title: Molecular vibration

text: Vibrations of polyatomic molecules are described in terms of normal modes, which are independent of each other, but each normal mode involves simultaneous vibrations of different parts of the molecule. In general, a non-linear molecule with "N" atoms has 3"N" – 6 normal modes of vibration, but a "linear" molecule has 3"N" – 5 modes, because rotation about the molecular axis cannot be observed. A diatomic molecule has one normal mode of vibration, since it can only stretch or compress the single bond.


title: Molecular vibration

text: A molecular vibration is excited when the molecule absorbs energy, "ΔE", corresponding to the vibration's frequency, "ν", according to the relation Δ"E" = "hν", where "h" is Planck's constant. A fundamental vibration is evoked when one such quantum of energy is absorbed by the molecule in its ground state. When multiple quanta are absorbed, the first and possibly higher overtones are excited.


title: Molecular vibration

text: To a first approximation, the motion in a normal vibration can be described as a kind of simple harmonic motion. In this approximation, the vibrational energy is a quadratic function (parabola) with respect to the atomic displacements and the first overtone has twice the frequency of the fundamental. In reality, vibrations are anharmonic and the first overtone has a frequency that is slightly lower than twice that of the fundamental. Excitation of the higher overtones involves progressively less and less additional energy and eventually leads to dissociation of the molecule, because the potential energy of the molecule is more like a Morse potential or more accurately, a Morse/Long-range potential.


title: Molecular vibration

text: The vibrational states of a molecule can be probed in a variety of ways. The most direct way is through infrared spectroscopy, as vibrational transitions typically require an amount of energy that corresponds to the infrared region of the spectrum. Raman spectroscopy, which typically uses visible light, can also be used to measure vibration frequencies directly. The two techniques are complementary and comparison between the two can provide useful structural information such as in the case of the rule of mutual exclusion for centrosymmetric molecules.


title: Molecular vibration

text: Vibrational excitation can occur in conjunction with electronic excitation in the ultraviolet-visible region. The combined excitation is known as a vibronic transition, giving vibrational fine structure to electronic transitions, particularly for molecules in the gas state.


title: Molecular vibration

text: For a molecule with atoms, the positions of all nuclei depend on a total of 3 coordinates, so that the molecule has 3 degrees of freedom including translation, rotation and vibration. Translation corresponds to movement of the center of mass whose position can be described by 3 cartesian coordinates.


title: Molecular vibration

text: A nonlinear molecule can rotate about any of three mutually perpendicular axes and therefore has 3 rotational degrees of freedom. For a linear molecule, rotation about the molecular axis does not involve movement of any atomic nucleus, so there are only 2 rotational degrees of freedom which can vary the atomic coordinates.


title: Molecular vibration

text: An equivalent argument is that the rotation of a linear molecule changes the direction of the molecular axis in space, which can be described by 2 coordinates corresponding to latitude and longitude. For a nonlinear molecule, the direction of one axis is described by these two coordinates, and the orientation of the molecule about this axis provides a third rotational coordinate.


title: Molecular vibration

text: The number of vibrational modes is therefore 3 minus the number of translational and rotational degrees of freedom, or 3–5 for linear and 3–6 for nonlinear molecules.


title: Molecular vibration

text: The coordinate of a normal vibration is a combination of "changes" in the positions of atoms in the molecule. When the vibration is excited the coordinate changes sinusoidally with a frequency , the frequency of the vibration.


title: Molecular vibration

text: "Internal coordinates" are of the following types, illustrated with reference to the planar molecule ethylene,


title: Molecular vibration

text: In a rocking, wagging or twisting coordinate the bond lengths within the groups involved do not change. The angles do. Rocking is distinguished from wagging by the fact that the atoms in the group stay in the same plane.


title: Molecular vibration

text: In ethylene there are 12 internal coordinates: 4 C–H stretching, 1 C–C stretching, 2 H–C–H bending, 2 CH rocking, 2 CH wagging, 1 twisting. Note that the H–C–C angles cannot be used as internal coordinates as well as the H-C-H angle because the angles at each carbon atom cannot all increase at the same time.


title: Molecular vibration

text: Note that these coordinates do not correspond to normal modes (see #Normal coordinates). In other words, they do not correspond to particular frequencies or vibrational transitions.


title: Molecular vibration

text: Within the CH group, commonly found in organic compounds, the two low mass hydrogens can vibrate in six different ways which can be grouped as 3 pairs of modes: 1. symmetric and asymmetric stretching, 2. scissoring, and rocking, 3. wagging and twisting. These are shown here:


title: Molecular vibration

text: (These figures do not represent the "recoil" of the C atoms, which, though necessarily present to balance the overall movements of the molecule, are much smaller than the movements of the lighter H atoms).


title: Molecular vibration

text: Symmetry–adapted coordinates may be created by applying a projection operator to a set of internal coordinates. The projection operator is constructed with the aid of the character table of the molecular point group. For example, the four (un–normalized) C–H stretching coordinates of the molecule ethene are given by


title: Molecular vibration

text: The normal coordinates, denoted as "Q", refer to the positions of atoms away from their equilibrium positions, with respect to a normal mode of vibration. Each normal mode is assigned a single normal coordinate, and so the normal coordinate refers to the "progress" along that normal mode at any given time. Formally, normal modes are determined by solving a secular determinant, and then the normal coordinates (over the normal modes) can be expressed as a summation over the cartesian coordinates (over the atom positions). The normal modes diagonalize the matrix governing the molecular vibrations, so that each normal mode is an independent molecular vibration. If the molecule possesses symmetries, the normal modes "transform as" an irreducible representation under its point group. The normal modes are determined by applying group theory, and projecting the irreducible representation onto the cartesian coordinates. For example, when this treatment is applied to CO, it is found that the C=O stretches are not independent, but rather there is an O=C=O symmetric stretch and an O=C=O asymmetric stretch:


title: Molecular vibration

text: When two or more normal coordinates belong to the same irreducible representation of the molecular point group (colloquially, have the same symmetry) there is "mixing" and the coefficients of the combination cannot be determined "a priori". For example, in the linear molecule hydrogen cyanide, HCN, The two stretching vibrations are


title: Molecular vibration

text: The coefficients a and b are found by performing a full normal coordinate analysis by means of the Wilson GF method.


title: Molecular vibration

text: Perhaps surprisingly, molecular vibrations can be treated using Newtonian mechanics to calculate the correct vibration frequencies. The basic assumption is that each vibration can be treated as though it corresponds to a spring. In the harmonic approximation the spring obeys Hooke's law: the force required to extend the spring is proportional to the extension. The proportionality constant is known as a "force constant, k". The anharmonic oscillator is considered elsewhere.


title: Molecular vibration

text: By Newton's second law of motion this force is also equal to a reduced mass, "μ", times acceleration.


title: Molecular vibration

text: "A" is the maximum amplitude of the vibration coordinate "Q". It remains to define the reduced mass, "μ". In general, the reduced mass of a diatomic molecule, AB, is expressed in terms of the atomic masses, "m" and "m", as


title: Molecular vibration

text: The use of the reduced mass ensures that the centre of mass of the molecule is not affected by the vibration. In the harmonic approximation the potential energy of the molecule is a quadratic function of the normal coordinate. It follows that the force-constant is equal to the second derivative of the potential energy.


title: Molecular vibration

text: When two or more normal vibrations have the same symmetry a full normal coordinate analysis must be performed (see GF method). The vibration frequencies, "ν", are obtained from the eigenvalues, "λ", of the matrix product GF. G is a matrix of numbers derived from the masses of the atoms and the geometry of the molecule. F is a matrix derived from force-constant values. Details concerning the determination of the eigenvalues can be found in.


title: Molecular vibration

text: In the harmonic approximation the potential energy is a quadratic function of the normal coordinates. Solving the Schrödinger wave equation, the energy states for each normal coordinate are given by


title: Molecular vibration

text: where "n" is a quantum number that can take values of 0, 1, 2 ... In molecular spectroscopy where several types of molecular energy are studied and several quantum numbers are used, this "vibrational quantum number" is often designated as "v".


title: Molecular vibration

text: The difference in energy when "n" (or "v") changes by 1 is therefore equal to formula_13, the product of the Planck constant and the vibration frequency derived using classical mechanics. For a transition from level "n" to level "n+1" due to absorption of a photon, the frequency of the photon is equal to the classical vibration frequency formula_14 (in the harmonic oscillator approximation).


title: Molecular vibration

text: See quantum harmonic oscillator for graphs of the first 5 wave functions, which allow certain selection rules to be formulated. For example, for a harmonic oscillator transitions are allowed only when the quantum number "n" changes by one,


title: Molecular vibration

text: but this does not apply to an anharmonic oscillator; the observation of overtones is only possible because vibrations are anharmonic. Another consequence of anharmonicity is that transitions such as between states "n"=2 and "n"=1 have slightly less energy than transitions between the ground state and first excited state. Such a transition gives rise to a hot band. To describe vibrational levels of an anharmonic oscillator, Dunham expansion is used.


title: Molecular vibration

text: In an infrared spectrum the intensity of an absorption band is proportional to the derivative of the molecular dipole moment with respect to the normal coordinate. Likewise, the intensity of Raman bands depends on the derivative of polarizability with respect to the normal coordinate. There is also a dependence on the fourth-power of the wavelength of the laser used.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: The Death Race series is a car combat franchise encompassing a series of films and other media centered on a reality show set in a prison, where inmates race against each other in order to win their freedom.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: "Death Race 2000" is a 1975 cult action film. In the near future, the ultimate sporting event is the Death Race. Contestants score points for running people down as they speed across the country. The sport has crazed fans who sacrifice themselves to the drivers. A covert group is trying to bring an end to the immoral Death Race and has infiltrated one of their followers into the race as a navigator of the top driver. In the end, the lives of the competitors, the President and the Death Race itself are in peril.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: "Death Race" is a 2008 remake (although director Paul W. S. Anderson stated in the DVD commentary that he thought of the film as a prequel) of "Death Race 2000".


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: In the year 2012, the economy of the US collapses, causing unemployment and crime rates to skyrocket, and a sharp increase of convicted criminals, which leads to privatized prisons for profit. Claire Hennessey (Joan Allen), the warden of Terminal Island Penitentiary, earns profits from the pay-per-view broadcast of a modern gladiator game called the "Death Race", with the prisoners as the players. The racers, along with their navigators, drive a three-part race over three days on a closed track at Terminal Island, with various pressure plates: swords activate the racers' offensive weapons, shields activate defensive weapons such as oil, smoke, and napalm, and skulls ("Death Heads") activate deadly metal traps which rise up from the track. The reward for the drivers is that if one racer wins five races, they will be granted their freedom by Warden Hennessey.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: "Death Race 2" is a prequel to the 2008 film "Death Race". Getaway driver Carl "Luke" Lucas (Luke Goss) is arrested after a robbery for his crime boss Markus Kane (Sean Bean) goes wrong. As his accomplices are robbing the bank, two police officers casually enter the building. Luke tells his accomplices to abort, but they refuse; Luke intervenes, resulting in the death of one of the three accomplices. Luke shoots and kills one of the officers and dumps off his accomplices in order to fulfill Markus's wishes. In doing so, Luke is eventually captured by the police following a high-speed chase and sentenced to serve time on Terminal Island. Markus, worried that Luke will trade info on his crimes for immunity, discovers his location and orders his men to take Luke out.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: Death Race owner R. H. Weyland (Ving Rhames) has been forced to sell the rights to Niles York (Dougray Scott), a British billionaire who acquired the rights by hostile takeover. York reveals that he intends to relocate the Death Race to the deserts of Africa. Before leaving, Weyland arranges Lucas to have surgery to heal the infected and deadly scars on his face sustained from the previous film "Death Race 2". With Carl Lucas, a.k.a. Frankenstein (Luke Goss), one win away from gaining his freedom, York coaches Lucas to lose his race and threatens his life if he fails to comply.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: Corman made "Death Race 2050", a sequel to his original film, shooting in Peru starting in February 2016. It stars Malcolm McDowell, Manu Bennett, Burt Grinstead, Marci Miller, Folake Olowofoyeku, Anessa Ramsey, Yancy Butler, and Charlie Farrell, and was directed by G. J. Echternkamp. The film was released in the United States on DVD and DVD/Blu-ray combo on Jan 17, 2017, with three making-of documentaries: "The Making of 2050", "Cars! Cars! Cars!", and "The Look of 2050".


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: "Death Race: Beyond Anarchy" is a sequel to the 2008 film "Death Race", directed by Don Michael Paul and features the return of Danny Trejo and Frederick Koehler. It also stars Zach McGowan, Christine Marzano, Danny Glover, and Lorina Kamburova.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: "Deathsport" is a 1978 science fiction B-movie produced by Roger Corman, directed by Allan Arkush and Nicholas Niciphor.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: A comic book sequel series titled "Death Race 2020" was published in April–November 1995 by Roger Corman's short-lived Roger Corman's Cosmic Comics imprint. It was written by Pat Mills of "2000 AD" fame, with art by Kevin O'Neill. The pair had already worked together on several comics, including "Marshal Law". The comic book series, as the title indicates, takes place 20 years after the film ended and deals with Frankenstein's return to the race. New racers introduced here included "Von Dutch", "the Alcoholic", "Happy the Clown", "Steppenwolf", "Rick Rhesus" and "Harry Carrie".


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: The comic book series lasted eight issues before being cancelled and the story was left unfinished in the end.


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: In "Death Race 2" (2010) and "" (2013), the character R. H. Weyland (played by Ving Rhames), is the founder of the Weyland Corporation, the company who owns the Terminal Island Penitentiary from the 2008 film. The company is mentioned in the remake series, an allusion to the "Alien" franchise (despite the involvement of Paul W. S. Anderson, who is the director of "Alien vs. Predator" (2004), who also directed "Death Race" and co-wrote the 2008 film's prequels).


title: Death Race (franchise)

text: The 2017 TV show "Blood Drive" also draws from the "Death Race" series. Instead of killing people to earn points, people are sacrificed to the cars' engines, which have been modified to run off human blood rather than traditional fuel.


title: I Have Nothing

text: "I Have Nothing" is a song by American singer and actress Whitney Houston, released on February 20, 1993 as the third single from "" (1992) by Arista Records. The song was written by David Foster and Linda Thompson, and produced by Foster.


title: I Have Nothing

text: After the back-to-back successes of Houston's "I Will Always Love You" and "I'm Every Woman," "I Have Nothing" became yet another hit, peaking at number four on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and being certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The song also became a hit on the "Billboard" Hot R&B Singles chart, with a number four peak, and a number-one peak on the "Billboard" Adult Contemporary chart. Houston established another historic milestone in "Billboard" chart history with the two previous singles off the soundtrack and this song, becoming the first artist to have three songs inside the top 11 of the Hot 100 chart in the same week since the chart began using Broadcast Data System and SoundScan data in 1991. Internationally, the song reached number one in Canada, the top five in Ireland and the United Kingdom, the top ten in Denmark and Portugal, and peaked within the top forty in Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Switzerland. The song received various nominations, including for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media, and Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B Single (Female).


title: I Have Nothing

text: The song was promoted by Houston with live performances on her worldwide concert tour, The Bodyguard World Tour (1993–94) only, and also at various awards ceremonies and concerts such as the 4th Billboard Music Awards in 1993, the 21st American Music Awards in 1994, "" in 1994, and the 1st BET Awards in 2001. "I Have Nothing" also features on compilations like "" (2000) and "" (2014).


title: I Have Nothing

text: As with much of Houston's material, the song has been an extremely popular choice on many reality television series around the world, in particular "American Idol", on which it has become one of the most performed songs in the show's history; as of 2014, it had been covered eight times. "I Have Nothing" was also featured on the second half of the trailer, for the estate-approved documentary on Houston's life, "Whitney".


title: I Have Nothing

text: Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic viewed the song as a "first-rate urban pop song that skillfully captures Houston at her best" in a review for "The Bodyguard" soundtrack. Larry Flick from "Billboard" called it a "booming power ballad", adding that it "has the same lung-bursting drama" as "I Will Always Love You", "tweaked with a quasi-symphonic climax that never fails to push all the right buttons. No need to predict single's future. Just count the minutes to its planting at No. 1." Another editor, Chuck Taylor, in his writing about Britney Spears on October 24, 1998, issue, described "I Have Nothing" as "bombastic and ultra-challenging." Jan DeKnock of "Chicago Tribune" said it is "yet another scorcher of a ballad" from the soundtrack. Dave Sholin from the "Gavin Report" complimented Houston's "emotionally-charged performance".


title: I Have Nothing

text: Music writer James Masterton wrote in his weekly UK chart commentary, "A classic ballad like the Whitney we used to know and love showing her voice off to best effect and making a deservedly high new entry." Howard Cohen from "The Miami Herald" noted that "she soars effortlessly as she belts out the brass-inflected ballad". James Montgomery of MTV said the song was "untouchable." Alan Jones from "Music Week" described it as "an emotionally charged rollercoaster of a song, giving Ms Houston another chance to display her range." Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" wrote that the song and "Run to You" are "booming generic ballads to which Houston applies her typical stentorian delivery." James T. Jones IV of "USA Today" commented that "[the song] and 'Run to You' are thrilling ballads, powered by an operatic coloratura alto."


title: I Have Nothing

text: "I Have Nothing" was nominated for Best Original Song at the 65th Annual Academy Awards on March 29, 1993. David Foster and Linda Thompson were nominated for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media for the song at the 36th Annual Grammy Awards on March 1, 1994. The song was also nominated for Best R&B Single, Female but lost to Toni Braxton's "Breathe Again" at the 8th Annual Soul Train Music Awards on March 15, 1994. Foster and Thompson received the award for Most Performed Song from a Film for the song at the 10th BMI Film & Television Awards on May 17, 1994.


title: I Have Nothing

text: In 2012, "Porcys" listed it at number 99 in their ranking of "100 Singles 1990-1999". In 2017, ShortList's Dave Fawbert listed the song as containing "one of the greatest key changes in music history".


title: I Have Nothing

text: "I Have Nothing" was released as the third single from "" in February 1993. The single debuted at number 42 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 Singles chart, the issue date of February 27, 1993, when her two songs, "I Will Always Love You" and "I'm Every Woman" still placed within the top ten. Remarkably, for the weeks on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart ending March 13 and 20, Houston had three songs inside the top 11, making her the first artist to achieve the trifecta on the same week since 1991, when the Hot 100 using Broadcast Data System and SoundScan data. On the Hot 100 Airplay chart, Houston equaled the feat with the aforementioned tracks on the February 27 and March 6 issues. The song peaked at number four on the Hot 100 on the April 3 issue, becoming Houston's 14th top five hit, spending 20 weeks on the chart. The single entered the "Billboard" Hot R&B Singles chart at number 37 on the February 27 issue and peaked at number four on the chart in the April 10 issue. The song reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot Adult Contemporary chart the issue dated May 1, 1993, and remained there for two weeks, becoming her tenth number-one song on the chart. It placed at number thirty and thirty-two on the "Billboard" Year-End Hot 100 and Hot R&B Singles charts respectively. The single was certified Gold for shipments of 500,000 copies or more by the Recording Industry Association of America on June 1, 1993.


title: I Have Nothing

text: In Canada, the song debuted at number 50 on the "RPM" Top 100 Hit Tracks chart on March 13, 1993, and four weeks later reached the top ten. In its eighth week of release, on May 1, 1993, the single topped the chart and spent three weeks at the summit, staying on the chart for 18 weeks. The song entered the "RPM" Adult Contemporary Tracks chart at number 20 in the same week of its top 100 debut. Within five weeks, it hit the pole position of the chart on April 17, 1993, and stayed on the top for six weeks.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Worldwide, the song was a success but not as big as two previous singles from its parent soundtrack. In the United Kingdom, the single debuted at number nine on the UK Singles Chart on April 24, 1993, and the following week peaked at number three on the chart, making it Houston's ninth UK top five hit. According to The Official Charts Company, the single sold 220,000 copies in the country. It peaked at number four in Ireland, number 16 in Belgium, and number 20 in New Zealand. The song also reached a peak of number 28 in Australia, number 50 in France, number 39 in Germany, number 22 in the Netherlands, and number 39 in Switzerland.


title: I Have Nothing

text: A music video was produced to promote the single, directed by S. A. Baron. It depicts Houston performing the song to an audience in a dining room hall. The video is intercut with scenes from the film ("The Bodyguard", the same thing for "I Will Always Love You"). It was later published on Houston's official YouTube channel in November 2009. The video has amassed more than 600 million views as of February 2022.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Houston performed "I Have Nothing" at the 4th Billboard Music Awards on December 9, 1993, receiving a standing ovation. Chris Willman of "Los Angeles Times" commented on the performance, saying "Houston's physically stationary, vocally mobile approach to the ballad―backlit behind the mike in a she-got-back-her-figure-flattering gown―effectively heightened the tune's diva dramaturgy, making it an easy highlight in a night otherwise short on compelling performances." She also performed a rousing 10-minute-medley of show tunes that ended with the song―"I Loves You, Porgy" from "Porgy and Bess", "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" from "Dreamgirls", and "I Have Nothing"―at the 21st Annual American Music Awards, where she won the record eight awards, on February 7, 1994. This performance was included in the 2014 CD/DVD release, ""." Jet" magazine wrote about the AMA performance that "she [Houston] brought the house down with her soulful, stirring medley renditions."


title: I Have Nothing

text: On November 12, 1994, Houston sang the song during the concert in Johannesburg, South Africa, entitled "", telecast live via satellite on HBO. The performance is found in VHS and DVD with the same title of the concert, originally released in December 1994, and later re-released on June 24, 2010. The song was also performed on the concert to celebrate the wedding of Brunei royalty, at the Jerudong Park Garden on August 24, 1996. Houston sang the short-edited version of the song along with "I Will Always Love You," which were followed by a standing ovation, at the 1st BET Awards on June 19, 2001, becoming the first artist ever to be given the Lifetime Achievement Award.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Though "I Have Nothing" is one of Houston's notable hits during her career, the song was performed solely on The Bodyguard World Tour (1993–94) among her ten tours. Houston performed the song as the final part of a medley which included the aforementioned songs from Broadway shows on first North American leg of the tour in 1993, but since the European leg in 1993, the song was performed solely without two show tunes on almost all the rest of the tour dates. Four performances of the song on the South American leg of the tour (1994) were broadcast on each country's TV channel: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on January 23, Santiago, Chile on April 14, Buenos Aires, Argentina on April 16, and Caracas, Venezuela on April 21.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Filipino singer Charice Pempengco recorded a version of the song on her debut release, the self-titled "Charice" EP released in May 2008. Korean singer SunMin has a cover of the song on her mini album "Cover Girl", released in Japan, August 2008. The Italian variety TV show, "Ti Lascio Una Canzone" alumna Sonia Mosca covered the song on the compilation album "Ti Lascio Una Canzone - La Compilation", released in May 2009. In 2012, the song is performed on the TV musical series "Glee" in episode 17 of season 3, "Dance with Somebody", by Chris Colfer (as his character Kurt Hummel). The whole episode pays tribute to Whitney Houston and her music.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Jessica Simpson recorded a version of the song as a demonstration when she was a teenager age. Britney Spears revealed on VH1's "Behind the Music", originally aired on November 9, 2003, that she recorded a demonstration of the song before she was signed to Jive Records. Spears also later sang the song at her Jive audition at the age of fifteen.


title: I Have Nothing

text: On behalf of Houston who had given birth to a daughter the three weeks before the ceremony, Natalie Cole crooned Houston's two nominated songs including "I Have Nothing" at the 65th Annual Academy Awards on March 29, 1993.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Patti LaBelle performed the song as a tribute to Whitney Houston, the first ever recipient of the Triumphant Spirit Award at the 10th annual Essence Awards, taped on April 4, 1997, and broadcast later on Fox TV, May 22, 1997.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Leona Lewis performed the song during the semi-finals of the third season of The X Factor. She later went on to win the season.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Ariana Grande performed "I Have Nothing" in 2014 at The White House, along with some select dates such as Manila on her Honeymoon Tour.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Jessie J regularly covered the song on her Sweet Talker Tour in 2015 and 2016. She performed it again in 2018 while competing on the sixth season of the Chinese competition show Singer, which she went on to win.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Edyta Górniak performed this song with David Foster on the stage of Indonesia's 71st Independence Day Celebration.


title: I Have Nothing

text: Christina Aguilera performed the song with a hologram of Houston during the finale of Season 10 of The Voice, which was cut due to failing to meet "high production standards." The performance leaked online several days before the finale aired. Aguilera performed it again at the 2017 American Music Awards.


title: Data communication

text: Data transmission and data reception or, more broadly, data communication or digital communications is the transfer and reception of data in the form of a digital bitstream or a digitized analog signal transmitted over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibers, wireless communication using radio spectrum, storage media and computer buses. The data are represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage, radiowave, microwave, or infrared signal.


title: Data communication

text: Analog transmission is a method of conveying voice, data, image, signal or video information using a continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property in proportion to that of a variable. The messages are either represented by a sequence of pulses by means of a line code ("baseband transmission"), or by a limited set of continuously varying waveforms ("passband transmission"), using a digital modulation method. The passband modulation and corresponding demodulation is carried out by modem equipment. According to the most common definition of digital signal, both baseband and passband signals representing bit-streams are considered as digital transmission, while an alternative definition only considers the baseband signal as digital, and passband transmission of digital data as a form of digital-to-analog conversion.


title: Data communication

text: Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for example, a computer or a keyboard. It may also be an analog signal such as a phone call or a video signal, digitized into a bit-stream, for example, using pulse-code modulation or more advanced source coding schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out by codec equipment.


title: Data communication

text: Courses and textbooks in the field of "data transmission" as well as "digital transmission" and "digital communications" have similar content.


title: Data communication

text: Digital transmission or data transmission traditionally belongs to telecommunications and electrical engineering. Basic principles of data transmission may also be covered within the computer science or computer engineering topic of data communications, which also includes computer networking applications and communication protocols, for example routing, switching and inter-process communication. Although the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) involves transmission, TCP and other transport layer protocols are covered in computer networking but "not" discussed in a textbook or course about data transmission.


title: Data communication

text: In most textbooks, the term analog transmission only refers to the transmission of an analog message signal (without digitization) by means of an analog signal, either as a non-modulated baseband signal or as a passband signal using an analog modulation method such as AM or FM. It may also include analog-over-analog pulse modulatated baseband signals such as pulse-width modulation. In a few books within the computer networking tradition, "analog transmission" also refers to passband transmission of bit-streams using digital modulation methods such as FSK, PSK and ASK. Note that these methods are covered in textbooks named digital transmission or data transmission, for example.


title: Data communication

text: Courses and textbooks in the field of data transmission typically deal with the following OSI model protocol layers and topics:


title: Data communication

text: Data (mainly but not exclusively informational) has been sent via non-electronic (e.g. optical, acoustic, mechanical) means since the advent of communication. Analog signal data has been sent electronically since the advent of the telephone. However, the first data electromagnetic transmission applications in modern time were telegraphy (1809) and teletypewriters (1906), which are both digital signals. The fundamental theoretical work in data transmission and information theory by Harry Nyquist, Ralph Hartley, Claude Shannon and others during the early 20th century, was done with these applications in mind.


title: Data communication

text: Data transmission is utilized in computers in computer buses and for communication with peripheral equipment via parallel ports and serial ports such as RS-232 (1969), FireWire (1995) and USB (1996). The principles of data transmission are also utilized in storage media for error detection and correction since 1951. The first practical method to overcome the problem of receiving data accurately by the receiver using digital code was the Barker code invented by Ronald Hugh Barker in 1952 and published in 1953. Data transmission is utilized in computer networking equipment such as modems (1940), local area network (LAN) adapters (1964), repeaters, repeater hubs, microwave links, wireless network access points (1997), etc.


title: Data communication

text: In telephone networks, digital communication is utilized for transferring many phone calls over the same copper cable or fiber cable by means of pulse-code modulation (PCM) in combination with time-division multiplexing (TDM) (1962). Telephone exchanges have become digital and software controlled, facilitating many value-added services. For example, the first AXE telephone exchange was presented in 1976. Digital communication to the end user using Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) services became available in the late 1980s. Since the end of the 1990s, broadband access techniques such as ADSL, Cable modems, fiber-to-the-building (FTTB) and fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) have become widespread to small offices and homes. The current tendency is to replace traditional telecommunication services with packet mode communication such as IP telephony and IPTV.


title: Data communication

text: Transmitting analog signals digitally allows for greater signal processing capability. The ability to process a communications signal means that errors caused by random processes can be detected and corrected. Digital signals can also be sampled instead of continuously monitored. The multiplexing of multiple digital signals is much simpler compared to the multiplexing of analog signals. Because of all these advantages, because of the vast demand to transmit computer data and the ability of digital communications to do so and because recent advances in wideband communication channels and solid-state electronics have allowed engineers to realize these advantages fully, digital communications have grown quickly.


title: Data communication

text: The digital revolution has also resulted in many digital telecommunication applications where the principles of data transmission are applied. Examples include second-generation (1991) and later cellular telephony, video conferencing, digital TV (1998), digital radio (1999), and telemetry.


title: Data communication

text: Data transmission, digital transmission or digital communications is the transfer of data over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels include copper wires, optical fibers, wireless communication channels, storage media and computer buses. The data are represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage, radiowave, microwave, or infrared light.


title: Data communication

text: While analog transmission is the transfer of a continuously varying analog signal over an analog channel, digital communication is the transfer of discrete messages over a digital or an analog channel. The messages are either represented by a sequence of pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission), or by a limited set of continuously varying wave forms (passband transmission), using a digital modulation method. The passband modulation and corresponding demodulation (also known as detection) is carried out by modem equipment. According to the most common definition of a digital signal, both baseband and passband signals representing bit-streams are considered as digital transmission, while an alternative definition only considers the baseband signal as digital, and passband transmission of digital data as a form of digital-to-analog conversion.


title: Data communication

text: Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for example a computer or a keyboard. It may also be an analog signal such as a phone call or a video signal, digitized into a bit-stream for example using pulse-code modulation (PCM) or more advanced source coding (analog-to-digital conversion and data compression) schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out by codec equipment.


title: Data communication

text: In telecommunications, serial transmission is the sequential transmission of signal elements of a group representing a character or other entity of data. Digital serial transmissions are bits sent over a single wire, frequency or optical path sequentially. Because it requires less signal processing and less chances for error than parallel transmission, the transfer rate of each individual path may be faster. This can be used over longer distances and a check digit or parity bit can be sent along with the data easily.


title: Data communication

text: Parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of related signal elements over two or more separate paths. Multiple electrical wires are used which can transmit multiple bits simultaneously, which allows for higher data transfer rates than can be achieved with serial transmission. This method is typically used internally within the computer, for example, the internal buses, and sometimes externally for such things as printers. Timing skew can be a significant issue in these systems because the wires in parallel data transmission unavoidably have slightly different properties so some bits may arrive before others, which may corrupt the message. This issue tends to worsen with distance making parallel data transmission less reliable for long distances.


title: Data communication

text: Asynchronous serial communication uses start and stop bits to signify the beginning and end of transmission. This method of transmission is used when data are sent intermittently as opposed to in a solid stream.


title: Data communication

text: Synchronous transmission synchronizes transmission speeds at both the receiving and sending end of the transmission using clock signals. The clock may be a separate signal or embedded in the data. A continual stream of data is then sent between the two nodes. Due to there being no start and stop bits, the data transfer rate may be more efficient.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: The 9K52 "Luna-M" (; , NATO reporting name FROG-7) is a Soviet short-range artillery rocket system which fires unguided and spin-stabilized 9M21 rockets. It was originally developed in the 1960s to provide divisional artillery support using tactical nuclear weapons but gradually modified for conventional use. The 9K52 was eventually succeeded by the OTR-21 Tochka.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: Originally called the 3R-11 and 9R11, the 9M21 is a solid fuel rocket with four off-angle vernier chambers immediately behind the warhead section. When the main engine section ignites, the verniers activate to start spinning the rocket to improve stability and accuracy. At range, the 9M21 has a nominal CEP (circular error probable) of 400 meters. Western intelligence estimated that its CEP at maximum range was 500 to 700 meters, but Russian sources admit the likely impact point could fall anywhere within an area 2.8 kilometers in depth from range error and 1.8 kilometers in width in azimuth error.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: The initial 3R-11 rocket, known also by its military designation R-65 (NATO: FROG-7A), measured 8,900 mm in length. It was replaced in 1968 with an improved R-70 (NATO: FROG-7B) which measured 9400 mm. This new variant allowed for switching warhead sections and the addition of air brakes at the rear of the rocket, lowering the minimum range to .


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: The rocket is mounted on a transporter erector launcher (TEL) designated 9P113. Based on the ZIL-135LM 8x8 truck, it features a large hydraulic crane to allow faster reloading. The 9T29 transporter, also based on the ZIL-135RTM chassis, can carry up to three 9M21 rockets.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: In addition to its inaccuracy, the fact that the rocket was exposed to the weather was another drawback to the system, particularly when equipped with temperature-sensitive nuclear ordnance. In the early 1960s the Soviets experimented with a modified 9P113 launch vehicle with a fully-enclosed superstructure and launch roof. This did not solve the issue entirely though, necessitating the development of the Tochka.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: In Soviet service, the Luna-M was organized into battalions to provided divisions with rocket artillery support. Each battalion was organized with a headquarters battery and two firing batteries. Total complement included 20 officers, 160 enlisted personnel, four 9P113 launchers and (on average) seven rockets per launcher.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: The headquarters battery numbered about 80 personnel and provided the battalion with command and logistical support. Vehicles included 4 9T29 transporter vehicles, a 9T31M1 crane vehicle (Ural-375D), an RM-1 maintenance complex (3 ZIL-157s), an RVD-1 optical maintenance vehicle (Ural-375D) and PKPP maintenance/check vehicle (ZIL-131).


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: Each firing battery was organized with a headquarters, a meteorological section, a survey section, and two firing sections. The headquarters included a 9S445M command vehicle: a GAZ-66 truck with attached shelter containing fire control computer, radios and telephones. The meteorological section operated the RVS-1 Malakhit and a RMS-1 meteorological radar in the 1970s, but later upgraded to a RMS-1 End Tray radar supported by an auxiliary power unit, each towed by a GAZ-66. The survey section used a GAZ-69TM/TMG/TMG-2, GAZ-66T or UAZ-452T for launch site preparation. Each firing section consisted of a single 9P113.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: Preparing the launcher to fire could take anywhere from 15 to 30 minutes, and launch sites were generally located 20 to 25 kilometers behind the front line. It was the longest-ranged artillery system available to a division commander and typically reserved for special missions. Because the rocket's inaccuracy at long range made the use of conventional warheads insufficient barring a large and vital target, the system was more useful deploying specialized warheads.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: A number of Luna missiles, and 12 compatible 2-kiloton nuclear warheads, were deployed with Soviet forces in Cuba during the missile crisis in October 1962.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: The Luna was later extensively deployed throughout some Soviet satellite states. The rocket has been widely exported and is now in the possession of a large number of countries.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: In what became its first use in combat, Syrian forces fired a FROG-7 barrage at Galilee on 7 October and 8 October 1973, in the course of the Yom Kippur War. Although aimed at Israeli air bases such as Ramat David, the rockets struck several Israeli settlements. These unintended attacks on civilians gave Israel the justification to launch a sustained air campaign inside Syria itself.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: Starting in 2012, during the Syrian Civil War, the Syrian Army fired several FROG-7 rockets against different areas under control of different insurgent formations.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: Iraq made intensive use of FROG-7 rockets in the war with Iran (1980-88). After the war with Iran, Iraq modified its stock of 9M21s by extending their range to 90 km and fitting a submunition-carrying warhead. The upgraded rocket was renamed Laith-90. On 21 February 1991, during operation Desert Storm, Senegalese troops were hit hard by a Laith-90. Eight Senegalese soldiers were wounded in action as a result.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Headquarters of the 2nd Brigade, US 3rd Infantry Division, Tactical Operations Center (TOC) of U.S Col. David Perkins, was targeted and struck by either an Iraqi FROG-7 rocket or an Ababil-100 SSM missile, killing three soldiers and two embedded journalists. Another 14 soldiers were injured, and 22 vehicles destroyed or seriously damaged, most of them Humvees.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: In the course of the Yugoslav Wars, Serb forces launched FROG-7 rockets on a number of Croatian forces, like Orašje, Croatian military stronghold, in the outskirts of Zupanja, on 2 December 1992, where several civilians were killed, or the military airport Zagreb, on 11 September 1993, while the battle of Medak Pocket was still going on.


title: 9K52 Luna-M

text: RAF jets targeted and destroyed FROG-7 launchers operated by pro-Gaddafi forces south of Sirte in the 2011 Libyan civil war.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Judy Anne Mikovits (born April 1, 1958) is an American former research scientist who is known for her discredited medical claims, such as that murine endogenous retroviruses are linked to chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). As an outgrowth of these claims, she has engaged in anti-vaccination activism, promoted conspiracy theories, and been accused of scientific misconduct. She has made false claims about vaccines, COVID-19, and CFS, among others.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: As research director of CFS research organization Whittemore Peterson Institute (WPI) from 2006 to 2011, Mikovits led an effort that reported in 2009 that a retrovirus known as xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) was associated with CFS and might have a causal role. However, following widespread criticism, the paper was retracted on December 22, 2011, by the journal "Science". In November 2011, she was arrested and held on charges that she stole laboratory notebooks and a computer from WPI, but she was released after five days and the charges were later dropped.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: In 2020, Mikovits promoted conspiracy theories about the COVID-19 pandemic via the internet video "Plandemic", which made claims that are either false or not based on scientific evidence.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: In 1980, Mikovits received her BA degree in chemistry from the University of Virginia. According to Mikovits, she worked as a laboratory technician at Upjohn Pharmaceuticals in Kalamazoo, Michigan from 1986 to 1987, and departed after a dispute related to the company's bovine growth hormone product. In 1988, she worked as a laboratory technician at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in Frederick, Maryland under Francis Ruscetti, who later served as her PhD supervisor, and in 1991 she received a PhD in biochemistry from George Washington University. Her PhD thesis was titled "Negative Regulation of HIV Expression in Monocytes". Mikovits stated that she worked as postdoctoral researcher in the laboratory of David Derse from 1993 to 1994. By 1996, Mikovits was employed as a scientist at Ruscetti's Laboratory of Leukocyte Biology at the NCI.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: In May 2001, Mikovits left the NCI to work at EpiGenX Biosciences in Santa Barbara, CA, a drug-discovery company. By late 2005, Mikovits was working as a bartender at the Pierpont Bay Yacht Club in Ventura, California. In 2006, she became the Research Director of the Whittemore Peterson Institute, located in Reno, Nevada. After she published a paper in 2009, she became embroiled in controversy. She was fired from the Whittemore Peterson Institute in 2011.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Harvey Whittemore and his wife, Annette, were frustrated by lack of answers for myalgic encephalomyelitis/Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) patients, including their daughter. In an effort to solve the CFS problem, they created the Whittemore Peterson Institute in 2005; Mikovits became the research director in 2006. Attempts to find a viral cause of CFS were unsuccessful.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: In 2007, Mikovits met a co-discoverer of xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV), Robert Silverman, at a conference. Silverman had found XMRV sequences, which are highly similar to mouse genomic sequences, in prostate cancer specimens several years earlier. Using tools obtained from Silverman, Mikovits began to look for XMRV in her CFS samples. In late 2008, a graduate student, who subsequently was hired as her technician, obtained two positive results from a group of twenty samples. He and Mikovits successively altered the experimental conditions until all samples gave a positive signal.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: In 2009, Mikovits and co-workers reported in the journal "Science" that they had detected XMRV DNA in CFS patients and control subjects. Negative results were published soon after, disputing Mikovits's findings. Silverman, who was a co-author of the original XMRV-CFS article, told the "Chicago Tribune" that he was "concerned about lab contamination, despite our best efforts to avoid it".


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Two of the original authors of this paper subsequently reanalyzed the samples used in the research and found that the samples were contaminated with XMRV plasmid DNA, leading them to publish a partial retraction of their original results. In December 2011, after a request by Silverman, the editors of "Science" retracted the paper in its entirety.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Lo and Alter, in their 2010 paper titled "Detection of MLV-related virus gene sequences in blood of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome and healthy blood donors", stated "Although we find evidence of a broader group of MLV-related viruses, rather than just XMRV, in patients with CFS and healthy blood donors, our results clearly support the central argument by Lombardi et al. that MLV-related viruses are associated with CFS and are present in some blood donors." This paper was also later retracted by the authors.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: On September 29, 2011, Mikovits was terminated by the WPI due to disputes over the control of lab samples and the integrity of her work; she subsequently came under investigation for alleged manipulation of data in her publications related to XMRV. On November 18, 2011, she was arrested at her home in Ventura County, California, and jailed for five days based on WPI's allegations that she stole laboratory notebooks, a computer, and other material. She was held temporarily pursuant to that case, and her lawyer said the charges had no merit. By November 28, after negotiations with the WPI, some lab notes were returned. Later, the criminal charges brought against Mikovits in Washoe County, Nevada, were dismissed by the District Attorney and Assistant District Attorney in Reno, Nevada. "The Washington Post" later reported that the Whittemore family's legal troubles prevented the Washoe County from pursuing the case.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Mikovits and collaborators participated, with two other research groups, in a larger 2012 study with 147 CFS patients and 146 controls. The study concluded that there was no evidence of XMRV or MLV infection in either group, a result that Mikovits said was "the definitive answer" on the issue.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Mikovits has become a champion for believers in medical conspiracy theories, basing claims linking the XMRV to autism and cancer on other retracted papers, and claiming she had been jailed by the influence of the deep state and Big Pharma. This final claim refers to her arrest in 2011 for allegedly stealing research materials from WPI.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Mikovits has spoken at anti-vaccination events. She has claimed that retroviruses have contaminated 30 percent of vaccines.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Mikovits has received criticism from scientists for stating that XMRV is a communicable infection which is "clearly circulating through the population, as is our fear and your fear". Virologist Vincent Racaniello said that Mikovits's assertion "is just inciting fear". Mikovits showed slides at a conference linking XMRV to Parkinson's disease, autism, and multiple sclerosis. However, there is no published evidence that XMRV is associated with these diseases.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: Mikovits gained attention on social media for promoting her ideas about the COVID-19 pandemic. She does not believe that a vaccine is needed to prevent COVID-19, and claims that the coronavirus was "caused by a bad strain of flu vaccine that was circulating between 2013 and 2015". She also claimed masks will “activate” the virus and reinfect a mask-wearer over and over.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: One such circulating video gained notoriety in May 2020. Titled "", this film is a half-hour long documentary-styled interview of Mikovits's views on a variety of subjects. YouTube removed this video from its website a number of times, citing its Community Guidelines. It was later removed by Vimeo and Facebook for similar reasons.


title: Judy Mikovits

text: David Gorski reviewed the video for his blog and remarked that "the amount of nonsense, misinformation, disinformation, and conspiracy mongering in Mikovits' response to questions is truly epic". The video was fact-checked by the website Maldita.es, which rated the claims she made as either false, or not based on evidence. PolitiFact described the video as "a deep dive into conspiracy theories about COVID-19, public health and the pharmaceutical industry". When asked to respond to eight questions prepared by the Center for Inquiry, Benjamin Radford and Paul Offit about the accuracy of Mikovits' claims, producer Mikki Willis initially agreed, but did not follow through when the questions were sent. As of December 2020, Mikovits had still not provided answers to these questions with Benjamin Radford noting "For an expert and filmmaker who claim to have been censored and silenced, Mikovits and Willis were strangely silent about answering legitimate questions."


title: Judy Mikovits

text: When asked to comment on some of the allegations Mikovits makes against Anthony Fauci, the NIH and NIAID told NPR, "The National Institutes of Health and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases are focused on critical research aimed at ending the COVID-19 pandemic and preventing further deaths. We are not engaging in tactics by some seeking to derail our efforts."


title: President of the Confederate States of America

text: The president of the Confederate States was the head of state and head of government of the Confederate States. The president was the chief executive of the federal government and was the commander-in-chief of the Confederate Army and the Confederate Navy.


text: Article II of the Constitution of the Confederate States vested executive power of the Confederacy in the president. The power included execution of law, along with responsibility for appointing executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the senate. He was further empowered to grant reprieves and pardons, and convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances.


text: The president was indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a six-year term, and was one of only two nationally elected Confederate officers, the other being the vice president. On February 18, 1861, Jefferson Davis became president of the provisional government, as well as the only person to assume the position. On February 22, 1862, he became president of the permanent government and served in that capacity until the Confederacy's military collapse. The Confederate States cabinet declared the Confederacy dissolved May 5, 1865, after which Davis stopped attempting to exercise his office's powers and duties. May 5 is therefore generally considered to be the day the Confederate States of America (and its presidency) were formally abolished. Davis himself was captured by elements of the United States Cavalry five days later.


text: The constitutional powers of the president of the Confederate States were similar to those of the president of the United States. The permanent Confederate States Constitution made him commander-in-chief of the Army, Navy and militia of the confederated states when called into service of the Confederate States. He was also empowered to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the Confederate States. He was authorized to make treaties; to nominate and appoint diplomatic representatives, judges, and other officers of the Confederate States (including the heads of the executive departments) by and with the consent of the Confederate States Senate; and to remove such representatives and officers. During a Senate recess, he could fill vacancies but not reappoint persons previously rejected by the Senate. He was to supply Congress with information, recommend legislation, receive ambassadors and other public ministers, see that federal laws were faithfully executed, and commission all officers of the military and naval forces of the Confederate States.


text: On February 9, 1861, the provisional congress at Montgomery unanimously elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president. Stephens, who was a delegate to Congress from Georgia, was inaugurated on February 11. Davis was inaugurated on February 18 upon his arrival from Mississippi, where he had gone upon his resignation from the U.S. Senate. Confederate presidents were to be limited to a single term. Davis and Stephens were elected on Wednesday November 6, 1861 for six-years terms, as provided by the permanent constitution. The Capital had been moved in June 1861 to Richmond and the inauguration took place at the statue of Washington on Capitol Square on February 22, 1862.


text: Before Davis entered on the execution of his office as President of the Confederate States, he was constitutionally required to take the following oath or affirmation:


text: In 1861, the president of the Confederate States earned a CS$25,000 annual salary, along with an expense account, and a nontaxable travel account. The President's Office was located on the second floor of the Custom House on Main Street, a structure which also housed the Cabinet Room and the State and Treasury Departments. The City of Richmond purchased the White House of the Confederacy (Brockenbrough House) for presentation to the Confederate government for use as an executive mansion. Davis declined to accept the gift, but the mansion was leased for his use. Referred to as the "White House of the Confederacy" or the "Grey House," the mansion was used by President Davis until Richmond fell to the Union Army in early April 1865. The residence later became a repository for documents, relics, and pictures, and in 1896 it was redesignated the Confederate Museum.


The Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation (BLMGN or the BLMGNF) is an American organization dedicated to organizing and continuing activist activities in the Black Lives Matter movement. The organization currently has no leader and most of its chapters act autonomously, although efforts which were started in late 2020 by its then Executive Director Patrisse Cullors began to centralize its operations. The organization is often mistaken for other organizations within the Black Lives Matter movement because it often solely employs the phrase "Black Lives Matter" as its name and it also owns the domain name "blacklivesmatter.com" as its official website. While BLMGN often simply calls itself "Black Lives Matter", it is not the sole organization within the broader Black Lives Matter social movement. It is, however, the largest and most well-funded, and it also claims to speak on behalf of the movement.


title: Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation

text: The organization was founded in 2013 by three female activists and it currently serves as a network of activists within the Black Lives Matter movement. The organization is international and it advocates the eradication of systematic racism and the prevention of police violence. Among its core beliefs is that the entire US legal system, mainstream media, and society is inherently white supremacist; and that "policing at-large is an irredeemable institution" and should be defunded.


text: The organization has been criticized for its statements about Marxism as well as for its handling of its finances.


text: The organization exists as a decentralized network of local-based chapters. According to its website , there were over 40 chapters. Each local chapter is expected to embrace the set principles of the BLMGN, but it is allowed to internally organize itself in any way it pleases. Each chapter can form its own agenda, so some chapters are more radical than others. Local chapters are mostly funded via direct donations,but they can also apply for more funding from the BLMGN.


text: Initially created by Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi, Garza and Tometi have since left the organization, but they still speak at events and they still keep in contact with Cullors.


text: On October 9, 2020, the establishment of two new BLM organizations was announced to the public: the Black Lives Matter Political Action Committee (BLM PAC), and BLM Grassroots. Under this new organizational structure, the BLMGN is supposed to serve as the "fundraising body, the grantmaking entity, the amplifier, and the action-oriented think tank of the movement," while BLM Grassroots will continue to perform the actions of its chapters and the BLM PAC will push for political change. In November 2020, Patrisse Cullors, the sole BLMGN board member, was appointed executive director of the BLMGN.


text: The BLMGN is funded by donations and grants which it receives from the Black Lives Matter Support Fund, which is hosted on the donation platform Tides as of July 2, 2020. According to Tides, the BLMGN made the move after its previous fiscal sponsor, Thousand Currents, decided to discontinue its fiscal sponsorships in order to focus on its core grantmaking work.


text: The Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation is a member of the coalition organization Movement for Black Lives.


text: On April 27, 2022, the Black Lives Matter Global Foundation announced that its expanded Board of Directors will include Cicley Gay, D'zhane Parker and Shalomyah Bowers.


text: In 2015, an unaffiliated PAC which is entitled the "Black Lives Matter PAC LLC" was established by St. Louis based activists. Alicia Garza stated that the PAC was in no way endorsed by the BLMGN and she also stated that BLM was not interested in endorsing political candidates. When the Democratic National Committee adopted a resolution in solidarity with the movement in late August 2015 in which it specifically mentioned the BLMGN's founders, a statement on the BLMGN Facebook page stated that "[w]e do not now, nor have we ever, endorsed or affiliated with the Democratic Party, or with any party. The Democratic Party, like the Republican and all political parties, have historically attempted to control or contain black people’s efforts to liberate ourselves. True change requires real struggle, and that struggle will be in the streets and led by the people, not by a political party."


text: After the departure of Alicia Garza and Opal Tometi, the remaining BLMGN founder Patrisse Cullors announced the establishment of the first BLMGN-sponsored political action committee, the Black Lives Matter Political Action Committee, in the October 9, 2020, "2020 Impact Report" document. The move was noted as being unusual for a grassroots movement with no central leadership. The BLM PAC announced plans to endorse a slate of candidates ahead of the general election, Since its founding as a Super-PAC, BLM PAC has notably supported Raphael Warnock and Jon Ossoff during the 2020–21 United States Senate special election in Georgia and 2020–21 United States Senate election in Georgia, respectively.


text: The establishment of Black Lives Matter Grassroots and the establishment of the BLM PAC were simultaneously announced on October 9, 2020, in the "2020 Impact Report" document. It seeks to retain the original BLM movement's origins and unify its many chapters under the new BLM Grassroots name. It pushes for more unified, targeted stances on various issues which impact the black community, along with social and economic justice in general.


text: After the 2013 acquittal of George Zimmerman for the killing of Trayvon Martin in 2012, activist Alicia Garza woke up crying in the middle of the night and decided to write about her emotions in a Facebook post. In the post, Garza stated that she was surprised "at how little Black lives matter". The post would inspire Garza's friend Patrisse Cullors to create the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter on July 15, 2013. Garza and Cullors would reach out to their associate Opal Tometi to help establish Tumblr and Twitter accounts using the hashtag and where users could share relevant personal stories. Garza put the "Black Lives Matter" slogan on signs and displayed them in a local shoe shop. Cullors led a march down Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills with the slogan on her sign. Eventually, the slogan and hashtag would gain popularity.


text: The first chapter of the BLMGN organization would be organized in Los Angeles in 2013 with the help of Melina Abdullah. The first chapter would consist of 30 people, notably artists, students, organizers, and mothers.


text: During 2014 protests in Ferguson Garza, Cullors, and Tometi organized "Freedom Rides" to Ferguson. 500 people would sign up and travel to Ferguson in these "Freedom Rides". Protesters throughout Ferguson would adopt the slogan "Black Lives Matter" throughout the months-long protests. The organization's involvement in protests in Ferguson and the slogan's popularity brought the organization and the Black Lives Matter movement to national attention. New found popularity sparked a rise of other Black Lives Matter organizations that were independent of the BLMGN, as well as new chapters of the BLMGN forming in other cities.


text: On September 6, 2016, the International Development Exchange (IDEX, now known as Thousand Currents) announced a new partnership in which IDEX provided "fiduciary oversight, financial management, and other administrative services to BLM." As a 501(c)(3) organization, IDEX could receive tax-deductible grants, donations and gifts on behalf of BLM. The announcement highlighted providing "learning exchange and alliance building opportunities" between the 'BLM Network' and IDEX's partners in Africa. At this time, IDEX stated BLMGN had 37 chapters within the US and 5 outside.


text: After the murder of George Floyd and later protests many people tried to donate money to the BLMGN but often accidentally donated money to a similarly named organization called the "Black Lives Matter Foundation". The BLMGN would itself receive around 1.1 million donations averaging about $33 each after the murder of George Floyd. The BLMGN would soon create a 12 million dollar fund to aid its local chapters activities and other independent grassroots organizations.


text: BLMGN claimed $90 million in donations for 2020, with an end-year balance of $60 million. BLMGN wanted to scale their activity in proportion to their incoming finances, leading to $21.7 million in grants to Black Lives Matter chapters and other POC-led activist groups.


text: On May 27, 2021, Patrisse Cullors announced she was stepping down from her role as executive director of BLMGN to focus on the upcoming release of her second book and multi-year TV development deal with Warner Bros. Two new interim senior executives were brought aboard to steer the organization for the immediate future: Monifa Bandele, a longtime BLM organizer and founder of the Malcolm X Grassroots Movement in New York City, and Makani Themba, an early backer of the BLM movement and chief strategist at Higher Ground Change Strategies in Jackson, Mississippi. The move came amidst controversy over Patrisse Cullors' recent purchases of real estate, the foundation's finances, and her personal wealth. Cullors' claimed that the controversy was an attempt to discredit her character.


text: Sometime between May and June 2021, BLMGN met Biden-Harris White House officials to discuss their agenda. During the meeting, BLMGN leaders expressed disappointment in the administration's handling of issues relating to Black people. CNBC claimed this lead some to believe the organization may have less clout within the Biden White House than it had hoped for.


text: On September 3, 2021, Monifa Bandele and Makani Themba issued a statement stating that "although a media advisory was released indicating that we were tapped to play the role of Senior Co-Executives at BLMGNF, we were not able to come to an agreement with the acting Leadership Council about the scope of our work and authority. As a result, we did not have the opportunity to serve in this capacity. We wanted to be sure to inform our community of this fact as we move on to serve our movement in other ways." Consequently, there is no current leader of the organization.


text: As of mid-2021, BLMGN had spent more than half of the $90 million it made in 2020 on smaller organizations, consultants, including $840,993 annually to Paul Cullors, a family member of Patrisse Cullors, and real estate, leaving BLMGN with $42 million in assets.<ref name="nytimes/blm-finances"></ref><ref name="nymag/BLM-finances"></ref><ref name="nymag/blm-NO-Books"></ref><ref name="nymag/BLM-Secret-House"></ref><ref name="apnews/BLM-42-million"></ref>


text: The foundation's success and global reach have elicited some scrutiny of its statements. Founder Patrisse Cullors stated she and co-founder Garza were "trained Marxists" in a 2015 interview that resurfaced in 2020. This alarmed conservatives like Ben Carson, Rudy Giuliani, Mark Levin, and others. However, there is no single definitive Marxist theory, and the group's support of gender identity politics sets it apart from historical Marxism-Leninism. Miriyam Aouragh, a lecturer at the London-based Westminster School of Media and Communications, told Politifact: "I am fairly convinced these are mostly attempts to smear anti-racist activists. I think in some media, 'Marxist' is dog-whistle for something horrible, like 'Nazi', and thus enables to delegitimize/dehumanize them. [Black Lives Matter] is not an organization, but a fluid movement; it doesn’t actually matter if one of its founders was a liberal, Marxist, socialist or capitalist."


text: During the 2021 Cuban protests, the BLMGN released a statement calling for the United States government to lift its embargo on Cuba and praised the Cuban government for its "solidarity with oppressed peoples of African descent", adding "The people of Cuba are being punished by the U.S. government because the country has maintained its commitment to sovereignty and self-determination". BLMGN also claimed that the protests were caused by the "U.S. federal government's inhumane treatments of Cubans." BLMGN's apparent praise of the Cuban government received criticism due to the Cuban government's history of systemic racism and for ignoring the issues raised by Cuban protesters. In an email to NBC News, BLMGN officials said that their statement was "grounded in our unequivocal support for Cuba" and that they sought to amplify the voices of Afro-Cubans protesting oppression "from all actors, including the United States Embargo." The officials also said that "We unequivocally join in solidarity with the Cuban people against repression and violence from internal and unseen external actors" and that "We also understand that Anti-Blackness exists within Cuba and is a Global issue. We struggle for and alongside Black people across the diaspora for liberation and self-sovereignty."


text: Another statement that alarmed conservatives and libertarians was a note on the foundation's list of beliefs regarding disrupting the nuclear family. It was removed from the foundation's website in 2020:


text: On April 6, 2015, while speaking as a guest lecturer at Harvard Law School's 'Globalizing Ferguson: Radicalized Policing and International Violence' forum, Patrisse Cullors stated her opinion that people must "end the imperialist project that's called Israel:"


text: The foundation has been criticized for its partnership with the grantmaking organization Thousand Currents, whose vice-chair is Susan Rosenberg. As of June 25, 2020, Thousand Currents deleted its listing of Rosenberg's biography along with its entire board of directors webpage. According to Tides as of July 2, 2020, Thousand Currents decided to sunset its fiscal sponsorship of BLM to focus on its core grantmaking activities. The IRS granted BLMGNF tax-exempt status in December 2020, enabling it to operate independently of its former fiscal sponsors Thousand Currents and Tides Foundation.


text: BLMGN's handling of finances has been criticized by both members of the Black Lives Matter movement and by opponents of Black Lives Matter.


text: On November 30, 2020, ten BLMGN chapters filed a joint statement demanding greater "financial transparency, decision making and accountability" from the main BLMGN organization. The authors disputed sole BLMGN board member Patrisse Cullors' appointment as executive director "without the knowledge of the majority of Black Lives Matter chapters across the country and world." The statement went on to criticize the creation of the Black Lives Matter Political Action Committee, and BLM Grassroots, which the authors allege also occurred without their knowledge. In particular, the statement accused BLM Grassroots as having "effectively separated the majority of chapters from BLMGN without their consent and interrupted the active process of accountability that was being established by those chapters."


text: The authors further stated that "[f]or years there has been inquiry regarding the financial operations of BLMGN and no acceptable process of either public or internal transparency about the unknown millions of dollars donated to BLMGN, which has certainly increased during this time of pandemic and rebellion." The statement claimed that the 12 million dollar grant BLM announced in July 2020 offering chapters up to $500,000 was not equitable, as the money was raised from the organizing abilities of the chapters themselves and did not include the millions donated to BLMGN from other sources.


text: According to "Politico", chapter members had brought up their grievances about a lack of funding as early as 2016, and had prepared to go public a few months prior to the statement's reveal in November 2020. Chapters were encouraged to wait and discuss matters with Cullors privately, which members claim did not go well after they were not allowed to ask questions. Cullors has responded to the accusations stating that the ten chapters were "not formally affiliated with the global network" and were looking for credibility and money. The 2020 Impact Report announced that eleven BLM chapters would no longer be part of the movement, some of them having previously signed onto the statement. These chapters included: Boston; Canada; Chicago; DC; Denver; Detroit; Lansing; Memphis; Philadelphia; South Bend; and Nashville.


text: As of June 3, 2021, members of the chapter statement and others that have publicly criticized the group's funding and transparency go by the hashtag "#BLM10" and are represented by Rev. T. Sheri Dickinson of the Oklahoma City BLM chapter. According to Dickinson, "I know some of (the families) are feeling exploited, their pain exploited, and that’s not something that I ever want to be affiliated with." Cullors has responded that BLMGN does financially support families without making public announcements or disclosing dollar amounts.


text: On May 30, 2021, Patrisse Cullors announced she was stepping down as executive director to focus on her upcoming book and TV-show development deal with Warner Bros. and that such a decision had been in the works for over a year prior. The announcement came amidst a report in the "New York Post" claiming that Cullors had bought four luxury homes in the Los Angeles and Atlanta area during her time as executive director of BLMGN. The "AP News" and "USA Today" said that such claims were misleading. While public records showed Cullors did indeed buy three properties; two in Los Angeles and one in Atlanta during her time within BLMGN; no evidence has been presented that such properties were acquired through funds donated to BLMGN itself. Furthermore, no evidence has been found that the fourth property was a $1.4 million home in Topanga Canyon bought on March 30 through a limited liability company. In response to the allegations, Cullors claims that "as a registered 501c3, BLMGNF cannot and did not commit any organizational resources toward the purchase of my personal property," and that she has only received $120,000 from the organization since 2013 for being a spokesperson and for 'political education work,' and that she has not been paid since 2019. As for her other sources of income, Cullors stated that she had two previous book deals including a New York Times best-selling memoir, is a public speaker, owns a gallery, has a deal with YouTube, and teaches at a private liberal arts college in Arizona.


text: An April 2022 investigative report by "New York Magazine"'s Intelligencer revealed that the BLMGN had secretly purchased a $6 million house in Southern California in October 2020 with donated funds. In May 2022, Cullors defended the purchase, saying that "We really wanted to make sure that the global network foundation had an asset that wasn't just financial resources" and that "we understood that not many Black-led organizations have property. They don't own their property."


text: The BLMGN is registered as a tax exempt 501(c)(3) organization and has been asserted to be out of compliance and, , is under investigation in several states after failure to submit its 2020 IRS tax forms on November 15, 2021 after having been given a six month extension. The Foundation has failed to identify its current leadership or who controls its more than $60 million in assets, leading the Executive Director of the charity assessment organization CharityWatch to describe it as "a giant ghost ship full of treasure drifting... with no captain, no discernible crew, and no clear direction."


text: On January 27, 2022, a report by the "Washington Examiner" stated that the address listed on BLMGN's tax forms was wrong, and that a security guard onsite said there had never been a BLM office at that location. The "Examiner" further claimed that an unidentified BLM spokesperson stated that the organization does not currently maintain a "permanent office." Likewise, BLMGN's two remaining board members, Shalomyah Bowers and Raymond Howard, would not comment on who controls BLMGN's $60 million war chest after Cullors stepped down in late 2021. CharityWatch Executive Director [Laurie Styron] stated that the organization had not yet completed its 2020 Form 990 application. "Irrespective of where any person falls on the political spectrum or what their position is on any social justice issue, hopefully, we can all agree that tax-subsidized public charities have an ethical responsibility to be transparent with the public about how they are operating and how the donations they receive are being used. The amount of money involved here is not insignificant." A later "Examiner" piece clarified that BLMGN failed to submit its 2020 tax forms to the IRS when it was due on November 15, 2021, after previously being granted a six month extension.


text: The "Examiner" further claimed that as BLMGN was not a charity during 2020 in which it received a windfall of cash as a result of the 2020 George Floyd protests, it effectively borrowed the charitable status of its fiscal sponsors Thousand Currents and Tides Foundation. According to Thousand Currents Consolidated Financial Statements 2020, BLMGN was listed as a Delaware nonstock nonprofit foundation during this time. However, said financial statements also showed Thousand Currents transferred $66.5 million directly to BLMGN in October 2020, which was before BLMGN received its 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status from the IRS in December, 2020. Documents provided to the "Washington Examiner" by the Office of the California Attorney General show that Cullors signed the asset transfer on September 23, 2020. BLMGN's 2020 Impact Report released to the public in February, 2021 stated that it incurred $8.4 million in operating expenses in 2020 and that it closed out the year with $60 million under its control. However, as stated by the "Examiner", "BLMGNF reported to the IRS in August 2020 that it expected to incur precisely $12,706,366 in "Professional Fees" expenditures during the same calendar year, a figure $4.3 million higher than the top-line annual spending figure it later reported to the public in February."


text: The "Washington Examiner" also raised concerns over board member Raymond Howard, claiming that Howard's LinkedIn profile stated he was the finance and operations manager of New Impact Partners, a consulting firm owned by Howard's sister. A quote from Howard which stated his connection to BLMGNF in the attribution and later removed from New Impact Partner's website, stated that, "New Impact Partners helped my team narrow in on the root cause of our organizational challenge. Together, we truly partnered to define solutions and created a set of clear priorities."


text: On February 1, 2022, the "Washington Examiner" published a follow up piece stating that the Washington Secretary of State Corporations and Charities Division told BLMGN in early January that it must immediately stop fundraising activities in the state due to its lack of financial transparency, failure to submit required financial documents, and failure to register pursuant to the Charitable Solicitations Act. It claimed that BLMGN continuing to solicit donations could result in injunctions and civil penalties of $2,000 per violation. The "Examiner" stated that BLMGN's charity registration is also out of compliance in Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Virginia. It also stated that the conservative watchdog group National Legal and Policy Center is preparing a complaint against BLMGN. The "Examiner" also reported that the California Department of Justice stated the "organization BLACK LIVES MATTER GLOBAL NETWORK FOUNDATION, INC. is delinquent with The Registry of Charitable Trusts for failing to submit required annual report(s)," and vowed to hold the leadership of BLMGN personally liable if it did not submit the required documents within sixty days, as of January 31. On February 4, the National Legal and Policy Center submitted its legal complains to the attorney generals of Washington and California, in which the Center demanded "a full investigation and audit of this group, and possible criminal sanctions."


text: On February 4, a day after the "Examiner" reported BLMGN was still accepting donations in states where it was forbidden to do so, BLMGN's fundraising pages on ActBlue were no longer available. BLMGN stated it had enacted a "compliance council" to right itself after the accusations leveled in the "Washington Examiner" report. The "Examiner" also stated that [Shalomyah Bowers], one of BLMGN's two known board members, had gone "underground" by leaving an automated email stating they would be unavailable by phone or email for the first half of February.


text: On February 4, Indiana Attorney General Todd Rokita told Fox News he launched an investigation into BLM to find out if the organization was a "scam." On February 8, Jerri Mares, spokeswoman for New Mexico Attorney General Hector Balderas, announced that the office is currently "securing compliance" with BLMGN.


text: In September 2022, a lawsuit was filed accusing an executive of BLMGN, Shalomyah Bowers, of "syphoning" more than $10 million from donors. Bowers denied the accusations, calling them "harmful, divisive, and false."


text: On February 14, 2022, BLM member and social justice activist Quintez Brown was charged with attempted murder and four counts of wanton endangerment after firing shots in the campaign headquarters of Jewish Democratic mayoral candidate Craig Greenberg, a political candidate running for the Louisville, Kentucky Metro Council District 5; the same position Brown was also running for as an independent. After arriving at Greenberg's campaign office, Brown pulled out a 9mm Glock and fired several rounds, with one round grazing Greenberg's shirt. Brown was arrested shortly thereafter less than a half-mile from the scene with a loaded 9mm magazine in his pants pocket and a drawstring bag with a handgun and additional handgun magazines, according to the arrest report.


text: On February 15, 2022, the BLMGN-affiliated chapter Black Lives Matter Louisville, teamed up with the Louisville Community Bail Fund to release Quintez Brown by posting Brown's bail with a $100,000 cashier's check that afternoon. The following day, Greenberg stated he was "traumatized" by the affair, stating that "it is nearly impossible to believe that someone can attempt murder on Monday and walk out of jail on Wednesday." Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell further lambasted the decision, claiming that the "radical-left bailed their comrade out of jail." McConnell further accused the media of a double standard when it comes to media coverage of suspected criminals from different political backgrounds, stating: "I'm confident that if an activist claiming to be conservative tried to assassinate a politician, whatever his mental state, the media would open a 24-7 'national conversation' about rhetoric on the right. Somehow I doubt attempted murder by a BLM activist will get that treatment."


text: Condemnation of the release crossed party lines, with Democratic US Senate candidate Charles Booker joining criticism of the decision, stating that "anyone who has been arrested for attempted murder — and is feared to be a harm to themselves and others — should be in custody."


text: In 2021, the foundation won the Olof Palme Prize for "promoting 'peaceful civil disobedience against police brutality and racial violence' across the globe" and was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.


title: Raguel (angel)

text: Raguel (Greek: Ῥαγουὴλ '; Hebrew: רְעוּאֵל "Rəʿūʾēl," Tiberian: "Rŭʿūʾēl") also known as Raguil, Raquel, Rakul and Reuel, is an angel mainly of the Judaic traditions. He is considered the Angel of Justice. His name means "God shall pasture". This meaning is also related to the Hebrew word "rōʿī" (רֹעִי), meaning shepherd.


title: Raguel (angel)

text: Raguel is almost always referred to as the archangel of justice, fairness, harmony, vengeance, and redemption. In the "Book of Enoch", cap. XXIII, Raguel is one of the seven angels whose role is to watch. His number is 6, and his function is to take vengeance on the world of the luminaries who have transgressed God's laws.


title: Raguel (angel)

text: Raguel's duties have remained the same across Jewish and Christian traditions. Much like a sheriff or constable, Raguel's purpose has always been to keep fallen angels and demons in check, delivering judgment upon any that over-step their boundaries. He has been known to destroy wicked spirits and cast fallen angels into Hell (called Gehenna in the Hebrew Old Testament and called Tartarus in the Greek New Testament).


title: Raguel (angel)

text: Raguel is not mentioned in the canonical writings of the Bible. However, in "2 Enoch", which is generally considered non-canonical, the patriarch Enoch was carried as a mortal to and from Heaven by the angels Raguel and Sariel.


The Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive 2002/95/EC (RoHS 1), short for Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, was adopted in February 2003 by the European Union.


title: Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive

text: The initiative was to prevent an overabundance of chemicals in electronics. Thus, as a result electronics were restricted.


text: The RoHS 1 directive took effect on 1 July 2006, and is required to be enforced and became a law in each member state. This directive restricts (with exceptions) the use of ten hazardous materials in the manufacture of various types of electronic and electrical equipment. In addition to the exceptions, there are exclusions for products such as solar panels. It is closely linked with the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) 2002/96/EC (now superseded) which sets collection, recycling and recovery targets for electrical goods and is part of a legislative initiative to solve the problem of huge amounts of toxic electronic waste. In speech, RoHS is often spelled out, or pronounced , , , or , and refers to the EU standard, unless otherwise qualified.


text: Each European Union member state will adopt its own enforcement and implementation policies using the directive as a guide.


text: RoHS is often referred to as the "lead-free directive," but it restricts the use of the following ten substances:


text: DEHP, BBP, DBP and DIBP were added as part of DIRECTIVE (EU) 2015/863 which was published on 31 March 2015.


text: PBB and PBDE are flame retardants used in several plastics. Hexavalent chromium is used in chrome plating, chromate coatings and primers, and in chromic acid.


text: The maximum permitted concentrations in non-exempt products are 0.1% or 1000 ppm (except for cadmium, which is limited to 0.01% or 100 ppm) by weight. The restrictions are on each "homogeneous material" in the product, which means that the limits do not apply to the weight of the finished product, or even to a component, but to any single material that could (theoretically) be separated mechanically — for example, the sheath on a cable or the tinning on a component lead.


text: As an example, a radio is composed of a case, screws, washers, a circuit board, speakers, etc. The screws, washers, and case may each be made of homogenous materials, but the other components comprise multiple sub-components of many different types of material. For instance, a circuit board is composed of a bare printed circuit board (PCB), integrated circuits (IC), resistors, capacitors, switches, etc. A switch is composed of a case, a lever, a spring, contacts, pins, etc., each of which may be made of different materials. A contact might be composed of a copper strip with a surface coating. A loudspeaker is composed of a permanent magnet, copper wire, paper, etc.


text: Everything that can be identified as a homogeneous material must meet the limit. So if it turns out that the case was made of plastic with 2,300 ppm (0.23%) PBB used as a flame retardant, then the entire radio would fail the requirements of the directive.


text: In an effort to close RoHS 1 loopholes, in May 2006 the European Commission was asked to review two currently excluded product categories (monitoring and control equipment, and medical devices) for future inclusion in the products that must fall into RoHS compliance. In addition the commission entertains requests for deadline extensions or for exclusions by substance categories, substance location or weight. New legislation was published in the official journal in July 2011 which supersedes this exemption.


text: Note that batteries are not included within the scope of RoHS. However, in Europe, batteries are under the European Commission's 1991 Battery Directive (91/157/EEC), which was recently increased in scope and approved in the form of the new battery directive, version 2003/0282 COD, which will be official when submitted to and published in the EU's Official Journal. While the first Battery Directive addressed possible trade barrier issues brought about by disparate European member states' implementation, the new directive more explicitly highlights improving and protecting the environment from the negative effects of the waste contained in batteries. It also contains a programme for more ambitious recycling of industrial, automotive, and consumer batteries, gradually increasing the rate of manufacturer-provided collection sites to 45% by 2016. It also sets limits of 5 ppm mercury and 20 ppm cadmium to batteries except those used in medical, emergency, or portable power-tool devices. Though not setting quantitative limits on quantities of lead, lead–acid, nickel, and nickel–cadmium in batteries, it cites a need to restrict these substances and provide for recycling up to 75% of batteries with these substances. There are also provisions for marking the batteries with symbols in regard to metal content and recycling collection information.


text: The directive applies to equipment as defined by a section of the WEEE directive. The following numeric categories apply:


text: It does not apply to fixed industrial plant and tools. Compliance is the responsibility of the company that puts the product on the market, as defined in the Directive; components and sub-assemblies are not responsible for product compliance. Of course, given the fact that the regulation is applied at the homogeneous material level, data on substance concentrations needs to be transferred through the supply chain to the final producer. An IPC standard has recently been developed and published to facilitate this data exchange, IPC-1752. It is enabled through two PDF forms that are free to use.


text: RoHS applies to these products in the EU whether made within the EU or imported. Certain exemptions apply, and these are updated on occasion by the EU.


text: RoHS restricted substances have been used in a broad array of consumer electronics products. Examples of components that have contained lead include:


text: Cadmium is found in many of the components above; examples include plastic pigmentation, nickel–cadmium (NiCd) batteries and CdS photocells (used in night lights). Mercury is used in lighting applications and automotive switches; examples include fluorescent lamps and mercury tilt switches (these are rarely used nowadays). Hexavalent chromium is used for metal finishes to prevent corrosion. Polybrominated biphenyls and diphenyl ethers/oxides are used primarily as flame retardants.


text: RoHS and other efforts to reduce hazardous materials in electronics are motivated in part to address the global issue of consumer electronics waste. As newer technology arrives at an ever-increasing rate, consumers are discarding their obsolete products sooner than ever. This waste ends up in landfills and in countries like China to be "recycled."


text: In the fashion-conscious mobile market, 98 million U.S. cell phones took their last call in 2005. All told, the EPA estimates that in the U.S. that year, between 1.5 and 1.9 million tons of computers, TVs, VCRs, monitors, cell phones, and other equipment were discarded. If all sources of electronic waste are tallied, it could total 50 million tons a year worldwide, according to the UN Environment Programme.


text: American electronics sent offshore to countries like Ghana in West Africa under the guise of recycling may be doing more harm than good. Not only are adult and child workers in these jobs being poisoned by heavy metals, but these metals are returning to the U.S. "The U.S. right now is shipping large quantities of leaded materials to China, and China is the world's major manufacturing center," Dr. Jeffrey Weidenhamer says, a chemistry professor at Ashland University in Ohio. "It's not all that surprising things are coming full circle and now we're getting contaminated products back."


text: In addition to the high-tech waste problem, RoHS reflects contemporary research over the past 50 years in biological toxicology that acknowledges the long-term effects of low-level chemical exposure on populations. New testing is capable of detecting much smaller concentrations of environmental toxicants. Researchers are associating these exposures with neurological, developmental, and reproductive changes.


text: RoHS and other environmental laws are in contrast to historical and contemporary law that seek to address only acute toxicology, that is direct exposure to large amounts of toxic substances causing severe injury or death.