title: History of cancer

text: Hippocrates ( – ) described several kinds of cancer, referring to them by the term "καρκινος" ("carcinos"), the Greek word for crab or crayfish, as well as "carcinoma". This comes from the appearance of the cut surface of a solid malignant tumour, with "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives its name". Since it was against Greek tradition to open the body, Hippocrates only described and made drawings of outwardly visible tumors on the skin, nose, and breasts. Treatment was based on the humor theory of four bodily fluids (black and yellow bile, blood, and phlegm). According to the patient's humor, treatment consisted of diet, blood-letting, and/or laxatives.


title: History of cancer

text: In the 2nd century AD, the Greek physician Galen used "oncos" (Greek for swelling) to describe all tumours, reserving Hippocrates' term "carcinos" for malignant tumours. Galen also used the suffix "" to indicate cancerous lesions. It is from Galen's usage that we derive the modern word oncology.


title: History of cancer

text: Through the centuries it was discovered that cancer could occur anywhere in the body, but Hippocrates' humor-theory based treatment remained popular until the 19th century with the discovery of cells.


title: History of cancer

text: In the 16th and 17th centuries, it became more acceptable for doctors to dissect bodies to discover the cause of death. The German professor Wilhelm Fabry believed that breast cancer was caused by a milk clot in a mammary duct. The Dutch professor Francois de la Boe Sylvius, a follower of Descartes, believed that all disease was the outcome of chemical processes, and that acidic lymph fluid was the cause of cancer. His contemporary Nicolaes Tulp believed that cancer was a poison that slowly spreads, and concluded that it was contagious.


title: History of cancer

text: The first cause of cancer was identified by British surgeon Percivall Pott, who discovered in 1775 that cancer of the scrotum was a common disease among chimney sweeps. The work of other individual physicians led to various insights, but when physicians started working together they could draw firmer conclusions.


title: History of cancer

text: With the widespread use of the microscope in the 18th century, it was discovered that the 'cancer poison' eventually spreads from the primary tumor through the lymph nodes to other sites ("metastasis"). This view of the disease was first formulated by the English surgeon Campbell De Morgan between 1871 and 1874. The use of surgery to treat cancer had poor results due to problems with hygiene. The renowned Scottish surgeon Alexander Monro saw only 2 breast tumor patients out of 60 surviving surgery for two years. In the 19th century, asepsis improved surgical hygiene and as the survival statistics went up, surgical removal of the tumor became the primary treatment for cancer. With the exception of William Coley who in the late 19th century felt that the rate of cure after surgery had been higher "before" asepsis (and who injected bacteria into tumors with mixed results), cancer treatment became dependent on the individual art of the surgeon at removing a tumor. The underlying cause of his results might be that infection stimulates the immune system to destroy left tumor cells. During the same period, the idea that the body was made up of various tissues, that in turn were made up of millions of cells, laid rest the humor-theories about chemical imbalances in the body.


title: History of cancer

text: The genetic basis of cancer was recognised in 1902 by the German zoologist Theodor Boveri, professor of zoology at Munich and later in Würzburg. He discovered a method to generate cells with multiple copies of the centrosome, a structure he discovered and named. He postulated that chromosomes were distinct and transmitted different inheritance factors. He suggested that mutations of the chromosomes could generate a cell with unlimited growth potential which could be passed on to its descendants. He proposed the existence of cell cycle checkpoints, tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes. He speculated that cancers might be caused or promoted by radiation, physical or chemical injuries, or by pathogenic microorganisms.


title: History of cancer

text: When Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered radiation at the end of the 19th century, they stumbled upon the first effective non-surgical cancer treatment. With radiation also came the first signs of multi-disciplinary approaches to cancer treatment. The surgeon was no longer operating in isolation but worked together with hospital radiologists to help patients. The complications in communication this brought, along with the necessity of the patient's treatment in a hospital facility rather than at home, also created a parallel process of compiling patient data into hospital files, which in turn led to the first statistical patient studies.


title: History of cancer

text: The American Cancer Society was founded in 1913 by 15 physicians and businessmen in New York City under the name "American Society for the Control of Cancer" ("ASCC"). The current name was adopted in 1945.


title: History of cancer

text: A founding paper of cancer epidemiology was the work of Janet Lane-Claypon, who published a comparative study in 1926 of 500 breast cancer cases and 500 control patients of the same background and lifestyle for the British Ministry of Health. Her groundbreaking work on cancer epidemiology was carried on by Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill, who published "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death In Relation to Smoking. A Second Report on the Mortality of British Doctors" followed in 1956 (otherwise known as the British doctors study). Richard Doll left the London Medical Research Center (MRC), to start the Oxford unit for Cancer epidemiology in 1968. With the use of computers, the unit was the first to compile large amounts of cancer data. Modern epidemiological methods are closely linked to current concepts of disease and public health policy. Over the past 50  years, great efforts have been spent on gathering data across medical practice, hospital, provincial, state, and even country boundaries to study the interdependence of environmental and cultural factors on cancer incidence.


title: History of cancer

text: Cancer patient treatment and studies were restricted to individual physicians' practices until World War II when medical research centers discovered that there were large international differences in disease incidence. This insight drove national public health bodies to enable the compilation of health data across practices and hospitals, a process found in many countries today. The Japanese medical community observed that the bone marrow of victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was completely destroyed. They concluded that diseased bone marrow could also be destroyed with radiation, and this led to the development of bone marrow transplants for leukemia. Since World War II, trends in cancer treatment are to improve on a micro-level the existing treatment methods, standardize them, and globalize them to find cures through epidemiology and international partnerships.


title: History of cancer

text: In 1968 Michael A. Epstein, Bert Achong, and Yvonne Barr identified the first human cancer virus, called the Epstein–Barr virus.


title: History of cancer

text: The political 'war' on cancer began with the National Cancer Act of 1971, a United States federal law.


title: History of cancer

text: The act was intended "to amend the Public Health Service Act so as to strengthen the National Cancer Institute in order to more effectively carry out the national effort against cancer".


title: History of cancer

text: In 1973, cancer research led to a cold war incident, where co-operative samples of reported oncoviruses were discovered to be contaminated by HeLa.


title: History of cancer

text: In 1984, Harald zur Hausen discovered first HPV16 and then HPV18 responsible for approximately 70% of cervical cancers. For discovery that human papillomaviruses (HPV) cause human cancer, zur Hausen won a 2008 Nobel Prize.


title: History of cancer

text: Since 1971 the United States has invested over $200 billion on cancer research; that total includes money invested by public and private sectors and foundations.


title: History of cancer

text: Despite this substantial investment, the country has seen just a five percent decrease in the cancer death rate (adjusting for size and age of the population) between 1950 and 2005. Longer life expectancy may be a contributing factor to this, as cancer rates and mortality rates increase significantly with age, more than three out of five cancers are diagnosed in people aged 65 and over.


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: "Hide and Seek" is a song recorded by English singer Imogen Heap. The song was released on 19 May 2005 as the first single from her second album "Speak for Yourself", and was written and produced by Heap. It is an a cappella folktronica ballad which makes heavy use of the harmonizer, written about painfully losing someone.


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: "Hide and Seek" first gained popularity after being used in a scene in the season two finale of the Fox television series "The O.C." and in "The Shooting", a "Saturday Night Live" parody of the scene. It gained renewed popularity after use in an episode of the Hulu television series "Normal People". It was notably sampled in the 2009 single "Whatcha Say" by American singer Jason Derulo, which reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. "Hide and Seek" went on to sell over 647,000 copies in the United States, earning it a gold certification from the RIAA. It was also a critical success, and has been cited by several critics as Heap's best song.


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: Heap performed "Hide and Seek" during the 2017 benefit concert One Love Manchester and during her 2019 performance on NPR's Tiny Desk Concerts series. The song also appeared on NPR's 2018 list of The 200 Greatest Songs By 21st Century Women+.


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: "Hide and Seek" was recorded during a late-night studio session, where Heap decided to record her voice using the "vocoder" setting on a DigiTech Vocalist Workstation harmonizer after her computer lost power. During the making of "Hide and Seek", Heap said she found the song "so self indulgent" and believed that no one would enjoy it. Although she was frequently told during recording that "something was missing" from it, she decided to release it after sending it to a friend who called it "genius" and "the most amazing thing he had ever heard". The song is written in the key of A major and Heap's vocals span from B2 to B5.


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: "Hide and Seek" was released on 19 May 2005, the same day that it was featured in the season two finale of the Fox television series "The O.C.", "The Dearly Beloved". It is an a cappella folktronica song. Heap uses a keyboard-controlled digital harmonizer (similar to a vocoder) on the song to generate distorted harmonies of her voice, lending the song its altered a cappella sound. It is a ballad whose lyrics are about having painfully lost someone and how others react to things that happen to someone else. Fans have speculated that the song was written about the divorce of Heap's parents at age 12. The song ends with a sample of a train passing by. Heap described the song as one which "doesn't connect to a genre, it's completely open", adding "It's full of color, but it's colorless. It's full of meaning, but it has no meaning. It has so much for you as the listener to identify with it and fill in the gaps." "Stereogum"s Margaret Farrell wrote that the song's vocal effects make Heap "sound possessed with disquieting misery, bubbling to an overdose where she sounds occasionally alien".


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: "Hide and Seek" received critical acclaim upon its release. Writing for "The New York Times", Laura Sinagra wrote that "Hide and Seek" was "the ghostly pièce de résistance" of "Speak for Yourself", adding that the song "suggest[s] a kind of lovesick cyborg alienation, an almost disembodied, distinctly modern malaise". Sophie Heawood of "The Guardian" referred to the song as "extraordinary", describing its use of vocal layering as "startling" albeit with a "Marmite-style love-or-hate effect on listeners". For "Pitchfork", David Raposa identified "Hide and Seek" as the "black sheep" of "Speak for Yourself", writing, "It's gorgeous, it's impressive, it's grandiose, and it's barely there at all just Heap's voice darting and divebombing, making itself scarce, disappearing into itself." "The Skinny"s Dave Reid suggested that "Hide and Seek" "threatens to put the rest of the album in the shade". Jeff Vrabel of "PopMatters" wrote that the song was "uniformly gorgeous" with "no beat required", adding, "Its sonic trickery makes the song lap itself; there's so much synthetic beauty in there that it comes off sounding organic anyway."


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: Since its release, "Hide and Seek" has continued to garner acclaim, with many critics identifying it as Heap's best song. "NPR" placed "Hide and Seek" at number 147 on their list of The 200 Greatest Songs By 21st Century Women+, writing that the song was "the stand-out gem of [Heap's] illustrious career". On "Stereogum"s Farrell's list of Heap's best songs, "Hide and Seek" was named as Heap's best song, with Farrell writing, "'Hide And Seek' is Imogen Heap’s most devastating and haunting track to date. Whether heard via a choice sync by a music supervisor or a chance encounter over a streaming service, the song lingers for days or even years." KCMP included the song on their list of "893 Essential Songs" at number 494. Matt Moen of "Paper" referred to "Hide and Seek" as "Heap's greatest hit" which "not only has paved the way for the judicious use of the vocoder as an emotional vocal treatment in today's top 40 but has been objectively one of the strangest songs to weave its way into our cultural fabric." "Time Out" listed "Hide and Seek" as one of the best breakup songs of all time, writing that it "toes the line between poignantly lachrymose and sickeningly maudlin". For "The Ringer", Lindsay Zoladz wrote, "Imogen Heap rarely gets credit for the ripple effects that 'Hide and Seek' sent through the pop mainstream," adding that the song was "indebted" to Laurie Anderson's "O Superman" and Daft Punk's 2001 album "Discovery". As of 2009, the song has sold 647,000 copies in the United States and has been certified gold by the RIAA.


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: Jason Derulo's 2009 single "Whatcha Say" prominently sampled Heap's song in its chorus after Derulo and producer J. R. Rotem chose to use the sample. In the United States, the single topped the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. On the fifth season of Australian reality competition series "Australian Idol", finalist Ben McKenzie performed the song on the season's fourth episode. British alternative rock band Fightstar covered the song as a B-side to their single, "The English Way", in 2008. American metal band And Then There Were None covered the song in 2009. In 2010, Canadian guitarist Antoine Dufour recorded a solo guitar version of the song. British a cappella ensemble The King's Singers included a cover of the song on their 2010 album "Swimming Over London". In 2010 and 2011, respectively, Dutch DJ Afrojack and Swedish DJ Otto Knows released remixes of the song. In 2012, British pop rock band The Dunwells released a cover of the song on their EP "Leaving the Rose". A trance remix of the song by Dutch DJ Ferry Corsten was released in 2013. American DJ Slushii released a future bass remix of the song in 2018. British band Amber Run released a cover of the song


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: "Hide and Seek" gained immense popularity after being featured during the climax of the 2005 season two finale of "The O.C.". After director Norman Buckley was given a copy of "Speak for Yourself" by music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas, Buckley suggested to creator Josh Schwartz that he listen to the album early on in the season. Schwartz then decided that "Hide and Seek" would be used in the season finale. The song was originally written to be played during the funeral scene of Caleb Nichol. It was eventually decided that the song would instead be used in the climax of the episode, wherein Marissa Cooper shoots Trey Atwood, during an altercation between Atwood and his brother, Ryan Atwood. The use of the song in the episode received praise from critics: "Vulture"'s Lindsey Weber called it "the most obviously important" musical moment on the show, while Celina Torrijos of Much stated, "Most fans of the show...will cite the scene where Marissa shoots Trey to Imogen Heap’s "Hide And Seek" as the most memorable music moment of the series." Ilana Kaplan of "Nylon" also included it on her list of the most memorable music moments from the show, calling it "one of the most defining songs of "The O.C."," and Angela Law of "Popsugar" included it on her list of the best songs used in the show. Grant Ridner of "Vox" described the scene as "infamous" due to its use of the song. Lindsay Zoladz of "The Ringer" called it "arguably the most absurd and melodramatic shooting scene in the history of televisual media" and "stupid and ridiculous and somehow (largely due to the song) genuinely, deeply moving"; "Metro"s Emma Kelly wrote that it was "the most memorable track from a series known for its music".


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: The scene was later parodied in a 2007 "Saturday Night Live" digital short created by American comedy trio The Lonely Island called "The Shooting", which also featured the song. "The Cut"s Claire Lampen noted that the "infamous" status of "Hide and Seek" was "cemented" by its use in "The Shooting". The sketch caused the song to become a popular internet meme, where the song's bridge ("Mmm, whatcha say") would be played over death scenes in television and film. The first parody to gain traction was of a scene from the teen drama series "". "Hide and Seek" went on to be featured in the BBC and Hulu miniseries "Normal People". Although Maggie Phillips, the music supervisor for "Normal People", was initially against using the song due to its association with "The O.C." and "Saturday Night Live", the song was included in the second episode by director Lenny Abrahamson during a montage of the two main characters, Marianne and Connell. Its appearance in "Normal People" in 2020 caused the song to experience a temporary boost in popularity in Ireland, earning six times as many streams in the six weeks following its appearance than it had throughout 2019 and becoming the most-streamed song from the show.


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: "Hide and Seek" was also adapted to be featured in the West End and Broadway productions of the 2016 play "Harry Potter and the Cursed Child", for which Heap wrote the music. Listed on the soundtrack album as "Edge of the Forest", it appears during a scene at the edge of the Forbidden Forest and is sung by a choir. It is the only time in the show during which lyrics are heard. The song also appears in the films "The Last Kiss" and "Warren Miller's Off the Grid". It was also featured in the series "So You Think You Can Dance".


title: Hide and Seek (Imogen Heap song)

text: "Hide and Seek" was performed live by Heap at One Love Manchester, a benefit concert and television special held in Manchester on 4 June 2017 and organised by Ariana Grande as a tribute to the victims of the bombing at her Manchester Arena concert. The performance was praised by critics, with writers from "The Telegraph" and "NME" naming it one of the best moments of the concert. Heap later performed "Hide and Seek" during her performance on NPR's Tiny Desk Concerts series with her Mi.Mu gloves on 20 June 2019, and performed a "jolly" rendition of the song for Royal Albert Hall's Royal Albert Home free virtual concert series on 29 May 2020.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Ida Minerva Tarbell (November 5, 1857January 6, 1944) was an American writer, investigative journalist, biographer and lecturer. She was one of the leading muckrakers of the Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and pioneered investigative journalism.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Born in Pennsylvania at the beginning of the oil boom, Tarbell is best known for her 1904 book "The History of the Standard Oil Company." The book was published as a series of articles in "McClure's Magazine" from 1902 to 1904. It has been called a "masterpiece of investigative journalism", by historian J. North Conway, as well as "the single most influential book on business ever published in the United States" by historian Daniel Yergin. The work contributed to the dissolution of the Standard Oil monopoly and helped usher in the Hepburn Act of 1906, the Mann-Elkins Act, the creation of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), and passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell also wrote several biographies over the course of her 64-year career. She wrote biographies on Madame Roland and Napoleon. Tarbell believed that "the Truth and motivations of powerful human beings could be discovered." That Truth, she became convinced, could be conveyed in such a way as "to precipitate meaningful social change." She wrote numerous books and works on Abraham Lincoln, including ones that focused on his early life and career. After her exposé on Standard Oil and character study of John D. Rockefeller, she wrote biographies of businessmen Elbert Henry Gary, chairman of U.S. Steel, and Owen D. Young, president of General Electric.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: A prolific writer and lecturer, Tarbell was known for taking complex subjects—the oil industry, tariffs, labor practices—and breaking them down into informative and easily understood articles. Her articles drove circulation at "McClure’s Magazine" and "The American Magazine" and many of her books were popular with the general American public. After a successful career as both writer and editor for "McClure’s Magazine", Tarbell left with several other editors to buy and publish "The American Magazine". Tarbell also traveled to all of the then 48 states on the lecture circuit and spoke on subjects including the evils of war, world peace, American politics, trusts, tariffs, labor practices, and women's issues.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell took part in professional organizations and served on two Presidential committees. She helped form the Authors’ League (now the Author's Guild) and was President of the Pen and Brush Club for 30 years. During World War I, she served on President Woodrow Wilson's Women's Committee on the Council of National Defense. After the war, Tarbell served on President Warren G. Harding's 1921 Unemployment Conference.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell, who never married, is often considered a feminist by her actions, although she was critical of the women's suffrage movement.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Ida Minerva Tarbell was born on a farm in Erie County, Pennsylvania, on November 5, 1857, to Esther Ann (née McCullough), a teacher, and Franklin Summer Tarbell, a teacher and a joiner and later an oilman. She was born in the log cabin home of her maternal grandfather, Walter Raleigh McCullough, a Scots-Irish pioneer, and his wife. Her father's distant immigrant ancestors had settled in New England in the 17th century. Tarbell was told by her grandmother that they were descended from Sir Walter Raleigh, a member of George Washington's staff, and also the first American Episcopalian bishop. Tarbell had three younger siblings: Walter, Franklin, Jr., and Sarah. Franklin, Jr. died of scarlet fever at a young age and Sarah, also afflicted, would remain physically weakened throughout her life. Walter became an oilman like his father, while Sarah was an artist.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Ida Tarbell's early life in the oil fields of Pennsylvania would have an impact when she later wrote on the Standard Oil Company and on labor practices. The Panic of 1857 hit the Tarbell family hard as banks collapsed and the Tarbells lost their savings. Franklin Tarbell was away in Iowa building a family homestead when Ida was born. Franklin had to abandon the Iowan house and return to Pennsylvania. With no money, he walked across the states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to return, and supported himself along the way by teaching in rural schools. When he returned, ragged from his 18-month journey, young Ida Tarbell was said to have told him, "Go away, bad man!"


title: Ida Tarbell

text: The Tarbells' fortune would turn as the Pennsylvania oil rush began in 1859. They lived in the western region of Pennsylvania as new oil fields were being developed, utterly changing the regional economy. Oil, she would write in her autobiography, opened “a rich field for tricksters, swindlers, exploiters of vice in every known form.” Tarbell's father first used his trade to build wooden oil storage tanks. The family lived in a shack with a workshop for Franklin in an oil field with twenty-five oil wells. Oil was everywhere in the sand, pits, and puddles. Tarbell wrote of the experience, "No industry of man in its early days has ever been more destructive of beauty, order, decency, than the production of petroleum."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: In 1860, Ida's father moved the family to Rouseville, Pennsylvania. Accidents that occurred in Rouseville impacted Ida Tarbell deeply. Town founder and neighbor Henry Rouse was drilling for oil when a flame hit natural gas coming from a pump. Rouse survived a few hours, which gave him just enough time to write his will and leave his million-dollar estate to the other settlers to build roads. In total, 18 men were killed, and the Tarbells' mother, Esther, cared for one of the burn victims in their home. In another incident, three women died in a kitchen explosion. Tarbell was not allowed to see the bodies, but she snuck into the room where the women awaited burial. Tarbell suffered from nightmares for the rest of her life.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: After the Rouseville boom was finished in 1869, the family moved to Titusville, Pennsylvania. Tarbell's father built a family house at 324 Main Street using lumber and fixtures from the defunct Bonta Hotel in Pithole, Pennsylvania.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's father later became an oil producer and refiner in Venango County. Franklin's business, along with those of many other small businessmen, was adversely affected by the South Improvement Company scheme (circa 1872) between the railroads and more substantial oil interests where in less than four months during what was later known as "The Cleveland Conquest" or "The Cleveland Massacre," Standard Oil absorbed 22 of its 26 Cleveland competitors. Later, Tarbell would vividly recall this event in her writing, in which she accused the leaders of the Standard Oil Company of using unfair tactics to put her father and many small oil companies out of business. The South Improvement Company secretly worked with the railroads to raise the rates on oil shipment for independent oil men. The members of South Improvement Company received discounts and rebates to offset the rates and put the independents out of business. Franklin Tarbell participated against the South Improvement Company through marches and tipping over Standard Oil railroad tankers. The government of Pennsylvania eventually moved to disband the South Improvement Company.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: The Tarbells were socially active, entertaining prohibitionists and women's suffragists. Her family subscribed to "Harper's Weekly", "Harper's Monthly", and "the New York Tribune" and it was there that Ida Tarbell followed the events of the Civil War. Tarbell would also sneak into the family worker's bunkhouse to read copies of "the Police Gazette"—a gruesome tabloid. Her family was Methodist and attended church twice a week. Esther Tarbell supported women's rights and entertained women such as Mary Livermore and Frances E. Willard.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Ida Tarbell was intelligent—but also undisciplined in the classroom. According to reports by Tarbell herself, she paid little attention in class and was often truant until one teacher set her straight: "She told me the plain and ugly truth about myself that day, and as I sat there, looking her straight in the face, too proud to show any feeling, but shamed as I never had been before and never have been since." Tarbell was especially interested in the sciences, and she began comparing the landscape around her in Pennsylvania to what she was learning in school. "Here I was suddenly on a ground which meant something to me. From childhood, plants, insects, stones were what I saw when I went abroad, what I brought home to press, to put into bottles, to litter up the house... I had never realized that they were subjects for study... School suddenly became exciting."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell graduated at the head of her high school class in Titusville and went on to study biology at Allegheny College in 1876, where she was the only woman in her class of 41. Tarbell had an interest in evolutionary biology—at her childhood home she spent many hours with a microscope—and said of her interest in science, "The quest for the truth had been born in me... the most essential of man's quests." One of Tarbell's professors, Jeremiah Tingley, allowed her to use the college's microscope for study and Tarbell used it to study the Common Mudpuppy, a foot-long amphibian that used both gills and a lung and thought to be a missing link.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell displayed leadership at Allegheny. She was a founding member of the local sorority that became the Mu chapter of the Kappa Alpha Theta sorority in 1876. Tarbell also led the charge to place a sophomore stone on campus dedicated to learning and with the Latin phrase, "Spes sibi quisque", which translates to "Everyone is his/her own hope". She was a member of the campus women's literary society, the Ossoli Society, named after writer Margaret Fuller Ossoli, and wrote for the society's publication, "the Mosaic".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell graduated in 1880 with an A.B. degree and an M.A. degree in 1883. Tarbell later supported the university by serving on the board of trustees, to which she was first elected in 1912. She was the second woman to serve as a trustee and held the post for more than three decades.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell left school wanting to contribute to society but unsure of how to do it, she became a teacher. Tarbell began her career as headmistress at Poland Union Seminary in Poland, Ohio in August 1880. The school was both a high school and provided continuing education courses for local teachers. Tarbell taught classes in geology, botany, geometry, and trigonometry as well as languages: Greek, Latin, French, and German. After two years, she realized teaching was too much for her, and she returned home. She was exhausted by the workload and exasperated by the low wages which meant she had to borrow money from her parents.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell returned to Pennsylvania, where she met Theodore L. Flood, editor of "The Chautauquan", a teaching supplement for home study courses at Chautauqua, New York. Tarbell's family was familiar with the movement which encouraged adult education and self-study. She was quick to accept Flood's offer to write for the publication. Initially, Tarbell worked two weeks at the Meadville, Pennsylvania headquarters and worked two weeks at home. This allowed her to continue her own study at home in biology using microscopes. She became managing editor in 1886, and her duties included proofreading, answering reader questions, providing proper pronunciation of certain words, translating foreign phrases, identifying characters, and defining words.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell began writing brief items for the magazine and then worked up to longer features as she established her writing style and voice. Her first article was 'The Arts and Industries of Cincinnati' and appeared in December 1886. According to Steve Weinberg in "Taking on the Trust", this was when Tarbell established a style that would carry throughout her career: "Tarbell would imbue her articles, essays, and books with moral content, grounded in her unwavering rectitude. That rectitude, while sometimes suggesting inflexibility, drove her instincts for reform, a vital element in her future confrontation with Rockefeller."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell wrote two articles that showcased her conflicting views on the roles of women that would follow her through her life. Tarbell's article, "Women as Inventors," was published in the March 1887 issue of "The Chautauquan." When an article written by Mary Lowe Dickinson claimed the number of women patent owners to be about 300—and that women would never become successful inventors—Tarbell's curiosity was sparked and she began her own investigation. Tarbell traveled to the Patent Office in Washington, D.C. and met with the head of the department, R. C. McGill. McGill had put together a list of close to 2,000 women. Tarbell wrote in the article, "Three things worth knowing and believing: that women have invented a large number of useful articles; that these patents are not confined to 'clothes and kitchen' devices as the skeptical masculine mind avers; that invention is a field in which woman has large possibilities." Tarbell later followed this article up with a showcase on women in journalism in April 1887. The article contained history, journalism practices, and advice including a warning that journalism was an open field for women, and yet women should refrain from shedding tears easily and appearing weak.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell balked at being a "hired gal" and decided to strike out on her own after a falling out with Theodore Flood. Tarbell decided to follow her father's philosophy that it was better to work for oneself than to be a hired hand. She began researching women from history including Germaine de Staël and Madame Roland for inspiration and as subject matter for her writing. The real reason for the fall-out with Flood remains a mystery, but one reason may have been the placement of his son's name on the Masthead above Tarbell's own. Another hinted that her family had reason to seek revenge on him.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Leaving the security of "The Chautauquan", Tarbell moved to Paris in 1891 at age 34 to live and work. She shared an apartment on the Rue du Sommerard with three women friends from "The Chautauquan". The apartment was within a few blocks of the Panthéon, Notre-Dame de Paris, and the Sorbonne. This was an exciting time in Paris, as the Eiffel Tower had been finished recently in 1889. Tarbell and her friends enjoyed the art produced by Impressionists including Degas, Monet, Manet, and Van Gogh. Tarbell described the color of the art as "the blues and greens fairly howl they are so bright and intense." Tarbell attended the Can-can at the Moulin Rouge and in a letter to her family she advised them to read Mark Twain's description of it in "The Innocents Abroad" as she didn't like to write about it.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell had an active social life in Paris. She and her flatmates hosted a language salon where both English and French speakers could come together and practice their non-native language skills. Her landlady, Madame Bonnet, held weekly dinners for the women and her other tenants. These tenants included young men from Egypt, and among them was Prince Said Toussoum, a cousin of the Egyptian ruler. Tarbell met and had a possible romance with Charles Downer Hazen, a future French historian and professor at Smith College.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell set about making her career as a writer in Paris. She supported herself by writing for several American newspapers including the "Pittsburgh Dispatch", the "Cincinnati Times-Star", and the "Chicago Tribune". Tarbell published the short story, "France Adorée," in the December 1891 issue of "Scribner's" "Magazine". All of this work, along with a tutorship, helped Tarbell as she worked on her first biography, a book on Madame Roland: the leader of an influential "salon" during the French Revolution. Tarbell already wanted to rescue women from the obscurity of history. Her research led her to an introduction to Leon Marillier, a descendant of Roland who provided access to Roland's letters and family papers. Mariller invited Tarbell to visit the Roland Country estate, Le Clos.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell continued her education in Paris and also learned investigative and research techniques used by French historians. Tarbell attended lectures at the Sorbonne—including those on the history of the French Revolution, 18th-century literature, and period painting. She learned from French historians how to present evidence in a clear, compelling style.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: What Tarbell discovered about Madame Roland changed her own worldview. She began the biography with admiration for Roland but grew disillusioned as she researched and learned more. Tarbell determined that Roland, who followed her husband's lead, was not the independent thinker she had imagined and was complicit in creating an atmosphere where violence led to the Terror and her own execution. She wrote of Roland, "This woman had been one of the steadiest influences to violence, willing, even eager, to use this terrible revolutionary force, so bewildering and terrifying to me, to accomplish her ends, childishly believing herself and her friends strong enough to control it when they needed it no longer. The heaviest blow to my self-confidence so far was my loss of faith in revolution as a divine weapon. Not since I discovered the world not to have been made in six days...had I been so intellectually and spiritually upset."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: It was during this time that Tarbell received bad news and then a shock. Franklin Tarbell's business partner had committed suicide, leaving Franklin in debt. Subsequently, a July 1892 newspaper announced that Tarbell's hometown of Titusville had been completely destroyed by flood and fire. Over 150 people died, and she feared her family was among them. Oil Creek had flooded and inflammable material on the water had ignited and exploded. Tarbell was relieved when she received a one-word cablegram that read: "Safe!" Her family and their home had been spared.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell had published articles with the syndicate run by publisher Samuel McClure, and McClure had read a Tarbell article called "The Paving of the Streets of Paris by Monsieur Alphand", which described how the French carried out large public works. Impressed, McClure told his partner John S. Philips, "This girl can write. We need to get her to do some work for our magazine". The magazine he was referring to was "McClure's Magazine", a new venture that he and Philips were intending to launch to appeal to the average middle-class reader. Convinced that Tarbell was just the kind of writer that he wanted to work for him, he showed up at Tarbell's door in Paris while on a scheduled visit to France in 1892 to offer her the editor position at the new magazine.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell described McClure as a "will-of-the-wisp". He overstayed his visit, missed his train, and had to borrow $40 from Tarbell to travel on to Geneva. Tarbell assumed she would never see the money, which was for her vacation, again but his offices wired over the money the next day. Tarbell initially turned him down so she could continue working on the Roland biography but McClure was determined. Next, the art director for "McClure's", August Jaccaci, made a visit to Tarbell to show her the maiden issue of the magazine.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Instead of taking up the editor position at "McClure's", Tarbell began writing freelance articles for the magazine. She wrote articles about women intellectuals and writers in Paris as well as scientists. She hoped articles such as "A Paris Press Woman" for the "Boston Transcript" in 1893 would provide a blueprint for women journalists and writers. She interviewed Louis Pasteur for an 1893 article, visiting with Pasteur and going through his family photographs for the magazine. She returned to Pasteur again to find out his views on the future. This piece turned into a regular report on "The Edge of the Future." Others interviewed for the report included Émile Zola, Alphonse Daudet, and Alexandre Dumas "fils". Tarbell took on the role of the magazine's Paris representative. Tarbell was then offered the position of youth editor to replace Frances Hodgson Burnett. When her biography of Madame Roland was finished, Tarbell returned home and joined the staff of "McClure's" for a salary of $3,000 a year.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell returned from Paris in the summer of 1894, and, after a visit with family in Titusville, moved to New York City. In June of that year, Samuel McClure contacted her in order to commission a biographical series on French leader Napoleon Bonaparte. McClure had heard that "the Century Magazine", "McClure's" rival, was working on a series of articles about Bonaparte. Tarbell stayed at Twin Oaks in Washington, D.C., the home of Gardiner Green Hubbard, while working on the series. Tarbell made use of Hubbard's extensive collection of Napoleon material and memorabilia as well as resources at the Library of Congress and the U.S. State Department. Tarbell's schedule for the book was tight—the first installment came out only six weeks after she initially started her work. Tarbell called this "biography on a gallop."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: The series proved to be a training ground for Tarbell's style and methodology for biographies. Tarbell believed in the Great man theory of biography and that extraordinary individuals could shape their society at least as much as society shaped them. While working on the series, Tarbell was introduced to historian and educator Herbert B. Adams of Johns Hopkins University. Adams believed in the "objective interpretation of primary sources" which would also become Tarbell's method for writing about her subjects. Adams also taught at Smith College and was a proponent for women's education.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: This series of articles would solidify Tarbell's reputation as a writer, opening up new avenues for her. The Napoleon series proved popular and doubled circulation up to over 100,000 on "McClure"'s magazine—quadrupling the readership by the final seventh Napoleon installment. It included illustrations from the Gardiner Green Hubbard collection. The articles were folded into a book that would be a best seller and earn Tarbell royalties for the rest of her life—over 70,000 copies were made of the first edition. Tarbell said that her sketch of Napoleon turned her plans "topsy-turvy." Because of its popularity, Tarbell was also finally able to find a publisher—Scribner's—for her Madame Roland book.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Another "McClure's" story meant to compete against "Century Magazine" was on US president Abraham Lincoln, on whom "Century" had published a series by his private secretaries, John Nicolay and John Hay. At first, Tarbell was reluctant to take up work on Lincoln as she later said, "If you once get into American history, I told myself, you know well enough that will finish France." At the same time, however, Tarbell had been fascinated with Lincoln since she was a young girl. She remembered the news of his assassination and her parents' reaction to it: her father coming home from his shop, her mother burying her "face in her apron, running into her room sobbing as if her heart would break."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: When Tarbell first approached John Nicolay, he told her that he and Hay had written "all that was worth telling of Lincoln". Tarbell decided to begin with Lincoln's origins and his humble beginnings. Tarbell traveled the country meeting with and interviewing people who had known Lincoln—including his son Robert Todd Lincoln. Robert Lincoln shared with Tarbell an early and previously unpublished daguerreotype of Lincoln as a younger man. She followed up on a lost 1856 speech by Lincoln by tracking down Henry Clay Whitney—who claimed to have written down notes—and then confirming his notes via other witnesses. Whitney's version of the speech was published in "McClure's", but has since been disproved by other historians.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's research in the backwoods of Kentucky and Illinois uncovered the true story of Lincoln's childhood and youth. She wrote to and interviewed hundreds of people who knew or had contact with Lincoln. She tracked down leads and then confirmed their sources. She sent hundreds of letters looking for images of Lincoln and found evidence of more than three hundred previously unpublished Lincoln letters and speeches. Tarbell met with John H. Finley while visiting Knox College where Lincoln famously debated Stephen Douglas in 1858. Finley was the young college President, and he would go on to contribute to Tarbell's work on Standard Oil and rise to become the editor of "The New York Times". Tarbell traveled abroad to Europe, discovering that a rumor that Lincoln had appealed to Queen Victoria to not recognize the Confederacy was, in fact, false.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: By December 1895, the popular series by Tarbell once again helped boost "McClure's" circulation to over 250,000 which climbed to over 300,000, by 1900, making it higher than its rivals. This occurred even as the editors at "Century's Magazine" sneered, "They got a girl to write the Life of Lincoln." McClure would go on to use the money generated by Tarbell's articles to buy a printing plant and a bindery.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: It was at this time that Tarbell decided to be a writer and not an editor. The articles were collected in a book, giving Tarbell a national reputation as a major writer and the leading authority on the slain president. Tarbell published five books about Lincoln and traveled on the lecture circuit, recounting her discoveries to large audiences.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: The tight writing schedules and frequent travel eventually impacted Tarbell's health. On the verge of physical collapse, she checked into the Clifton Springs Sanitarium near Rochester, New York in 1896. Besides rest and relaxation, her treatment included taking the water cure. She would visit the Sanitarium numerous times over the next thirty years.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell continued to write profiles for McClure in the late 1890s. While there, she had the opportunity to observe the United States expansion into imperialism through the Spanish–American War. She was writing a series on military affairs, and in 1898 she was set to interview Nelson A. Miles, the commanding general of the United States, when the battleship the USS "Maine" was blown up in Havana Harbor. Tarbell was allowed to keep her appointment nonetheless and observe the response at the U.S. Army Headquarters. Theodore Roosevelt was already organizing what would become the Rough Riders, and Tarbell said that he kept bursting into the Army office, "like a boy on roller skates." Tarbell longed for her old life in Paris, but realized she was needed in America: "Between Lincoln and the Spanish–American War [as it became known] I realized I was taking on a citizenship I had practically resigned".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell moved to New York and accepted a position as desk editor for "McClure's" in 1899. She was paid $5,000 a year and given shares in the company, which made her a part-owner. She rented an apartment in Greenwich Village which reminded her of France. She frequented the Hotel Brevoort, where Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) also dined.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Her position as editor was to fill in for Samuel McClure, as he was planning to be away from the office for several months. Tarbell was to become known as an anchor in the office while the magazine built out its roster of investigative editors and authors. She and Phillips were described as the "control" to S. S. McClure's "motor." "McClure's" sent Stephen Crane to cover Cuba during the War. Ray Stannard Baker was hired by the magazine to report on the Pullman Strike. Fiction editor Violo Roseboro discovered writers such as O. Henry, Jack London, and Willa Cather. John Huston Finley quit his job as president of Knox College and became an editor for "McClure's".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: By the turn of the twentieth century "McClure's" began an effort to "expose the ills of American society." Having recently published a series on crime in America and were looking for another big topic to cover, Tarbell and the other editors at "McClure's" decided to look into the growth of trusts: steel and sugar were both considered before they settled on oil. There were a number of reasons why the magazine decided to publish a story on Standard Oil: in particular, Tarbell's own first-hand experience with life in the Pennsylvania oil fields and the fact that Standard Oil was a trust represented by only one person, Rockefeller, and therefore might make the story easier to follow. Tarbell traveled to Europe and met with S. S. McClure to get his buy-in for the idea. McClure had been resting from exhaustion, but Tarbell's article idea spurred him into action. They discussed the idea over many days at a spa in Milan. McClure felt that Tarbell should use the same biographical sketch format she used for Napoleon.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: On her return to the states, Tarbell handed over the desk editor role to Lincoln Steffens in 1901, and began a meticulous investigation with the help of an assistant (John Siddall) into how the industry began, Rockefeller's early interest in oil, and the Standard Oil trust.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's father expressed concern to her about writing about Standard Oil warning her that Rockefeller would stop at nothing and would ruin the magazine. One of Rockefeller's banks did indeed threaten the magazine's financial status to which Tarbell shocked the bank executive by replying, "Of course that makes no difference to me".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell developed investigative reporting techniques, delving into private archives and public documents across the country. The documentation and oral interviews she gathered proved Standard Oil had used strong-arm tactics and manipulated competitors, railroad companies and others to reach its corporate goals. Organized by Tarbell into a cogent history, they became a "damning portrayal of big business" and a personal "account of petty persecution" by Rockfeller. A subhead on the cover of Weinberg's book encapsulates it this way: "How a female investigative journalist brought down the world's greatest tycoon and broke up the Standard Oil monopoly".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell was able to find one critical piece of information that had gone missing—a book called "the Rise and Fall of the South Improvement Company" which had been published in 1873. Standard Oil and Rockefeller had its roots in the South Improvement Company's illegal schemes. Standard Oil had attempted to destroy all available copies of the book, but Tarbell was finally able to locate one copy in the New York Public Library.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Another break in the story came from within Standard Oil itself and proved that the company was still using illegal and shady practices. An office boy working at the Standard Oil headquarters was given the job of destroying records which included evidence that railroads were giving the company advance information about refiner's shipments. This allowed them to undercut the refiners. The young man happened to notice his Sunday school teacher's name on several documents. The teacher was a refiner, and the young man took the papers to his teacher who passed them along to Tarbell in 1904. The series and book on Standard Oil brought Tarbell fame. The book was adapted into a play in 1905 called "The Lion and the Mouse". The play was a hit even though Ida had turned down the lead role and an offer of $2,500 in salary per week for the twenty-week run.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Samuel Clemens (author Mark Twain), introduced Tarbell to Henry H. Rogers, vice-president at Standard Oil and considered to be the third man after John D. Rockefeller and his brother William Rockefeller. Rogers had begun his career during the American Civil War in western Pennsylvania oil regions where Tarbell had grown up. Rockefeller had bought out Rogers and his partner, but then Rogers joined the trust. In early 1902 she conducted numerous detailed interviews with Rogers at Standard Oil's headquarters. Rogers, wily and normally guarded in matters related to business and finance, may have been under the impression her work was to be complimentary and was apparently unusually forthcoming. Even after the first articles began to appear in "McClure’s", Rogers continued to speak with Tarbell, much to her surprise.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Her investigative journalism on Standard Oil was serialized in nineteen articles that ran from November 1902 to 1904 in "McClure's;" her first article being published with pieces by Lincoln Steffens and Ray Stannard Baker. Together these ushered in the era of muckraking journalism.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's biggest obstacle, however, was neither her gender nor Rockefeller's opposition. Rather, her biggest obstacle was the craft of journalism as practiced at the turn of the twentieth century. She investigated Standard Oil and Rockefeller by using documents— hundreds of thousands of pages scattered throughout the nation—and then amplified her findings through interviews with the corporation's executives and competitors, government regulators, and academic experts past and present. In other words, she proposed to practice what today is considered investigative reporting, which did not exist in 1900. Indeed, she invented a new form of journalism.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Magazine historian Frank Luther Mott called it, "one of the greatest serials ever to appear in an American magazine." It would contribute to the dissolution of Standard Oil as a monopoly and lead to the Clayton Antitrust Act.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell concluded the series with a two-part character study of Rockefeller, perhaps the first CEO profile ever, though she never met or even talked to him. Rockefeller called Tarbell, "Miss Tarbarrel".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: The first book-length investigation of Standard Oil had appeared in 1894 by newspaperman Henry Demarest Lloyd. However, this book, "Wealth Against Commonwealth", contained factual errors and appeared to be too accusatory in nature to garner popular acclaim. However Tarbell's articles when collected in the book, "The History of the Standard Oil Company" (1904). became a bestseller, which was called a "masterpiece of investigative journalism" by author and historian J. North Conway. Her articles and the book would lead to the passage of the Hepburn Act in 1906 to oversee the railroads, the 1910 Mann-Elkins Act which gave the Interstate Commerce Commission power over oil rates, and the creation of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in 1914.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: President Theodore Roosevelt gave Tarbell and her peers including Lincoln Steffens and Ray Stannard Baker the label, "muckrakers." Tarbell's exposé of Standard Oil first appeared in the January 1903 issue of "McClure's" along with Steffens' investigation of political corruption in Minneapolis and Baker's exposé on labor union practices. The term muckraker came from John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" describing a Man with a Muckrake forever clearing muck from the floor. Roosevelt said of the muckrakers, "The man who never does anything else, who never thinks or speaks or writes save of his feats with the muckrake, speedily becomes, not a help to society, not an incitement to good, but one of the most potent forces of evil". Tarbell disliked the muckraker label and wrote an article, "Muckraker or Historian," in which she justified her efforts for exposing the oil trust. She referred to "this classification of muckraker, which I did not like. All the radical element, and I numbered many friends among them, were begging me to join their movements. I soon found that most of them wanted attacks. They had little interest in balanced findings. Now I was convinced that in the long run the public they were trying to stir would weary of vituperation, that if you were to secure permanent results the mind must be convinced."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell had written for "McClure's" from 1894 until 1906. By then, S. S. McClure had become an increasingly absentee publisher, occasionally dropping in to override ideas and Tarbell's orders. She had lost her father the previous year to gastric cancer and S. S. McClure's erratic behavior at the magazine contributed to her stress, as it threatened the stability of the magazine and Tarbell's holdings. This led Tarbell and John Phillips to both resign from "McClure's" in June 1906, followed by Baker, Steffens, and Siddall. Tarbell and Philips raised money to form the Phillips Publishing Company and to purchase "The American Illustrated Magazine," (formerly "Leslie's Monthly Magazine"), which they renamed "The American Magazine". Phillips became president. Tarbell became its associate editor and remained there until 1915. Instead of focusing on muckraking journalism, the magazine steered away from reporting what was "wrong" in society and focused on what was "right."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: As well as the establishing the new magazine in 1906 Tarbell moved to Connecticut and purchased a 40-acre farm in Redding Ridge, Connecticut which she named Twin Oaks. After Tarbell bought her farm in 1906, her household expanded to include a number of family members. Tarbell resided with her sister Sarah in Easton, Connecticut, at Rock House and Valley Roads. Over the years, several other family members also lived on the property, including her niece and nephew, Clara and Tristram Tripper, who lived in a cottage. Tarbell's brother Walter and his wife also came to live there after Walter suffered an emotional breakdown.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Mark Twain and other New York publishing people lived nearby and Tarbell frequently entertained friends there. Tarbell wrote of the work required on a farm: "Things happened: the roof leaked; the grass must be cut if I was to have a comfortable sward to sit on; water in the house was imperative. And what I had not reckoned with came from all the corners of my land: incessant calls—fields calling to be rid of underbrush and weeds and turned to their proper work; a garden spot calling for a chance to show what it could do; apple trees begging to be trimmed and sprayed. I had bought an abandoned farm, and it cried loud to go about its business."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell wrote a series of essential articles at "The American Magazine", in which she investigated tariffs and their impact on American businesses and consumers. Tarbell also traveled to Chicago to investigate their public transportation. She met Jane Addams and stayed at Hull House in 1908. There, she participated in the group's programs which included teaching immigrant women English, job and homemaking skills.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell and the other editors decided to sell "The American Magazine" to the Crowell Publishing company in 1911. John Phillips sold his remaining interests to Crowell Publishing Company in 1915. Phillips became a consultant to the magazine, John Siddell became the editor, and Tarbell turned to freelance writing.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell examined the positive side of American business in a series of articles written between 1912 and 1916. She toured the United States and met with factory owners and workers and their families. Tarbell said of her own muckraking reputation, "Was it not the duty of those who were called muckrakers to rake up the good earth as well as the noxious?" She was fascinated by Thomas Lynch of the Frick Coke Company, who was committed to providing decent living conditions for his workers and believed that "Safety First" was preferable to accidents. Tarbell also admired and wrote about Ford Motor Company founder Henry Ford and his belief that offering high pay would create excellent work, as well as his ideas around mass production.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Steve Weinberg wrote that Ida Tarbell was "a feminist by example, but not by ideology". Feminist scholars viewed Tarbell as an enigma as she seemed to both embrace the movement and act as a critic. While her accomplishments were many, Tarbell also challenged and questioned the logic of women's suffrage. Early in life, Tarbell was exposed to the suffragette movement when her mother hosted meetings in their home. Tarbell was put off by women such as Mary Livermore and Frances Willard who she said never paid attention to her. By contrast, Tarbell noted, the men her father hosted showed interest in her. Tarbell did say that the movement sparked in her a desire to attend college and receive an education.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Starting in 1909, Tarbell wrote more about women and traditional roles. Tarbell was alienated by the more militant aspects of the movement and described it as anti-male. She recommended that women embrace home life and the family, saying they had a "true role as wives, mothers, and homemakers". Her biographer Emily Arnold McCully believed that her emotional, rather than reasoned stance, on women's issues may have tarnished her long-term legacy. Tarbell felt that "the drive for suffrage" was "a misguided war on men". Former allies among suffragists were dismayed at her change and her speaking to anti-suffragist organizations. Tarbell published the article "Making a Man of Herself" in "The American Magazine" in 1912, which infuriated her readers and activists. Historian Robert Stinson believed that she was making new public statements about the ambiguity she had lived in her own life, which defined women's roles based upon their nature and saw attempts to push the boundaries into men's realms as unnatural. McCully wrote, "that suffrage was a human's rights issue seemed not to occur to her, perhaps because, as a historian, she was much better looking backward than she was at anticipating the future."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell collected her essays on women and published them in a book called "The Business of Being a Woman". The book, which was poorly received, contained tributes to early supporters of women including Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Tarbell said of the book: "That title was like a red rag to many of my militant friends. The idea that woman had a business assigned by nature and society which was of more importance than public life disturbed them; even if it was so, they did not want it emphasized". Even Tarbell's own mother, Esther, who was a lifelong suffragette, criticized Ida's position.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell switched course and embraced suffrage after American women won the right to vote in 1920. She wrote an article for "Good Housekeeping" in 1924 to dispel the myth that suffrage had failed. She wrote: "twenty million women did vote and should vote." When asked if she believed that a woman would one day be President of the United States, Tarbell pointed out that women had ruled nations in some cases better than kings and pointed to examples of Catherine the Great of Russia, Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz of Prussia, Elizabeth I of England and Catherine de' Medici of France.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell worked to help women who had "no choice but to work, often under horrifying conditions." She wrote about workplace safety and covered the realities of factories where women worked. She became an advocate for Taylorism, a system for scientific management of production, encouraging its use in home economics. She became a member of the Taylor Society. She visited more than fifty-five businesses for the article, "The Golden Rule of Business," to see how "scientific management and Christian values" worked together. She decided it was the best way to protect workers and at the same time maximize profits.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell was a founding member of the Authors' League in 1914: a collective to support working writers which later became the Authors Guild.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's career shifted in 1915 when American Magazine named John Siddall as editor. Tarbell joined the Chautauqua Science and Literary Circuit, a lecture and entertainment tour filled with public speakers, singers and other acts such as trained dogs and yodelers. Before the tour, Tarbell trained for public speaking with Frank Sargent of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. The tour schedule was brutal. Tarbell said, "...I signed up for a seven weeks' circuit, forty-nine days in forty-nine different places". Tarbell was exhausted at the end but went on to sign up for more over the next few years. Tarbell lectured throughout the United States on subjects from the evils of war, peace, politics, trusts, tariffs, labor and labors of women.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: When the United States joined World War I in April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson invited Tarbell to take part in a new committee: the Women's Committee of the Council of National Defense. The Suffragettes on the committee were initially unhappy about Tarbell's appointment, but her "warmth and group spirit" won them over. The goal of the women's committee was to mobilize the war efforts of American women and the first issue addressed was a developing food crisis. The group encouraged women to plant vegetable gardens and promoted both drying and canning of foods. Other efforts included knitting, sewing, bandage making, and the opening of day-care centers to operate while women began working in factories. Tarbell often served as a go-between with the Men's Council and the Woman's Committee.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell had a number of setbacks in 1917. Her mother died in September, and upon Tarbell's return to Washington, D.C. the following year, Tarbell collapsed.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: She was sent to Johns Hopkins where she was diagnosed with tuberculosis, and she spent three months in the hospital recovering. Tarbell also began showing beginning signs of Parkinson's disease. Her doctor did not share his diagnosis with her. It was not until years later, as her tremors worsened and affected her handwriting, that she finally learned of the diagnosis.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: The Women's Committee was disbanded with the end of the war in 1918, and Tarbell traveled once again to Paris, France. Some of her former "McClure's" colleagues were also there for the Paris Peace Conference: John S. Phillips as editor of the Red Cross Magazine and Ray Stannard Baker as an assistant to President Woodrow Wilson. President Wilson had wanted Tarbell in the official U.S. legation, but, unbeknownst to Tarbell, Secretary of State Robert Lansing had refused to have a female on his team.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell wrote for the Red Cross magazine and interviewed Parisians about how the war had affected them. She also traveled to the countryside to interview farmers living in the wreckage of their former homes. Tarbell focused on the experience of the average Frenchwoman with such articles as "The French Woman and Her New World," "The Homing Instinct of Woman," and "That Brave Northwest."


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's later career included writing, lecturing, and social work. Tarbell continued working as a freelancing journalist and traveling the lecture circuit. She served on two Presidential Conferences. Tarbell was a member of President Wilson's Industrial Conference in 1919, representing the Pen and Brush Club of Gramercy Park, New York City, and served on a committee looking into hours of labor along with Robert Brookings. Among recommendations of Tarbell's committee were protections aimed at the health of women workers including an eight-hour day, six-day work week and no work between the hours of 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. John D. Rockefeller was also a representative at the Conference. Tarbell also participated in President Warren G. Harding's 1921 Unemployment Conference, the conference suggested by Herbert Hoover to address a recession. Among the committees Tarbell served on were Organization, Public Works, Civic Emergency Measures, Publications, and Standing Committee of the Conference.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell published her only novel, "The Rising of the Tide," in 1919. She wrote articles about the disarmament conference for McClure's syndicate and published them later in the book, "Peacemakers—Blessed and Otherwise".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell also wrote another biography, this one of Judge Elbert H. Gary, the chairman of U.S. Steel Corporation. She was not initially interested in the biography, but Gary convinced her that if she uncovered any wrongdoings committed by his company, he meant to correct them. She earned $10,000 for the book, and although she thought her work was courageous, critics described her work as cowardly. One review was titled, "The Taming of Ida Tarbell," and accused her of falling in with her sworn enemy, big business.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell completed a series of articles on Benito Mussolini for McCall's magazine in the 1920s. The portrait Tarbell painted of Mussolini, comparing him to Napoleon, was flattering. Her former colleague, Viola Roseboro, remarked after meeting up with Tarbell in Italy, "I heard her let go about that dimple several times. All those things that are at such a variance with the old work horse she calls herself and to the serious worker she is and is known for pleases me a lot". It was speculated that in Tarbell's eyes she may have imagined Mussolini as "finishing the work of the Progressive Era at the small price of a few civil liberties".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's final business biography was a profile of Owen D. Young, the president of General Electric and founder of Radio Corporation of America and then NBC. Amidst speculation that Young was gearing up for a Presidential run, the biography was reviewed as a campaign biography.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell was approached by Arthur Schlesinger Sr. to contribute to his series "A History of American Life" in 1923. She did not complete "The Nationalizing of Business" until 1936.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: In addition to serving as the President of the Pen and Brush Club for 30 years beginning in 1913, Tarbell was also a member of the Colony Club and the Cosmopolitan Club.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell completed her autobiography, "All in a Day's Work", in 1939 when she was 82. Reviews were mixed for the book. She was working on another book, "Life After Eighty", when she died of pneumonia at Bridgeport Hospital in Bridgeport, Connecticut on January 6, 1944. She had been in the hospital since December 1943. She was 86.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: In 1993 the Ida Tarbell House in Easton, Connecticut was declared a National Historic Landmark. In 2000, Tarbell was inducted posthumously into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. On September 14, 2002, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp honoring Tarbell as part of a series of four stamps honoring women journalists.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Long past Tarbell's life, she has received praise and accolades for her contribution to journalism and American history. Everett E. Dennis, Executive Director of the Freedom Forum Media Studies Center at Columbia University stated in 1993 that Tarbell helped invent modern journalism. Historian and Professor of History at the University of New Hampshire, Ellen F. FitzPatrick, called Tarbell one of the great American journalists of the 20th century. "The History of the Standard Oil Company" was listed as No. 5 in a 1999 list by New York University of the top 100 works of 20th-century American journalism. Historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, in her book "The Bully Pulpit", would call Tarbell's series on Standard Oil, "a landmark series that would affirm her reputation as the leading investigative journalist of her day". Economic historian Daniel Yergin, in his Pulitzer-Prize winning book, "", described Tarbell's book on Standard Oil as arguably, "the single most influential book on business ever published in the United States".


title: Ida Tarbell

text: The investigative techniques she developed while researching this volume influenced Steve Weinberg, one-time executive director of the non-profit Investigative Reporters and Editors, Inc., to base training programs for the NGO and classrooms using her methodology. While "yellow journalists" and muckrakers both rejected the notion of neutrality, "yellow journalists" focused on sensationalism and were not overly concerned with verifying the veracity of their stories. Muckrakers like Tarbell and Upton Sinclair, on the other hand, wrote detailed, thoroughly verified, and accurate descriptions of the social issues of their day, laying the groundwork for legal changes, ethical standards in journalism, and what is now known as investigative journalism.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's methodology for writing was to work and work hard. Tarbell's early background in the sciences brought a touch of scientific inquiry to her investigations. Each statement she made was supported by facts so much so that her early works have been described as drowning in facts. Her method was also scholarly and driven by the demands of magazine deadlines. She could dictate as many as twenty letters a day from a "To Be Answered" pile on her desk.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell was extremely thorough when conducting research. At the time she began Lincoln's biography, he had been dead for only 30 years, and Tarbell traveled far and wide interviewing Lincoln's contemporaries. Her research uncovered more than 300 documents including unpublished speeches, letters, pictures and personal anecdotes. It was through the use of well-selected anecdotes in her biographies that Tarbell was able to breathe life into the subject and offer new perspectives. When writing a biography, Tarbell suggested that the writer should "start by wiping out of his mind all that he knows about the man, start as if you had never before heard of him. Everything then is fresh, new. Your mind, feeding on this fresh material, sees things in a new way". Tarbell's inclusion of anecdotes gave new perspectives to her subjects. Tarbell double-checked the Lincoln articles for accuracy by sending them out to those whose information she had included.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell's writing has been described as fair and professional, and her methods have been used widely to train other investigative journalists. When conducting and presenting the details about Standard Oil's business practices she wanted to present her materials as historical documentation and narrative. Tarbell's technique in researching corporations through government documents, lawsuits, and interviews managed to break through a secretive corporation and evasive CEO.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Tarbell liked to work from a desk covered in research materials. While working on "The History of Standard Oil", Tarbell worked from home in her study with a break once a day to go to the "McClure's" office. At home in New York, she sat on a bentwood chair at a partners desk with messy heaps of paper. Tarbell would gather the books, transcripts, and clippings she needed, put them in order and write. When a chapter was finished and handed in, she reviewed the material again and rearranged its order for her next installment. On her Connecticut farm, Tarbell worked from a mahogany desk in a sunny library.


title: Ida Tarbell

text: Charles Klein's political play, "The Lion and the Mouse" (1905), opened soon after Tarbell's series on Standard Oil had been published in "McClure's Magazine," and the plot was thought to be based on her campaign. (Its title is that of an Aesop's fable.) Its 686 continuous performances set a record for any American play in New York, and four road companies took the play on the road.


title: MeWe

text: MeWe is a global social media and social networking service owned by Sgrouples, a company based in Los Angeles, California. The site's interface has been described as similar to that of Facebook, although the service describes itself as the "anti-Facebook" due to its focus on data privacy.


title: MeWe

text: Due to concerns surrounding possible pro-China censorship of Facebook, the site also gained popularity in Hong Kong in November 2020.


title: MeWe

text: In March 2020, MeWe launched dual-camera videos, which allow for both inward ("selfie") and outward-facing camera views. MeWe also touts its "Privacy Bill of Rights" as the primary differentiator between it and Facebook.


title: MeWe

text: By 2015, as MeWe neared the end of its beta testing cycle, the press called MeWe's software "not dissimilar to Facebook". In 2020, "Mashable" described MeWe as replicating Facebook's features.


title: MeWe

text: The MeWe site and application has features common to most social media and social networking sites: users can post text and images to a feed, react to others' posts using emoji, post animated GIFs, create specialized groups, post disappearing content, and chat.


title: MeWe

text: Online chat may occur between two or more people or among members of a group. Person-to-person online chat is similar to that in most other social media and social networking sites, and supports text, video calling, and voice calling. No longer a product offering, "Secret Chat" is limited to the paid subscription tier of MeWe, and uses double ratchet encryption to ensure that chats are private and not visible even to MeWe employees.


title: MeWe

text: MeWe reported in June 2018 that the site had 90,000 active groups, 60,000 of which were "public" and open to all users. Following the influx of Hong Kong users in 2020, MeWe's former CEO, Mark Weinstein, announced that the website would provide a Traditional Chinese language version by the end of the year.


title: MeWe

text: Although MeWe has not intentionally positioned itself as a social network for conservatives, "Mashable" noted in November 2020 that its active userbase trends conservative. The platform's choice not to moderate misinformation on the platform has attracted conservatives who felt mainstream social networks were censoring their posts, and those who have been banned from those platforms. MeWe is considered an alt-tech platform.


title: MeWe

text: MeWe's loose moderation has made it popular among conspiracy theorists, including proponents of the far-right QAnon conspiracy theory, which was banned from Facebook in 2020, and the "Stop the Steal" conspiracy theory relating to the 2020 United States presidential election. According to "Rolling Stone", MeWe has "played host to general interest communities related to music and travel, but it has also come to be a haven for anti-vaxxers, QAnon conspiracy theorists, and, as reported by OneZero, far-right militia groups." "Vice" has described MeWe as a "major anti-vaxx forum". BBC News has described some of the content on MeWe as "extreme" and compared it to that of Gab. "Business Insider" has reported that some of the most popular groups on MeWe focus on "extreme views, like anti-vaccine rhetoric, white supremacy, and conspiracy theories" and that in 2020 the platform was used to organize anti-lockdown protests. According to Megan Squire, groups belonging to the Boogaloo movement began using the platform after their removal from Facebook.


title: MeWe

text: Shortly after the 2020 United States presidential election, MeWe and other alt-tech platforms experienced a wave of signups from Trump supporters, following crackdowns on election-related misinformation and promotion of violence on mainstream social networks. On November 11, MeWe was the second-most downloaded free app on the Apple App Store, behind its fellow alt-tech social network Parler. However, "Mashable" noted MeWe's practice of creating accounts on behalf of users and businesses who were not users of the site may have served to inflate the amount of activity on the platform. MeWe and other alt-tech networks again spiked in popularity shortly after the January 6, 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, though this subsided shortly after, with downloads falling more than 80% from January to February 2021.


title: MeWe

text: On January 22, 2021, MeWe's CEO said in an interview with NPR that "MeWe is serious about putting limits on what people can say" and that he does not like sites where "anything goes", describing such sites as "disgusting". He also said that MeWe would be hiring more moderation staff. In the coverage, NPR noted that MeWe's stated rules are still "more lax than Facebook and Twitter," and that MeWe had not yet banned groups dedicated to QAnon.


title: MeWe

text: MeWe gained popularity in Hong Kong in November 2020, with users migrating from Facebook due to concerns with possible pro-China censorship and moderation. The popularity of MeWe in Hong Kong has been attributed to the city's suspicion of any restraint on free speech, after the Chinese government imposed significant restrictions on the expression of dissent following the 2019–20 protests, including the Hong Kong national security law. MeWe communities in Hong Kong generally reflect everyday-life interests, with social media consultants in Hong Kong reporting that they have not seen extremist content in the communities they manage.


title: MeWe

text: In a 2015 review of the beta MeWe service, British writer John Leonard called MeWe "well-designed and pretty intuitive", but questioned whether the company's business model was a viable one. Andrew Orr, reviewing the site in April 2018, felt that service was a good one but that it did not have any advantages over existing social media sites. That, he felt, would make it difficult for MeWe to attract users. In late 2020, the site also gained popularity in Hong Kong due to concerns surrounding possible pro-China censorship of Facebook. MeWe takes a relatively light approach to content moderation according to some sources.


title: MeWe

text: In 2020, data scientist Wong Ho-wa criticized the site for its lack of multi-factor authentication. MeWe intends to add support for two-factor authentication in the first or second quarter of 2021.


title: MeWe

text: In 1998, entrepreneur Mark Weinstein and Jonathan Wolfe established SuperGroups.com, a social media website. The site was closed by its largest investor in 2001. Gathering largely the same leadership team, Weinstein incorporated Sgrouples Inc. in 2011. MeWe was incorporated as a subsidiary of Sgrouples, and based in Culver City, California. Over the next six years, Sgrouples raised about $10 million from investors including lynda.com founder Lynda Weinman, fashion designer Rachel Roy, and authors Jack Canfield and Marci Shimoff.


title: MeWe

text: MeWe finished its initial financing round in July 2018 by raising $5.2 million in new funds. The company began work on upgrading MeWe and initiating work on an enterprise version called MeWePRO.


title: MeWe

text: MeWe emphasizes its commitment to privacy and remaining ad-free. MeWe has said they will never use cookies or spyware to generate content about users, and that it will not track user activity in any way or sell user data to a third party. MeWe has described itself as the "anti-Facebook" due to its focus on data privacy, lack of moderation, and simple newsfeed algorithm. MeWe had 20 million registered users.


title: MeWe

text: The MeWe business model does not rely on advertising revenue; rather, MeWe generates revenue from MeWe Premium subscriptions and from users purchasing premium enhancements a-la-carte such as a live voice / live video calling, extra storage, custom emojis, and custom themes. In December 2019, MeWe launched "MeWe Premium", an optional $4.99 per month subscription that gives users a bundle of enhancements including: live voice / live video calling; unlimited custom themes; unlimited custom emojis and stickers; video journals for stories; 100GB of MeWe Cloud Storage; and more.


title: MeWe

text: Mark Weinstein is the founder of MeWe and was its CEO until April 2021. Jeffrey Scott Edell became the company's CEO and was named as Chairman in 2022. Advisors to MeWe include computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee and filmmaker Cullen Hoback.


title: Hongxi Emperor

text: The Hongxi Emperor (16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425), personal name Zhu Gaochi (朱高熾), was the fourth Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1424 to 1425. He succeeded his father, the Yongle Emperor, in 1424. His era name "Hongxi" means "vastly bright".


title: Hongxi Emperor

text: Zhu Gaochi was born on 16 August 1378 and was educated by prominent Confucian tutors. He often acted as regent in Nanjing or Beijing during his father's northern military campaigns.


title: Hongxi Emperor

text: Already in May 1421, during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, an order was issued for the suspension of Zheng He's maritime expeditions, apparently on account of their cost (although the order apparently did not affect the 6th voyage of Zheng He, staged around that time). Zhu Gaochi, as soon as he was enthroned as the Hongxi Emperor in September 1424, cancelled Zheng He's maritime expeditions permanently, arguably burned down the fleet or left the ships to decompose, and abolished frontier trade of tea for horses as well as missions for gold and pearls to Yunnan and Vietnam. He restored disgraced Confucian officials, such as the Yongle Emperor's minister of revenue Xia Yuanji (imprisoned since 1421), and reorganized the administration to give high ranks to his close advisors. Hanlin academicians became grand secretaries, and they dismantled his father's unpopular militaristic policies to restore civil government. The Hongxi Emperor improved finances by canceling requisitions for lumber, gold, and silver. Taxes were remitted so that vagrant farmers could return home, especially in the overburdened Yangtze River Delta. The Hongxi Emperor appointed a commission to investigate taxes. He overruled his secretaries by ordering that grain should be sent immediately to relieve disaster areas.


title: Hongxi Emperor

text: The Hongxi Emperor ordered that the capital be moved back to Nanjing from Beijing (which had been made the capital by the Yongle Emperor in 1421). However he died, probably of a heart attack, a month later in May 1425. His son had been declared heir apparent and became the Xuande Emperor at age 26. Although the Hongxi Emperor had a short reign, he is credited with reforms that made lasting improvements, and his liberal policies were continued by his son.


title: Pooja Umashankar

text: Pooja Gauthami Umashankar, mononymously known as Pooja, is an Indian-Sri Lankan actress, who has primarily appeared in Tamil, Sinhala and Malayalam language films.


title: Pooja Umashankar

text: Pooja's mother, Sandhya, is a Sri Lankan Sinhalese and her father, H. R. Umashankar, is an Indian Kannadiga Brahmin from Sringeri, in the Chikmagalur district of Karnataka. Umashankar was at Valparai, working with Hindustan Unilever Limited, as a manager. Pooja can speak Kannada, Sinhala, Tamil, and English. After she did her pre-schooling in Sri Lanka, she came to India and went to Poornapragnya in Aldur, Chikmagalur and then to Nirmala Convent in Mysuru. Later she continued her education at Baldwin's Girls High school in Bengaluru and did graduation (B.Com.) and Post Graduation (MBA) at Mount Carmel College, Bangalore.


title: Pooja Umashankar

text: Pooja was introduced by a friend of her to cinematographer-turned-director Jeeva, who signed her for the role of Anglo-Indian girl in his Tamil venture "Ullam Ketkumae". Pooja said that at that time she planned to finish that film and return to her original job and did not take an acting career into consideration. She stated: "I said to myself I'd act in just this film, see what it's like, make good use of the money and get back to studying". She was soon offered a role opposite R. Madhavan, which she could not decline and made her rethink her decision. "Ullam Ketkumae"'s massive delay meant that her second film, the romantic comedy "Jay Jay" (2004), directed by Saran, became her first official release. Pooja received favorable reviews for her performance in "Jay Jay"; G. Ulaganathan from "Deccan Herald" wrote: "Spirited, lively, Pooja's sparkling eyes and smile do leave an impression". She next played the romantic interest of Ajith Kumar in another Saran film, "Attahasam", which, in spite of mixed critical response, went on to become a financial success. Pooja, too, met with criticism, with critics citing that she had "only limited role" and was "wasted [...] in an insignificant and half-baked role". Pooja's subsequent release happened to be "Ullam Ketkumae" that featured her in one of the five leading roles alongside Shaam, Laila, Arya and Asin. The film fetched positive remarks and emerged as a sleeper hit. She went to appear in commercial Tamil films such as "Thambi" and "Pori". In 2007, Pooja also appeared in a Malayalam film, "Panthaya Kozhi", before landing the lead female role in Bala's "Naan Kadavul". Her portrayal of Hamshavalli, a blind beggar, was critically appreciated and earned her several accolades, including the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil and Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Female Character Artiste. Following "Naan Kadavul", Pooja went on a sabbatical, appeared just in cameo roles in "TN-07 AL 4777", "Drohi" and the Telugu film "Orange".


title: Pooja Umashankar

text: Her big budget film "Kusa Pabha" released in early 2012 and became the highest grosser ever in the history of Sri Lankan film industry. Critics praised Pooja for her role of Pabawathi.


title: Objections to evolution

text: Objections to evolution have been raised since evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species", his theory of evolution (the idea that species arose through descent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven by natural selection) initially met opposition from scientists with different theories, but eventually came to receive overwhelming acceptance in the scientific community. The observation of evolutionary processes occurring (as well as the modern evolutionary synthesis explaining that evidence) has been uncontroversial among mainstream biologists since the 1940s.


title: Objections to evolution

text: Since then, most criticisms and denials of evolution have come from religious groups, rather than from the scientific community. Although many religious groups have found reconciliation of their beliefs with evolution, such as through theistic evolution, other religious groups continue to reject evolutionary explanations in favor of creationism, the belief that the universe and life were created by supernatural forces. The U.S.-centered creation–evolution controversy has become a focal point of perceived conflict between religion and science.


title: Objections to evolution

text: Several branches of creationism, including creation science, neo-creationism, and intelligent design, argue that the idea of life being directly designed by a god or intelligence is at least as scientific as evolutionary theory, and should therefore be taught in public education. Such arguments against evolution have become widespread and include objections to evolution's evidence, methodology, plausibility, morality, and scientific acceptance. The scientific community does not recognize such objections as valid, pointing to detractors' misinterpretations of such things as the scientific method, evidence, and basic physical laws.


title: Objections to evolution

text: Evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the early 19th century with the theory (developed between 1800 and 1822) of the transmutation of species put forward by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829). At first the scientific community - and notably Georges Cuvier (1769 - 1832) - opposed the idea of evolution. The idea that laws control nature and society gained vast popular audiences with George Combe's "The Constitution of Man" of 1828 and with the anonymous "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation" of 1844. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species", he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arise through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from common ancestors, but while most scientists accepted natural selection as a valid and empirically testable hypothesis, Darwin's view of it as the primary mechanism of evolution was rejected by some.


title: Objections to evolution

text: Darwin's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based upon fossil evidence, and the X Club (operative from 1864 to 1893) formed to defend the concept of evolution against opposition from the church and wealthy amateurs. At that time the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided - natural selection - was actively disputed by scientists in favour of alternative theories such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis. Darwin's gradualistic account was also opposed by the ideas of saltationism and catastrophism. Lord Kelvin led scientific opposition to gradualism on the basis of his thermodynamic calculations for the age of the Earth at between 24 and 400 million years, and his views favoured a version of theistic evolution accelerated by divine guidance. Geological estimates disputed Kelvin's age of the earth, and the geological approach gained strength in 1907 when radioactive dating of rocks revealed the Earth as billions of years old. The specific hereditary mechanism which Darwin hypothesized, pangenesis, which supported gradualism, also lacked any supporting evidence and was disputed by the empirical tests (1869 onwards) of Francis Galton. Although evolution itself was scientifically unchallenged, uncertainties about the mechanism in the era of "the eclipse of Darwinism" persisted from the 1880s until the 1930s' inclusion of Mendelian inheritance and the rise of the modern evolutionary synthesis. The modern synthesis rose to universal acceptance among biologists with the help of new evidence, such as that from genetics, which confirmed Darwin's predictions and refuted the competing hypotheses.


title: Objections to evolution

text: Protestantism, especially in America, broke out in "acrid polemics" and argument about evolution from 1860 to the 1870s—with the turning point possibly marked by the death of Louis Agassiz in 1873—and by 1880 a form of "Christian evolution" was becoming the consensus. In Britain, while publication of "The Descent of Man" by Darwin in 1871 reinvigorated debate from the previous decade, Sir Henry Chadwick (1920-2008) notes a steady acceptance of evolution "among more educated Christians" between 1860 and 1885. As a result, evolutionary theory was "both permissible and respectable" by 1876. Frederick Temple's lectures on "The Relations between Religion and Science" (1884) on how evolution was not "antagonistic" to religion highlighted this trend. Temple's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1896 demonstrated the broad acceptance of evolution within the church hierarchy.


title: Objections to evolution

text: For decades the Roman Catholic Church avoided officially rejecting evolution. However, the Church would rein in Catholics who proposed that evolution could be reconciled with the Bible, as this conflicted with the First Vatican Council's (1869–70) finding that everything was created out of nothing by God, and to deny that finding could lead to excommunication. In 1950 the encyclical "Humani generis" of Pope Pius XII first mentioned evolution directly and officially. It allowed one to enquire into the concept of humans coming from pre-existing living matter, but not to question Adam and Eve or the creation of the soul. In 1996 Pope John Paul II labelled evolution "more than a hypothesis" and acknowledged the large body of work accumulated in its support, but reiterated that any attempt to give a material explanation of the human soul is "incompatible with the truth about man". Pope Benedict XVI in 2005 reiterated the conviction that human beings "are not some casual and meaningless product of evolution. Each of us is the result of a thought of God. Each of us is willed, each of us is loved, each of us is necessary." At the same time, Pope Benedict promoted the study of the relationship between the concepts of creation and evolution, based on the conviction that there cannot be a contradiction between faith and reason. Along these lines, the research project "Thomistic Evolution", run by a team of Dominican scholars, endeavours to reconcile the scientific evidence on evolution with the teaching of Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274).


title: Objections to evolution

text: Islamic views on evolution ranged from those believing in literal creation (as implied in the Quran) to many educated Muslims who subscribed to a version of theistic or guided evolution in which the Quran reinforced rather than contradicted mainstream science. This occurred relatively early, as medieval madrasahs taught the ideas of Al-Jahiz, a Muslim scholar from the 9th century, who proposed concepts similar to natural selection. However, acceptance of evolution remains low in the Muslim world, as prominent figures reject evolution's underpinning philosophy of materialism as unsound to human origins and a denial of Allah. Further objections by Muslim authors and writers largely reflect those put forward in the Western world.