contract with Milan, effective from 1 July 2015 until 30 June 2018.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Cutrone received his first ever call-up to the senior team for a home game against Pescara played on 30 October 2016; he was an unused substitute. In January 2017, Cutrone was promoted to Milan's first team. On 21 May 2017, he made his senior debut in the 3–0 Serie A home win against Bologna, coming on as a substitute for Gerard Deulofeu at the 85th minute.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: In the summer of 2017, Cutrone signed a contract extension until 30 June 2021, while Milan's Chinese-led board of directors spent over €200 million on transfers, acquiring a total of 11 new players, two of which were strikers André Silva and Nikola Kalinić. Initially, in order to increase his playing time, Cutrone had been persuaded to join one of the lower-ranking Serie A clubs yet refused.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 27 July 2017, he was featured in the starting line-up for the first time in a 1–0 away victory over Romanian side Universitatea Craiova in the 2017–18 Europa League qualification. On 3 August, he scored his first goal for Milan in the return match of the same tie, which finished 2–0 for his team. On 20 August, he scored his first Serie A goal in a 0–3 Serie A away win against Crotone. On 24 August, he scored the only goal in a 1–0 away victory over Shkëndija in Europa League playoffs, and on 28 September, he scored a last-minute winning goal against Rijeka in the group stage to win the match 3–2 for Milan. Coming on as a substitute in the Coppa Italia match against local rivals, Internazionale, Cutrone scored the winner and his first goal in the Derby della Madonnina.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 28 January 2018, Cutrone scored an opening goal in the home Serie A game against Lazio. Initially, the goal was thought to be a header by the referee and Lazio players alike. However, after the final whistle, it became clear that following a free kick taken by Hakan Çalhanoğlu, the ball instead deflected off his arm straight into the goal. Although it was reported that Cutrone may possibly get a two-match ban for an alleged deliberate handball, an investigation conducted by governing body the FIGC proved that his actions in that episode were unintentional and, therefore, non-punishable. On 10 February 2018, Cutrone scored a brace in a 4–0 away victory over SPAL.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: In the summer of 2018, Milan's new board of directors decided to increase the team's attacking capability with the signing of a high-profile goalscorer, Gonzalo Higuaín, whom Cutrone first met in 2015 as a fan. Following his arrival, out of all the remaining strikers in the team (namely Nikola Kalinić, André Silva, and Carlos Bacca), Cutrone was the only one to have not been placed on the transfer market. On 31 August 2018, Cutrone came on as a late substitute and scored a last-minute match-winning goal in a 2018–19 Serie A home game against Roma (2–1), helping Milan secure the very first competitive victory in the season.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 12 January 2019, Cutrone came on as an extra-time substitute and scored two first-touch goals within just six minutes in an eventual Coppa Italia 2–0 away win against Sampdoria. In the same month, the club opted for an early termination of Gonzalo Higuaín's loan and bought Krzysztof Piątek as a first-choice striker, whose role on the pitch and style of play were considered "too similar" with those of Cutrone. The team's head coach, Gennaro Gattuso, also refused to pair strikers for tactical reasons and preferred 4–3–3 as his regular starting formation. As a result, Cutrone's playing time and quality of performances continued to decrease, with the player failing to score or assist in his 18 consecutive appearances, mostly as a super-sub. As Milan once again failed to qualify for the Champions League, Gattuso resigned and was replaced by Marco Giampaolo. Despite Giampaolo favoring 4–3–1–2 over any other formation, Cutrone's opportunities at Milan were still considered limited as the new coach sought to pair Piątek with a different type of an attacking partner than him.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 30 July 2019, Cutrone joined Wolverhampton Wanderers on a four-year contract. Cutrone made his league debut for Wolves as a substitute in their opening Premier League fixture of the 2019–20 season, a 0–0 away draw with Leicester City on 11 August, having made his debut appearance (also as a substitute) in the club's 2019–20 UEFA Europa League match away to FC Pyunik of Armenia three days earlier. On 15 August, Cutrone made his full debut for Wolves in a 4–0 home win against FC Pyunik in the 2nd Leg of the UEFA Europa League Third Qualifying Round. Cutrone made his full Premier League debut for Wolves in a 3–2 away defeat to Everton on 1 September. His first goal for Wolves came on 14 September, in a 2–5 home loss to Chelsea in the Premier League. In a 2–0 home success against West Ham United on 4 December 2019, Cutrone scored having only been on the pitch for two minutes as an 84th minute substitute.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 10 January 2020, Cutrone left Wolves to join Fiorentina on an 18-month loan deal, which included an option for the Italian club to buy the player.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 7 January 2021, Cutrone returned to Wolverhampton Wanderers after just under a year out on loan at Fiorentina, wearing the number 23 shirt, representing his age at the time of return. His first appearance for Wolves in the 2020–21 season was as a second-half substitute in Wolves's 1–0 home victory over Crystal Palace in a FA Cup 3rd round tie on 8 January 2021. Cutrone made his first start for Wolves since his return from loan in a FA Cup 4th Round tie away to non-league Chorley on 22 January 2021, a game Wolves won 1–0.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 31 January 2021 Wolves announced that Cutrone would be going out on loan to La Liga club Valencia for the remainder of the 2020–21 season.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Cutrone joined Fiorentina on an 18-month loan deal on 10 January 2020. Two days later he made his debut, as a 75th-minute substitute for Federico Chiesa in a 1–0 home win over SPAL. On 15 January, he scored to open a 2–1 win over Atalanta in the last 16 of the Coppa Italia, also at the Stadio Artemio Franchi.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 7 January 2021, Cutrone was recalled by Wolverhampton Wanderers. However, despite making four appearances within three weeks at the club, Cutrone was once again sent on loan at the end of the month.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 31 January 2021, La Liga club Valencia announced the signing of Cutrone on loan for the remainder of the 2020–21 season.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Cutrone returned to Italy ahead of the 2021–22 season, to play for Empoli, which just earned promotion to Serie A.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Cutrone represented Italy at Italy under-15, under-16, under-17, under-18 and under-19 level, making a combine total of 57 appearances and scoring 27 goals. In particular, he was part of the squad for both the 2015 European U-17 Championship and the 2016 European U-19 Championship.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: He made his debut with the Italy U21 team on 1 September 2017, in a friendly match lost 3–0 against Spain. Three days later, he played his second match against Slovenia U21 in which he scored his first goal for the side in a 4–1 victory.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: In March 2018, he was awarded his first senior call-up to the Italian national team, under interim manager Luigi Di Biagio, for Italy's friendlies against Argentina and England later that month. On 23 March, he made his senior international debut in the friendly against Argentina; Italy were defeated 2–0.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Cutrone was a member of Di Biagio's 23-man Italy under-21 side for the 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship on home soil; He scored in Italy's final group match – a 3–1 victory over Belgium on 22 June, although Italy were eliminated in the first round after finishing second in their group on goal difference behind Spain following a three–way six–point tie with Spain and Poland; Italy also finished as the second–best second–place team, behind France, who progressed to the semifinals of the competition.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Known for his eye for goal, Cutrone has been described as a "true number 9" by several Italian football pundits. His main playing attributes as a forward are his physical strength, positioning, aerial ability, and heading, as well as his opportunism, movement, and ability to read the game; he has also drawn praise in the media for his work-rate off the ball, while his technique and team play have been cited as areas for improvement, however. Due to his characteristics, he has been compared to former Milan striker Filippo Inzaghi, who used to train him while working as a coach with the Milan Youth Sector from 2012 to 2014. Although an avid Milan fan since childhood, he idolized Mattia Destro while playing for Milan Primavera and was also called "the young Destro" because of their similarities. Other players he idolizes are Andrea Belotti and Álvaro Morata, with the latter praising Cutrone for his performances in 2018. Although he is naturally right-footed, he is capable of striking the ball well with either foot.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Apart from his regular position as a central striker, Cutrone has also been used as a makeshift left winger by his former Milan coach Gennaro Gattuso, in a role similar to that of Mario Mandžukić at Juventus. Cutrone is also capable of playing alongside another attacking teammate in a 4–4–2 formation, balancing between the roles of a centre-forward/striker and a second striker.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: Former Milan forward Daniele Massaro likened Cutrone to himself in 2019, also referring to the latter as a "supersub," due to his penchant for scoring decisive goals after coming off the bench.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: In 2021, Cutrone visited the UEFA Euro 2020 Final played in London at Wembley Stadium between Italy and England, cheering his compatriots to victory amongst the crowd of about seven thousand Italian supporters. During the game, he served as an organizer of chants.


title: Patrick Cutrone

text: On 26 January 2022, his father Pasquale died. Prior to his father's death, during his time with Milan and Fiorentina, Cutrone used to wear the number 63 jersey as a tribute to his father, who was born in 1963.


title: Vintage clothing

text: Vintage clothing is a generic term for garments originating from a previous era, as recent as the 1990s. The term can also be applied in reference to second hand retail outlets, e.g. i"n vintage clothing store". While the concept originated during World War I as a response to textile shortages,  vintage dressing encompasses choosing accessories, mixing vintage garments with new, as well as creating an ensemble of various styles and periods. Vintage clothes typically sell at low prices for high end name brands.


title: Vintage clothing

text: Vintage clothing can be found in cities at local boutiques or local charities, or on the internet, e.g. eBay and Etsy, or through digital second hand shopping websites. Vintage fashion has seen a reemergence in popularity within the 21st century due to increased prevalence of vintage pieces in the media and among celebrities, as well as consumer interests in sustainability and slow fashion.