title: Baltic Way

text: The organisers mapped out the chain, designating specific locations to specific cities and towns to make sure that the chain would be uninterrupted. Free bus rides were provided for those who did not have other transportation. Preparations spread across the country, energising the previously uninvolved rural population. Some employers did not allow workers to take the day off from work (23 August fell on a Wednesday), while others sponsored the bus rides. On the day of the event, special radio broadcasts helped to coordinate the effort. Estonia declared a public holiday.


title: Baltic Way

text: The Baltic pro-independence movements issued a joint declaration to the world and European community in the name of the protest. The declaration condemned the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, calling it a criminal act, and urged declaration that the pact was "null and void from the moment of signing." The declaration said that the question of the Baltics was a "problem of inalienable human rights" and accused the European community of "double standards" and turning a blind eye to the "last colonies of Hitler–Stalin era." On the day of the protest, "Pravda" published an editorial titled "Only the Facts." It was a collection of quotes from pro-independence activists intended to show the unacceptable anti-Soviet nature of their work.


title: Baltic Way

text: The chain connected the three Baltic capitals – Vilnius, Riga, and Tallinn. It ran from Vilnius along the A2 highway through Širvintos and Ukmergė to Panevėžys, then along the Via Baltica through Pasvalys to Bauska in Latvia and through Iecava and Ķekava to Riga (Bauska highway, Ziepniekkalna street, Mūkusalas street, Stone bridge, Kaļķu street, Brīvības's street) and then along road A2, through Vangaži, Sigulda, Līgatne, Mūrnieki and Drabeši, to Cēsis, from there, through Lode, to Valmiera and then through Jēči, Lizdēni, , Oleri, Rūjiena and Ķoņi to Estonian town Karksi-Nuia and from there through Viljandi, Türi and Rapla to Tallinn. The demonstrators peacefully linked hands for 15 minutes at 19:00 local time (16:00 GMT). Later, a number of local gatherings and protests took place. In Vilnius, about 5,000 people gathered in the Cathedral Square, holding candles and singing national songs, including "Tautiška giesmė". Elsewhere, priests held masses or rang church bells. Leaders of the Estonian and Latvian Popular Fronts gathered on the border between their two republics for a symbolic funeral ceremony, in which a giant black cross was set alight. The protesters held candles and pre-war national flags decorated with black ribbons in memory of the victims of the Soviet terror: Forest Brothers, deportees to Siberia, political prisoners, and other "enemies of the people."


title: Baltic Way

text: In Moscow's Pushkin Square, ranks of special riot police were employed when a few hundred people tried to stage a sympathy demonstration. TASS said 75 were detained for breaches of the peace, petty vandalism, and other offences. About 13,000 demonstrated in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic which was also affected by the secret protocol. A demonstration was held by the Baltic émigré and German sympathizers in front of the Soviet embassy in Bonn, then West Germany.


title: Baltic Way

text: Most estimates of the number of participants vary between one and two million. Reuters News reported the following day that about 700,000 Estonians and 1,000,000 Lithuanians joined the protests. The Latvian Popular Front estimated an attendance of 400,000. Prior to the event, the organisers expected an attendance of 1,500,000 out of the about 8,000,000 inhabitants of the three states. Such expectations predicted 25–30% turnout among the native population. According to the official Soviet numbers, provided by TASS, there were 300,000 participants in Estonia and nearly 500,000 in Lithuania. To make the chain physically possible, an attendance of approximately 200,000 people was required in each state. Video footage taken from airplanes and helicopters showed an almost continuous line of people across the countryside.


title: Baltic Way

text: On 26 August 1989, a pronouncement from the Central Committee of the Communist Party was read during the opening 19 minutes of "Vremya", the main evening news program on Soviet television. It was a sternly worded warning about growing "nationalist, extremist groups" which advanced "anti-socialist and anti-Soviet" agendas. The announcement claimed that these groups discriminated against ethnic minorities and terrorised those still loyal to Soviet ideals. Local authorities were openly criticised for their failure to stop these activists. The Baltic Way was referred to as a "nationalist hysteria." According to the pronouncement, such developments would lead to an "abyss" and "catastrophic" consequences. The workers and peasants were called on to save the situation and defend Soviet ideals. Overall, there were mixed messages: while indirectly threatening the use of force, it also placed hopes that the conflict could be solved via diplomatic means. It was interpreted that the Central Committee had not yet decided which way to go and had left both possibilities open. The call to pro-Soviet masses illustrated that Moscow believed it still had a significant audience in the Baltics. Sharp criticism of Baltic Communist Parties was interpreted as signalling that Moscow would attempt to replace their leadership. However, almost immediately after the broadcast, the tone in Moscow began to soften and the Soviet authorities failed to follow up on any of their threats. Eventually, according to historian Alfred Erich Senn, the pronouncement became a source of embarrassment.


title: Baltic Way

text: President of the United States George H. W. Bush and chancellor of West Germany Helmut Kohl urged peaceful reforms and criticised the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. On 31 August, the Baltic activists issued a joint declaration to Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Secretary-General of the United Nations. They claimed to be under threat of aggression and asked for an international commission to be sent to monitor the situation. On 19–20 September, the Central Committee of the Communist Party convened to discuss the nationality question – something Mikhail Gorbachev had been postponing since early 1988. The plenum did not specifically address the situation in the Baltic states and reaffirmed old principles regarding the centralised Soviet Union and the dominant role of the Russian language. It did promise some increase in autonomy, but was contradictory and failed to address the underlying reasons for the conflict.


title: Baltic Way

text: The human chain helped to publicise the Baltic cause around the world and symbolised solidarity among the Baltic peoples. The positive image of the non-violent Singing Revolution spread among the western media. The activists, including Vytautas Landsbergis, used the increased exposure to position the debate over Baltic independence as a moral, and not just political question: reclaiming independence would be restoration of historical justice and liquidation of Stalinism. It was an emotional event, strengthening the determination to seek independence. The protest highlighted that the pro-independence movements, established just a year before, became more assertive and radical: they shifted from demanding greater freedom from Moscow to full independence.


title: Baltic Way

text: In December 1989, the Congress of People's Deputies accepted and Mikhail Gorbachev signed the report by Yakovlev's commission condemning the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In February 1990, the first free democratic elections to the Supreme Soviets took place in all three Baltic states and pro-independence candidates won majorities. On 11 March 1990, within seven months of the Baltic Way, Lithuania became the first Soviet state to declare independence. The independence of all three Baltic states was recognised by most western countries by the end of 1991.


title: Baltic Way

text: This protest was one of the earliest and longest unbroken human chains in history. Similar human chains were later organised in many East European countries and regions of the USSR and, more recently, in Taiwan (228 Hand-in-Hand Rally) and Catalonia (Catalan Way). On the 30th anniversary of the Baltic Way, a human chain called the Hong Kong Way was formed during the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests. Documents recording the Baltic Way were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2009 in recognition of their value in documenting history.


title: GMC Denali

text: The GMC Denali nameplate is used by GMC on its top-of-the-line trucks and SUVs in the line-up. Vehicles with the Denali trim option carry list prices up to 47% higher than those of the regular models. Prices range from $40,240 for GMC Terrain to (as of 2016) $81,270 for a top-of-the-line Yukon XL Denali. The Denali nameplate is often used as an insignia or status symbol, and in particular is popular as a less costly alternative to the Cadillac Escalade. The Yukon Denali line typically represents 40% of Yukon sales in both units and dollars. In 2013 it sold more than 75,558 units of the Denali brand, which accounted for 20% of GMC's sales, making it one of GM's most successful sub-brands.


title: GMC Denali

text: The Denali nameplate started as the top-of-the-line version of the GMC Yukon for the 1999 model year. It was also GM's first attempt to go after sales from the new-for-1998 Lincoln Navigator. At the time of its introduction General Motors decided to give Cadillac its own luxury SUV so the Denali's exterior was shared with the 1999 Cadillac Escalade, with only the front fascia and lower side body panels differing from the standard Yukon. Even though the Yukon was redesigned alongside the Chevrolet Suburban and Chevrolet Tahoe in 2000, the Denali, Escalade, and Tahoe Limited/Z71 retained their 1990s base design.


title: GMC Denali

text: The "Denali" brand was derived from the native Alaskan Athabaskans / Koyukon people's name for the tallest mountain in North America. It is also the name of the Denali National Park and Preserve that surrounds the mountain, as well as Denali State Park.


title: GMC Denali

text: When introduced in 1999, the Yukon Denali's exterior, which it later shared with the 1999 Cadillac Escalade, differed from the standard Yukon in the front fascia and lower side body panels as well as having unique 16" polished aluminum wheels and a special exhaust cutout for a right side-exiting cast exhaust tip. The interior of the Denali also featured several upgrades not available on the mainstream Yukon. These standard features included an upgraded Nuance leather interior, driver and passenger 6-way power seats with power lumbar support, front and rear heated seats, a Bose 7 speaker (including subwoofer) audio system, an in-dash cassette, single CD player. Beginning in 2000 an in-console 6-disc CD changer was added and the continuous door buzzer was changed in favor of an actual chime that would later be used in the 2001-2002 Tahoe. Zebrano woodgrain accents decorated the front doors and center console. The front and rear doors featured unique "Yukon Denali" stitching in the panels. The 99 model Yukons received no Denali badging at all and only show as Denali when the VIN is checked.


title: GMC Denali

text: The 350 cubic inch 5.7-litre 255 horsepower (L31) V8 was the only engine offered. RPO ZM9 was standard which included Bilstein 46mm shock absorbers and 3.73 front and rear axle ratios as well as a locking rear differential. Separate coolers for the transmission and engine oil were also standard. The Denali upgrade also included GM's automatic transfer case which allowed for push button transitions from 2-wheel high to 4-wheel high to 4 wheel low or fully automatic switching from 2 wheel drive to 4 wheel drive.


title: GMC Denali

text: Even though the GMC Yukon was redesigned alongside the Chevrolet Suburban and Chevrolet Tahoe in 2000, the Denali and Escalade retained their 1990s base design. It was not until 2001 that the Denali was redesigned. GMC also introduced the extended-length (Suburban-based) Yukon XL Denali. All 2001-2006 Yukon and Yukon XL Denali were built at the Janesville Assembly Plant. Embossed side body panels and chrome surrounding the headlights differentiate the Yukon Denali from the regular Yukon. 2001 also saw the introduction of the honeycomb pattern grille which now has become the hallmark of the Denali nameplate. 2001 saw the introduction of the 6.0L V8 application in the standard-size Yukon in the Denali trim for $45,000.00 which it also shared with the Cadillac Escalade. The engine produced 320 hp upon its introduction, then was upgraded to 325 hp in 2003. 2001 also introduced a new upgraded interior and new options such as 20-inch wheels.


title: GMC Denali

text: The previous (for 2001 only) "C3" model of the GMC Sierra pickup truck was renamed "Denali" in late 2001 as a 2002 model. The 2002–2004 Sierra Denali was equipped standard with a 325 hp 6.0L V8, all-wheel-drive, and Quadrasteer, the 4-wheel steering system developed by General Motors.


title: GMC Denali

text: For 2005 to 2007, "Classic body style" Sierra Denalis were equipped with a 6.0L 345 HP V8. Additionally the trucks from 2005 to 2007 (2007 being classic body style) were changed to a crew cab with a 5'8" bed and did not have Quadrasteer as the 2001-2004 Sierra Denalis had.


title: GMC Denali

text: In 2007, the GMC Yukon and Sierra lines were completely revamped with the Denali included, now with a 6.2L V8 (producing 380 HP / 417 lb/ft) in the Yukon Denali and (producing 403 HP/ 417 lb/ft) in the Sierra Denali), six-speed automatic transmissions, and many new features and options such as power folding second row seats and rear backup camera. Styling was also changed, particularly the controversial grill and headlights, which made the Yukon look much less aggressive than any previous models. The MSRP's of the 2007 models were not increased.


title: GMC Denali

text: 2008 was the last year Janesville Assembly Plant built all Yukon / Yukon XL Denali before production was sent to Arlington Assembly.


title: GMC Denali

text: The GMC Denali XT is a concept hybrid pickup truck with unibody design using Zeta platform. It included 8.1L SIDI V-8 with Active Fuel Management engine rated with E85 ethanol-capability and direct-injection, two-mode hybrid propulsion system, 23-inch aluminum wheels with Kumho 255/35/R23 front and Kumho 285/35/R23 tires, height-adjustable suspension, payload and towing capacities. The vehicle was designed by GM's Australian design studios.


title: GMC Denali

text: Although General Motors planned for a production version based on Epsilon II platform, it was reported the company cancelled the plan because the unibody design would not give much of an efficiency boost while losing capability for which buyers were willing to pay a premium.


title: GMC Denali

text: In 2009, minor changes were made to the Yukon Denali. These changes include 403HP instead of 380HP, Cooled and perforated leather seats (optional), Bluetooth Handsfree calling standard, and flat chrome insert/body colored bodyside moldings. Also a power tilt steering wheel is now standard. The Satellite Navigation System (optional) now has the added features of instant traffic updates, and re-routing options. Side Zone Blind Spot Alert is now optional.


title: GMC Denali

text: GMC unveiled its next generation Denalis, beginning with a newly redesigned Sierra pickup for the 2014 model year in 2013, followed by the launching of the 2015 Yukon and Yukon XL SUVs in February 2014.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: The Purdue Boilermakers football team represents Purdue University in the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of college football. Purdue plays its home games at Ross–Ade Stadium on the campus of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. The head coach of Purdue is Ryan Walters, the 37th head coach in Purdue history. The Boilermakers compete in the Big Ten Conference as a member of the West Division. Purdue had most recently been a part of the Leaders Division of the Big Ten, but moved to the West Division in 2014 due to conference expansion.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: With a 629–583–48 record at the conclusion of the 2021 season, Purdue has the 55th-most victories among NCAA FBS programs. Purdue was originally classified as a Major College school in the 1937 season until 1972. Purdue received Division I classification in 1973, becoming a Division I-A program from 1978 to 2006 and an FBS program from 2006 to the present. The Boilermakers have registered 64 winning seasons in their history, with 19 of those seasons resulting in eight victories or more, 10 seasons resulting in at least nine wins, and one season with ten victories or more. Of those successful campaigns, Purdue has produced five unbeaten seasons in its history, going 4–0 in 1891, 8–0 in 1892, 8–0 in 1929, 7–0–1 in 1932 and 9–0 in 1943. The Boilermakers have won a total of 12 conference championships in their history; eight Big Ten Conference titles; four Indiana Intercollegiate Athletic Association titles and one Big Ten West Division title.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: The Purdue University football team traces its origin back to October 29, 1887, when its team fell to Butler College by a score of 48–6 in Indianapolis, Indiana. A group of students at Purdue University formed the school's first football team in 1887. Albert Berg was hired as the coach. Despite being deaf, Berg was reportedly "the only man in the territory with any knowledge of the game." Berg was 23 years old when he became Purdue's football "coacher." He was paid $1 for each lesson he gave to the newly organized football team and had only one week to prepare the team for its first game. The 1887 Purdue team played its only game on October 29, 1887, against the Butler College team at Athletic Park in Indianapolis. Butler soundly defeated Berg's squad by a score of 48–6. After the loss to Butler, Purdue did not field a football team again until 1889.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In 1890, Clinton L. Hare became the third head football coach at Purdue. He coached the team that season to a record of 3–3. Purdue won each of its two home games in convincing fashion, shutting out Wabash, 54–0, on October 24 and Illinois, 62–0, on November 22. They also shut out DePauw in Greencastle, Indiana, 32–0. Purdue suffered its worst loss of the season on November 1 in Ann Arbor, falling to Michigan by a score of 34–6. Hare's squad also dropped their season opener in Chicago on October 18 to the Chicago University Football Club, 10–6, and their season finale on November 27 against Hare's former team, Butler, by a score of 12–10. With their wins over DePauw and Wabash and their loss to Butler, Purdue tallied a 2–1 mark against their opponents from within the state of Indiana. Hare's team finished second place in the Indiana Intercollegiate Athletic Association to Butler, who beat all three of their in-state foes and was awarded the state championship. In 1891, Knowlton Ames became the head coach for Purdue, where he led the Boilermakers to a 12–0 record over two years. In the fall of 1893, D. M. Balliet became the head football coach at Purdue. Balliet led the team to a 5–2–1 record in 1893 and 9–1 in 1894. During the 1894 season, Balliet's Purdue squad defeated Amos Alonzo Stagg's Chicago Maroons and outscored opponents by a collective score of 177–42. His 1895 squad finished with a record of 4–3. In 1897, Balliet was reported to have given up a successful law practice to join the Klondike Gold Rush in Alaska. Balliet was re-hired as the head coach at Purdue in September 1901. He led the 1901 Purdue team to a 4–4–1 record but finished the season with consecutive losses to Notre Dame, Illinois, and Northwestern. At the end of the 1901 season, Purdue opted not to renew his services. In March 1902, the "Indianapolis News" reported, "He is known to be a good coach, but he turned out a loser last year and Purdue wants a change." In four seasons as Purdue's head coach, Balliet compiled a record of 22–10–2. On October 31, 1903, 14 members of the 1903 squad were killed in Indianapolis, Indiana when the train they were riding collided with a coal train. The event became known as the Purdue Wreck. Purdue bounced around with many different head coaches until 1921, with most having little to no success coaching at Purdue. However, Purdue did hire Andy Smith (1913–15) and William Henry Dietz (1921), both of which would go on to become College Football Hall of Fame members.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: For the 1922 season, Purdue hired Missouri Tigers football coach, James Phelan. Phelan lead the 1929 Boilermakers to a perfect 8–0 record and what is to date their only ever outright Big Ten Title. In 1925, Noble Kizer became an assistant coach at Purdue under Phelan and inherited the head coaching position upon Phelan's departure for the University of Washington. Allen Elward became head coach after serving as an assistant at Purdue from 1927 to 1936. He compiled a 16–18–6 record at Purdue. Elmer Burnham served as Purdue's freshman football coach for seven years before assuming the role as varsity head coach in 1942. Burnham's 1943 squad went 9–0 and shared the Big Ten Conference title with Michigan. The 1943 squad was the only undefeated team playing a full schedule in major college football, but finished third in the country per the AP Poll. This would seemingly be sufficient grounds for Purdue to claim a 1943 National Championship as the NCAA itself did not recognize champions in the era. However, Purdue has never pursued this claim. Cecil Isbell started out at Purdue as an assistant coach and took over as head coach in 1944. He coached there for three years with a 14–14–1 record. He was the first Purdue alumnus to become the head football coach.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: During Stu Holcomb's tenure as Boilermakers head coach he compiled a record of 35–42–4. His best year was 1952 when he led the Boilermakers to a Big Ten Conference co-championship and a No. 18 ranking in the final poll. Despite having only a 4–3–1 overall record, Holcomb's team played well in conference with a 4–1–1 record. Holcomb's Purdue teams are, perhaps, best remembered for ending Notre Dame's 39-game unbeaten streak when his Boilermakers defeated the Irish, 28–14, in the second game of the 1950 season. Holcomb was known for developing solid quarterbacks including Bob DeMoss, Dale Samuels and Len Dawson. These players helped grow a strong tradition at Purdue of great quarterback play. On December 12, 1955, after his nine seasons at Purdue, Holcomb left Purdue to accept the athletic director position at the Northwestern University. Stu Holcomb oversaw the 1947 integration of Purdue's athletic teams after pressure from student led protests. It is hard to find any black athletes in the records before 1950 – where Herman Murray is first shown with the squad. Alongside Herman Murray, One of the most notable early black athletes is Lamar Lundy. Lundy was a two sport athlete who played center for the Purdue basketball team and defensive end for the football team. Lundy was extraordinary and achieved great deal of success during and after his collegiate years. He received the 1956 Purdue MVP award not even 10 years after athletic integration and received offers to play professional basketball and football after graduation. He ultimately chose football and played for the Los Angeles Rams from 1957 to 1969. Both Murray and Lundy were pioneers who paved the way for many young gentlemen.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: On January 2, 1967, Jack Mollenkopf coached the school's first appearance in the Rose Bowl, leading Purdue to a 14–13 victory over USC. Against Purdue's in-state rivals, Mollenkopf tallied an 11–2–1 record versus Indiana and a 10–4 mark against Notre Dame. From 1966 to 1969, a Purdue player finished in the top three in balloting for the Heisman Trophy: quarterback Bob Griese was second in 1966, halfback Leroy Keyes placed third in 1967 and second in 1968, and quarterback Mike Phipps finished as runner-up in 1969. Mollenkopf's inaugural season in 1956 was the only losing campaign of his tenure as head coach at Purdue. Mollenkopf is Purdue's all-time leader in Big Ten Conference wins (58) and conference winning percentage (.637). His 84 wins at Purdue placed him first on the school's all-time wins list until Joe Tiller passed him in 2008, and he ranks fourth in overall winning percentage (.670). Mollenkopf's Boilermakers were nationally ranked for 80 weeks, the most under any Purdue head coach, and captured the No. 1 spot the first five weeks of the 1968 season.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Former Purdue player and assistant coach Bob DeMoss was promoted to head coach in 1970. DeMoss inherited a Purdue squad who was loaded at the running back position with Stan Brown, and Otis Armstrong, but the team struggled to find consistency out of its quarterback position. DeMoss resigned following the 1972 season, citing his desire to be with his family more as his reason for stepping down. DeMoss compiled a career college football record of 13–18.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: After nine seasons as the Northwestern coach, Alex Agase accepted an offer at the end of 1972 to become head football coach at Purdue, one of the two schools for which he played. Taking the job was "not an easy decision to make", he said at the time, because he was happy at Northwestern. Agase coached at Purdue through the 1976 season, but his team never posted a winning record in his years there. He was fired in early 1977 and took a job as athletic director at Eastern Michigan University in Ypsilanti, Michigan. He stayed in that job until 1982, when he unexpectedly resigned citing "personal reasons".


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In December 1976, Purdue hired 41-year-old Jim Young away from Arizona. When Young arrived at Purdue, he named true freshman, Mark Herrmann as the team's starting quarterback, and the freshman lived up to expectations, throwing for 2,041 yards through the team's first eight games. Herrmann would break the NCAA record for passing yards (2,453) and passing touchdowns (18) for freshman. In 1978, Young would lead Purdue to a 9–2–1 record, and a victory over Georgia Tech in the 1978 Peach Bowl. Young was named the Big Ten's Coach of the Year, the first Boilermaker head coach to ever win the award. Throughout his career, Herrmann would break the Big Ten's all-time career passing yards (6,734) and passing touchdowns (48) before his senior season. After a disappointing 1981 season, Young resigned from his position as head coach at Purdue, citing his desire to concentrate on athletic administration.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In November 1981, defensive coordinator Leon Burtnett was promoted as Purdue's 30th head football coach. During the 1984 campaign, Burtnett's team posted its best season, which the highlight of the year was beating No. 2 Ohio State 28–23. The 1984 squad's 7–4 record earned Burtnett the Big Ten's Coach of the Year Award. His success that year earned him a contract extension through 1990. Burtnett's teams didn't improve after 1984, and after a 3–8 season in 1986, Burtnett resigned as head coach.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: After Burtnett's dismissal, Purdue had verbally agreed to hire Ron Meyer as their next head coach. Prior to finalizing a deal with Purdue, the Indianapolis Colts called and offered Meyer a contract. Meyer accepted the Colts offer. After they were left in the cold by Meyer, Purdue hired former Texas head coach Fred Akers. The Akers hiring caused starting quarterback Jeff George to transfer due to the Akers running style offense as opposed to Burtnett's passing offense. Akers coached his teams to only 12 wins in four years.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Jim Colletto was named Purdue's head coach in December 1990, accepting the position while he was serving the offensive coordinator for Ohio State. Colletto came to Purdue with the goal of recruiting kids from the Chicago area, and keeping Purdue's quarterback tradition trending onward. During his introduction press conference, he stated that at practice field, he planned to install a small cemetery in which he would place a tombstone for every school Purdue upset or beat on the road. Colletto also provided up change on offense, as he brought his I formation with him from Ohio State. During his first season as head coach, the Boilermakers improved winning two more games than they had the year before, and freshman tailback Corey Rogers was named the Big Ten Freshman of the Year.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In 1992, Colletto lost Rogers to academic ineligibility, and was forced to use a new running back. The Rogers suspension opened the door for what would become Purdue's all-time leading rusher, Mike Alstott. In 1994, the Boilermakers got out to a 4–1–1 start, and were starting to gain national attention. With Rogers and Alstott leading the way out of the Purdue backfield, Purdue racked up 1,206 and 17 rushing touchdowns in 6 games. However Purdue stumbled down the stretch, finishing the season 0–4–1. Colletto resigned in November 1996.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Joe Tiller was hired by Purdue in 1997. Tiller inherited a program that had only had two winning seasons in the previous 18 years. However, the Boilermakers made an immediate splash in the second game of his rookie season with a nationally televised upset of Notre Dame. Tiller would go on to lead the Boilermakers to ten bowl berths in 12 years, most notably the 2001 Rose Bowl. Prior to Tiller's arrival, Purdue had played in only five bowl games, most recently the 1984 Peach Bowl. On September 20, 2008, in a game versus Central Michigan, Tiller won his 85th game at Purdue to become the winningest coach in school history, topping the previous mark set by Jack Mollenkopf (1956–1969). Tiller's "basketball on grass" offense was well renowned for its ability to score and score effectively, befuddling opposing defenses. This was especially the case when Drew Brees ran the team from 1997 to 2000. Tiller's Purdue squads were shut out only once, by Penn State, in a 12–0 defeat at Ross–Ade Stadium on October 28, 2006.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Tiller was the first coach to use the spread offense in the Big Ten Conference, although many others have since brought their own version of the spread, including Jim Tressel at Ohio State, Randy Walker at Northwestern, Rich Rodriguez at Michigan, and Ron Zook at Illinois. Under Tiller and his spread offense, Purdue annually had one of the top offenses in the Big Ten.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Beginning on approximately January 7, 2008, several media outlets reported that Danny Hope had been offered and accepted the head coaching position at Purdue where it was expected that he would replace coach Joe Tiller as part of a succession plan. During his previous stay at Purdue, Hope was the offensive line coach for Tiller. He is credited with building the offensive line that protected NFL quarterback Drew Brees and produced several NFL offensive linemen, including All-Pro Matt Light.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In his first game as head coach at Purdue in 2009, the Boilermakers won, 52–31, over Toledo. Purdue lost their next five games before upsetting No. 7 Ohio State, 26–18, at home on October 17. Later during the 2009 season, the Boilermakers won at Michigan for the first time since 1966 with a 38–36 come-from-behind win at The Big House on November 7. It was only the third time in program history that Purdue defeated Ohio State and Michigan in the same season. Hope's teams would miss out on bowl games in both the 2009 and 2010 seasons. However, the 2011 team was able record a 6–6 overall record and a 4–4 conference record, including a second win against Ohio State in 3 years. The team would end up going to the Little Caesars Pizza Bowl, where they defeated Western Michigan 37–32 to achieve Hope's first winning season at Purdue. Following the season, Burke extended Hope with a two-year contract extension.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: The 2012 season was met with high expectations from fans, alumni, and Hope himself, who proclaimed that it would be his best team with many starters returning. Moreover, with both Ohio State and Penn State serving bowl bans that year, the Boilermakers had a strong opportunity to win the Leaders division title. However, after a 3–1 non-conference start, the team would then open Big Ten play with five straight losses. Although the Boilers would eventually win their final three games, including victories over archrivals IU and Illinois, and become bowl-eligible for the second straight year, athletic director Morgan Burke announced on November 25, 2012, that Hope would be fired. Wide receivers coach Patrick Higgins was named interim coach for the bowl game.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: On December 5, 2012, it was announced that Darrell Hazell would leave the Kent State Golden Flashes to become the head coach of the Boilermakers. The Boilermakers started the season with a 42–7 loss to the Cincinnati Bearcats at Nippert Stadium. The following week against Indiana State, Hazell won his first game at Purdue 20–14. After the Boilermakers started 1–2, and Rob Henry continuing to struggle in the team's 4th game, Danny Etling was thrust into a game with Purdue trailing 27–10 to Northern Illinois. Etling finished the game with 241 yards passing while throwing two touchdowns and two interceptions. During the ensuing week, Etling was named the starter for the Boilermakers. With Etling at quarterback, Hazell showed he was playing the 2013 season to gain experience for younger players. The Boilermakers finished the 2013 season 1–11, one of the worst seasons in Purdue history. The Boilermakers went 3–9 in 2014, 2–10 in 2015, and were 3–3 in 2016 when on October 16, 2016, Hazell was fired with a record of 9–33 with the Boilermakers, including 3–24 in conference play. He was replaced on an interim basis by wide receivers coach and recruiting coordinator Gerad Parker, who went 0–6 to end the season 3–9.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: On December 5, 2016, Purdue hired Jeff Brohm to become head coach of the football program. Brohm came from Western Kentucky, where he was 30–10 in 3 seasons as the team's head coach. Brohm brought instant success to Purdue, success that the program had not experienced since head coach Danny Hope. In their game against Michigan, Purdue sold out Ross Ade Stadium for the first time since 2008 in Joe Tiller's final game against Indiana. Brohm finished his first regular season with a 6–6 record, including the first victory over rival Indiana since 2012. Brohm also was able to earn a bowl berth for Purdue, their first since the 2012 season, where Purdue defeated Arizona in the Foster Farms Bowl, 38–35.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In Brohm's second season, Purdue enjoyed perhaps even higher success than their first season, even though the team started the year 0–3. Purdue would eventually finish 6–7, with a second consecutive bowl berth. Purdue defeated three ranked teams in 2018: No. 23 Boston College (30–13), No. 2 Ohio State (49–20), and No. 16 Iowa (38–36). Purdue suffered a lopsided 63–14 loss to Auburn in the Music City Bowl. In Brohm's third season, Purdue finished 4–8 and failed to achieve bowl eligibility. Purdue's season ended with a 44–41 loss in two overtimes to Indiana in the Old Oaken Bucket game. In Brohm’s fifth season as head coach, Purdue finished the regular season with a record of 8–4, including two top 5 wins in number 2 Iowa (24–7) and number 5 (number 3 in CFP Ranking) Michigan State (40–29). Earning a berth back to the Music City Bowl, the Boilermakers beat Tennessee in overtime, 48–45, and ended the year with a 9–4 record. His 6th season lead to the team's first Big Ten West Champions, but they were defeated by #2 Michigan at the Big Ten Championship Game in Indianapolis. Purdue finished the regular season 8–4, with 2021–2022 as the first back-to-back 8–4 seasons or better since 1997–1998. Following the Big Ten Championship Game, Brohm would leave Purdue to become the head coach at his alma mater, Louisville.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: On December 13, 2022, Purdue announced that it was hiring Ryan Walters, the defensive coordinator at Illinois, to replace Brohm.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue's 1931 team was retroactively selected national champion by Parke Davis, an NCAA-designated major selector. As a split selection, Davis also named Pittsburgh as national champion. However, the NCAA only lists Southern California as the national champion for 1931, and does not credit Purdue with any national championships in football.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue has won 12 conference championships, five outright and seven shared. Of those, four are Indiana Intercollegiate Athletic Association titles and eight are Big Ten Conference titles. As members of the Indiana Intercollegiate Athletic Association and the Big Ten, the Boilermakers have amassed a record of 154–64–3 (.703 winning percentage) in conference play.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue has participated in 20 bowl games throughout its history, compiling an 11–9 record. Purdue did not appear frequently in post-season play from 1967 to 1984, but they played well, winning 4 of 5 bowl games including four consecutive wins between 1967 and 1980. When Tiller arrived in 1997, Purdue went to eight consecutive bowl games, but only won three of the eight bowl games. Tiller would lead the Boilermakers to a total of 10 bowl games in his 12 seasons as head coach. Of those 20 bowl appearances, the Boilermakers have participated in 1 "major" Division I-A/FBS bowl games, which was part of the BCS Bowl Games. The Boilermakers have never played in a National Championship Game.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: There have been 39 head coaches with 40 tenures since the inaugural team in 1887, with Ryan Walters being the current head coach.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Stuart Field was dedicated on April 16, 1892, and named for Charles B. and William V. Stuart, two brothers who served on the university's board of trustees. Originally a seven-acre (2.8 ha) field with 800 seats, by the 1910s it was expanded to twice that area and a seating capacity of five thousand.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: The Boilermakers have called Ross–Ade Stadium home since 1924. It is named for David E. Ross and George Ade, the principal benefactors. Ross–Ade Stadium opened on November 22, 1924, with a seating capacity of 13,500 and standing room for an additional 5,000 people. A series of additions and renovations pushed the seating capacity to almost 68,000 (70,000 with standing room). In 2001 Purdue University began a $70 million renovation, which led to a reduced seating capacity of 62,500. The current capacity is 57,236, with standing room for over 60,000.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: An indoor training facility used primarily for the football team. It includes a full practice football field, extensive weight room, and offices for the football program. Also housed in Mollenkopf is the Purdue Football Hall of Glory.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue's major rival has always been Indiana University, with whom they play for the Old Oaken Bucket, but during the Joe Tiller era the rivalry with Notre Dame in football has become the most heated and most competitive with Joe Tiller led teams going 5–7 vs. Notre Dame. Danny Hope picked up the Shillelagh Trophy with a 24–21 loss in his first season as head coach. In addition, Purdue has a long-standing rivalry with Illinois, with whom they play for the Purdue Cannon trophy.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Due to having an odd number of teams from 1993 to 2010, the Big Ten utilized a rotating system of conference games. Every school was designated two official rivals, whom they played every year. The official rivals for Purdue were Indiana and Northwestern. However, after the expansion of the Big Ten to 12 schools, Purdue and Northwestern were placed into separate conference divisions and no longer played each other on an annual basis. Beginning in 2011, Purdue's new designated cross-division rival will be Iowa. This matchup has been mocked by fans of both teams. The other cross-divisional rivalries set up by the Big Ten had some history or a trophy behind the pairing, but Purdue and Iowa were left over. The respective SB Nation blogs of Hammer & Rails and Black Heart Gold Pants have since celebrated this rivalry between the two schools with the tongue-in-cheek reference to each other as "Our Most Hated Rivals" or simple "OMHR"


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue's football program has long been known for its prolific passing quarterbacks, ranging from players who have set School, Big Ten & NCAA records, to being named All-Americans and finalist for national awards, to being elected into the College Football and Pro Football Hall of Fames. This great tradition has led to the school being nicknamed the "Cradle of Quarterbacks". When Drew Brees led the New Orleans Saints to a victory in Super Bowl XLIV, Purdue became just the second college in history to produce 3 different Super Bowl winning quarterbacks. The first Purdue quarterback to win an NFL title was Cecil Isbell who led the Green Bay Packers to the 1939 NFL title.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: The Purdue All-American Marching Band is the marching band of Purdue University. The Purdue "All-American" Marching Band (AAMB) is the primary source of auxiliary entertainment for Purdue University football games. AAMB does many service performances for high schools, junior high schools, and elementary schools, and has been the host band of the Indianapolis 500 race every year the race has been held since 1927. The band has grown from an original 5 members to 373 members, making it one of the largest marching bands in the world. The two most distinctive features of the AAMB are the World's Largest Drum and solo baton twirler the Purdue Golden Girl.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In 1886 the Purdue Student Army Training Corps produced 5 men who provided music for the Army trainees to listen to during their morning conditioning runs. While operating without a director until 1904, the band had started playing at Purdue football games and had grown to over 50 members. In 1904, Paul Spotts Emrick, joined the band. His experience as a conductor resulted in his election as band president and director the next year. During his senior year at Purdue, the marching band, under Emrick, became the first band to break ranks and form a letter on the field—the famous Block "P".


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Emrick stayed on as director after his graduation in 1908. In 1921, Emrick commissioned Leedy to construct the World's Largest Drum, and it has been a part of the marching band ever since. In 1935, during a Purdue football game at Northwestern University the band donned lights on their uniforms while performing at halftime. With the stadium lights turned off for the performance, the band drew such awe from radio broadcaster Ted Husing, he referred to them as a "truly All-American marching band", hence the current title of the band.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: The Boilermaker Special is the official mascot of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. It resembles a Victorian-era railroad locomotive and is built on a truck chassis. It is operated and maintained by the student members of the Purdue Reamer Club.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue University is a land-grant university (or Agricultural and Mechanical (A&M) university) created through the Morrill Act of 1862. In the 1890s, Purdue became a leader in the research of railway technology. For many years Purdue operated the "Schenectady No. 1", and later the "Schenectady No. 2", on a dynamometer in an engineering laboratory on the West Lafayette campus. These were 4-4-0 type steam locomotives manufactured by the Baldwin Locomotive Works of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Schenectady was a classic Victorian-era design similar in construction to the Western and Atlantic Railroad No. 3 (see The General (locomotive) on display at the Southern Museum of Civil War and Locomotive History). Purdue even operated its own railroad to connect the campus to a main rail line. In the 1930s the dynamometer was decommissioned and the Schenectady No. 2 was retired as the railroad industry in the United States converted from steam to diesel-electric locomotives.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue did not have a mascot. In 1939, Purdue student Israel Selkowitz suggested the school adopt an official mascot to represent Purdue's engineering heritage. He originally proposed a "mechanical man". After much debate, it was decided to build a locomotive on an automobile chassis. This choice allowed the mascot to build on Purdue's engineering and railroading heritage, as well as represent the school's nickname "Boilermakers" in a meaningful way.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: The "Boilermaker" nickname came about during the early years of Purdue football. There had been rumors the university enrolled burly boilermakers from the Monon Railroad shops in Lafayette, Indiana as students/football players to help beef up the scrawny football team. When a railroad operated an extra train independent of the scheduled timetable, it was known as a "special". Thus, the trains which carried Purdue's sporting teams and their fans to other cities for athletic contests were known as "Boilermaker Specials". It was a perfect match.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Financial and moral support for the first Boilermaker Special was provided by key members of the Purdue University graduating class of 1907, and members of the Purdue Reamer Club from the graduating classes of 1940 and 1941.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue Pete was first designed as a logo by the University Bookstore in 1940. They would put it on their products and portray him dressed up in different clothes for the different majors. He got the Purdue part of his name from Purdue University. The owners of the bookstores gave him the name "Pete", yet no one officially knows why this was chosen to be his name. He was given a physical identity in 1956 as he came out and helped the students cheer at a pep rally. Over the years, the appearance of Purdue Pete has gone under several drastic changes as well as several minor changes. His original head was made of paper-mâché, pasted onto a chicken wire frame. This was very inconvenient for the person who would be underneath because it would limit his movements, yet he was still expected to move around and do stunts. This head was changed to a giant fiberglass head where the person inside would use a harness to support it. This was unpractical due to the sheer size of it. In the 1980s, Purdue Pete acquired the appearance he is now associated with. Proposals to switch to a soft-sculpture costume were rejected in 2006 and 2011.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue has also had a more recent tradition of sending defensive ends to the NFL. Since 1999, Purdue has had 10 defensive ends selected in the NFL Draft. With their success in the NFL, Purdue has earned the nickname, the "Den of Defensive Ends".


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue's colors are Old Gold and Black, as are its uniforms. Home uniforms are black with old gold numerals. On the shoulder is the player's number in old gold, and on the sleeve, there is an old gold stripe at the bottom. The pants are old gold with one black stripe along each side, with the Purdue train logo right above it. The helmet is old gold with a black stripe down the middle, a black facemask, and a black slanted "P" logo on each side. The away uniform is white with black numerals. The shoulders have black numerals on them, and the sleeve has a black stripe at the bottom. Both home and away jerseys sport the Purdue train logo in the center front of the collar, surrounded by a patch of black fabric. The away pants are black one old gold stripe on each side as well as the Purdue train logo. This uniform also features the old gold helmet used for the home uniform.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Since 2013, Purdue has added in some alternate uniforms. Purdue has always had alternate uniforms utilizing black jerseys with black pants or white jerseys with old gold pants, but these uniforms always used the same old gold helmet. When Purdue updated its uniforms during Danny Hope's coaching time, they added white pants with a black stripe on each side and a train logo as well. These pants are usually seen accompanied by a white jersey, but Purdue wore them at home with their black jersey and gold helmet once in 2013. Also, in 2013, Purdue added a matte black helmet with gold railroad tracks that run down the middle of the helmet being wider in front and gradually narrowing to the back of the helmet where it ends and in its place is a train logo. The sides of the helmet also feature a gold slanted "P" logo on either side and a black facemask. This helmet was features at home in 2013 against the Ohio State Buckeyes with the default black jersey and pants. Purdue also wore this helmet as an away uniform with the default white jersey and black pants during the Old Oaken Bucket rivalry game at Indiana. In 2014, the Boilermakers wore this helmet a couple of more times, namely when they played Notre Dame at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, when they wore it with default white jerseys and pants. They wore this same uniform combination at Indiana at the end of the year. In 2014, Purdue added no permanent uniforms, but they did have a couple special occasion helmets. In one game earlier in the year, they wore an old gold helmet with a black stripe down the middle and black facemask, but the slanted "P" logo was instead a black outline with pictures sent in by season ticket holders inside of it. In October, when the Boilers played Michigan State at home, they featured a matte black helmet with a lime green stripe down the middle, lime green slanted "P" logos, a large lime green cancer ribbon in the back, and the slogan "Hammer Down Cancer" at the back of the helmet. While, the jersey and pants were Purdue's default white for both, they also features lime green nike socks. Later in the season when they played Wisconsin at home, the Boilermakers used a matte black helmet with 3 stripes down the middle that were red, white, and blue in order with slanted "P" logos on the side that were filled with a waving American flag. The slogan at the bottom said "United" in red, "We" in white, and "Stand" in blue. This was worn with their default black jersey and pants.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In 2015, Purdue added even more excitement to the uniforms. They have featured a white helmet with one side featuring the train logo in black and gold chrome with the other side featuring the player's number in black. There are two black stripes and a gold chrome stripe going down the middle, and the facemask is black with a gold chrome stripe in the middle where the stripe on the helmet continues. Also, Purdue added an Anthricite Gray alternate that used a dark gray helmet with light gray railroad tracks down the middle and a light gray slanted "P" logo on each side. The jerseys are dark gray with light gray numerals on the front and back, with light gray numerals on the shoulder and a light gray stripe at the bottom of the sleeve. Instead of the player's last name being features on the back of the jersey like all of the others do, this jersey says "BOILERMAKERS" in all black. The pants to this uniform are dark gray with a light gray stripe on each side and an alternate version of the train logo that uses only black and light gray. Against Indiana State, Purdue used a helmet similar to the one they wore in 2014 against Wisconsin but this time, the helmet was white with a black facemask. This was worn with the Anthricite gray jersey and pants. Since the arrival of Joe Tiller in 1997, Purdue players have not worn names on the backs of their jerseys. When Danny Hope took over in 2009, he added names to the backs of the jerseys.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Before Tiller, the team wore uniforms that sported the school's name across the front of the jersey, and the old gold color was more pronounced, with almost a copper hue. In Tiller's first season, the helmet color was lightened substantially, as was the gold used on the rest of the uniform.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue's Pride sticker (given out for good performances) was the Purdue logo (locomotive). This was changed in 2006 to a sledgehammer with the slant "P" in the hammer's head (like the one wielded by mascot Purdue Pete). In the 2006 game against the Indiana State Sycamores, Purdue wore a throwback uniform from 1966, in honor of the 40th anniversary of the school's first Rose Bowl team. It featured a white jersey with two outer black stripes on the shoulder and one inner gold stripe. The numerals were black with no outline. The team wore gold pants with two black stripes on the sides, and the helmets were old gold with black numbers and one black stripe down the middle. The gold in the throwback uniforms was more yellow in hue than that in the regular 1997–present uniforms.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In 2002, Purdue changed from its black home jersey to an old gold jersey. The old gold uniforms had white numerals and black outline for home games, and white uniforms with old gold numbers and back outline for away games. Some complained that the numerals on the jersey were too hard to see, so in 2003 they changed to an old gold jersey with black numerals outlined in white, and white pants with two black stripes down the sides. After losing their opening game at home to Bowling Green, Tiller and the team decided to dump the gold jerseys and go back to the black uniforms. After they changed back to the black uniforms, the team came out to "Back in Black" by AC/DC for every home game in 2003. Since then, Purdue has stayed with the black uniforms. In one game against Wisconsin in 2006, the Boilermakers wore the black jersey with black pants. They had not sported an all-black look at home since the last game of the season in 1996 against Indiana.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In 2009, Purdue also wore the Black on Black in a night game against Notre Dame on the Purdue Blackout, and then wore them for the remainder of their home games. In 2010, the Black on Black remained the normal home uniform with the exception being the Homecoming game against Minnesota where the team donned Throwback Uniforms for the 2001 Rose Bowl team. While the original jerseys were made by Champion, the replicas were Nike branded.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In 2013, Purdue designed a new black helmet that was used during the Ohio State and Indiana games. The all black helmet had a matte finish with a decal of train tracks down the center of the helmet, with the University's official athletic logo at the end of the tracks. Also on the helmet was the phrase "One Brick Higher", the motto coach Darrell Hazell had chosen for the season. During the 2015 season, Purdue introduced a white helmet, as well as an anthracite gray uniform.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: In 2016, Purdue announced that they would have a complete re-design of their uniforms for the 2016 season, using the motto, "Focus, Fight, Finish" for the three different designs.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue has finished a season ranked in the Associated Press (AP) poll on 17 occasions. The Boilermakers have finished ranked amongst the top 10 in college football on five occasions. Purdue attained its highest-ever ranking in the polls during the preseason of the 1968 season, when they were ranked No. 1 in the AP Poll for 6 straight weeks before they lost to No. 4 Ohio State 0–13. Since the implementation of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) in 1998, Purdue has finished the regular season ranked one time in the final BCS standings. While the Boilermakers are 54–175–5 against opponents ranked in the AP Poll, they have an all-time record of 111–65–10 when ranked in the AP Poll themselves.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue has knocked off the No. 1 ranked football team in college football seven times over the years—the third most of all the Division I teams in college football. Only Notre Dame and Oklahoma have accomplished this more times. The first Spoilermaker game occurred in 1950 when Purdue broke Notre Dame's 39-game win streak. In 1953, Purdue ended Michigan State's 28-game win streak with a 6–0 win.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Purdue has produced eight Heisman Trophy candidates. Four Boilermakers, Bob Griese, Leroy Keyes, Mark Herrmann and Drew Brees have each been finalist for the award in two separate seasons.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: A total of 50 Boilermakers have been recognized as All-Americans by various media selectors. Among those selections, 21 have achieved Consensus All-American status. Of those consensus All-Americans, seven were unanimous selections.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Since its institution in 1994, the Purdue University Intercollegiate Athletics Hall of Fame recognizes those participants that have helped elevate Boilermaker athletics into one of the most respected programs in the nation. Former athletes, coaches and administrators are eligible for selection 5 years following their association with Purdue athletics. The following individuals have been inducted into the Purdue Intercollegiate Athletics Hall of Fame for their contributions to the Boilermaker football program:


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: The following "Active" and "All-Star" lists account for past and present Purdue University football players that have participated in the National Football League, the Canadian Football League, and the Arena Football League.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Among the numerous Boilermakers that have participated in the NFL, CFL, and AFL, a total of 43 have received all-star recognition by their respective leagues.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: Of Purdue's 286 players selected in the NFL Draft, 58 Boilermakers have been amongst the top 50 selections of the draft.


title: Purdue Boilermakers football

text: All statistical records are courtesy of the Purdue Football Record Book unless otherwise cited. Statistics containing the "#" symbol denote NCAA FBS records.


title: Cornus mas

text: Cornus mas, commonly known as cornel (also the Cornelian cherry, European cornel or Cornelian cherry dogwood), is a species of shrub or small tree in the dogwood genus "Cornus" native to Southern Europe and Southwestern Asia.


title: Cornus mas

text: It is a medium to large deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 5–12 m tall, with dark brown branches and greenish twigs. The leaves are opposite, 4–10 cm long and 2–4 cm broad, with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin. The flowers are small (5–10 mm in diameter), with four yellow petals, produced in clusters of 10–25 together in the late winter (between February and March in the UK), well before the leaves appear. The fruit is an oblong red drupe 2 cm long and 1.5 cm in diameter, containing a single seed.


title: Cornus mas

text: The fruits are red berries. When ripe on the plant, they bear a resemblance to coffee berries, and ripen in mid- to late summer. The fruit is edible, as used in Eastern Europe, the UK, and British Columbia, Canada, but the unripe fruit is astringent. When ripe, the fruit is dark ruby red or a bright yellow. It has an acidic flavor which is best described as a mixture of cranberry and sour cherry; it is mainly used for making jam. It is also widely used in Azerbaijan to make pickles, add to rice, or make drinks. In Armenia, Cornus berries are used to make vodka.


title: Cornus mas

text: The fruit of "Cornus mas" (together with the fruit of "C. officinalis") has a history of use in traditional Chinese medicine in which it is known as "", and used to retain the jing.


title: Cornus mas

text: The species is also grown as an ornamental plant for its late winter yellow flowers, which open earlier than those of "Forsythia". While "Cornus mas" flowers are not as large and vibrant as those of the "Forsythia", the entire plant can be used for a similar effect in the landscape.


title: Cornus mas

text: The wood of "C. mas" is extremely dense and, unlike the wood of most other woody plant species, sinks in water. This density makes it valuable for crafting into tool handles, parts for machines, etc.


title: Cornus mas

text: "Cornus mas" was used from the seventh century BCE onward by Greek craftsmen to construct spears, javelins and bows, the craftsmen considering it far superior to any other wood. The wood's association with weaponry was so well known that the Greek name for it was used as a synonym for "spear" in poetry during the fourth and third centuries BCE.


title: Cornus mas

text: In Italy, the "mazzarella", "uncino" or "bastone", the stick carried by the "butteri" or mounted herdsmen of the Maremma region, is traditionally made of cornel-wood, there called "crognolo" or "grugnale", dialect forms of .


title: Cornus mas

text: "Cornus mas", "male" cornel, was named so to distinguish it from the true dogberry, the "female" cornel, "Cornus sanguinea", and so it appears in John Gerard's "Herbal":


title: Cornus mas

text: The shrub was not native to the British Isles. William Turner had only heard of the plant in 1548, but by 1551 he had heard of one at Hampton Court Palace. Gerard said it was to be found in the gardens "of such as love rare and dainty plants".


title: Cornus mas

text: The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):


title: P1Harmony

text: P1Harmony (; Acronym: P1H) is a South Korean boy band formed and managed by FNC Entertainment. The group consists of six members: Keeho, Theo, Jiung, Intak, Soul, and Jongseob. They debuted on October 28, 2020, with the extended play (EP) "Disharmony: Stand Out", as well as an additional movie "P1H: The Beginning of a New World".


title: P1Harmony

text: Prior to their debut, Jongseob was a contestant on SBS reality program, "" as a member of Boyfriend. He won the program in which he was signed with YG Entertainment. Two years later, he joined YG Survival show "YG Treasure Box" as a member of Group C. However, he was eliminated in Episode 9.


title: P1Harmony

text: In August 2020, FNC Entertainment announced that it was gearing up to debut a new boy group. On the 27th, the company released the teaser poster of the group's debut movie "P1H: The Beginning of a New World", which they described as a fusion project combining K-pop and K-movie. On September 8, 2020, the main teaser was officially unveiled on P1Harmony's official YouTube account.


title: P1Harmony

text: On October 28, 2020, the group made their debut with their EP "Disharmony: Stand Out" and its lead single "Siren".


title: P1Harmony

text: On April 20, 2021, the group made their first comeback with their second EP "Disharmony: Break Out" and its lead single "Scared".


title: P1Harmony

text: On January 3, 2022, the group released their third EP "Disharmony: Find Out" and its lead single "Do It Like This".


title: P1Harmony

text: On January 28, 2022, it was announced that the group will be embarking on their first-ever overseas tour "2022 P1Harmony LIVE TOUR [P1ustage H : PEACE]". Their first stop was on February 26th in Seoul and they visited eight cities in the United States starting March 11th. The tour ended on May 18th.


title: P1Harmony

text: On May 26, 2022, the group released their digital single "Gotta Bet Back" in collaboration with American artist Pink Sweat$. The song was composed by Pink Sweat$ himself, while members Intak and Jongseob directly participated in the lyrics.


title: P1Harmony

text: On July 20, 2022, the group released their fourth EP "Harmony: Zero In" and its lead single "Doom Du Doom".


title: P1Harmony

text: On November 30, 2022, the group released their fifth EP "Harmony: Set In" and its lead single "Back Down".


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Symbiogenesis (endosymbiotic theory, or serial endosymbiotic theory,) is the leading evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms. The theory holds that mitochondria, plastids such as chloroplasts, and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells are descended from formerly free-living prokaryotes (more closely related to the Bacteria than to the Archaea) taken one inside the other in endosymbiosis. Mitochondria appear to be phylogenetically related to Rickettsiales bacteria, while chloroplasts are thought to be related to cyanobacteria.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The idea that chloroplasts were originally independent organisms that merged into a symbiotic relationship with other one-celled organisms dates back to the 19th century, when it was espoused by researchers such as Andreas Schimper. The endosymbiotic theory was articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and substantiated with microbiological evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Among the many lines of evidence supporting symbiogenesis are that new mitochondria and plastids are formed only by splitting in two, and that cells cannot create new ones otherwise; that the transport proteins called porins are found in the outer membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and bacterial cell membranes; that cardiolipin is found only in the inner mitochondrial membrane and bacterial cell membranes; and that some mitochondria and plastids contain single circular DNA molecules similar to the circular chromosomes of bacteria.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski first outlined the theory of symbiogenesis (from Greek: σύν "syn" "together", βίος "bios" "life", and γένεσις "genesis" "origin, birth") in his 1905 work, "The nature and origins of chromatophores in the plant kingdom", and then elaborated it in his 1910 "The Theory of Two Plasms as the Basis of Symbiogenesis, a New Study of the Origins of Organisms". Mereschkowski knew of the work of botanist Andreas Schimper. In 1883, Schimper had observed that the division of chloroplasts in green plants closely resembled that of free-living cyanobacteria. He had tentatively proposed (in a footnote) that green plants had arisen from a symbiotic union of two organisms. In 1918 the French scientist Paul Jules Portier published "Les Symbiotes", in which he claimed that the mitochondria originated from a symbiosis process. Ivan Wallin advocated the idea of an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria in the 1920s.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The Russian botanist Boris Kozo-Polyansky became the first to explain the theory in terms of Darwinian evolution. In his 1924 book "A New Principle of Biology. Essay on the Theory of Symbiogenesis", he wrote, "The theory of symbiogenesis is a theory of selection relying on the phenomenon of symbiosis."


title: Symbiogenesis

text: These theories did not gain traction until more detailed electron-microscopic comparisons between cyanobacteria and chloroplasts were made, such as by Hans Ris in 1961 and 1962. These, combined with the discovery that plastids and mitochondria contain their own DNA, led to a resurrection of the idea of symbiogenesis in the 1960s.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Lynn Margulis advanced and substantiated the theory with microbiological evidence in a 1967 paper, "On the origin of mitosing cells." In her 1981 work "Symbiosis in Cell Evolution" she argued that eukaryotic cells originated as communities of interacting entities, including endosymbiotic spirochaetes that developed into eukaryotic flagella and cilia. This last idea has not received much acceptance, because flagella lack DNA and do not show ultrastructural similarities to bacteria or to archaea (see also: Evolution of flagella and Prokaryotic cytoskeleton). According to Margulis and Dorion Sagan, "Life did not take over the globe by combat, but by networking" (i.e., by cooperation). Christian de Duve proposed that the peroxisomes may have been the first endosymbionts, allowing cells to withstand growing amounts of free molecular oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. However, it now appears that peroxisomes may be formed "de novo", contradicting the idea that they have a symbiotic origin. The fundamental theory of symbiogenesis as the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts is now widely accepted.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Biologists usually distinguish organelles from endosymbionts – whole organisms living inside other organisms – by their reduced genome sizes. As an endosymbiont evolves into an organelle, most of its genes are transferred to the host cell genome. The host cell and organelle therefore need to develop a transport mechanism that enables the return of the protein products needed by the organelle but now manufactured by the cell.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Alphaproteobacteria were formerly thought to be the free-living organisms most closely related to mitochondria. Later research indicates that mitochondria are most closely related to Pelagibacterales bacteria, in particular, those in the SAR11 clade.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Nitrogen-fixing filamentous cyanobacteria are the free-living organisms most closely related to plastids.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Both cyanobacteria and alphaproteobacteria maintain a large (>6Mb) genome encoding thousands of proteins. Plastids and mitochondria exhibit a dramatic reduction in genome size when compared with their bacterial relatives. Chloroplast genomes in photosynthetic organisms are normally 120–200kb encoding 20–200 proteins and mitochondrial genomes in humans are approximately 16kb and encode 37 genes, 13 of which are proteins. Using the example of the freshwater amoeboid, however, "Paulinella chromatophora", which contains chromatophores found to be evolved from cyanobacteria, Keeling and Archibald argue that this is not the only possible criterion; another is that the host cell has assumed control of the regulation of the former endosymbiont's division, thereby synchronizing it with the cell's own division. Nowack and her colleagues gene sequenced the chromatophore (1.02Mb) and found that only 867 proteins were encoded by these photosynthetic cells. Comparisons with their closest free living cyanobacteria of the genus "Synechococcus" (having a genome size 3Mb, with 3300 genes) revealed that chromatophores had undergone a drastic genome shrinkage. Chromatophores contained genes that were accountable for photosynthesis but were deficient in genes that could carry out other biosynthetic functions; this observation suggests that these endosymbiotic cells are highly dependent on their hosts for their survival and growth mechanisms. Thus, these chromatophores were found to be non-functional for organelle-specific purposes when compared with mitochondria and plastids. This distinction could have promoted the early evolution of photosynthetic organelles.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The loss of genetic autonomy, that is, the loss of many genes from endosymbionts, occurred very early in evolutionary time. Taking into account the entire original endosymbiont genome, there are three main possible fates for genes over evolutionary time. The first is the loss of functionally redundant genes, in which genes that are already represented in the nucleus are eventually lost. The second is the transfer of genes to the nucleus, while the third is that genes remain in the organelle that was once an organism. The loss of autonomy and integration of the endosymbiont with its host can be primarily attributed to nuclear gene transfer. As organelle genomes have been greatly reduced over evolutionary time, nuclear genes have expanded and become more complex. As a result, many plastid and mitochondrial processes are driven by nuclear encoded gene products. In addition, many nuclear genes originating from endosymbionts have acquired novel functions unrelated to their organelles.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The mechanisms of gene transfer are not fully known; however, multiple hypotheses exist to explain this phenomenon. The possible mechanisms include the Complementary DNA (cDNA) hypothesis and the bulk flow hypothesis.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: This involves the use of messenger RNA (mRNAs) to transport genes from organelles to the nucleus where they are converted to cDNA and incorporated into the genome. The cDNA hypothesis is based on studies of the genomes of flowering plants. Protein coding RNAs in mitochondria are spliced and edited using organelle-specific splice and editing sites. Nuclear copies of some mitochondrial genes, however, do not contain organelle-specific splice sites, suggesting a processed mRNA intermediate. The cDNA hypothesis has since been revised as edited mitochondrial cDNAs are unlikely to recombine with the nuclear genome and are more likely to recombine with their native mitochondrial genome. If the edited mitochondrial sequence recombines with the mitochondrial genome, mitochondrial splice sites would no longer exist in the mitochondrial genome. Any subsequent nuclear gene transfer would therefore also lack mitochondrial splice sites.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The bulk flow hypothesis is the alternative to the cDNA hypothesis, stating that escaped DNA, rather than mRNA, is the mechanism of gene transfer. According to this hypothesis, disturbances to organelles, including autophagy (normal cell destruction), gametogenesis (the formation of gametes), and cell stress release DNA which is imported into the nucleus and incorporated into the nuclear DNA using non-homologous end joining (repair of double stranded breaks). For example, in the initial stages of endosymbiosis, due to a lack of major gene transfer, the host cell had little to no control over the endosymbiont. The endosymbiont underwent cell division independently of the host cell, resulting in many "copies" of the endosymbiont within the host cell. Some of the endosymbionts lysed (burst), and high levels of DNA were incorporated into the nucleus. A similar mechanism is thought to occur in tobacco plants, which show a high rate of gene transfer and whose cells contain multiple chloroplasts. In addition, the bulk flow hypothesis is also supported by the presence of non-random clusters of organelle genes, suggesting the simultaneous movement of multiple genes.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Ford Doolittle proposed that (whatever the mechanism) gene transfer behaves like a ratchet, resulting in unidirectional transfer of genes from the organelle to the nuclear genome. When genetic material from an organelle is incorporated into the nuclear genome, either the organelle or nuclear copy of the gene may be lost from the population. If the organelle copy is lost and this is fixed, or lost through genetic drift, a gene is successfully transferred to the nucleus. If the nuclear copy is lost, horizontal gene transfer can occur again, and the cell can ‘try again’ to have successful transfer of genes to the nucleus. In this ratchet-like way, genes from an organelle would be expected to accumulate in the nuclear genome over evolutionary time.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Endosymbiotic theory for the origin of mitochondria suggests that the proto-eukaryote engulfed a protomitochondria, and this endosymbiont became an organelle.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Mitochondria are organelles that synthesize ATP for the cell by metabolizing carbon-based macromolecules. The presence of DNA in mitochondria and proteins, derived from mtDNA, suggest that this organelle may have been a prokaryote prior to its integration into the proto-eukaryote. Mitochondria are regarded as organelles rather than endosymbionts because mitochondria and the host cells share some parts of their genome, undergo mitosis simultaneously, and provide each other with means to produce energy. The endomembrane system and nuclear membrane were hypothesized to have derived from the protomitochondria.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The presence of a nucleus is one major difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Some conserved nuclear proteins between eukaryotes and prokaryotes suggest that these two types had a common ancestor. Another theory behind nucleation is that early nuclear membrane proteins caused the cell membrane to fold and form a sphere with pores like the nuclear envelope.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: As a way of forming a nuclear membrane, endosymbiosis could be expected to use less energy than if the cell was to develop a metabolic process to fold the cell membrane for the purpose. Digesting engulfed cells without energy-producing mitochondria would have been challenging for the host cell. On this view, vesicles leaving the protomitochondria may have formed the nuclear envelope.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The process of symbiogenesis by which the early eukaryotic cell integrated the proto-mitochondrion likely included protection of the archaeal host genome from the release of reactive oxygen species. These would have been formed during oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production by the proto-mitochondrion. The nuclear membrane may have evolved as an adaptive innovation for protecting against nuclear genome DNA damage caused by reactive oxygen species. Substantial transfer of genes from the ancestral proto-mitochondrial genome to the nuclear genome likely occurred during early eukaryotic evolution. The greater protection of the nuclear genome against reactive oxygen species afforded by the nuclear membrane may explain the adaptive benefit of this gene transfer.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Modern eukaryotic cells use the endomembrane system to transport products and wastes in, within, and out of cells. The membrane of nuclear envelope and endomembrane vesicles are composed of similar membrane proteins. These vesicles also share similar membrane proteins with the organelle they originated from or are traveling towards. This suggests that what formed the nuclear membrane also formed the endomembrane system. Prokaryotes do not have a complex internal membrane network like eukaryotes, but they could produce extracellular vesicles from their outer membrane. After the early prokaryote was consumed by a proto-eukaryote, the prokaryote would have continued to produce vesicles that accumulated within the cell. Interaction of internal components of vesicles may have led to the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Some endosymbiont genes remain in the organelles. Plastids and mitochondria retain genes encoding rRNAs, tRNAs, proteins involved in redox reactions, and proteins required for transcription, translation, and replication. There are many hypotheses to explain why organelles retain a small portion of their genome; however no one hypothesis will apply to all organisms, and the topic is still quite controversial. The hydrophobicity hypothesis states that highly hydrophobic (water hating) proteins (such as the membrane bound proteins involved in redox reactions) are not easily transported through the cytosol and therefore these proteins must be encoded in their respective organelles. The code disparity hypothesis states that the limit on transfer is due to differing genetic codes and RNA editing between the organelle and the nucleus. The redox control hypothesis states that genes encoding redox reaction proteins are retained in order to effectively couple the need for repair and the synthesis of these proteins. For example, if one of the photosystems is lost from the plastid, the intermediate electron carriers may lose or gain too many electrons, signalling the need for repair of a photosystem. The time delay involved in signalling the nucleus and transporting a cytosolic protein to the organelle results in the production of damaging reactive oxygen species. The final hypothesis states that the assembly of membrane proteins, particularly those involved in redox reactions, requires coordinated synthesis and assembly of subunits; however, translation and protein transport coordination is more difficult to control in the cytoplasm.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The majority of the genes in the mitochondria and plastids are related to the expression (transcription, translation and replication) of genes encoding proteins involved in either photosynthesis (in plastids) or cellular respiration (in mitochondria). One might predict that the loss of photosynthesis or cellular respiration would allow for the complete loss of the plastid genome or the mitochondrial genome respectively. While there are numerous examples of mitochondrial descendants (mitosomes and hydrogenosomes) that have lost their entire organellar genome, non-photosynthetic plastids tend to retain a small genome. There are two main hypotheses to explain this occurrence:


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The essential tRNA hypothesis notes that there have been no documented functional plastid-to-nucleus gene transfers of genes encoding RNA products (tRNAs and rRNAs). As a result, plastids must make their own functional RNAs or import nuclear counterparts. The genes encoding tRNA-Glu and tRNA-fmet, however, appear to be indispensable. The plastid is responsible for haem biosynthesis, which requires plastid encoded tRNA-Glu (from the gene trnE) as a precursor molecule. Like other genes encoding RNAs, trnE cannot be transferred to the nucleus. In addition, it is unlikely trnE could be replaced by a cytosolic tRNA-Glu as trnE is highly conserved; single base changes in trnE have resulted in the loss of haem synthesis. The gene for tRNA-formylmethionine (tRNA-fmet) is also encoded in the plastid genome and is required for translation initiation in both plastids and mitochondria. A plastid is required to continue expressing the gene for tRNA-fmet so long as the mitochondrion is translating proteins.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The limited window hypothesis offers a more general explanation for the retention of genes in non-photosynthetic plastids. According to this hypothesis, genes are transferred to the nucleus following the disturbance of organelles. Disturbance was common in the early stages of endosymbiosis, however, once the host cell gained control of organelle division, eukaryotes could evolve to have only one plastid per cell. Having only one plastid severely limits gene transfer as the lysis of the single plastid would likely result in cell death. Consistent with this hypothesis, organisms with multiple plastids show an 80-fold increase in plastid-to-nucleus gene transfer compared with organisms with single plastids.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: There are many lines of evidence that mitochondria and plastids including chloroplasts arose from bacteria.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Primary endosymbiosis involves the engulfment of a cell by another free living organism. Secondary endosymbiosis occurs when the product of primary endosymbiosis is itself engulfed and retained by another free living eukaryote. Secondary endosymbiosis has occurred several times and has given rise to extremely diverse groups of algae and other eukaryotes. Some organisms can take opportunistic advantage of a similar process, where they engulf an alga and use the products of its photosynthesis, but once the prey item dies (or is lost) the host returns to a free living state. Obligate secondary endosymbionts become dependent on their organelles and are unable to survive in their absence. A secondary endosymbiosis event involving an ancestral red alga and a heterotrophic eukaryote resulted in the evolution and diversification of several other photosynthetic lineages including Cryptophyta, Haptophyta, Stramenopiles (or Heterokontophyta), and Alveolata.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: A possible secondary endosymbiosis has been observed in process in the heterotrophic protist "Hatena" behaves like a predator until it ingests a green alga, which loses its flagella and cytoskeleton. "Hatena" meanwhile, now a host, switches to photosynthetic nutrition, gains the ability to move towards light, and loses its feeding apparatus.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Despite the diversity of organisms containing plastids, the morphology, biochemistry, genomic organisation, and molecular phylogeny of plastid RNAs and proteins suggest a single origin of all extant plastids – although this theory is still debated.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: Some species including "Pediculus humanus" (lice) have multiple chromosomes in the mitochondrion. This and the phylogenetics of the genes encoded within the mitochondrion suggest that mitochondria have multiple ancestors, that these were acquired by endosymbiosis on several occasions rather than just once, and that there have been extensive mergers and rearrangements of genes on the several original mitochondrial chromosomes.


title: Symbiogenesis

text: The question of when the transition from prokaryotic to eukaryotic form occurred and when the first crown group eukaryotes appeared on earth is still unresolved. The oldest known body fossils that can be positively assigned to the Eukaryota are acanthomorphic acritarchs from the 1.631 Gya Deonar Formation of India. These fossils can still be identified as derived post-nuclear eukaryotes with a sophisticated, morphology-generating cytoskeleton sustained by mitochondria. This fossil evidence indicates that endosymbiotic acquisition of alphaproteobacteria must have occurred before 1.6 Gya. Molecular clocks have also been used to estimate the last eukaryotic common ancestor, however these methods have large inherent uncertainty and give a wide range of dates. Reasonable results include the estimate of c. 1.8 Gya. A 2.3 Gya estimate also seems reasonable, and has the added attraction of coinciding with one of the most pronounced biogeochemical perturbations in Earth history, the early Palaeoproterozoic Great Oxygenation Event. The marked increase in atmospheric oxygen concentrations at that time has been suggested as a contributing cause of eukaryogenesis, inducing the evolution of oxygen-detoxifying mitochondria. Alternatively, the Great Oxidation Event might be a consequence of eukaryogenesis, and its impact on the export and burial of organic carbon.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: Jaisalmer Fort is situated in the city of Jaisalmer, in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is believed to be one of the very few "living forts" in the world (such as Carcassonne, France), as nearly one fourth of the old city's population still resides within the fort. For the better part of its 860-year history, the fort was the city of Jaisalmer. The first settlements outside the fort walls, to accommodate the growing population of Jaisalmer, are said to have come up in the 17th century when the fort was in Mughal control. Much of it was built during that time and was beautified with Indo-Islamic architecture.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: Jaisalmer Fort is the second oldest fort in Rajasthan, built in 1156 AD by the Rajput Rawal (ruler) Jaisal from whom it derives its name, and stood at the crossroads of important trade routes (including the ancient Silk road).


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: The fort's massive yellow sandstone walls are a tawny lion colour during the day, fading to honey-gold as the sun sets, thereby camouflaging the fort in the yellow desert. For this reason it is also known as the "Sonar Quila" or "Golden Fort". The name "Sonar Quila" (Bengali for Golden Fortress) was popularized by tourists after famous Bengali film of the same name, that was shot in this fort by eminent filmmaker Satyajit Ray. The fort stands amidst the sandy expanse of the great Thar Desert on Trikuta Hill, hence also known as "Trikutgarh". It is today located along the southern edge of the city that bears its name; its dominant hilltop location making the sprawling towers of its fortifications visible for many miles around.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: In 2013, at the 37th session of the World Heritage Committee held in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, Jaisalmer Fort, along with five other forts of Rajasthan, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the group Hill Forts of Rajasthan.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: Legend has it that the fort was built by Rawal Jaisal, a Bhati Rajput, in 1156 CE. The story says that it superseded an earlier construction at Lodhruva, with which Jaisal was unsatisfied and thus, a new capital was established when Jaisal founded the city of Jaisalmer.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: Around 1299 CE, Rawal Jait Singh I faced a long siege by Alauddin Khalji of Delhi Sultanate, who is said to have been provoked by a Bhati raid on his treasure caravan. By the end of the siege, facing certain defeat, the Bhati Rajput women committed 'Jauhar', and the male warriors under the command of Mularaja met their fatal end in battle with the Sultan's forces. For a few years after the successful siege, the fort remained under the sway of Delhi Sultanate, before being eventually reoccupied by some surviving Bhatis.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: During Rawal Lunakaran's reign, around 1530–1551 CE, the fort was attacked by an Afghan chief Amir Ali. When it seemed to the Rawal that he was fighting a losing battle, he slaughtered his womenfolk as there was insufficient time to arrange a "jauhar". Tragically, reinforcements arrived immediately after the deed was done and the army of Jaisalmer became victorious in its defence of the fort.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: In 1541 CE, Rawal Lunakaran also fought Mughal emperor Humayun when the latter attacked the fort on his way to Ajmer. He also offered his daughter in marriage to Akbar. Mughals controlled the fort until 1762.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: The fort remained under the control of Mughals until 1762, when Maharawal Mulraj took control of the fort.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: The treaty between the East India Company and Mulraj on 12 December 1818 allowed the Mulraj to retain control of the fort and provided for protection from invasion. After the death of Mulraj in 1820, his grandson Gaj Singh inherited control of the fort.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: With the advent of British rule, the emergence of maritime trade and the growth of the port of Bombay led to the gradual economic decline of Jaisalmer. After independence and the Partition of India, the ancient trade route was totally closed, thus permanently removing the city from its former role of importance in international commerce. Nonetheless, the continued strategic importance of Jaisalmer was demonstrated during the 1965 and 1971 wars between India and Pakistan.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: Even though the town of Jaisalmer no longer serves as an important trading city, or as a major military post, the town is still able to earn revenues as a major tourist destination. Initially, the entire population of Jaisalmer lived within the fort, and today the old fort still retains a resident population of about 4,000 people who are largely descended from the Brahmin and Rajput communities. These two communities once served as the workforce for the fort's one time Bhati rulers, which service then entitled the workers to reside on the hilltop and within the walls of the fort. With the slow increase in the area's population, many of the town's residents gradually relocated to the foot of the Trikuta Hill. From there the town's population has since largely spread out well beyond the old walls of the fort, and into the adjacent valley below.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: The fort is long and wide and is built on a hill that raises above a height of above the surrounding countryside. The base of the fort has a tall wall forming the fort's outermost ring, within its triple ringed defence architecture. The fort's upper bastions or towers form a defensive inner-wall perimeter that is about long. The fort now incorporates 99 bastions, of which 92 were built or substantially rebuilt between the period of 1633–47, which makes the fort very much Indo-Islamic or Mughal in its appearance today. The fort also has four fortified entrances or gates from the townside, one of which was once guarded by cannon. Other points of interest within the fort's walls and grounds include:


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: The fort has an ingenious drainage system called the "ghut nali" which allows for the easy drainage of rainwater away from the fort in all four directions of the fort. Over the years, haphazard construction activities and building of new roads has greatly reduced its effectiveness.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: The fort has numerous eateries, including Italian, French and native cuisines. The famous Indian film director Satyajit Ray wrote the "Sonar Kella" (The Golden Fortress), a detective novel, based on the fort and he later filmed it here. The film became a classic and a large number of tourists from Bengal and around the world visit the fort annually to experience for themselves the world that Ray portrayed in the movie. Six forts of Rajasthan, namely, Amber Fort, Chittor Fort, Gagron Fort, Jaisalmer Fort, Kumbhalgarh and Ranthambore Fort were included in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list during the 37th meeting of the World Heritage Committee in Phnom Penh during June 2013. They were recognized as a serial cultural property and examples of Rajput military hill architecture.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: The Jaisalmer Fort today faces manifold threats that are a result of the increasing population pressure on it. Water seepage, inadequate civic amenities, derelict houses and seismic activity around the Trikuta Hill are some of the major concerns impacting the fort. Unlike most other forts, the Jaisalmer Fort has been built over a weak sedimentary rock foothill which makes its foundations especially vulnerable to seepage. Over the years this has led to the collapse of significant portions of the fort such as the Queen's Palace or Rani Ka Mahal and parts of the outer boundary wall and the lower pitching walls.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: The World Monuments Fund included the fort in its 1996 World Monuments Watch and again in the 1998 and 2000 reports due to the threats posed to it by an increase in its resident population and the increasing numbers of tourists who visit it every year. The fort is one of Rajasthan's most popular tourist attractions with as many as five to six hundred thousand tourists visiting it annually. As a result, it is abuzz with commercial activities and has seen a phenomenal growth in both human and vehicular traffic.


title: Jaisalmer Fort

text: Major restoration work has been undertaken by the World Monuments Fund and UK based charity Jaisalmer in Jeopardy. According to former INTACH chairman S.K. Misra, American Express has provided more than $1 million for the conservation of Jaisalmer Fort. The absence of coordinated action among the various government departments responsible for civic amenities, the local municipality and the Archaeological Survey that is responsible for the upkeep of the fort is a major impediment in its maintenance and restoration.


title: Calafia

text: Calafia, or Califia, is the fictional queen of the island of California, first introduced by 16th century poet Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo in his epic novel of chivalry, "Las sergas de Esplandián" (The Adventures of Esplandián), written around 1510. The Californias, a region of North America encompassing the U.S. state of California and the Mexican states of Baja California and Baja California Sur, take their name from Calafia and her kingdom.


title: Calafia

text: In the novel, Calafia is a pagan warrior queen who ruled over a kingdom of black women living on the Island of California (an island off the coast of Asia). Calafia is convinced to raise an army of women warriors and sail away from California with a large flock of trained griffins so that she can join a Muslim battle against Christians who are defending Constantinople. In the siege, the griffins harm enemy and friendly forces, so they are withdrawn. Calafia and her ally Radiaro fight in single combat against the Christian leaders, a king and his son the knight Esplandián. Calafia is bested and taken prisoner, and she converts to Christianity. She marries a cousin of Esplandián and returns with her army to California for further adventures.


title: Calafia

text: The name of "Calafia" was likely formed from the Arabic word "khalifa" (religious state leader) that is known as caliph in English and "califa" in Spanish. Similarly, the name of Calafia's realm, "California", likely originated from the same root, fabricated by the author to remind the 16th century Spanish reader of the "reconquista", a centuries-long fight between Christians Iberians and Muslims Arabs Invaders that had recently concluded in Spain. The character of Calafia is used by Rodríguez de Montalvo to portray the superiority of chivalry in which the attractive virgin queen is conquered, converted to Christian beliefs, and married off. The book was very popular for many decades—Hernán Cortés read it—and it was selected by author Miguel de Cervantes as the first of many popular and presumed-harmful books to be burnt by characters in his famous novel "Don Quixote".


title: Calafia

text: Calafia has been depicted as the Spirit of California, and has been the subject of modern-day sculpture, paintings, stories, and films; she often figures in the myth of California's origin, symbolizing an untamed and bountiful land prior to European settlement.