title: Red Cell

text: Realistic exercise scenarios executed around the world involved documentation using both civilian and military personnel. Remote, fixed and handheld video cameras captured all aspects of the exercises and were used to compile quick-look after-action reviews as well as in-depth lessons learned catalogs.


title: Red Cell

text: The name was derived from "Red Team", a term for the opposing force in a war game by western nations during the Cold War, a reference to the predominantly red flags of Communist nations (i.e., the USSR and PRC) with the western nations being the Blue Team. The USSR used the same colors, but reversed meaning—they were the Red Team and the OpFor was the Blue Team.


title: Red Cell

text: A new Red Cell team was formed by CIA after the 9/11 attacks to brainstorm ways to attack America, in order to come up with security measures to prevent them. Novelist Brad Meltzer was recruited to write plots as part of this program.


title: Red Cell

text: On March 20, 1986, Red Cell team members kidnapped Ronald D. Sheridan, a civilian security guard who worked at Naval Weapons Station Seal Beach in Southern California as part of an exercise to test the defenses of the base. They took him to a nearby hotel where he was held for 30 hours and tortured: stripped, kicked, beaten, and repeated dunking into a bathtub filled with water and a flushing toilet. While in theory the kidnapping could prove a weakness, actually committing the torture served no useful purpose. In addition, the kidnapping was not even successful as a show of weakness; Sheridan's wife saw the suspicious men with a van and got the drop on them with her own pistol, and was only prevented from shooting the would-be kidnappers by her husband calling her off and insisting it was part of an exercise, as he thought at the time it would be a brief matter. Since Sheridan was not naval personnel, he sued the government afterward.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In Nazi German terminology, Volksdeutsche () were "people whose language and culture had German origins but who did not hold German citizenship". The term is the nominalised plural of "volksdeutsch", with "Volksdeutsche" denoting a singular female, and "Volksdeutsche(r)", a singular male. The words "Volk" and "völkisch" conveyed the meanings of "folk".


title: Volksdeutsche

text: The Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans at the time) shed their identity as Auslandsdeutsche (Germans abroad) and morphed into the Volksdeutsche in a process of self-radicalisation. This process gave the Nazi regime the nucleus around which the new Volksgemeinschaft was established across the German borders.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: "Volksdeutsche" were further divided into "racial" groups—minorities within a state minority—based on special cultural, social, and historic criteria elaborated by the Nazis.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: According to the historian Doris Bergen, Adolf Hitler coined the definition of "Volksdeutsche" which appeared in a 1938 memorandum of the German Reich Chancellery. That document defined "Volksdeutsche" as "people whose language and culture had German origins but who did not hold German citizenship". After 1945, the Nazi citizenship laws of 1935 () - and the associated regulations that referred to the National Socialist concepts of blood and race in connection with the concept of "volksdeutsch" - were rescinded in Germany.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: For Hitler and the other ethnic Germans of his time, the term "Volksdeutsche" also carried overtones of blood and race not captured in the common English translation "ethnic Germans". According to German estimates in the 1930s, about 30 million Volksdeutsche and Auslandsdeutsche (German citizens residing abroad) lived outside the Reich. A significant proportion of them were in Eastern Europe: Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, and Romania, Hungary and Slovakia, where many were located in villages along the Danube; and in Russia.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: The Nazi goal of expansion assigned the "Volksdeutsche" a special role in German plans, to bring them back to German citizenship and to elevate them to power over the native populations in those areas. The Nazis detailed such goals in "Generalplan Ost".


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In some areas, such as in Poland, Nazi authorities compiled specific lists and registered people as ethnic Germans in the "Deutsche Volksliste".


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In the sixteenth century Vasili III invited small numbers of craftsmen, traders and professionals to settle in Russia from areas that would later become Germany so that Muscovy could exploit their skills. These settlers (many of whom intended to stay only temporarily) were generally confined to the German Quarter in Moscow (which also included Dutch, British and other western or northern European settlers whom the Russians came to indiscriminately refer to as "Germans"). They were only gradually allowed in other cities, so as to prevent the spread of alien ideas to the general population.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In his youth, Peter the Great spent much time in the 'German' quarter. When he became Tsar, he brought more German experts (and other foreigners) into Russia, and particularly into government service, in his attempts to westernise the empire. He also brought in German engineers to supervise the construction of the new city of Saint Petersburg.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Catherine the Great, herself ethnically German, invited Germanic farmers to immigrate and settle in Russian lands along the Volga River. She guaranteed them the right to retain their language, religion and culture. Ethnic Germans were also sent by her in organised colonisation attempts aiming at Germanisation of conquered Polish areas.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Also in other areas with an ethnic German minority people of other than German descent assimilated with the ethnic German culture and formed then a part of the minority. Examples are people of Baltic and Scandinavian descent, who assimilated into the minority of the Baltic Germans. Jews of Posen province, Galicia, Bukovina and Bohemia, with their Yiddish culture derived in part from their German heritage, often mingled into the ethnic German culture, thus forming part of the various ethnic German minorities. But anti-Semitic Nazis later rejected Jewish ethnic Germans and all Jewish German citizens as 'racially' German.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Frederick the Great (reigned 1740–1786) settled around 300,000 colonists in the eastern provinces of Prussia, acquired in the First Partition of Poland of 1772, with the intention of replacing the Polish nobility. He treated the Poles with contempt and likened the "slovenly Polish trash" in newly occupied West Prussia to Iroquois, the historic Native American confederacy based in what is now the state of New York.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Prussia encouraged a second round of colonisation with the goal of Germanisation after 1832. Prussia passed laws to encourage Germanisation of the Prussian Partition including the provinces of Posen and West Prussia in the late 19th century. The Prussian Settlement Commission relocated 154,000 colonists, including locals.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: The reconstitution of Poland following the Treaty of Versailles (1919) made ethnic German minorities of some Prussian provinces of the German Empire citizens of the Polish nation state. Ethnic German inhabitants of provinces of the dissolved Austro-Hungarian Empire, such as Bukovina Germans, Danube Swabians, Sudeten Germans and Transylvanian Saxons, became citizens of newly established Slavic or Magyar nation-states and of Romania. Tensions between the new administration and the ethnic German minority arose in the Polish Corridor. The Austrian Germans also found themselves not allowed to join Germany as German Austria was strictly forbidden to join Germany as well as the name "German Austria" was forbidden so the name was changed back to just "Austria" and the First Austrian Republic was created in 1919.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: During the Nazi years, the German Nazis used the term "Volksdeutsche", by which they meant racially German since they believed in a German 'race' or 'Volk', to refer to foreign nationals of some German ethnicity living in countries newly occupied by Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union. Prior to World War II, more than 10 million ethnic Germans lived in Central and Eastern Europe. They constituted an important minority far into Russia. Because of widespread assimilation some people whom the Nazis called Volksdeutsche could no longer speak German and in fact were culturally regionalized as Poles, Hungarians, Romanians, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In 1931, prior to its rise to power, the Nazi party established the Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP/AO (Foreign Organisation of the Nazi Party), whose task it was to disseminate Nazi propaganda among the ethnic German minorities viewed as Volksdeutsche in Nazi ideology. In 1936, the government set up the "Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle" (Ethnic Germans' Liaison Office), commonly known as VoMi, under the jurisdiction of the SS as the liaison bureau. It was headed by SS-Obergruppenführer Werner Lorenz.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Nazi propaganda used the existence of ethnic Germans who they called "Volksdeutsche" in foreign lands before and during the war, to help justify the aggression of Nazi Germany. The annexation of Poland was presented as necessary to protect the ethnic German minorities there. Massacres of ethnic Germans, such as Bloody Sunday, or alleged atrocities, were used in such propaganda, and the film "Heimkehr" drew on such putative events as the rescue of Volksdeutsche by the arrival of German tanks. "Heimkehr"'s introduction explicitly states that hundreds of thousands of Poles of German ethnicity suffered as the characters in the film did.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: "Menschen im Sturm" reprised "Heimkehr"'s effort to justify the invasion of Slavonia, using many of the same atrocities. In "The Red Terror", a Baltic German is able to avenge her family's deaths, but commits suicide after, unable to live with meaning in the Soviet Union. "Flüchtlinge" depicted the sufferings of Volga German refugees in Manchuria, and how a heroic blond leader saved them; it was the first movie to win the state prize. "Frisians in Peril" depicted the suffering of a village of Volga Germans in the Soviet Union; it also depicted the murder of a young woman for an affair with a Russian—in accordance with Nazi principle of Rassenschande—as an ancient German custom.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Sexual contact between what the Nazis viewed as different 'races' followed by remorse and guilt was also featured in "Die goldene Stadt", where the Sudeten German heroine faces not persecution but the allure of the big city; when she succumbs, in defiance of blood and soil, she is seduced and abandoned by a Czech, and such a relationship leads to her drowning herself.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Before and during World War II, some ethnic Germans gathered around local Nazi organizations (sponsored financially by the Federal Foreign Office), actively supported the Nazis in countries such as Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugoslavia. During the social and economic tensions of the Great Depression, some had begun to feel aggrieved with their minority status. They participated in espionage, sabotage and other Fifth column means in their countries of origin, trained and commanded by Abwehr. In November 1938 Nazi Germany organized German paramilitary units made out German minority members in Polish Pomerania that were to engage in diversion, sabotage as well as political murder and ethnic cleansing upon German invasion of Poland. Reich intelligence was actively recruiting ethnic Germans and the Nazi secret service ""SicherheitsDienst"" (SD) was forming them as early as October 1938 into armed unit that were to serve Nazi Germany.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Historian Matthias Fiedler typified ethnic German collaborationists as former "nobodies" whose major occupation was the expropriation of Jewish property. Heinrich Himmler remarked that whatever objections ethnic Germans might have against serving in the Waffen-SS, they would be forced into conscription in any case. According to head of recruitment for the Waffen SS, Gottlob Berger, no one in Germany or elsewhere cared for what happened with the ethnic Germans anyway, making forced recruitment easy to force upon ethnic German communities.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Among the indigenous populations in the Nazi-occupied lands, "Volksdeutsche" became a term of ignominy.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: During the early years of the Second World War (i.e., before the US entered the war), a small number of Americans of German origin returned to Germany; generally they were immigrants or children of immigrants, rather than descendants of migrations more distant in time. Some of these enlisted and fought in the German army.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Ethnic Germans throughout Europe benefited financially during World War II from the Nazi policies of genocide and ethnic cleansing, and profited from the expulsion and murder of their non-German neighbors throughout Eastern Europe. For example, in Ukraine the "Volksdeutsche" directly participated in the Holocaust and were involved in deportation of local farmers and their families; "Volksdeutsche" figures like Arthur Boss from Odessa (Blobel's right-hand man) or Becker brothers became integral part of Nazi Holocaust machine.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In September 1939 in German occupied Poland, an armed ethnic German militia called "Selbstschutz" (Self-Defence) was created. It organised the mass murder of Polish elites in Operation Tannenberg. At the beginning of 1940, the "Selbstschutz" organization was disbanded, and its members transferred to various units of the SS, Gestapo and the German police. Throughout the invasion of Poland, some ethnic German minority groups assisted Nazi Germany in the war effort: they committed sabotage, diverted regular forces and committed numerous atrocities against civilian population.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: After Germany occupied western Poland, it established a central registration bureau, called the German People's List ("Deutsche Volksliste", DVL), whereby Poles of German ethnicity were registered as "Volksdeutsche". The German occupants encouraged such registration, in many cases forcing it or subjecting Poles of German ethnicity to terror assaults if they refused. Those who joined this group were given benefits including better food, as well as a better social status.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle organised large-scale looting of property and redistributed goods to the Volksdeutsche. They were given apartments, workshops, farms, furniture, and clothing confiscated from Jews and Poles. In turn, hundreds of thousands of the Volksdeutsche joined the German forces, either willingly or under compulsion.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: During World War II, the Polish citizens of German ancestry that identified with the Polish nation faced the dilemma whether to register in the Deutsche Volksliste. Many families had lived in Poland for centuries and more-recent immigrants had arrived over 30 years before the war. They faced the choice of registering and being regarded as traitors by the Poles, or not signing and being treated by the Nazi occupation as traitors to the Germanic race. Polish Silesian Catholic Church authorities, led by bishop Stanisław Adamski and with agreement from the Polish Government in Exile, advised Poles to sign up to the Volksliste in order to avoid atrocities and mass murder that happened in other parts of the country.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In occupied Poland, "Volksdeutscher" enjoyed privileges and were subject to conscription, or draft, into the German army. In occupied Pomerania, the Gauleiter of the Danzig-West Prussia region Albert Forster ordered a list of people considered of German ethnicity to be made in 1941. Due to insignificant voluntary registrations by February 1942, Forster made signing the "Volksliste" mandatory and empowered local authorities to use force and threats to implement the decree. Consequently, the number of signatories rose to almost a million, or about 55% of the 1944 population.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: The special case of Polish Pomerania, where terror against civilians was particularly intense, and where, unlike in rest of occupied Poland, signing of the list was mandatory for many people, was recognised by the Polish Underground State and other anti-Nazi resistance movements, which tried to explain the situation to other Poles in underground publications.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: The Deutsche Volksliste categorised non-Jewish Poles of German ethnicity into one of four categories:


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Volksdeutsche of statuses 1 and 2 in the Polish areas annexed by Germany numbered 1 million, and Nos. 3 and 4 numbered 1.7 million. In the General Government there were 120,000 Volksdeutsche. Volksdeutsche of Polish ethnic origins were treated by the Poles with special contempt, but were also committing high treason according to Polish law.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Because of actions by some Volksdeutsche and particularly the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany, after the end of the war, the Polish authorities tried many Volksdeutsche for high treason. In the postwar period, many other ethnic Germans were expelled to the west and forced to leave everything. In post-war Poland, the word "Volksdeutsche" is regarded as an insult, synonymous with "traitor".


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In some cases, individuals consulted the Polish resistance first, before signing the Volksliste. There were Volksdeutsche who played important roles in intelligence activities of the Polish resistance, and were at times the primary source of information for the Allies. Particularly in Polish Pomerania and Polish Silesia, many of the people who were forced to sign the Volksliste played crucial roles in the anti-Nazi underground, which was noted in a memo to the Polish Government in Exile which stated ""In Wielkopolska there's bitter hatred of the Volksdeutsche while in Silesia and Polish Pomerania it's the opposite, the secret organization depends in large measure on the Volksdeutsche"" (the memo referred to those of Category III, not I and II). In the turmoil of the postwar years, the Communist government did not consider this sufficient mitigation. It prosecuted many double-agent Volksdeutsche and sentenced some to death.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: The secret protocols of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact created domestic problems for Hitler. Supporting the Soviet invasion became one of the most ideologically difficult aspects of the countries' relationship. The secret protocols caused Hitler to hurriedly evacuate ethnic German families, who had lived in the Baltic countries for centuries and now classified as Volksdeutsche, while officially condoning the invasions. When the three Baltic countries, not knowing about the secret protocols, sent letters protesting the Soviet invasions to Berlin, Ribbentrop returned them.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In August 1940, Soviet Foreign minister Molotov told the Germans that, with the government change, they could close down their Baltic consulates by 1 September. The Soviet annexations in Romania caused further strain. While Germany had given the Soviets Bessarabia in the secret protocols, it had not given them North Bukovina. Germany wanted guarantees of the safety of property of ethnic Germans, security for the 125,000 Volksdeutsche in Bessarabia and North Bukovina, and reassurance that the train tracks carrying Romanian oil would be left alone.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In October 1940, Germany and the Soviet Union negotiated about the Volksdeutsche in Soviet-occupied territories and their property. Instead of permitting full indemnification, the Soviets put restrictions on the wealth that the Volksdeutsche could take with them and limited the totals that the Soviets would apply to the Reich's clearing accounts. The parties discussed total compensation of between and for the Volksdeutsche, while the Soviets requested for their property claims in German-occupied territories. The two nations reached general agreement on German shipments of 10.5-cm flak cannons, gold, machinery and other items.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: On 10 January 1941, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the German–Soviet Border and Commercial Agreement to settle all of the open disputes which the Soviets had argued. The agreement covered protected migration to Germany within two and a half months of Volksdeutsche, and similar migration to the Soviet Union of ethnic Russians, Baltic and "White Russian" "nationals" from German-held territories. In many cases, the resulting population transfers resulted in resettlement of Volksdeutsche on land previously held by ethnic Poles or Jews in now German-occupied territories. The agreement formally defined the border between Germany and the Soviet Union areas between the Igorka River and the Baltic Sea.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the government granted the Volga Germans an autonomous republic. Joseph Stalin abolished the Volga German ASSR after Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the USSR. Most of Soviet Germans in the USSR were to Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Central Asia by Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of August 28, 1941, and from the beginning of 1942 those Soviet Germans who were deemed suitable for hard work (men aged from 15 to 55 and women from 16 to 45) were mobilised for forced labour into "Working columns" where they lived in a prison-like environment, and sometimes, together with regular inmates, were put in prison camps. Hundreds of thousands died or became incapacitated due to the harsh conditions.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: A significant portion of "Volksdeutsche" in Hungary joined the SS, which was a pattern repeated also in Romania (with 54,000 locals serving in the SS by the end of 1943). The majority of 200,000 "Volksdeutsche" from the area of Danube who served with the SS were from Hungary. As early as 1942, some 18,000 Hungarian Germans joined the SS., they have been called Danube Swabians. After World War II, approximately 185,000 "Volksdeutsche" who was in the Volksbund fled from the region. They were called 'Svabo' by their Serbian, Hungarian, Croatian, and Romanian neighbors. Mostly of the Danube Swabians who was not members in the so called "Volksbund" was expelled to Allied-occupied Germany and Allied-occupied Austria in 1946-1948, about the Potsdam Agreement.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: After Romania acquired parts of Soviet Ukraine, the Germans there came under the authority of the Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle, which deployed SS personnel to several settlements. They eventually contained German mayors, farms, schools and ethnic German paramilitary groups functioning as police called "Selbstschutz" ("Self-protection"). German colonists and "Selbstschutz" forces engaged in extensive acts of ethnic cleansing, massacring Jewish and Roma populations.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In the German colony of Shonfeld, Romas were burned in farms. During the winter of 1941/1942, German "Selbstschutz" units participated in the shooting, together with Ukrainian People's Militia and Romanian gendarmes, of some 18,000 Jews. In the camp of Bogdanovka, tens of thousands of Jews were subject to mass shootings, barn burnings and killing by hand grenades.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Heinrich Himmler was sufficiently impressed by the Volksdeutsche communities and the work of the Selbstschutz to order that these methods be copied in Ukraine.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: In the former Yugoslavia, the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen was formed with about 50,000 ethnic Germans from the Banat region of Serbia. It was conspicuous in its operations against the Yugoslav Partisans and civilian population. About 100,000 ethnic Germans from the Nazi-conquered former Yugoslavia joined the German Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS, the majority conscripted involuntarily as judged by the Nuremberg Trials. Yet "[a]fter the initial rush of Volksdeutsche to join, voluntary enlistments tapered off, and the new unit did not reach division size. Therefore, in August 1941, the SS discarded the voluntary approach, and after a favourable judgement from the SS court in Belgrade, imposed a mandatory military obligation on all Volksdeutsche in Serbia-Banat, the first of its kind for non-Reich Germans."In the former Yugoslavia a majority of ethnic Germans became members of the "Schwäbisch-Deutscher Kulturbund" (Swabian German Cultural Association), and reprisals on this group by Tito's partisans resulted in many immediate revenge killings in 1944 and incarceration of approximately 150,000 ethnic Germans in 1945.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Most ethnic Germans fled or were expelled from European countries (Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary) under the Potsdam Agreement from 1945 to 1948 towards the end and after the war. Both those who became ethnic Germans by registering in the Deutsche Volksliste and Reichsdeutsche retained German citizenship during the years of Allied military occupation, after the establishment of East Germany and West Germany in 1949, and later in the reunified Germany. In 1953 the Federal Republic of Germany - by its Federal Expellee Law - naturalised many more East European nationals of German ethnicity, who neither were German citizens nor had enrolled in any 'Volksliste', but had been stranded as refugees in West Germany and fled or were expelled due to their German or alleged German ethnicity.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: An estimated 12 million people fled or were expelled from the Soviet Union and non-German-speaking Central Europe, many of them being 'Volksdeutsche'. Most left the Soviet-occupied territories of Central and Eastern Europe; they comprised the largest migration of any European people in modern history. The then three Allies had agreed to the expulsions during negotiations in the midst of war. The western powers hoped to avoid ethnic Germans being an issue again in Central and Eastern Europe. The three Allies at the Conference of Potsdam considered the "transfer" of "German populations" from Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary an effort to be undertaken (see article 12 of the Potsdam Agreement), although they asked a halt because of the inflicted burden for the Allies to feed and house the destitute expellees and to share that burden among the Allies. France, which was not represented in Potsdam, rejected the decision of the Three of Potsdam and did not absorb expellees in its zone of occupation. The three Allies had to accept the reality on the ground, since expulsions of Volksdeutsche and Central and Eastern European nationals of German or alleged German ethnicity who never had enrolled as Volksdeutsche, were going on already.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Local authorities forced most of the remaining ethnic Germans to leave between 1945 and 1950. Remnants of the ethnic German community survive in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia. A significant ethnic German community has continued in Siebenbürgen (Transylvania) in Romania and in Oberschlesien (Upper Silesia) but most of it migrated to West Germany throughout the 1980s. There are also remnant German populations near Mukachevo in western Ukraine.


title: Volksdeutsche

text: Instead, ethnic Germans of foreign citizenship living outside of Germany are called "Deutsche Minderheit" (meaning "German minority"), or names more closely associated with their earlier places of residence, such as "Wolgadeutsche" or Volga Germans, the ethnic Germans living in the Volga basin in Russia; and Baltic Germans, who generally called themselves Balts, and "Estländer" in Estonia. They were relocated to German-occupied Poland during World War II by an agreement between Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, and most were expelled to the West after the war, under an allied accord called the Potsdam Agreement.


title: Battle cry

text: A battle cry or war cry is a yell or chant taken up in battle, usually by members of the same combatant group.


title: Battle cry

text: Battle cries are not necessarily articulate (e.g. "Eulaliaaaa!", "Alala"..), although they often aim to invoke patriotic or religious sentiment. Their purpose is a combination of arousing aggression and esprit de corps on one's own side and causing intimidation on the hostile side. Battle cries are a universal form of display behaviour (i.e., threat display) aiming at competitive advantage, ideally by overstating one's own aggressive potential to a point where the enemy prefers to avoid confrontation altogether and opts to flee. In order to overstate one's potential for aggression, battle cries need to be as loud as possible, and have historically often been amplified by acoustic devices such as horns, drums, conches, carnyxes, bagpipes, bugles, etc. (see also martial music).


title: Battle cry

text: Battle cries are closely related to other behavioral patterns of human aggression, such as war dances and taunting, performed during the "warming up" phase preceding the escalation of physical violence. From the Middle Ages, many cries appeared on standards and were adopted as mottoes, an example being the motto "Dieu et mon droit" ("God and my right") of the English kings. It is said that this was Edward III's rallying cry during the Battle of Crécy. The word "slogan" originally derives from "sluagh-gairm" or "sluagh-ghairm" ("sluagh" = "people", "army", and "gairm" = "call", "proclamation"), the Scottish Gaelic word for "gathering-cry" and in times of war for "battle-cry". The Gaelic word was borrowed into English as "slughorn", "sluggorne", "slogum", and "slogan".


title: Ariel Schulman

text: Marek Ariel Schulman (born October 2, 1981) is an American filmmaker and actor. He starred in, produced, and directed the 2010 documentary "Catfish", and directed "Paranormal Activity 3", "Paranormal Activity 4", "Nerve" and "Project Power" with Henry Joost.


title: Ariel Schulman

text: Schulman has directed the movies "Catfish", "Paranormal Activity 3", "Paranormal Activity 4", and "Nerve" alongside Joost. He graduated from the Tisch School of the Arts' film program in 2004. Schulman and Joost founded the production company Supermarché.


title: Ariel Schulman

text: His younger brother, Nev Schulman, is the host of "" on MTV. They are of German-Jewish, Russian-Jewish, Polish-Jewish, and Romanian-Jewish descent.


title: Ariel Schulman

text: In 2017, Schulman and Joost were hired to write and direct an adaptation of Mega Man for 20th Century Fox. In 2019, following Disney's acquisition of 21st Century Fox's assets, the film along with numerous Video Game based movies in development at Fox were cancelled. However, this turned out to be untrue, with Capcom confirming that the film was still in development. In 2020, it was revealed that Mattson Tomlin had been hired to help co-write the screenplay.


title: Ariel Schulman

text: In 2018, Schulman co-directed the Netflix sci-fi superhero thriller film "Project Power" alongside Henry Joost from a screenplay by Mattson Tomlin. The film stars Jamie Foxx, Joseph Gordon-Levitt and Dominique Fishback. It was released on August 14, 2020.


title: Ariel Schulman

text: His younger brother is Nev Schulman, the host of MTV's "" and the subject of his premiere documentary, "Catfish".


title: 2020 AFL draft

text: The 2020 AFL draft consisted of the various periods where the 18 clubs in the Australian Football League (AFL) could trade and recruit players following the completion of the 2020 AFL season.


title: 2020 AFL draft

text: Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the National, Pre-season and Rookie drafts were held as a "virtual event" on 9 and 10 December


title: 2020 AFL draft

text: Since 2015, clubs have been able to trade future picks in the next year's national draft during the trade period. As a result, a total of 40 selections for the 2020 draft were traded during the 2019 trade period. Further trades of future picks can be made before or during the 2019 national draft. The selection order for each of these picks is tied to the original club's finishing position in the 2020 season.


title: 2020 AFL draft

text: As part of the revised AFL Collective Bargaining agreement, clubs could now move up to two players from their Senior List on to their Rookie List without having to redraft them through the rookie draft.


title: 2020 AFL draft

text: Clubs were able to promote any player who was listed on their rookie list in 2020 to their 2021 primary playing list prior to the draft.


title: 2020 AFL draft

text: The 2021 pre-season draft was held on the afternoon of Thursday, 10 December 2020 prior to the commencement of the rookie draft.


title: Lemniscate

text: In algebraic geometry, a lemniscate is any of several figure-eight or -shaped curves. The word comes from the Latin ""lēmniscātus"" meaning "decorated with ribbons", from the Greek λημνίσκος meaning "ribbons", or which alternatively may refer to the wool from which the ribbons were made.


title: Lemniscate

text: Curves that have been called a lemniscate include three quartic plane curves: the hippopede or lemniscate of Booth, the lemniscate of Bernoulli, and the lemniscate of Gerono. The study of lemniscates (and in particular the hippopede) dates to ancient Greek mathematics, but the term "lemniscate" for curves of this type comes from the work of Jacob Bernoulli in the late 17th century.


title: Lemniscate

text: The consideration of curves with a figure-eight shape can be traced back to Proclus, a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher and mathematician who lived in the 5th century AD. Proclus considered the cross-sections of a torus by a plane parallel to the axis of the torus. As he observed, for most such sections the cross section consists of either one or two ovals; however, when the plane is tangent to the inner surface of the torus, the cross-section takes on a figure-eight shape, which Proclus called a horse fetter (a device for holding two feet of a horse together), or "hippopede" in Greek. The name "lemniscate of Booth" for this curve dates to its study by the 19th-century mathematician James Booth.


title: Lemniscate

text: The lemniscate may be defined as an algebraic curve, the zero set of the quartic polynomial formula_1 when the parameter "d" is negative (or zero for the special case where the lemniscate becomes a pair of externally tangent circles). For positive values of "d" one instead obtains the oval of Booth.


title: Lemniscate

text: In 1680, Cassini studied a family of curves, now called the Cassini oval, defined as follows: the locus of all points, the product of whose distances from two fixed points, the curves' foci, is a constant. Under very particular circumstances (when the half-distance between the points is equal to the square root of the constant) this gives rise to a lemniscate.


title: Lemniscate

text: In 1694, Johann Bernoulli studied the lemniscate case of the Cassini oval, now known as the lemniscate of Bernoulli (shown above), in connection with a problem of "isochrones" that had been posed earlier by Leibniz. Like the hippopede, it is an algebraic curve, the zero set of the polynomial formula_2. Bernoulli's brother Jacob Bernoulli also studied the same curve in the same year, and gave it its name, the lemniscate. It may also be defined geometrically as the locus of points whose product of distances from two foci equals the square of half the interfocal distance. It is a special case of the hippopede (lemniscate of Booth), with formula_3, and may be formed as a cross-section of a torus whose inner hole and circular cross-sections have the same diameter as each other. The lemniscatic elliptic functions are analogues of trigonometric functions for the lemniscate of Bernoulli, and the lemniscate constants arise in evaluating the arc length of this lemniscate.


title: Lemniscate

text: Another lemniscate, the lemniscate of Gerono or lemniscate of Huygens, is the zero set of the quartic polynomial formula_4. Viviani's curve, a three-dimensional curve formed by intersecting a sphere with a cylinder, also has a figure eight shape, and has the lemniscate of Gerono as its planar projection.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: A Boy and His Dog is a cycle of narratives by author Harlan Ellison. The cycle tells the story of an amoral boy (Vic) and his telepathic dog (Blood), who work together as a team to survive in the post-apocalyptic world after a nuclear war. The original 1969 novella was adapted into the 1975 film "A Boy and His Dog" directed by L.Q. Jones. Both the story and the film were well-received by critics and science fiction fans, but the film was not successful commercially. The original novella was followed by short stories and a graphic novel.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: The film adaptation was an influence on "Love and Monsters" (2020) by Michael Matthews. The story and its film adaptation have also been mentioned to be influential in the creation of the "Fallout" video game series by Black Isle Studios.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Ellison began the cycle with the 1969 short story of the same title, published in "New Worlds", and expanded and revised the tale to novella length for his story collection "The Beast that Shouted Love at the Heart of the World" the same year. He subsequently bookended the original story with two others in the same world: "Eggsucker" ("The Ariel Book of Fantasy Volume Two", 1977), and "Run, Spot, Run" ("Amazing Stories", 1980).


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: The stories were adapted as a two-issue black and white comic series illustrated by Richard Corben, Vic and Blood: The Chronicles of a Boy and His Dog (Mad Dog Graphics, 1987). The series was collected as a color graphic novel of the same name in 1989 by NBM/St. Martin’s Press, and was in turn published in French by Comics USA ("Vic & Blood: Les chroniques d'un gars at son chien", 1989) and in Spanish by Norma Editorial ("Vic & Blood", CEC #72, 1990). Both the graphic novel and the prose stories were collected in Vic and Blood: The Continuing Adventures of a Boy and His Dog (Edgework Abbey/iBooks, 2003). Ellison's introduction to the collection explains that 1969's "A Boy and His Dog" is part of a larger novel that he has been writing for over 30 years and that story is finished, but the last, longest part is written as a screenplay with no current plans for production.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Ellison suggested as late as 2003 that he would combine the three stories (possibly with additional material) to create a novel with the proposed title of "Blood's a Rover" (not to be confused with the Chad Oliver story or the James Ellroy novel "Blood's a Rover"). In January 2018, Subterranean Press announced the publication of "Blood's a Rover", combining materials from the author's files, versions of the novella and short stories that have been expanded and revised, material from Corben's graphic novel, and previously unpublished material from the unproduced 1977 NBC television series "Blood's a Rover".


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: The novella and the film adaptation have the same alternate timeline setting, diverging with the failed assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Instead of concentrating on the Space Race, technological advancements in robotics, animal intelligence, and telepathy take place. A more heated Cold War takes place, culminating in a conventional World War III. A truce is signed, lasting another 25 years, though mounting tensions lead to World War IV in 2007, this time involving massive nuclear warfare and only lasting five days. Civilization is almost entirely obliterated, leaving the surface of Earth reduced to a desolate, irradiated wasteland.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Years later, in 2024, foragers who remain above ground must fight for the remaining resources. Most survivors in the former United States are male, as women were usually in the bombed cities while many men were out fighting in the war. In the novella, nuclear fallout had created horrific mutations, such as the feared burnpit screamers, known for their noise and deadliness (in the film, they appear in only one scene, though they are only heard).


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Blood recalls how he met Vic in 2048, and describes him as "steadfast, responsible, and game as they come." He recounts an evening during which he and Vic go to barter scavenged items with the "82nd Airborne", the armorers for most of the local roverpacks except for that of the child-slaver "Fellini." Transported from a dock by skiff to the 82nd Airborne's boat, the pair trade wine and spent brass for fresh ammunition, and Vic is invited to stay and drink. Blood declines to drink, and is repeatedly insulted by the gang, until the goading drives him to attempt to bite one of them. The gang member knocks Blood down and points a rifle at Blood's head, and Vic immediately shoots the gang member. As Vic covers the remaining stunned gang members, Blood climbs into Vic's pack and passes out. He awakens again with them on the dock and Vic running for their lives. Upon reaching safety, Vic unceremoniously dumps Blood onto the ground and storms off in anger at having lost access to "the only armorer in the territory." Blood initially lets him go, but thinks better of it after considering the alternatives, and saves Vic from walking into a crater in the road containing a "Screamer" (a green corpse-like mutant). The pair run miles up the road, and having reconciled, sit down to eat.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Vic, aged 15, was born in and scavenges throughout the wasteland of the former southwestern United States as a "solo" (as opposed to a member of a "roverpack" gang). Vic is most concerned with food and sex. Having lost both of his parents, he has no formal education and does not understand ethics or morality. He is accompanied by a well-read, misanthropic, telepathic dog named Blood, who helps him locate women, in return for food. Blood cannot forage for himself, due to the same genetic engineering that granted him telepathy. The two steal for a living, evading "roverpacks" (gangs) and mutants. Blood and Vic have an occasionally antagonistic relationship, though they realize that they need each other.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: At a movie house, Blood claims to smell a woman, and the pair track her to an abandoned YMCA building. There, they meet Quilla June Holmes, a teenaged girl from "Downunder", a society located in a large underground nuclear vault. Before Vic can rape her, Blood informs the pair that a roverpack has tracked them to the building and they have to fight them off. After killing a number of them, the trio hides in a boiler and set the structure on fire.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Vic finally has sex with Quilla June, and though she protests at first, she begins to come on to him. Blood takes an instant disliking to her, but Vic ignores him. Vic and Quilla June have sex repeatedly but eventually she attacks him and takes off to return to her underground community. Vic, furious at her deception, follows her, despite Blood's warnings. Blood remains at the portal on the surface.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Downunder has an artificial biosphere complete with forests and underground cities. One, named Topeka after the ruins of the city it lies beneath, is fashioned in a surreal mockery of 1950s rural innocence. Vic is captured by the ruling council (the Better Business Bureau). They confess that Quilla June was sent to the surface in order to lure a man to Downunder. The population of Topeka is becoming sterile, and the babies that are born are usually female. They feel that Vic, despite his crudeness and savage behavior, will be able to reinvigorate that male population. Vic is first elated to learn that he is to impregnate the female population, but he quickly grows jaded of his surroundings and plots his escape.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Quilla June is reunited with Vic and they plan to escape together. Vic uses the fact that Quilla June's father secretly desires sex with her as a distraction, incapacitating him so that they can escape.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: On the surface, Vic and Quilla June discover that Blood is starving and near death, having been attacked by radioactive insects and other "things". Quilla June tries to get Vic to leave Blood and take off with her. Knowing he will never survive without Blood's guidance and, more importantly, that Blood will not survive without care and food, Vic faces a difficult situation. It is implied that he kills his new love and cooks her flesh to save Blood's life. The novella ends with Vic remembering her question as Blood eats: "Do you know what love is?" and he concludes, "Sure I know. A boy loves his dog."


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: The novella won the Nebula Award for Best Novella upon its release in 1969 and was also nominated for the 1970 Hugo Award for Best Novella.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: The 1975 science fiction film directed by L.Q. Jones was controversial for alleged misogyny; the script included lines that were not in Ellison's original stories and that authors such as Joanna Russ found to be objectionable. The film's final line is from Blood: "Well, I'd say she certainly had marvelous judgement, Albert, if not particularly good taste." Ellison disavowed this addition as a "moronic, hateful chauvinist last line, which I despise." Ellison did, however, accept that the ending remained popular with fans, saying: "I would have kept the original last line from the original story, which I think is much more human and beguiling than the sort of punchline that L.Q. Jones used. But L.Q. knew what he was doing in terms of the market, I suppose." On the other hand, Harlan also loved the movie (as stated in an interview conversation with L.Q. Jones on the Shout Factory Blu Ray); after Jones screened it to him, he said it was exactly what the story was supposed to be on screen. It was a few days after he brought up his problems, mostly concerning the way Blood talked about the girl during the locker room scene when they first meet.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: Although Blood is now back on his feet and travelling west, the pair's situation deteriorates as the guilt-ridden Vic begins having hallucinations of a ghostly Quilla June, which Blood also experiences through their telepathic link. Due to his preoccupation, Vic stumbles into an encounter with a roving gang of child soldiers and slaves led by the adult "Fellini", and badly breaks his ankle while attempting to escape. At Blood's suggestion, Vic climbs into a hollow tree stump to hide, and Blood covers him with leaves and dirt before going to hide himself. Hours later, with the gang gone, Blood returns to find the stump surrounded by giant spiders. Driving them off, Blood finds Vic in a hopeless, almost catatonic state, and despite Blood's appeals, Vic allows himself to be cocooned by one of the spiders. Blood runs off as the spider finishes and begins to look for new prey, and he continues west, now haunted by the ghost of Vic rather than Quilla June.


title: A Boy and His Dog

text: The reasons given by Ellison for this abrupt ending have differed over the years. One relates to his anger over the L.Q. Jones ending of the film, as detailed above. The other is, according to Ellison, essentially a desire to stop his fans from requesting more stories about the two characters. Ellison claimed at the time of the film's release that he had said all he wanted to say about Vic and Blood, and that there would be no more sequels. However, in the introduction to "Vic and Blood", dated 25 March 2003, Ellison mentions: "And I've written the rest of the book, "BLOOD'S A ROVER". The final, longest section is in screenplay form – and they're bidding here in Hollywood, once again, for the feature film and TV rights – and one of these days before I go through that final door, I'll translate it into elegant prose, and the full novel will appear."


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)

text: The European section of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification acted as qualifiers for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Russia, for national teams that are members of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Apart from Russia, who qualified automatically as hosts, a total of 13 slots in the final tournament were available for UEFA teams.


text: The qualifying format was confirmed by the UEFA Executive Committee meeting on 22–23 March 2015 in Vienna.


text: The qualification process started on 4 September 2016, almost two months after UEFA Euro 2016, and ended on 14 November 2017.


text: Belgium, England, France, Germany, Iceland (for the first time), Poland, Portugal, Serbia, and Spain qualified in the first round by winning their groups. Croatia, Denmark, Sweden and Switzerland qualified by winning their playoffs.


text: Four-time champions Italy did not qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, missing out on qualification for the first time since 1958 after losing in the playoffs to Sweden, while the three-time FIFA World Cup runners-up Netherlands did not qualify for the tournament for the first time since 2002 after finishing third in 2014, and second in 2010. Iceland, with 335,000 inhabitants, became the smallest country ever to qualify for a FIFA World Cup.


text: Apart from Russia, which qualified automatically as hosts, all remaining 52 FIFA-affiliated national teams from UEFA at the registration deadline of January 2015 entered qualification.


text: Gibraltar, despite being a UEFA member since 2013, was not a FIFA member at the time of the registration deadline, and thus was not eligible to enter qualification for the FIFA World Cup. They appealed to the Court of Arbitration for Sport to challenge FIFA's refusal to grant membership in order to enter World Cup qualifying. In May 2016, the CAS found in Gibraltar's favour and ordered that FIFA put Gibraltar forward for FIFA membership, which would permit Gibraltar to take part in the qualifiers if membership was granted.


text: Kosovo became a UEFA member on 3 May 2016, and together with Gibraltar, applied for membership in the FIFA Congress in 12–13 May 2016. FIFA confirmed that in the case both associations succeeded in becoming a member, they would be entitled to participate in the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, with UEFA tasked to integrate them into the competition.


text: On 13 May 2016, both Kosovo and Gibraltar were officially admitted as FIFA members, thus allowing them to compete. UEFA created a task force to discuss how to integrate the two teams into the competition, and on 9 June 2016 UEFA announced that Kosovo would be assigned to Group I, to avoid meeting Bosnia and Herzegovina for security reasons, and Gibraltar would play in Group H.


text: Qualifying matches started in September 2016, following UEFA Euro 2016, and finished in November 2017.


text: The scheduling of qualifying matches, which were centralised by UEFA, followed the "Week of Football" concept first used for UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying:


text: The draw for the first round (group stage) occurred as part of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Preliminary Draw on 25 July 2015, starting 18:00 MSK (), at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.


text: Each six-team group contained one team from each of the six pots, while each five-team group contained one team from each of the first five pots.


text: Due to the centralisation of media rights for European qualifiers, England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the Netherlands were all drawn into six-team groups. Netherlands and France were drawn together in Group A, and Spain and Italy were drawn together in Group G.


text: In consideration of the political relations between Armenia and Azerbaijan, UEFA requested that FIFA maintain the current UEFA policy not to draw these teams into the same qualification groups (since the two teams were in the same seeding pot, this would not have happened regardless of the request).


text: Teams in bold eventually qualified for the final tournament, teams in bold italic qualified for the final tournament through the play-offs, and teams in "italic" participated in the play-offs but did not qualify for the final tournament.


text: The football associations of Gibraltar and Kosovo became members of FIFA after the draw had taken place but before any games had been played. It was decided that both would be added to the World Cup qualifying process in Groups H and I, making those groups up to six teams each; due to the disputed political status of Kosovo, for security reasons, it was decided that Kosovo could not play against Bosnia and Herzegovina or Serbia, which meant Kosovo was added to Group I and Gibraltar to Group H. Gibraltar and Spain had previously been kept separate from each other in UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying as a result of the disputed status of Gibraltar.


text: The hosts Russia were originally to be partnered with five-team Group H for friendlies. However, with the admission of Kosovo and Gibraltar, all groups were filled to contain six teams and the Russia friendlies against Group H teams were cancelled. UEFA vice-president Hryhoriy Surkis said that the UEFA management would deal with the issue of finding opponents for Russia to play friendlies.


text: When the draw was made, groups H and I had one team fewer than the other groups so it was decided that matches against the last-placed team in each of the six-team groups would not be included in the ranking of the second-placed teams even after the admission of Kosovo and Gibraltar. As a result, only eight matches played by each team were counted in the second-placed table.


text: The eight best group runners-up contested the second round, where they were paired into four two-legged (home-and-away) fixtures.


text: The draw for the second round (play-offs) was held on 17 October 2017, 14:00 CEST (), at the FIFA headquarters in Zürich, Switzerland. The eight teams were seeded by FIFA World Rankings published on 16 October 2017, rather than qualifying record, with the top four teams in Pot 1, and the remaining four teams in Pot 2. It so happened that the top four teams by qualifying record were the same as the top four by FIFA World Ranking. Teams from Pot 1 played teams from Pot 2 on a home and away basis, with the order of legs decided by draw.


text: The first legs were played on 9–11 November, and the second legs were played on 12–14 November 2017. The winners of each tie qualified for the World Cup.


text: UEFA unveiled the branding for the qualifiers on 15 April 2013. It shows a national jersey inside a heart, and represents Europe, honour and ambition. The same branding was also used for the European qualifiers for the UEFA Euro 2016.


title: Akio Morita

text: Akio Morita was born in Nagoya. Morita's family was involved in sake, miso and soy sauce production in the village of Kosugaya (currently a part of Tokoname City) on the western coast of Chita Peninsula in Aichi Prefecture since 1665. He was the oldest of four siblings and his father Kyuzaemon trained him as a child to take over the family business. Akio, however, found his true calling in mathematics and physics, and in 1944 he graduated from Osaka Imperial University with a degree in physics. He was later commissioned as a sub-lieutenant in the Imperial Japanese Navy, and served in World War II. During his service, Morita met his future business partner Masaru Ibuka in the Navy's Wartime Research Committee.


title: Akio Morita

text: In September 1945, Ibuka founded a radio repair shop in the bombed out Shirokiya Department Store in Nihonbashi, Tokyo. Morita saw a newspaper article about Ibuka's new venture and, after some correspondence, chose to join him in Tokyo. With funding from Morita's father, they co-founded "Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha" (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation, the forerunner of Sony Corporation) in 1946 with about 20 employees and initial capital of ¥190,000.


title: Akio Morita

text: In 1949, the company developed magnetic recording tape and, in 1950, sold the first tape recorder in Japan. Ibuka was instrumental in securing the licensing of transistor technology from Bell Labs to Sony in the 1950s, thus making Sony one of the first companies to apply transistor technology to non-military uses. In 1957, the company produced a pocket-sized radio (the first to be fully transistorized), and in 1958, Morita and Ibuka decided to rename their company Sony Corporation (derived from "sonus"—–Latin for "sound"—–and "sonny", a then-common American expression). Morita was an advocate for all the products made by Sony. However, since the radio was slightly too big to fit in a shirt pocket, Morita made his employees wear shirts with slightly larger pockets to give the radio a "pocket sized" appearance.


title: Akio Morita

text: Morita founded Sony Corporation of America (SONAM, currently abbreviated as SCA) in 1960. In the process, he was struck by the mobility of employees between American companies, which was unheard of in Japan at that time. When he returned to Japan, he encouraged experienced, middle-aged employees of other companies to reevaluate their careers and consider joining Sony. The company filled many positions in this manner, and inspired other Japanese companies to do the same. In 1961, Sony Corporation was the first Japanese company to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange, in the form of American depositary receipts (ADRs).


title: Akio Morita

text: In March 1968, Morita set up a joint venture in Japan between Sony and CBS Records, with him as president, to manufacture "software" for Sony's hardware.


title: Akio Morita

text: Morita became president of Sony in 1971, taking over from Ibuka who had served from 1950 to 1971. In 1975, Sony released the first Betamax home videocassette recorder, a year before the VHS format came out.


title: Akio Morita

text: Ibuka retired in 1976 and Morita was named chairman of the company. In 1979, the Walkman was introduced, making it one of the world's first portable music players and in 1982, Sony launched the world's first Compact Disc player, the Sony CDP-101, with a Compact Disc (CD) itself, a new data storage format Sony and Philips co-developed. In that year, a 3.5-inch floppy disk structure was introduced by Sony and it soon became the defacto standard. In 1984, Sony launched the Discman series which extended their Walkman brand to portable CD products.


title: Akio Morita

text: Under the vision of Morita, the company aggressively expanded into new businesses. Part of its motivation for doing so was the pursuit of "convergence", linking film, music and digital electronics. Twenty years after setting up a joint venture with CBS Records in Japan, Sony bought CBS Records Group which consisted of Columbia Records, Epic Records and other CBS labels. In 1989, they acquired Columbia Pictures Entertainment (Columbia Pictures, TriStar Pictures and others).


title: Akio Morita

text: Norio Ohga, who had joined the company in the 1950s after sending Morita a letter denouncing the poor quality of the company's tape recorders, succeeded Morita as chief executive officer in 1989.


title: Akio Morita

text: Morita suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1993 while playing tennis and on November 25, 1994, stepped down as Sony chairman to be succeeded by Ohga.


title: Akio Morita

text: Morita was vice chairman of the Japan Business Federation (Japan Federation of Economic Organizations), and was a member of the Japan-U.S. Economic Relations Group, also known as the "Wise Men's Group". He helped General Motors with their acquisition of an interest in Isuzu Motors in 1972. He was the third Japanese chairman of the Trilateral Commission. His amateur radio call sign is JP1DPJ.


title: Akio Morita

text: In 1966, Morita wrote a book called "Gakureki Muyō Ron" (学歴無用論, Never Mind School Records), where he stresses that school records are not important to success or one's business skills. In 1986, Morita wrote an autobiography titled "Made in Japan". He co-authored the 1991 book "The Japan That Can Say No" with politician Shintaro Ishihara, where they criticized American business practices and encouraged Japanese to take a more independent role in business and foreign affairs. (Actually, Morita had no intention to criticize American practices at that time.) The book was translated into English and caused controversy in the United States, and Morita later had his chapters removed from the English version and distanced himself from the book.


title: Akio Morita

text: In 1972, Morita received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Morita was awarded the Albert Medal by the United Kingdom's Royal Society of Arts in 1982, the first Japanese to receive the honor. Two years later, he received the prestigious Legion of Honour, and in 1991, was awarded the First Class Order of the Sacred Treasure from the Emperor of Japan. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1992 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993. That same year, he was awarded an honorary British knighthood (KBE). Morita received the International Distinguished Entrepreneur Award from the University of Manitoba in 1987. In 1998, he was the only Asian person on "Time" magazine's list of the 20 most influential business people of the 20th century as part of their . He was posthumously awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun in 1999.


title: Akio Morita

text: Morita, who loved to play golf and tennis and to watch movies when rainy, suffered a stroke in 1993, during a game of tennis. The stroke weakened him and left him in a wheelchair. On November 25, 1994, he stepped down as Sony chairman. On October 3, 1999, Morita died of pneumonia at the age of 78 in a Tokyo hospital, where he had been admitted since August 1999.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: The Battle of Irpin was part of the Kyiv offensive in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine for control of the city of Irpin. The combatants were elements of the Russian Armed Forces and Ukrainian Ground Forces. The battle lasted from 27 February 2022 to 28 March 2022 and ended with Ukrainian forces recapturing the city. The battle was part of a larger tactic to encircle Kyiv, the capital city of Ukraine. The armed forces of Ukraine resisted the Russian advance in the capital's western suburbs of Irpin, Bucha, and Hostomel. Irpin was named as one of the most dangerous places in the Kyiv Oblast by the Kyiv Oblast State Administration. The battle was marked by fierce urban fighting.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 25 February, Russian forces advanced on the suburb of Hostomel and its airport from the northwest after partially breaking through Ukrainian defenses at Ivankiv, capturing the airport and establishing a foothold in the town. Though there was still ongoing Ukrainian resistance in Hostomel, Russian forces began to advance south to capture the neighboring cities of Irpin and Bucha, with the goal of encircling Kyiv.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: Later that day, a Russian column was defeated by Ukrainian forces near Irpin. On 26 February, residents of Irpin reported that Russian saboteurs were disguising themselves as Ukrainian soldiers.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 25 February, due a lack of communications with the main invasion command, a convoy of OMON and SOBR units from the Kemerovo Oblast accidentally separated from the invasion forces and ended up charging at Kyiv by themselves. The convoy was ambushed at a bridge over the Irpin River, and the unarmored and under-equipped units were completly destroyed. Reportedly, of the 80 soldiers in the convoy, only 3 survived.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 27 February, Ukrainian forces reported that Russian Ground Forces had advanced into Bucha, breaking through the city and advancing towards Irpin. A tank battle ensued inside the city, while Ukrainian infantry engaged Russian paratroopers. Oleksandr Markushyn, the mayor of Irpin, stated that the Russian forces were attempting to break through the city, but were being repulsed by Ukrainian Ground Forces and Territorial Defense Forces, with Ukrainian tank reinforcements coming from Bucha. Intense fighting occurred at a mall between Bucha and Irpin. Videos posted by Ukrainian soldiers showed a destroyed Russian armored personnel carrier and at least six dead Russian soldiers.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: The Ukrainian forces used rockets, artillery, and airstrikes to halt the Russian advance, and destroyed a bridge connecting Bucha and Irpin.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 28 February 2022, Ukrainian official Oleksiy Arestovych stated that Ukrainian forces attacked Russian forces on Highway M06 in the morning and that more than 200 Russian vehicles were destroyed or damaged by the afternoon.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 2 March 2022, two Russian Sukhoi Su-25s conducted airstrikes in Irpin. Two missiles struck a residential building, killing a child and injuring a woman. One of the Su-25s was shot down by Ukrainian forces. The jet was identified to be part of the Russian 18th Guards Assault Aviation Regiment.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: Ukrainian military officials reported that Russian forces had begun to lose momentum, taking significant casualties and being stopped at "unfavorable borders".


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 3 March 2022, the Kyiv Oblast State Administration announced that the Ukrainian government was sending humanitarian aid to Bucha and Irpin, as well announcing evacuations in both cities. More than 1,500 women and children were reported to have evacuated by train, while 250 were evacuated by bus. However, Ukrainian officials reported that the evacuations were complicated as some railway tracks had been destroyed during fighting.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: Valerii Zaluzhnyi, the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, announced that a Russian Sukhoi Su-30 fighter jet was shot down over Irpin by Ukrainian air defenses on 3 March.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 5 March 2022, Ukrainian forces began to evacuate civilians from Irpin towards Kyiv on foot, though a destroyed bridge complicated efforts.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 6 March 2022, Russian forces captured part of Irpin. In the morning, Oleksiy Kuleba, the city's Ukrainian military commander, stated that many evacuation routes out of the city were unsafe. During a civilian evacuation later that day, 8 civilians, including 2 children, were killed when Russian forces shelled the evacuation road by Russian mortar units. A Ukrainian artillery position was located nearby.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: According to Human Rights Watch, the Russian shelling may have violated their obligations under international humanitarian law. The organization also stated that Ukrainian similarly had an obligation to prevent civilian casualties by not operating military actions in civilian areas. Ukrainian soldier Pavlo Lee, an actor who had joined the Territorial Defense Forces, was later killed by Russian shelling.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 8 March, Markushyn, who was commanding part of the Ukrainian forces in the city, stated that Russian forces demanded him to surrender the city, which he rejected, saying, "Irpin can't be bought, Irpin fights".


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 9 March 2022, as Russian troops were seen patrolling streets in Irpin. Ukrainian forces conducted a large-scale evacuation across Kyiv Oblast, including in Irpin. Up to 20,000 civilians were evacuated in Kyiv Oblast. Later, the Kyiv Oblast State Administration stated that fighting in Irpin continued during the night.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 13 March, Russian forces at a checkpoint shot at a car carrying foreign journalists, killing American journalist Brent Renaud and injuring two other journalists. Renaud was carrying press credentials issued by "The New York Times", though he had not worked for the publication since 2015.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 14 March, , a member of Irpin City Council, stated that half of Irpin was occupied by Russian forces.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 23 March, Markushyn claimed that Ukrainian forces were in control of 80 percent of the city, while France 24 reported Ukrainian forces on the ground acknowledged that Russia controlled half of the city.


title: Battle of Irpin

text: On 28 March, Markushyn claimed on social media that Irpin had been recaptured by Ukrainian forces. After initial uncertainty, Reuters confirmed the city was under Ukrainian control on 30 March, with CNN also confirming Ukrainian control of the city on 31 March.


title: Louis Ferreira

text: Louis Ferreira (born Luís Ferreira; born 20 February 1966) is a Canadian actor. Ferreira is known for his roles in "Stargate Universe" as Colonel Everett Young, serial killer Ray Prager in the first season of "Durham County", FBI Assistant Director John Pollock in "Missing", and Art Blank in "Saw IV", "Saw V", and "Saw 3D". He starred in the CTV series "Motive" as homicide detective Oscar Vega. Before 2008, he was credited under the stage name Justin Louis.


title: Louis Ferreira

text: Ferreira was born on 20 February 1966, in Terceira, Azores, and immigrated with his parents to Canada early in his life. He grew up in the Jane and Finch neighbourhood in North York, Ontario.


title: Louis Ferreira

text: The actor went by the stage name Justin Louis for 25 years until his Portuguese-born mother died in 2008, after which he decided to use his family name and "Louis", an approximation of his given name, "Luís".


title: Louis Ferreira

text: Ferreira's résumé includes over 100 onscreen credits, as he has appeared on a broad range of television shows, including lead roles in "Hidden Hills", "Durham County", "Urban Angel", "Missing", and "Bad Blood". He has also played recurring or guest roles in various TV shows, including: "NCIS", "", and "Criminal Minds". After playing the recurring roles of Declan in season five of "Breaking Bad", and Colonel Henderson Hall in "". He also starred in the CTV series "Motive" as homicide detective Oscar Vega, with recurring roles in "The Romeo Section", and "This Life". He also hosted the television series "Letters to God".


title: Louis Ferreira

text: In 2009, Ferreira was featured as David Maysles in the HBO award-winning film "Grey Gardens" opposite Jessica Lange and Drew Barrymore. Other film credits include portraying Sarah Polley's husband in "Dawn of the Dead", as well as roles in "Shooter", and "The Lazarus Child". Ferreira played the role of Earl in the 1995 film "Blood and Donuts" and appeared in the 2007 film "Saw IV". Further credits include "The Marsh", "Boozecan", and "The Big Slice". He also portrayed Donald Trump in "Trump Unauthorized", and was a lead in the miniseries "The Andromeda Strain".


title: Louis Ferreira

text: In 2010, he became known as FBI Swat Sergeant Brian in "The Town" filming in Los Angeles, California.


title: Louis Ferreira

text: In 2011, he became known as "The Voice of Mazda", voicing a series of commercials for their national campaign for two years. Other voice-over work includes Police Officer Vince in the TV series "The Dating Guy", and Chet in the episode "Hyde and Go Shriek" in the animated children's series "Tales from the Cryptkeeper".


title: Louis Ferreira

text: In 2017, he became part of the reboot "S.W.A.T." with Shemar Moore. He plays the character Team Leader Sergeant Buck Spivey.


title: Louis Ferreira

text: Ferreira won the Best Actor Award for his portrayal of Robert (Duke) Romano in "Fallen Arches" at the Chicago Alt.Film Fest in 1999. In 2008, he won the Gemini Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Continuing Leading Dramatic Role for his work portraying the serial killer Ray Prager in "Durham County". He was nominated for the same award in 2010 for the role of Colonel Everett Young in the TV series "Stargate Universe". He won the Leo Award for Best Lead Performance by a Male in a Dramatic Series in 2014 and 2015. He was nominated for the same Leo Award in 2016.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Blood quantum laws or Indian blood laws are laws in the United States that define Native American status by fractions of Native American ancestry. These laws were enacted by the federal government and state governments as a way to establish legally defined racial population groups. By contrast, many tribes do not include blood quantum as part of their own enrollment criteria.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: A person's blood quantum (BQ) is defined as the fraction of their ancestors, out of their total ancestors, who are documented as full-blood Native Americans. For instance, a person who has one parent who is a full-blood Native American and one who has no Native ancestry has a BQ of 1/2. Nations that use blood quantum often do so in combination with other criteria. For instance, the Omaha Tribe of Nebraska requires a BQ of 1/4 Native American and descent from a registered ancestor for enrollment, while the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has no BQ requirement, and only requires lineal descent from a documented Cherokee ancestor listed on the Dawes Rolls, a specific census roll that still upheld racist stereotypes and blood quantum theories, and that supersedes other older rolls. Others use a tiered system, with the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma using lineal descent for general enrollment, but requiring a BQ of "at least one-fourth" for all tribal council candidates.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: The Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears led to a major enumeration of Native Americans, and many controversies and misunderstandings about blood quantum that persist to this day. As they were being forcibly driven out of their ancestral homelands and subjected to genocide, many Natives understandably feared and distrusted the government and attempted to avoid enumeration. But the only way to do this was to completely flee the Indian community, during a time of widespread persecution. Indians who tried to refuse, if they were not already in a prison camp, had warrants issued for their arrests; they were forcibly rounded up and documented against their will. It is a modern misconception that this enumeration was equivalent to contemporary tribal enrollment, or in any way optional.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: The concept of blood quantum was not widely applied by the United States government until the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. At the time, the federal government required persons to have a certain BQ to be recognized as Native American, and thus eligible for financial and other benefits under treaties or sales of land.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Native American nations have continued to assert sovereignty and treaty rights, including their own criteria for tribal membership, which vary among them. In the early 21st century, some nations, such as the Wampanoag tightened their enrollment criteria and excluded persons who had previously been considered members. Challenges to such policies have been pursued by those excluded.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: In 1705 the Colony of Virginia adopted the "Indian Blood law" that limited civil rights of Native Americans and persons of one-half or more Native American ancestry. This also had the effect of regulating who would be classified as Native American. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the US government believed tribal members had to be defined, for the purposes of federal benefits or annuities paid under treaties resulting from land cessions. According to the Pocahontas Clause of the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, a white person in Virginia could have a maximum blood quantum of one-sixteenth Indian ancestry without losing his or her legal status as white.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Native American tribes did not formally use blood quantum law until the government introduced the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, instead determining tribal status on the basis of kinship, lineage and family ties. Some tribes, such as the Navajo Nation, did not adopt the type of written constitution suggested in that law until the 1950s. Given intermarriage among tribes, particularly those that are closely related and have settled near each other, critics object to the federal requirement that individuals identify as belonging to only one tribe when defining blood quantum. They believe this reduces an individual's valid membership in more than one tribe, as well as costing some persons their qualification as Native American because of having ancestry from more than one tribe but not 1/4 or more from one tribe. Overall, the numbers of registered members of many Native American tribes have been reduced because of tribal laws that define and limit the definition of acceptable blood quantum.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: The National Research Council noted in 1996, "The U.S. census decennial enumerations indicate a Native American population growth for the United States that has been nearly continuous since 1900 (except for an influenza epidemic in 1918 that caused serious losses), to 1.42 million by 1980 and to over 1.9 million by 1990." In the 2000 census, there were 2.5 million American Indians. Since 1960, people may self-identify their ancestry on the US Census. Indian activism and a rising interest in Native American history appear to have resulted in more individuals identifying as having Native American ancestry on the census.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Prior to colonization, individual tribes had established their own requirements for membership, including the practice of banishment for those who had committed unforgivable crimes. Some traditional communities still hold to these precontact standards. Tribes that follow lineal descent may require a Native American ancestor who is listed on a prior tribal rations-issue roll, such as the Dawes Rolls for the Five Civilized Tribes in Oklahoma, or a late 19th-century census. In some cases they may also require a certain percentage of Native American ancestry, and demonstrated residence with a tribe or commitment to the community. Few tribes allow members to claim ancestry in more than one tribe. The Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians accept persons of 1/4 Native American ancestry, plus documented descent from an ancestor listed in specific records. In part, this recognizes that the Odawa people historically had a territory on both sides of what is now the border between the US and Canada.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Each federally recognized tribe has established its own criteria for membership. Given the new revenues that many tribes are realizing from gambling casinos and other economic development, or from settlement of 19th-century land claims, some have established more restrictive rules to limit membership.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Between 1904 and 1919, tribal members of mixed African and Native American ancestry were disenrolled from the Chitimacha tribe of Louisiana, and their descendants have since then been denied tribal membership.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: In 2007 the Cherokee Nation voted in the majority to exclude as members those Cherokee Freedmen who had no documented ancestors on the Cherokee-by-blood list of the Dawes Rolls. However, the Cherokee Supreme Court ruled in 2005 that they were legitimate members of the tribe at that time. After the Civil War, the US required the Cherokee and other Native American tribes that had supported the Confederacy to make new treaties. They also required them to emancipate their slaves, and to give full tribal membership to those freedmen who wanted to stay in tribal territory. The Cherokee Freedmen often had intermarried and some had Cherokee ancestry at the time of the Dawes Rolls, qualifying as Cherokee by blood, but registrars typically classified them as Freedmen.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Similarly, in 2000, the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma attempted to exclude two bands of Seminole Freedmen from membership to avoid including them in settlement of land claims in Florida, where Seminole Freedmen had also owned land taken by the US government.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Since 1942, the Seminole have at times tried to exclude Black Seminoles from the tribe. The freedmen were listed separately on the Dawes Rolls and suffered segregation in Oklahoma. More recently, the Seminole refused to share with them the revenues of 20th-century US government settlements of land claims. The Center for Constitutional Rights has filed an "amicus" brief, taking up the legal case of the Black Seminoles and criticizing some officials of the Bureau of Indian Affairs for collaborating in this discrimination by supporting tribal autonomy in lawsuits. By treaty, after the American Civil War, the Seminole were required to emancipate slaves and provide Black Seminoles with all the rights of full-blood Indian members.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: American Indian tribes located on reservations tend to have higher BQ requirements for membership than those located off reservation...[reference to table] [O]ver 85 percent of tribes requiring more than a one-quarter BQ for membership are reservation based, as compared with less than 64 percent of those having no minimum requirement. Tribes on reservations have seemingly been able to maintain exclusive membership by setting higher blood quanta, since the reservation location has generally served to isolate the tribe from non-Indians and intermarriage with them.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Many Native Americans have become used to the idea of "blood quantum". The blood quantum laws have caused problems in Native American families whose members were inaccurately recorded as having differing full or partial descent from particular tribes.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: At certain times, some state governments classified persons with African American and Native American admixture solely as African American, largely because of racial discrimination related to slavery history and the concept of the one drop rule. This was prevalent in the South after Reconstruction, when white-dominated legislatures imposed legal segregation, which classified the entire population only as white or colored (Native Americans, some of whom were of mixed race, were included in the latter designation). It related to the racial caste system of slavery before the American Civil War.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Some critics argue that blood quantum laws helped create racism among tribal members. The historian Tony Seybert contends that was why some members of the so-called Five Civilized tribes were slaveholders. The majority of slave owners were of mixed-European ancestry. Some believed they were of higher status than full-blood Indians and people of African ancestry. Other historians contend that the Cherokee and other tribes held slaves because it was in their economic interest and part of the general southeastern culture. Cherokee and other tribes had also traditionally taken captives in warfare to use as slaves, though their institution differed from what developed in the southern colonies.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: No federally recognized tribe enrolls members solely based on DNA testing, as it generally cannot distinguish among tribes. Some tribes may require DNA testing only to document that a child is related to particular parents. Many researchers have published articles that caution that genetic ancestry DNA testing has limitations and should not be depended on by individuals to answer all their questions about heritage.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Many African Americans believe they have some Native American ancestry. But, in the PBS series led by historian Henry Louis Gates Jr., called "African American Lives", geneticists said DNA evidence shows that Native American ancestry is far less common than previously believed; of the group tested in the series, only two of the people showed likely Native ancestry. Gates summarized the data:


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Only 5 percent of African Americans have at least one-eighth Native American ancestry (equivalent to one great-grandparent). On the other hand, nearly 78 percent of African Americans have at least one-eighth European ancestry (the equivalent to one great-grandparent), and nearly 20 percent have at least one-quarter European ancestry (the equivalent to one grandparent.)


title: Blood quantum laws

text: In response, one critic asserted the percentage must be higher because there are so many family stories (the reasons for which Gates and, notably, Chris Rock explored in the documentary), but felt that many people didn't always talk about it because to acknowledge it would be to deny their African heritage.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Some critics thought the PBS series "African American Lives" did not sufficiently explain such limitations of DNA testing for assessment of heritage. In terms of persons searching for ethnic ancestry, they need to understand that Y-chromosome and mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) testing looks only at "direct" line male and female ancestors, and thus can fail to pick up many other ancestors' heritage. Newer DNA tests can survey all the DNA that can be inherited from either parent of an individual, but at a cost of precision. DNA tests that survey the full DNA strand focus on "single nucleotide polymorphisms" or SNPs, but SNPs might be found in Africans, Asians, and people from every other part of the world. Full survey DNA testing cannot accurately determine an individual's full ancestry.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Though DNA testing for ancestry is limited more recent genetic testing research of 2015, have found that varied ancestries show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2-82.1% West African, 16.7%-29% European, and 0.8–2% Native American genetic ancestry, with large variation between individuals.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: A notable debate in 2019 over the validity of DNA testing for Native American ancestry arose over the controversies surrounding Elizabeth Warren's ancestry.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Basing citizenship off specific enrollment rolls, like the Dawes Roll (that were taken after more than 80 years after Removal, after the Civil War, and after tribal government restructuring), is what scholar Fay A. Yarbrough calls "dramatically different from older conceptions" of tribal identity based on clan relationships, "in which individuals could be fully," for example, "Cherokee without possessing any Cherokee ancestry." And that by the tribe later "developing a quantifiable definition of Cherokee identity based on ancestry," this "would dramatically affect the process of enrollment late in the nineteenth century and the modern procedure of obtaining membership in the Cherokee Nation, both of which require tracing and individuals’ lineage to a ‘Cherokee by blood.’" Thus, the Dawes Roll still upholds "by blood" language and theory of its time even though the tribe does not require blood quantum. Author Robert J. Conley has stated that if a tribe like the Cherokee Nation are "really serious about exercising its sovereignty and determining its membership," then it should not use the roll that "was put together by the U.S. government and then closed by the U.S. government," meaning that a tribal nation is still subject to the settler definitions of its members when other outside nations do not require rolls, ethnicity, race, or blood quantum for citizenship, but rather birth location and descendance.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Many Native American tribes continue to employ blood quantum in current tribal laws to determine who is eligible for membership or citizenship in the tribe or Native American nation. These often require a minimum degree of blood relationship and often an ancestor listed in a specific tribal census from the late 19th century or early 20th century. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of North Carolina, for example, require an ancestor listed in the 1924 Baker census and a minimum of 1/16 Cherokee blood inherited from their ancestor(s) on that roll. Meanwhile, the Cherokee Nation requires applicants to descend from an ancestor in the 1906 Dawes roll (direct lineal ancestry), but does not impose minimum blood quantum requirement. The United Keetoowah Band requires a minimum 1/4 blood quantum.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: The Mashantucket Pequot tribe on the other hand, base their tribal membership on an individual proving descent, by recognized genealogical documentation from one or more members of the eleven families included on the 1900 US census of the tribe.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: The Northern Ute Tribe require a 5/8 blood quantum, the highest requirement of any American tribe. The Miccosukee of Florida, the Mississippi Choctaw, and the St. Croix Chippewa of Wisconsin all require one-half "tribal blood quantum", also among the higher percentages.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: At the other end of the scale, some tribes, such as the Kaw Nation, have no blood quantum requirement.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Many tribes, such as Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town and the Wyandotte Nation, require an unspecified amount of Indian ancestry (known as "lineal descendancy") documented by descent from a recognized member. Others require a specified degree of Indian ancestry but an unspecified share of ancestry from the ancestral tribe or tribes from which the contemporary tribal entity is derived, such as the Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians and the Poarch Band of Creek Indians. Many tribes today are confederations of different ethnic groups joined into a single political entity making the determination of blood quantum challenging.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: Other tribes require a minimum blood degree only for tribal members born "off" (outside) the nominal reservation. This is a concept comparable to the legal principles of "Jus soli" and "Jus sanguinis" in the nationality laws of modern sovereign states.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: The Red Lake Nation of Minnesota declared in 2019 that all original enrollees on the tribe's 1958 roll were to be "considered full-bloods", regardless of their actual blood quantum as recorded on the roll. Since the tribal blood requirement for membership was (and still is) 1/4, the implication of this "resetting" of the original tribal members' blood quantum is that the grandchild of a person on the 1958 roll who was recorded as 1/4 Chippewa is now eligible for tribal membership, thus effectively setting the requirement at 1/16.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: These tribes do not have a minimum blood quantum requirement, but members must be able to document descent from original enrollees of tribal rolls.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: These tribes require both a specified blood quantum and lineal descent from an individual on a designated tribal roll.


title: Blood quantum laws

text: The U.S Territory of American Samoa restricts the alienation of non-freehold land to any person who has less than one-half native blood. “'Native' means a full-blooded Samoan person of Tutuila, Manu’a, Aunu’u, or Swains Island."


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: Guggenheim Baseball Management is the principal owner of the Los Angeles Dodgers professional baseball team. The consortium consisted of Guggenheim controlling partner Mark Walter, and also includes as investors former Los Angeles Laker Earvin "Magic" Johnson, and movie producer Peter Guber, baseball team executive Stan Kasten, investor Bobby Patton, and former Guggenheim executive Todd Boehly. Billie Jean King and her partner Ilana Kloss joined the Los Angeles Dodgers ownership group in 2018. Entrepreneurs Alan Smolinisky and Robert L. Plummer joined the ownership group in September 2019.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: In the late 1990s Rupert Murdoch's Fox Entertainment Group bought the Dodgers from the team's original owner, the O’Malley family. Fox in 2004 sold the team to Frank McCourt, a Boston real estate developer. Bud Selig, Major League Baseball's commissioner at the time, later accused McCourt of saddling the Dodgers with debt and dipping into team funds to pay for personal expenses.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: In April 2011 MLB Commissioner Selig announced that MLB would be appointing a representative to oversee the day-to-day operations of the Dodgers. His statement said that he took that action because of his "deep concerns for the finances and operations" of the Dodgers. This event occurred shortly after an "LA Times" report that McCourt had obtained a personal loan from Fox to cover the team's payroll for April and May. McCourt vigorously disputed MLB's actions. Nevertheless, Selig appointed former diplomat and former Texas Rangers executive Tom Schieffer to oversee the Dodgers' finances. On June 27, the Dodgers filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy protection.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: After much legal wrangling between McCourt's lawyers and MLB lawyers in bankruptcy court, he reached a deal with the league to put the team up for sale.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: There were three final bidders for the team: Stan Kroenke, a St. Louis real-estate already owned the then-St. Louis Rams NFL football team, the Denver Nuggets NBA basketball team, the Colorado Avalanche NHL hockey team, and the English soccer club Arsenal; hedge fund manager Steven Cohen; and a group that originally included Todd Boehly and Mark Walter, the former president and current C.E.O. of Guggenheim Partners, a Chicago-based global financial services company, and former professional basketball player Earvin "Magic" Johnson Jr.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: Guggenheim Baseball Management, which included Boehly, Walter and Johnson, was formed to acquire the team in March 2012 from McCourt.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: On March 27, 2012 McCourt agreed to sell the team to Guggenheim Baseball Management for a record price of $2.15 billion, the highest ever paid for a professional sports team at the time. McCourt separately sold the land surrounding the stadium for $150 million to the same group, while maintaining some economic interest in the property. According to Guggenheim Baseball Management, McCourt will have no control or influence over the land, but will profit from potential future development of it. Also, the new ownership will pay $14 million to rent the parking lots surrounding Dodger Stadium from an entity half-owned by McCourt. The sale officially closed on May 1, 2012, ending McCourt's turbulent period as Dodgers owner.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: On January 22, 2013 the "Los Angeles Times" reported that Time Warner Cable had signed a deal to partner with the Dodgers to form a new regional sports network, which would be majority-owned by the team.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: On January 28 the Dodgers and Time Warner Cable signed a 25-year broadcast agreement valued at $8.35 billion, subject to the approval of Major League Baseball, which would see the establishment of a new channel known as SportsNet LA. The deal ended long-standing broadcast partnerships with Fox Sports West, which had aired Dodgers games on its "Prime Ticket" channel since 1997; and with KCAL-TV, an independent station which had been the Dodgers' over-the-air broadcast television outlet since 2006. TWC's winning bid exceeded Fox's bid by $2 billion and was worth $210 million for the inaugural 2014 season, or $1.5 million a game. That amount exceeded the revenues from "Prime Ticket" and KCAL-TV by more than four times. The agreement increased the number of games aired: nearly 100 games were carried in 2014 compared with the 49 games aired by "Prime Ticket" in 2013.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: The Dodgers television deal has been controversial, with a distribution dispute that has locked out wide swaths of the Los Angeles television market. SportsNet LA has never been available to the majority of households in its service area. Carriage was most limited in the channel's inaugural 2014 season, when it was carried by Time Warner Cable systems in Los Angeles, Bright House Networks' system in Bakersfield, and Champion Broadband serving a small portion of the San Gabriel Valley. Together, these distributors covered only 30% of the market, leaving the remaining 70% without the channel. Coverage rose when Charter Communications added SportsNet LA in June 2015, but remains under 50 percent: about 1.8 million homes. DirecTV is the largest unsigned distributor. Since Charter's acquisition of TWC on September 20, 2016, SportsNet LA continues to only be carried by the former Charter, Time Warner Cable, and Bright House Networks systems in the region (which now operate as Spectrum).


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: Walter is the "controlling partner" of Guggenheim Baseball Management. He is the chief executive of Guggenheim Partners, an investment and advisory firm with more than $270 billion in assets under management. Based in New York and Chicago, the firm was founded in 1999 and is now a global investment and advisory financial services firm that engages in investment banking, asset management, capital markets services, and insurance services.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: Previously president of Guggenheim Partners until leaving in 2015, Boehly bought some of the assets he had collected at Guggenheim, including The Hollywood Reporter, Dick Clark Productions, and Security Benefit, to found Eldridge Industries, a private investment firm that specializes in providing both debt and equity capital. A graduate of William & Mary in Virginia, Mr. Boehly dealt in leveraged finance at Credit Suisse First Boston and high-yield investments at Whitney & Co. He joined Guggenheim in 2001 to lead its corporate-credit business.


title: Guggenheim Baseball Management

text: Guber is an American business executive, entrepreneur, educator and author. He is chairman and CEO of Mandalay Entertainment. Guber's most recent films from Mandalay Entertainment include "The Kids Are All Right", ""Soul Surfer"" and "Bernie". He has also produced "Rain Man", "Batman", "The Color Purple""," "Midnight Express"", Gorillas in the Mist, The Witches of Eastwick", "Missing", and "Flashdance." Guber's films have grossed over $3 billion worldwide and received 50 Academy Award nominations.