title: Drude model

text: The model was extended in 1905 by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (and hence is also known as the Drude–Lorentz model) to give the relation between the thermal conductivity and the electric conductivity of metals (see Lorenz number), and is a classical model. Later it was supplemented with the results of quantum theory in 1933 by Arnold Sommerfeld and Hans Bethe, leading to the Drude–Sommerfeld model.


title: Drude model

text: German physicist Paul Drude proposed his model in 1900 when it was not clear whether atoms existed, and it was not clear what atoms were on a microscopic scale. The first direct proof of atoms through the computation of the Avogadro number from a microscopic model is due to Albert Einstein, the first modern model of atom structure dates to 1904 and the Rutherford model to 1909.


title: Drude model

text: Drude starts from the discovery of electrons in 1897 by J.J. Thomson and assumes as a simplistic model of solids that the bulk of the solid is composed of positively charged scattering centers, and a sea of electrons submerge those scattering centers to make the total solid neutral from a charge perspective.


title: Drude model

text: In modern terms this is reflected in the valence electron model where the sea of electrons is composed of the valence electrons only, and not the full set of electrons available in the solid, and the scattering centers are the inner shells of tightly bound electrons to the nucleus. The scattering centers had a positive charge equivalent to the valence number of the atoms.


title: Drude model

text: This similarity added to some computation errors in the Drude paper, ended up providing a reasonable qualitative theory of solids capable of making good predictions in certain cases and giving completely wrong results in others.


title: Drude model

text: Whenever people tried to give more substance and detail to the nature of the scattering centers, and the mechanics of scattering, and the meaning of the length of scattering, all these attempts ended in failures.


title: Drude model

text: The scattering lengths computed in the Drude model, are of the order of 10 to 100 inter-atomic distances, and also these could not be given proper microscopic explanations.


title: Drude model

text: Drude scattering is not electron-electron scattering which is only a secondary phenomenon in the modern theory, neither nuclear scattering given electrons can be at most be absorbed by nuclei. The model remains a bit mute on the microscopic mechanisms, in modern terms this is what is now called the "primary scattering mechanism" where the underlying phenomenon can be different case per case.


title: Drude model

text: The model gives better predictions for metals, especially in regards to conductivity, and sometimes is called Drude theory of metals. This is because metals have essentially a better approximation to the free electron model, i.e. metals do not have complex band structures, electrons behave essentially as free particles and where, in the case of metals, the effective number of de-localized electrons is essentially the same as the valence number.


title: Drude model

text: The same Drude theory, despite inconsistencies which baffled most physicists of the period, was the major one accepted to explain solids until the introduction in 1927 of the Drude–Sommerfeld model.


title: Drude model

text: Drude used Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics for the gas of electrons and for deriving the model, which was the only one available at that time. By replacing the statistics with the correct Fermi Dirac statistics, Sommerfeld significantly improved the predictions of the model, although still having a semi-classical theory that could not predict all results of the modern quantum theory of solids.


title: Drude model

text: Nowadays Drude and Sommerfeld models are still significant to understanding the qualitative behaviour of solids and to get a first qualitative understanding of a specific experimental setup. This is a generic method in solid state physics, where it is typical to incrementally increase the complexity of the models to give more and more accurate predictions. It is less common to use a full-blown quantum field theory from first principles, given the complexities due to the huge numbers of particles and interactions and the little added value of the extra mathematics involved (considering the incremental gain in numerical precision of the predictions).


title: Drude model

text: Drude used the kinetic theory of gases applied to the gas of electrons moving on a fixed background of "ions"; this is in contrast with the usual way of applying the theory of gases as a neutral diluted gas with no background. The number density of the electron gas was assumed to be


title: Drude model

text: where "Z" is the effective number of de-localized electrons per ion, for which Drude used the valence number, "A" is the atomic mass per mole, formula_4 is the mass density (mass per unit volume) of the "ions", and "N" is the Avogadro constant.


title: Drude model

text: The quantity formula_6 is a parameter that describes the electron density and is often of the order of 2 or 3 times the Bohr radius, for alkali metals it ranges from 3 to 6 and some metal compounds it can go up to 10.


title: Drude model

text: Removing or improving upon each of these assumptions gives more refined models, that can more accurately describe different solids:


title: Drude model

text: The simplest analysis of the Drude model assumes that electric field is both uniform and constant, and that the thermal velocity of electrons is sufficiently high such that they accumulate only an infinitesimal amount of momentum between collisions, which occur on average every seconds.


title: Drude model

text: Then an electron isolated at time will on average have been travelling for time since its last collision, and consequently will have accumulated momentum


title: Drude model

text: During its last collision, this electron will have been just as likely to have bounced forward as backward, so all prior contributions to the electron's momentum may be ignored, resulting in the expression


title: Drude model

text: The dynamics may also be described by introducing an effective drag force. At time the electron's momentum will be:


title: Drude model

text: where formula_13 can be interpreted as generic force (e.g. Lorentz Force) on the carrier or more specifically on the electron. formula_14 is the momentum of the carrier with random direction after the collision (i.e. with a momentum formula_15) and with absolute kinetic energy


title: Drude model

text: On average, a fraction of formula_17 of the electrons will not have experienced another collision, the other fraction that had the collision on average will come out in a random direction and will contribute to the total momentum to only a factor formula_18 which is of second order.


title: Drude model

text: With a bit of algebra and dropping terms of order formula_19, this results in the generic differential equation


title: Drude model

text: where denotes average momentum and the charge of the electrons. This, which is an inhomogeneous differential equation, may be solved to obtain the general solution of


title: Drude model

text: As above, average momentum may be related to average velocity and this in turn may be related to current density,


title: Drude model

text: The Drude model can also predict the current as a response to a time-dependent electric field with an angular frequency . The complex conductivity is


title: Drude model

text: In engineering, is generally replaced by (or ) in all equations, which reflects the phase difference with respect to origin, rather than delay at the observation point traveling in time.


title: Drude model

text: The imaginary part indicates that the current lags behind the electrical field. This happens because the electrons need roughly a time to accelerate in response to a change in the electrical field. Here the Drude model is applied to electrons; it can be applied both to electrons and holes; i.e., positive charge carriers in semiconductors. The curves for are shown in the graph.


title: Drude model

text: If a sinusoidally varying electric field with frequency formula_36 is applied to the solid, the negatively charged electrons behave as a plasma that tends to move a distance "x" apart from the positively charged background. As a result, the sample is polarized and there will be an excess charge at the opposite surfaces of the sample.


title: Drude model

text: After a little algebra the relation between polarization density and electric field can be expressed as


title: Drude model

text: Given the Maxwell equations without sources (which are treated separately in the scope of plasma oscillations)


title: Drude model

text: which is an electromagnetic wave equation for a continuous homogeneous medium with dielectric constant formula_48 in the helmoltz form


title: Drude model

text: At a resonance frequency formula_55, called the plasma frequency, the dielectric function changes sign from negative to positive and real part of the dielectric function drops to zero.


title: Drude model

text: The plasma frequency represents a plasma oscillation resonance or plasmon. The plasma frequency can be employed as a direct measure of the square root of the density of valence electrons in a solid. Observed values are in reasonable agreement with this theoretical prediction for a large number of materials. Below the plasma frequency, the dielectric function is negative and the field cannot penetrate the sample. Light with angular frequency below the plasma frequency will be totally reflected. Above the plasma frequency the light waves can penetrate the sample, a typical example are alkaline metals that becomes transparent in the range of ultraviolet radiation.


title: Drude model

text: One great success of the Drude model is the explanation of the Wiedemann-Franz law. This was due to a fortuitous cancellation of errors in Drude's original calculation. Drude predicted the value of the Lorenz number:


title: Drude model

text: Experimental values are typically in the range of formula_58 for metals at temperatures between 0 and 100 degrees Celsius.


title: Drude model

text: A generic temperature gradient when switched on in a thin bar will trigger a current of electrons towards the lower temperature side, given the experiments are done in an open circuit manner this current will accumulate on that side generating an electric field countering the electric current. This field is called thermoelectric field:


title: Drude model

text: and Q is called thermopower. The estimates by Drude are a factor of 100 low given the direct dependency with the specific heat.


title: Drude model

text: where the typical thermopowers at room temperature are 100 times smaller of the order of micro-volts.


title: Drude model

text: where the typical thermopowers at room temperature are 100 times smaller of the order of micro-Volts.


title: Drude model

text: The characteristic behavior of a Drude metal in the time or frequency domain, i.e. exponential relaxation with time constant or the frequency dependence for stated above, is called Drude response. In a conventional, simple, real metal (e.g. sodium, silver, or gold at room temperature) such behavior is not found experimentally, because the characteristic frequency is in the infrared frequency range, where other features that are not considered in the Drude model (such as band structure) play an important role. But for certain other materials with metallic properties, frequency-dependent conductivity was found that closely follows the simple Drude prediction for . These are materials where the relaxation rate is at much lower frequencies. This is the case for certain doped semiconductor single crystals, high-mobility two-dimensional electron gases, and heavy-fermion metals.


title: Drude model

text: Historically, the Drude formula was first derived in a limited way, namely by assuming that the charge carriers form a classical ideal gas. Arnold Sommerfeld considered quantum theory and extended the theory to the free electron model, where the carriers follow Fermi–Dirac distribution. The conductivity predicted is the same as in the Drude model because it does not depend on the form of the electronic speed distribution.


title: Drude model

text: The Drude model provides a very good explanation of DC and AC conductivity in metals, the Hall effect, and the magnetoresistance in metals near room temperature. The model also explains partly the Wiedemann–Franz law of 1853. However, it greatly overestimates the electronic heat capacities of metals.


title: Drude model

text: In his original paper, Drude made an error, estimating the Lorenz number of Wiedemann–Franz law to be twice what it classically should have been, thus making it seem in agreement with the experimental value of the specific heat. This number is about 100 times smaller than the classical prediction but this factor cancels out with the mean electronic speed that is about 100 times bigger than Drude's calculation.


title: Iron overload

text: Iron overload or hemochromatosis (also spelled "haemochromatosis" in British English) indicates increased total accumulation of iron in the body from any cause and resulting organ damage. The most important causes are hereditary haemochromatosis (HH or HHC), a genetic disorder, and transfusional iron overload, which can result from repeated blood transfusions.


title: Iron overload

text: The skin's deep tan color, in concert with insulin insufficiency due to pancreatic damage, is the source of a nickname for this condition: "bronze diabetes" (for more information, see the history of hemochromatosis).


title: Iron overload

text: The term "hemochromatosis" was initially used to refer to what is now more specifically called hemochromatosis type 1 (or HFE-related hereditary hemochromatosis). Currently, hemochromatosis (without further specification) is mostly defined as iron overload with a hereditary or primary cause, or originating from a metabolic disorder. However, the term is currently also used more broadly to refer to any form of iron overload, thus requiring specification of the cause, for example, "hereditary hemochromatosis". Hereditary hemochromatosis is an autosomal recessive disorder with estimated prevalence in the population of 1 in 200 among patients with European ancestry, with lower incidence in other ethnic groups. The gene responsible for hereditary hemochromatosis (known as HFE gene) is located on chromosome 6; the majority of hereditary hemochromatosis patients have mutations in this HFE gene.


title: Iron overload

text: Hereditary hemochromatosis is characterized by an accelerated rate of intestinal iron absorption and progressive iron deposition in various tissues. This typically begins to be expressed in the third to fifth decades of life, but may occur in children. The most common presentation is hepatic cirrhosis in combination with hypopituitarism, cardiomyopathy, diabetes, arthritis, or hyperpigmentation. Because of the severe sequelae of this disorder if left untreated, and recognizing that treatment is relatively simple, early diagnosis before symptoms or signs appear is important.


title: Iron overload

text: In general, the term "hemosiderosis" is used to indicate the pathological effect of iron accumulation in any given organ, which mainly occurs in the form of the iron-storage complex hemosiderin. Sometimes, the simpler term siderosis is used instead.


title: Iron overload

text: Other definitions distinguishing hemochromatosis or hemosiderosis that are occasionally used include:


title: Iron overload

text: The causes of hemochromatosis broken down into two subcategories: "primary cases" (hereditary or genetically determined) and less frequent "secondary cases" (acquired during life). People of Celtic (Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Cornish, Breton etc.), English, and Scandinavian origin have a particularly high incidence, with about 10% being carriers of the principal genetic variant, the C282Y mutation on the HFE gene, and 1% having the condition. This has been recognized in several layman's alternative names such as "Celtic curse", "Irish illness", "British gene", and "Scottish sickness".


title: Iron overload

text: The overwhelming majority depend on mutations of the HFE gene discovered in 1996, but since then others have been discovered and sometimes are grouped together as "non-classical hereditary hemochromatosis", "non-HFE related hereditary hemochromatosis", or "non-HFE hemochromatosis".


title: Iron overload

text: Most types of hereditary hemochromatosis have autosomal recessive inheritance, while type 4 has autosomal dominant inheritance.


title: Iron overload

text: Blood tests are usually the first test if there is a clinical suspicion of iron overload. Serum ferritin testing is a low-cost, readily available, and minimally invasive method for assessing body iron stores. However, the major problem with using it as an indicator of iron overload is that it can be elevated in a variety of other medical conditions including infection, inflammation, fever, liver disease, kidney disease, and cancer. Also, total iron binding capacity may be low, but can also be normal. In males and postmenopausal females, normal range of serum ferritin is between 12 and 300 ng/mL (670 pmol/L) . In premenopausal females, normal range of serum ferritin is between 12 and 150 or 200 ng/mL (330 or 440 pmol/L). If the person is showing the symptoms, they may need to be tested more than once throughout their lives as a precaution, most commonly in women after menopause. Transferrin saturation is a more specific test.


title: Iron overload

text: DNA/screening: the current standard of practice in diagnosis of hemochromatosis, places emphasis on genetic testing. Positive HFE analysis confirms the clinical diagnosis of hemochromatosis in asymptomatic individuals with blood tests showing increased iron stores, or for predictive testing of individuals with a family history of hemochromatosis. The alleles evaluated by HFE gene analysis are evident in ~80% of patients with hemochromatosis; a negative report for HFE gene does not rule out hemochromatosis. First degree relatives of those with primary hemochromatosis should be screened to determine if they are a carrier or if they could develop the disease. This can allow preventive measures to be taken. Screening the general population is not recommended.


title: Iron overload

text: Liver biopsy is the removal of small sample in order to be studied and can determine the cause of inflammation or cirrhosis. In someone with negative HFE gene testing, elevated iron status for no other obvious reason, and family history of liver disease, additional evaluation of liver iron concentration is indicated. In this case, diagnosis of hemochromatosis is based on biochemical analysis and histologic examination of a liver biopsy. Assessment of the hepatic iron index (HII) is considered the "gold standard" for diagnosis of hemochromatosis.


title: Iron overload

text: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used as a noninvasive way to accurately estimate iron deposition levels in the liver as well as heart, joints, and pituitary gland.


title: Iron overload

text: Phlebotomy/venesection: routine treatment consists of regularly scheduled phlebotomies (bloodletting or erythrocytapheresis). When first diagnosed, the phlebotomies may be performed every week or fortnight, until iron levels can be brought to within normal range. Once the serum ferritin and transferrin saturation are within the normal range, treatments may be scheduled every two to three months depending upon the rate of reabsorption of iron. A phlebotomy session typically draws between 450 and 500 mL of blood. The blood drawn is sometimes donated.


title: Iron overload

text: A diet low in iron is generally recommended, but has little effect compared to venesection. The human diet contains iron in two forms: heme iron and non-heme iron. Heme iron is the most easily absorbed form of iron. People with iron overload may be advised to avoid food that are high in heme iron. Highest in heme iron is red meat such as beef, venison, lamb, buffalo, and fish such as bluefin tuna. A strict low-iron diet is usually not necessary. Non-heme iron is not as easily absorbed in the human system and is found in plant-based foods such as grains, beans, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds.


title: Iron overload

text: Medication: For those unable to tolerate routine blood draws, there are chelating agents available for use. The drug deferoxamine binds with iron in the bloodstream and enhances its elimination in urine and faeces. Typical treatment for chronic iron overload requires subcutaneous injection over a period of 8–12 hours daily. Two newer iron-chelating drugs that are licensed for use in patients receiving regular blood transfusions to treat thalassaemia (and, thus, who develop iron overload as a result) are deferasirox and deferiprone.


title: Iron overload

text: A minimally invasive approach to hereditary hemochromatosis treatment is the maintenance therapy with polymeric chelators. These polymers or particles have a negligible or null systemic biological availability and they are designed to form stable complexes with Fe and Fe in the GIT and thus limiting their uptake and long-term accumulation. Although this method has only a limited efficacy, unlike small-molecular chelators, the approach has virtually no side effects in sub-chronic studies. Interestingly, the simultaneous chelation of Fe and Fe increases the treatment efficacy.


title: Iron overload

text: In general, provided there has been no liver damage, patients should expect a normal life expectancy if adequately treated by venesection. If the serum ferritin is greater than 1000 ug/L at diagnosis there is a risk of liver damage and cirrhosis which may eventually shorten their life. The presence of cirrhosis increases the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma.


title: Iron overload

text: HHC is most common in certain European populations (such as those of Irish or Scandinavian descent) and occurs in 0.6% of some unspecified population. Men have a 24-fold increased rate of iron-overload disease compared with women.


title: Iron overload

text: Diet and the environment are thought to have had large influence on the mutation of genes related to iron overload. Starting during the Mesolithic era, communities of people lived in an environment that was fairly sunny, warm and had the dry climates of the Middle East. Most humans who lived at that time were foragers and their diets consisted largely of game, fish and wild plants. Archaeologists studying dental plaque have found evidence of tubers, nuts, plantains, grasses and other foods rich in iron. Over many generations, the human body became well-adapted to a high level of iron content in the diet.


title: Iron overload

text: In the Neolithic era, significant changes are thought to have occurred in both the environment and diet. Some communities of foragers migrated north, leading to changes in lifestyle and environment, with a decrease in temperatures and a change in the landscape which the foragers then needed to adapt to. As people began to develop and advance their tools, they learned new ways of producing food, and farming also slowly developed. These changes would have led to serious stress on the body and a decrease in the consumption of iron-rich foods. This transition is a key factor in the mutation of genes, especially those that regulated dietary iron absorption. Iron, which makes up 70% of red blood cell composition, is a critical micronutrient for effective thermoregulation in the body. Iron deficiency will lead to a drop in the core temperature. In the chilly and damp environments of Northern Europe, supplementary iron from food was necessary to keep temperatures regulated, however, without sufficient iron intake the human body would have started to store iron at higher rates than normal. In theory, the pressures caused by migrating north would have selected for a gene mutation that promoted greater absorption and storage of iron.


title: Iron overload

text: Studies and surveys conducted to determine the frequencies of hemochromatosis help explain how the mutation migrated around the globe. In theory, the disease initially evolved from travelers migrating from the north. Surveys show a particular distribution pattern with large clusters and frequencies of gene mutations along the western European coastline. This led the development of the "Viking Hypothesis". Cluster locations and mapped patterns of this mutation correlate closely to the locations of Viking settlements in Europe established c.700 AD to c.1100 AD. The Vikings originally came from Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Viking ships made their way along the coastline of Europe in search of trade, riches, and land. Genetic studies suggest that the extremely high frequency patterns in some European countries are the result of migrations of Vikings and later Normans, indicating a genetic link between hereditary hemochromatosis and Viking ancestry.


title: Iron overload

text: In 1865, Armand Trousseau (a French internist) was one of the first to describe many of the symptoms of a diabetic patient with cirrhosis of the liver and bronzed skin color. The term hemochromatosis was first used by German pathologist Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen in 1889 when he described an accumulation of iron in body tissues.


title: Iron overload

text: Although it was known most of the 20th century that most cases of hemochromatosis were inherited, they were incorrectly assumed to depend on a single gene.


title: Iron overload

text: In 1935 J.H. Sheldon, a British physician, described the link to iron metabolism for the first time as well as demonstrating its hereditary nature.


title: Iron overload

text: In 1996 Felder and colleagues identified the hemochromatosis gene, HFE gene. Felder found that the HFE gene has two main mutations, C282Y and H63D, which were the main cause of hereditary hemochromatosis. The next year the CDC and the National Human Genome Research Institute sponsored an examination of hemochromatosis following the discovery of the HFE gene, which helped lead to the population screenings and estimates that are still being used today.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: Pismo Beach (Chumash: "Pismuʔ") is a city in the southern portion of San Luis Obispo County, in the Central Coast area of California, United States. The estimated population was 8,072 at the 2020 census, up from 7,655 in the 2010 census. It is part of the Five Cities Area, a cluster of cities in that area of San Luis Obispo County. The "Five Cities" area historically is made up of Arroyo Grande, Grover City (now Grover Beach), Halcyon, Fair Oaks and Nipomo. Now most people refer to the Five Cities as Grover Beach, Pismo Beach, Shell Beach (which is actually a part of Pismo Beach), Arroyo Grande and Oceano (which is unincorporated county land serviced by the Oceano Community Services District).


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The Chumash people are the historic inhabitants of the region, with Indigenous peoples having lived along the California coast for at least 11,000 years. The first European land exploration of Alta California, the Spanish Portolá expedition, passed through the area, traveling up today's Price Canyon from Pismo Beach, where they camped on September 4, 1769. Franciscan missionary and expedition member Juan Crespí noted in his diary that they found a Chumash village near the creek.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: Pismo Beach is located on the Rancho Pismo Mexican land grant made to José Ortega, grandson of José Francisco Ortega, in 1840. In 1846 José Ortega sold Rancho Pismo to Isaac Sparks. John Michael Price bought most of the rancho from Sparks. Price established the town of Pismo Beach in 1891. His homestead is now Price Historical Park. His home is a registered historical landmark. Pismo is known as the clam capital of the world. Nearly over 2.5 million people visit Pismo Beach.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The name Pismo comes from the Chumash language word for tar, "pismuʔ", which was gathered from tar springs in Price Canyon near Pismo Beach. The tar was a valuable product which the Chumash used to caulk their seagoing canoes, called tomol, which traveled along the coast and out to the Channel Islands.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The first wharf at Pismo was built in 1882, followed by a full-length pier built in 1924 that was financed and constructed by William Woodrow Ward, who allowed full use of it by the public. After it suffered considerable storm damage, the pier was renovated again in 1985. Pismo State Beach is named for the city of Pismo Beach.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The neighborhoods of Shell Beach and Sunset Palisades were originally the site of a Chumash village, and significant archeological sites are located in both areas. Shell Beach became agricultural land, mostly pea fields. Developer Floyd Calvert bought and developed the area in 1926. At first it was a local resort area; after World War II it became primarily residential. Sunset Palisades, originally called Oilport, was the site of an oil refinery from 1907 until after World War II. It is now residential.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The Pismo clam was named for the long, wide beach where so many were once found, once in such abundance that they were harvested with plows. Clamming once drew thousands of clammers to Pismo during low tides, and is still legal; however, due to over-harvesting by humans and the protected sea otter (which feasts on clams), few clams are to be found.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: Pismo Beach adopted the name "Clam Capital of the World" in the 1950s, though this motto is no longer used. The city still holds the Clam Festival every October, complete with clam chowder competitions and a clam-themed parade.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: At the southern end of Price Street upon first entering Pismo Beach, a gigantic concrete clam statue greets visitors. The oldest surf shop on the Central Coast (Pismo Beach Surf Shop) can be seen from the Pismo clam statue. The shell of a Pismo clam ("Tivela stultorum") is on display at the Pismo Beach Chamber of Commerce.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and of it (comprising 73.29%) is water.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: Pismo Creek enters the Pacific Ocean at Pismo Beach. The southern end of Pismo Beach runs alongside sand dunes, which are followed by eucalyptus trees that attract thousands of migrating monarch butterflies every November through February.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: Meadow Creek is a short creek that runs through the Pismo Lake Ecological Reserve and hosts a variety of wildlife despite its urban surroundings, including beaver ("Castor canadensis").


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: Pismo Beach has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csb".) Despite the subtropical latitude (the same as Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,) summers are quite cool and the change in seasonal temperatures is quite small. The hardiness zone is 9b/10a, which is a full zone higher than Cape Hatteras.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Pismo Beach had a population of 7,655. The population density was . The racial makeup of Pismo Beach was 6,976 (91.1%) White, 50 (0.7%) African American, 41 (0.5%) Native American, 203 (2.7%) Asian, 11 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 170 (2.2%) from other races, and 204 (2.7%) from two or more races. There were 715 people (9.3%) of Hispanic or Latino origin of any race.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The Census reported that 7,642 people (99.8% of the population) lived in households, 13 (0.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: There were 3,834 households, out of which 619 (16.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,710 (44.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 267 (7.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 102 (2.7%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 235 (6.1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 39 (1.0%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 1,372 households (35.8%) were made up of individuals, and 578 (15.1%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.99. There were 2,079 families (54.2% of all households); the average family size was 2.55.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The population was spread out, with 1,020 people (13.3%) under the age of 18, 450 people (5.9%) aged 18 to 24, 1,555 people (20.3%) aged 25 to 44, 2,642 people (34.5%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,988 people (26.0%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 51.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.4 males.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: There were 5,585 housing units at an average density of , of which 2,336 (60.9%) were owner-occupied, and 1,498 (39.1%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.5%; the rental vacancy rate was 9.6%. 4,658 people (60.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 2,984 people (39.0%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 8,551 people, 4,230 households, and 2,322 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 5,496 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 91.35% White, 0.60% African American, 0.71% Native American, 2.92% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 1.65% from other races, and 2.71% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 6.89% of the population.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: There were 4,230 households, out of which 17.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.1% were married couples living together, 6.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.1% were non-families; 35.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.02 and the average family size was 2.58.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 15.3% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 25.2% from 25 to 44, 28.4% from 45 to 64, and 24.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.3 males.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $46,396, and the median income for a family was $61,036. Males had a median income of $48,606 versus $30,189 for females. The per capita income made for the city was $30,835. About 6.3% of families and 9.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.5% of those under age 18 and 4.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The population had a wave of expansion starting in the 1980s, after completion of waste water treatment facilities expansion designed by Kennedy Jenks Engineers; this lack of infrastructure had previously limited population growth.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: Incorporated on April 25, 1946, Pismo Beach is a general-law city governed by a five-member council. The city council consists of a mayor (who serves a two-year term) and four councilmembers (who serve four-year terms). All five are elected at-large.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The city has received a substantial number of mentions in popular culture, including the films "Clueless" and "A Night at the Roxbury"; the TV show "United States of Tara"; and the animated series "Futurama" (episode "Raging Bender"), "Robot Chicken" (episode "Rodiggity"), and "The Critic" (episode "Lady Hawke").


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: The W. C. Fields comedy "The Bank Dick" (1940), set in Lompoc, includes a character listed in the film's credits as "A. Pismo Clam".


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: In the 1957 Merrie Melodies short "Ali Baba Bunny", Bugs Bunny and his traveling companion Daffy Duck emerge from a tunnel, with Bugs believing they have arrived at Pismo Beach "and all the clams we can eat".


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: In the TV movie "Dragnet 1966" (1969), Bill Gannon (Harry Morgan) takes disability retirement and moves to Pismo Beach. After eight months and three weeks of eating Pismo Beach clam chowder, Bill's health returns, his teeth stop falling out, and he is able to be reinstated with the L.A.P.D. Explaining to Joe Friday (Jack Webb) the reason for his restored health, he states, "The clams, Joe. The clams."


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: In "The Monkees" TV series episode "The Wild Monkees" (aired November 13, 1967), Pismo Beach is mentioned a few times. Mike Nesmith states, "You remember the Massacre at Pismo Beach?" when told that the Black Angels motorcycle gang will be staying at the hotel where they are working. The rest of the group replies "Pismo Beach?"


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: In the "I Love Lucy" TV series episode "Lucy Gets In Pictures" (aired February 21, 1955), Lucy (Lucille Ball) mentions Pismo Beach as one of the locations that she and her best friend, Ethel Mertz (Vivian Vance), want to visit.


title: Pismo Beach, California

text: Pismo Beach is memorably mentioned in the Coen Brothers' film "The Big Lebowski" (1998). This shout-out inspired the title of the Labradford song "Up to Pizmo", from the band's 2001 album "".


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: 13 is the sixth studio album by English alternative rock band Blur, released on 15 March 1999. Continuing the stylistic shift away from the Britpop sound of the band's early career, "13" explores experimental, psychedelic and electronic music.


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: Recording took place from June to October 1998 in London and Reykjavík. The album marks a departure of the band's longtime producer, Stephen Street, with his role being filled by William Orbit, who they had chosen after the release of the remix album, "Bustin' + Dronin'" (1998). Relationships between the band members were reported to be strained, with members frequently missing from the sessions. Lyrically, the album is significantly darker and more innovative than Blur's previous efforts, being heavily inspired by Damon Albarn's breakup with long-term girlfriend, Justine Frischmann, which followed an increasingly strained relationship. This album was the last in over a decade to feature the original line-up as Coxon left the band during the sessions of their next album "Think Tank" (2003), before returning for "The Magic Whip" (2015).


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: "13" was released on 15 March 1999 and entered the UK Albums Chart at number one, making it Blur's fourth consecutive studio album to reach the top spot. The album was later certified Platinum. "13" also reached number one in Norway and charted within the top 20 in many other countries. The album produced three singles – "Tender", "Coffee & TV" and "No Distance Left to Run" – which charted at number 2, number 11 and number 14 respectively on the UK Singles Chart. "13" met with favourable reviews and received a nomination for the Mercury Prize, as well as for Best Album at the 2000 NME Awards.


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: Blur's previous studio album, "Blur" (1997), had seen the band move away from the Britpop movement and take on a more alternative rock-influenced direction, primarily under the suggestion of guitarist Graham Coxon. The press and the industry had feared that the change in style would not be taken well with the public, and therefore the album would be commercially unsuccessful as a result. Despite these concerns, "Blur" was an unexpected success, particularly in America, where the album was certified gold. However, the band still wanted to innovate, so they decided to embrace a different sound. Bassist Alex James stated, "I think you just have to keep changing. That sort of thinking was, sort of, key."


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: The band's leader Damon Albarn had been in a long-term relationship with Justine Frischmann, of the Britpop band Elastica. Their relationship was highly publicised, the couple being described by John Harris as "proto-Posh and Becks for the indie-rock constituency." However, their relationship became strained over time, stated reasons including Albarn's desire to have children as well as Frischmann's continued friendship with ex-boyfriend Brett Anderson of Suede, who had shared a musical rivalry with Albarn. Albarn's lyrics and attitude had reflected this in the eyes of the other band members, with Coxon pointing out, "I didn't have much of a clue that things were going wrong between Damon and Justine but it was probably easy to guess." After one last holiday together in Bali in late 1997 in an attempt to rekindle their relationship, the couple finally split. Albarn later commented, "That relationship just absolutely crashed. I mean, it really was a spectacularly sad end."


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: After his breakup, Albarn started sharing a flat with artist Jamie Hewlett whom he had met through Coxon. Around this time, Albarn had started to broaden his musical output. Whilst he was working on "13", there were various reports that he and Hewlett were working on a secret project, which turned out to be Gorillaz, a virtual band. Albarn also started working on film soundtracks, including "Ravenous", "Ordinary Decent Criminal" and "101 Reykjavík".


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: "13" is Blur's first album without longtime producer Stephen Street. Instead the band "unanimously" decided that they wanted electronic music artist William Orbit to produce the album after being impressed by his remix of their track, "Movin' On", included on the remix compilation, "Bustin' + Dronin'" (1998). Albarn commented that "it was such a personal thing going on, we needed to have someone who didn't really know us". He also described Orbit as being "like a psychiatrist". When asked if his replacement had come as a shock, Street stated, "I just think they wanted to stretch out a bit more and, having made five albums with me, the best way to do that was to work with someone different who would approach the project in a different way. I understand that perfectly and certainly wasn't offended. I did five albums with the band and I must admit I thought each one would be the last because they were bound to want to try something new." Albarn described the decision to not work with Street as "difficult", going on to say "he'll be forever part of what we are, and ironically, he gave us the tools we needed to go it alone."


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: Tension in the studio ran high during the recording sessions. In Orbit's words, "There was a battle between Damon's more experimental direction, and Graham's punk one, and Graham prevailed. If that tension had been growing on previous LPs, it came to a head here." "Things were starting to fall apart between the four of us," drummer Dave Rowntree later revealed. "It was quite a sad process making it. People were not turning up to the sessions, or turning up drunk, being abusive and storming off." "I had songs," Alex James remarked. "I played them to William. He liked them. But I was sulking. I didn't play them to the others... Now I know how George Harrison felt." Coxon admitted, "I was really out there around "13", which made for some pretty great noise but I was probably a bit of a crap to be around."


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: "1992" had originally been recorded as a demo in 1992 and was lost until Albarn found it again on a tape six years later. "Mellow Song" was demoed as a jam session known as "Mellow Jam" that was later included as the B-side of "Tender".


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: "13" sees the band moving further away from their Britpop past into more cerebral and denser musical territory. Some of the songs, however, are evocative of songs from their previous efforts, such as "Bugman", "Coffee & TV" and "1992". "Bugman" has an industrial rock sound. The instrumental closer "Optigan 1" was created using an Optigan optical organ. The album is in the style of a loose concept album, much like other Blur albums, in this case about life and relationships. Much of the album was inspired by Albarn's breakup with Elastica singer Justine Frischmann. Two of the singles, "Tender" and "No Distance Left to Run", describe Albarn's love for Frischmann and his struggle to move on. The album features several short hidden tracks at the end of songs, stretching the playing time out; examples of this are "Coffee & TV", "B.L.U.R.E.M.I.", "Battle" and "Caramel", the latter of which features two hidden tracks. The album is named after the band's recording studio as well as the number of tracks on the album (bar the hidden tracks).


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: The cover is a portion of an oil painting by Graham Coxon called "Apprentice". The album's singles also have cover art by Coxon. The numbers 1 and 3 have been painted so they also form the letter "B" – revealed on the back cover to be for "Blur". This was not present on the original "Apprentice", nor was the "shine" on the figure's head, which appears on "13". These additions were made long after the original "Apprentice", which was painted in 1996. The band's logo does not appear on the album in any form, aside from a sticker on the CD packaging. The logo is also absent from the single covers.


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: "13" holds an overall approval rating of 79 out of 100 on online review aggregator Metacritic based on 17 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Tom Doyle of "Q" called "13" "a dense, fascinating, idiosyncratic and accomplished art rock album", while an enthusiastic Brent DiCrescenzo of "Pitchfork" stated that "Blur have finally found a sound to match their name." "PopMatters" Sarah Zupko praised Blur's new musical approach and wrote that "proving they have the goods of a truly exceptional band, Blur has done what the greats have done before them—evolved." Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" called the album "their sloppiest, most playful set, spiking the mix with church organ, electric piano and shambling drum loops." "Record Collector"s Jason Draper described "13" as a "masterpiece" that stands as arguably the band's "greatest work".


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: In a more mixed assessment, Heather Phares of AllMusic felt that "the group's ambitions to expand their musical and emotional horizons result in a half-baked baker's dozen of songs, featuring some of their most creative peaks and self-indulgent valleys." Keith Cameron of "NME" concluded that "13" was "Blur's most inconsistent and infuriating statement thus far. Infuriating, because divested of four solid-gone clunkers "13" could pass muster as the best of Blur." Robert Christgau gave the album a three-star honourable mention rating, indicating "an enjoyable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well treasure", and remarked that "halfway there, it sits down in the middle of the road and won't budge."


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: The music video for the hit single "Coffee & TV" cemented Blur's reputation as a cult band in the US with its protagonist Milky. The video gained heavy airplay on many modern rock channels in America.


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: "13" was nominated in the Album of the Year category at the 2000 NME Awards, losing to "The Soft Bulletin" by The Flaming Lips. "13" was also nominated for the 1999 Mercury Prize, being Blur's second album to receive a nomination. The award was eventually given to Talvin Singh for "OK".


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: "13" has received accolades from music critics, which ranks it among the greatest albums of the 1990s, according to Acclaimed Music. Some of these can be found below.


title: 13 (Blur album)

text: All tracks produced by William Orbit, except "Trailerpark" produced by Blur and "I Got Law" (demo version) produced by Damon Albarn.


title: Timbaland production discography

text: Timothy Mosley is a producer better known as Timbaland. This discography lists the recorded performances, writing and production credits as Timothy Mosley, as Timothy Zachery Mosley, as Timbaland or DJ Timmy Tim. Song names that are bold are singles, album names/releases are in italics.


title: Timbaland production discography

text: (With Larry Live, DJ Timmy Tim aka Timbaland, Mr. Magoo & Magnum The Verb Lord aka Pharrell Williams, All Tracks Produced By DJ Timmy Tim aka Timbaland)


title: Timbaland production discography

text: Shaylin Becton & Tha Vil - "Chasing Legacy (Promo) (December 13)" (the theme song of "Fast & Furious Spy Racers")


title: Timbaland production discography

text: (Produced With Teyana Taylor, DJ Camper, Angel Lopez, Federico Vindver Jordan Mosley & Justin Mosley)


title: Timbaland production discography

text: These are all releases by Timothy Mosley released as a single with or without an official music video with credits by Timbaland.


title: Vestas

text: Vestas Wind Systems A/S is a Danish manufacturer, seller, installer, and servicer of wind turbines that was founded in 1945. The company operates manufacturing plants in Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Taiwan, India, Italy, Romania, the United Kingdom, Spain, Sweden, Norway, Australia, China, Brazil, Poland and the United States, and employs more than 25,000 people globally.


title: Vestas

text: Vestas has installed over 66,000 wind turbines for a capacity of 100 GW in over 80 countries on five continents. the company has built production facilities in more than 12 countries, among them China, Spain and the United States. Vestas employs 29,000 people.


title: Vestas

text: Vestas traces its roots to 1898 when Hans Smith Hansen bought a blacksmith shop in , West Jutland, that operated as a family business. After the second world war Vestas was founded in 1945 by his son Peder Hansen as "Vestjysk Stålteknik A/S" (West-Jutlandish steel technology). The company initially manufactured household appliances, moving its focus to agricultural equipment in 1950, intercoolers in 1956, and hydraulic cranes in 1968. It entered the wind turbine industry in 1979 and produced wind turbines exclusively from 1989. In 1997, the company placed in production the NTK 1500/60. The product was designed by Timothy Jacob Jensen and received the German IF Award and the Red Dot Award.


title: Vestas

text: The company's North American headquarters was relocated in 2002 from Palm Springs, California to Portland, Oregon.


title: Vestas

text: In 2003, the company merged with the Danish wind turbine manufacturer NEG Micon to create the largest wind turbine manufacturer in the world, under the banner of Vestas Wind Systems. After a sales slump and an operational loss in 2005, Vestas recovered in 2006 with a 28% market share and increased production although market share slid to between 12.5% and 14%.


title: Vestas

text: On 1 December 2008 Vestas announced plans to expand its North American headquarters in Portland through construction of a new building, but this plan was mothballed in 2009 due to the economic recession, and in August 2010 the company announced a revised plan, scaled back in size, to expand its Portland headquarters by renovating an existing-but-vacant building. At that time, Vestas employed about 400 in Portland and committed to add at least 100 more employees there within five years; the new building will have space for up to 600 workers. The company moved its Portland offices to the new headquarters building, a renovated historic building, in May 2012.


title: Vestas

text: In February 2009, the company announced the production of two new turbine types, the 3-megawatt V112 and 1.8-megawatt V100. The new models were to be available in 2010.


title: Vestas

text: In July 2009, Vestas announced its manufacturing operations on the Isle of Wight in England would close due to a lack of UK demand, affecting 525 jobs there and 100 in Southampton. Approximately 25 workers at the wind turbine factory on the island occupied the administration offices in protest on 20 July 2009, demanding nationalisation to save their jobs.


title: Vestas

text: In August 2009 Vestas hired more than 5,000 extra workers for its new factories in China, the United States, and Spain. The company said it was "expanding heavily in China and the US because these markets were growing the fastest, in contrast to the sluggish pace of wind farm development in the UK". As part of this gradual shift in production away from Europe and towards China and the US, in October 2010, the company announced it was closing five factories in Denmark and Sweden, with the loss of 3,000 jobs.


title: Vestas

text: In November 2010, Vestas shut down the 70-person staff advisory department 'Vestas Excellence', responsible for securing competitiveness, handling suppliers, quality assurance and globalization.


title: Vestas

text: In January 2012, the company suggested firing 1,600 out of its 3,000 U.S. workers if the U.S. did not renew the 2.2 cents-per-kilowatt-hour Production Tax Credit, which was extended in 2013.


title: Vestas

text: On 13 August 2012, an estimated 90 workers were laid off from the Pueblo facility. Six long colored lines, leading to an exit, had been placed on the floor. Those laid off were given one of six different colored papers, and then instructed to follow the colored line that matched the colored paper they had been given. In 2013, the tower factory in Pueblo began ramping up to full utilization as orders rebounded from the 2012 slump. Other facilities in Colorado include a further 750 persons employed at a blade manufacturing facility in Windsor, Colorado. Vestas has a nacelle manufacturing facility in Brighton, Colorado and also operates a tower facility in Pueblo, Colorado. Vestas said it decided to build its North American production facilities in Colorado because of the state’s central location, extensive transportation infrastructure and rail system, existing manufacturing base, and skilled workforce. In May 2013, Marika Fredriksson became the company's new Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer after her predecessor Dag Andresen resigned for personal reasons. Her strategy is to lead Vestas back to higher earnings after the important losses faced by the company: from €166 million losses in 2011 and increasing to €963 million in 2012.


title: Vestas

text: In September 2013, Vestas made a joint venture for offshore wind turbines with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries creating MHI-Vestas, including the 7-9 MW Vestas V164, the most powerful turbine on Earth.


title: Vestas

text: In May 2014, Vestas announced it would be adding hundreds of jobs to its Colorado Windsor and Brighton facilities and following a rough 2012 it called 2013 one of Vestas’s "best years ever". Vestas also added employees in Pueblo and expected the tower facility to eventually top 500. Vestas stated that it expected to have 2800 employees in Colorado by the end of 2014. , Vestas has a US nacelle production capacity of 2.6 GW.


title: Vestas

text: In March 2015, Vestas announced it would be upping jobs by 400 at its blade manufacturing facility in Windsor and stated "We had a very successful 2014". In 2015 almost half of all Vestas turbines were going to the American market (nearly 3 GW for US out of 7.5 GW worldwide). Vestas intends to build a blade factory in India in 2016.


title: Vestas

text: In 2014 and 2015, 26 dishonest employees were detected with the company's whistleblower program (the first in Denmark), and disciplined.


title: Vestas

text: In February 2016, Vestas got its largest order of 1,000 MW (278 x 3.6 MW) for the Fosen project near Trondheim in Norway. It costs DKK 11 billion, and should deliver 3.4 TWh per year.


title: Vestas

text: In 1Q 2016, the average wind turbine price was 0.83 million Euro per MW, compared to 0.91 a year before.


title: Vestas

text: In 2019, MHI-Vestas received a supply and operations vessel for the Deutsche Bucht Offshore Wind Project, with a further two ships scheduled for other projects.


title: Vestas

text: Vestas spent €92 million ($128 million), or 1.4% of revenue, on research and development in 2009. It has filed 787 wind turbine patents (227 in 2010) according to United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office (UK-IPO), while General Electric has 666 and Siemens Wind Power has 242.


title: Vestas

text: In October 2009, Vestas and QinetiQ claimed a successful test of a stealth wind turbine blade mitigating radar reflection problems for aviation.


title: Vestas

text: In December 2010 Vestas were developing the V164 7 MW offshore turbine, with a 164 m rotor diameter. Prototypes of it were manufactured at Lindø (the former Maersk shipyard) due to size, crane and port access requirements. Series production of nacelles for the 32 turbines (256 MW) extension of the 90 MW Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm occurs at Lindø, while blades are made at Vestas' Isle of Wight facilities in England. DONG Energy tested a prototype in the sea off Frederikshavn in 2013, at a cost of DKK 240 million. A V164 was installed for testing in Østerild Wind Turbine Test Field in 2014, later uprated to more power.


title: Vestas

text: In June 2011, the Vestas supercomputer Firestorm was number 53 on the TOP500-list of the world's most powerful computers calculating worldwide weather in a 3x3 km grid, and it delivers daily weather reports to the newspaper Ekstra Bladet and similar purposes. In 2012, Vestas donated the older 1344-core supercomputer from 2008 to Aalborg University.


title: Vestas

text: In October 2011, Vestas participated in the deployment of a floating wind turbine offshore of Portugal. Vestas supplied a v80 2.0 MW offshore turbine to Windplus, S.A. (a joint-venture company including Energias de Portugal, Repsol, Principle Power, A. Silva Matos, Inovcapital and Portugal Ventures). The system, known as the WindFloat, consists of a semi-submersible type floating foundation, a conventional catenary mooring, and the wind turbine. The successful deployment represents the first offshore multi-megawatt wind turbine to be installed without the use of any heavy-lift or specialized offshore construction equipment.


title: Vestas

text: In 2012, Vestas scaled back and closed some of its R&D offices in Houston, Marlborough, Louisville, China, Singapore and Denmark.


title: Vestas

text: On 5 September 2013, Chris Spruce, Vestas Senior Product Engineer, served as member of the Scientific Advisory Board (SAB) for the kite-energy-systems project ERC HIGHWIND, a project at KU Leuven dedicated to the research and development of tethered airfoils dedicated to generating energy by airborne wind energy (AWE).


title: Vestas

text: In April 2016, Vestas installed a 900 kW quadrotor test wind turbine at Risø, made from 4 recycled 225 kW V29 turbines. The first three months of testing confirmed theoretical models. Vestas has no immediate plans of commercializing the prototype. Test results were published in 2019, indicating lower costs.


title: Vestas

text: As of 2022, Vestas produces the second highest offshore wind turbine in the world, with a blade of 115 meters and an energy power of 15 MW.


title: Vestas

text: In September 2022, Vestas unveiled the tallest onshore tower for a wind farm. The 199-meter structure will allow to reach the zone of stronger and more stable winds. It is supposed to install a Vestas V172 generator with a rotor diameter of 172 meters and a power of 7.2 MW. It is planned to place the towers in Germany and Austria.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: V(D)J recombination is the mechanism of somatic recombination that occurs only in developing lymphocytes during the early stages of T and B cell maturation. It results in the highly diverse repertoire of antibodies/immunoglobulins and T cell receptors (TCRs) found in B cells and T cells, respectively. The process is a defining feature of the adaptive immune system.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: V(D)J recombination in mammals occurs in the primary lymphoid organs (bone marrow for B cells and thymus for T cells) and in a nearly random fashion rearranges variable (V), joining (J), and in some cases, diversity (D) gene segments. The process ultimately results in novel amino acid sequences in the antigen-binding regions of immunoglobulins and TCRs that allow for the recognition of antigens from nearly all pathogens including bacteria, viruses, parasites, and worms as well as "altered self cells" as seen in cancer. The recognition can also be allergic in nature ("e.g." to pollen or other allergens) or may match host tissues and lead to autoimmunity.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: In 1987, Susumu Tonegawa was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity".


title: V(D)J recombination

text: Human antibody molecules (including B cell receptors) are composed of heavy and light chains, each of which contains both "constant" (C) and "variable" (V) regions, genetically encoded on three loci:


title: V(D)J recombination

text: Each heavy chain or light chain gene contains multiple copies of three different types of gene segments for the variable regions of the antibody proteins. For example, the human immunoglobulin heavy chain region contains 2 Constant (Cμ and Cδ) gene segments and 44 Variable (V) gene segments, plus 27 Diversity (D) gene segments and 6 Joining (J) gene segments. The light chain genes possess either a single (Cκ) or four (Cλ) Constant gene segments with numerous V and J gene segments but do not have D gene segments. DNA rearrangement causes one copy of each type of gene segment to go in any given lymphocyte, generating an enormous antibody repertoire; roughly 3×10 combinations are possible, although some are removed due to self reactivity.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: Most T-cell receptors are composed of a variable alpha chain and a beta chain. The T cell receptor genes are similar to immunoglobulin genes in that they too contain multiple V, D, and J gene segments in their beta chains (and V and J gene segments in their alpha chains) that are rearranged during the development of the lymphocyte to provide that cell with a unique antigen receptor. The T cell receptor in this sense is the topological equivalent to an antigen-binding fragment of the antibody, both being part of the immunoglobulin superfamily.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: An autoimmune response is prevented by eliminating cells that self-react. This occurs in the thymus by testing the cell against an array of self antigens expressed through the function of the autoimmune regulator (AIRE). The immunoglobulin lambda light chain locus contains protein-coding genes that can be lost with its rearrangement. This is based on a physiological mechanism and is not pathogenetic for leukemias or lymphomas. A cell persists if it creates a successful product that does not self-react, otherwise it is pruned via apoptosis.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: In the developing B cell, the first recombination event to occur is between one D and one J gene segment of the heavy chain locus. Any DNA between these two gene segments is deleted. This D-J recombination is followed by the joining of one V gene segment, from a region upstream of the newly formed DJ complex, forming a rearranged VDJ gene segment. All other gene segments between V and D segments are now deleted from the cell's genome. Primary transcript (unspliced RNA) is generated containing the VDJ region of the heavy chain and both the constant "mu" and "delta" chains (C and C). (i.e. the primary transcript contains the segments: V-D-J-C-C). The primary RNA is processed to add a polyadenylated (poly-A) tail after the C chain and to remove sequence between the VDJ segment and this constant gene segment. Translation of this mRNA leads to the production of the IgM heavy chain protein.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: The kappa (κ) and lambda (λ) chains of the immunoglobulin light chain loci rearrange in a very similar way, except that the light chains lack a D segment. In other words, the first step of recombination for the light chains involves the joining of the V and J chains to give a VJ complex before the addition of the constant chain gene during primary transcription. Translation of the spliced mRNA for either the kappa or lambda chains results in formation of the Ig κ or Ig λ light chain protein.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: Assembly of the Ig μ heavy chain and one of the light chains results in the formation of membrane bound form of the immunoglobulin IgM that is expressed on the surface of the immature B cell.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: During thymocyte development, the T cell receptor (TCR) chains undergo essentially the same sequence of ordered recombination events as that described for immunoglobulins. D-to-J recombination occurs first in the β-chain of the TCR. This process can involve either the joining of the D1 gene segment to one of six J1 segments or the joining of the D2 gene segment to one of six J2 segments. DJ recombination is followed (as above) with V-to-DJ rearrangements. All gene segments between the V-D-J gene segments in the newly formed complex are deleted and the primary transcript is synthesized that incorporates the constant domain gene (V-D-J-C). mRNA transcription splices out any intervening sequence and allows translation of the full length protein for the TCR β-chain.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: The rearrangement of the alpha (α) chain of the TCR follows β chain rearrangement, and resembles V-to-J rearrangement described for Ig light chains (see above). The assembly of the β- and α- chains results in formation of the αβ-TCR that is expressed on a majority of T cells.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: The process of V(D)J recombination is mediated by VDJ recombinase, which is a diverse collection of enzymes. The key enzymes involved are recombination activating genes 1 and 2 (RAG), terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), and Artemis nuclease, a member of the ubiquitous non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway for DNA repair. Several other enzymes are known to be involved in the process and include DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), X-ray repair cross-complementing protein 4 (XRCC4), DNA ligase IV, non-homologous end-joining factor 1 (NHEJ1; also known as Cernunnos or XRCC4-like factor [XLF]), the recently discovered Paralog of XRCC4 and XLF (PAXX), and DNA polymerases λ and μ. Some enzymes involved are specific to lymphocytes ("e.g.", RAG, TdT), while others are found in other cell types and even ubiquitously ("e.g.", NHEJ components).


title: V(D)J recombination

text: To maintain the specificity of recombination, V(D)J recombinase recognizes and binds to recombination signal sequences (RSSs) flanking the variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) genes segments. RSSs are composed of three elements: a heptamer of seven conserved nucleotides, a spacer region of 12 or 23 basepairs in length, and a nonamer of nine conserved nucleotides. While the majority of RSSs vary in sequence, the consensus heptamer and nonamer sequences are CACAGTG and ACAAAAACC, respectively; and although the sequence of the spacer region is poorly conserved, the length is highly conserved. The length of the spacer region corresponds to approximately one (12 basepairs) or two turns (23 basepairs) of the DNA helix. Following what is known as the 12/23 Rule, gene segments to be recombined are usually adjacent to RSSs of different spacer lengths ("i.e.", one has a "12RSS" and one has a "23RSS"). This is an important feature in the regulation of V(D)J recombination.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: V(D)J recombination begins when V(D)J recombinase (through the activity of RAG1) binds a RSS flanking a coding gene segment (V, D, or J) and creates a single-strand nick in the DNA between the first base of the RSS (just before the heptamer) and the coding segment. This is essentially energetically neutral (no need for ATP hydrolysis) and results in the formation of a free 3' hydroxyl group and a 5' phosphate group on the same strand. The reactive hydroxyl group is positioned by the recombinase to attack the phosphodiester bond of opposite strand, forming two DNA ends: a hairpin (stem-loop) on the coding segment and a blunt end on the signal segment. The current model is that DNA nicking and hairpin formation occurs on both strands simultaneously (or nearly so) in a complex known as a "recombination center".


title: V(D)J recombination

text: The blunt signal ends are flush ligated together to form a circular piece of DNA containing all of the intervening sequences between the coding segments known as a signal joint (although circular in nature, this is not to be confused with a plasmid). While originally thought to be lost during successive cell divisions, there is evidence that signal joints may re-enter the genome and lead to pathologies by activating oncogenes or interrupting tumor suppressor gene function(s)[Ref].


title: V(D)J recombination

text: The coding ends are processed further prior to their ligation by several events that ultimately lead to junctional diversity. Processing begins when DNA-PK binds to each broken DNA end and recruits several other proteins including Artemis, XRCC4, DNA ligase IV, Cernunnos, and several DNA polymerases. DNA-PK forms a complex that leads to its autophosphorylation, resulting in activation of Artemis. The coding end hairpins are opened by the activity of Artemis. If they are opened at the center, a blunt DNA end will result; however in many cases, the opening is "off-center" and results in extra bases remaining on one strand (an overhang). These are known as palindromic (P) nucleotides due to the palindromic nature of the sequence produced when DNA repair enzymes resolve the overhang. The process of hairpin opening by Artemis is a crucial step of V(D)J recombination and is defective in the severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) mouse model.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: Next, XRCC4, Cernunnos, and DNA-PK align the DNA ends and recruit terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), a template-independent DNA polymerase that adds non-templated (N) nucleotides to the coding end. The addition is mostly random, but TdT does exhibit a preference for G/C nucleotides. As with all known DNA polymerases, the TdT adds nucleotides to one strand in a 5' to 3' direction.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: Lastly, exonucleases can remove bases from the coding ends (including any P or N nucleotides that may have formed). DNA polymerases λ and μ then insert additional nucleotides as needed to make the two ends compatible for joining. This is a stochastic process, therefore any combination of the addition of P and N nucleotides and exonucleolytic removal can occur (or none at all). Finally, the processed coding ends are ligated together by DNA ligase IV.


title: V(D)J recombination

text: All of these processing events result in a paratope that is highly variable, even when the same gene segments are recombined. V(D)J recombination allows for the generation of immunoglobulins and T cell receptors to antigens that neither the organism nor its ancestor(s) need to have previously encountered, allowing for an adaptive immune response to novel pathogens that develop or to those that frequently change ("e.g.", seasonal influenza). However, a major caveat to this process is that the DNA sequence must remain in-frame in order to maintain the correct amino acid sequence in the final protein product. If the resulting sequence is out-of-frame, the development of the cell will be arrested, and the cell will not survive to maturity. V(D)J recombination is therefore a very costly process that must be (and is) strictly regulated and controlled.


title: Socialist Republic of Slovenia

text: The Socialist Republic of Slovenia (, ), commonly referred to as Socialist Slovenia or simply Slovenia, was one of the six federal republics forming Yugoslavia and the nation state of the Slovenes. It existed under various names from its creation on 29 November 1945 until 25 June 1991. In 1990, while the country was still part of the Yugoslav federation, the League of Communists of Slovenia allowed for the establishment of other political parties, which led to the democratization of the country.


title: Socialist Republic of Slovenia

text: The official name of the republic was Federal Slovenia (Slovene: "Federalna Slovenija", Serbo-Croatian: "Federalna Slovenija" / Федерална Словенија) until 20 February 1946, when it was renamed the People's Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: "Ljudska republika Slovenija", Serbo-Croatian: "Narodna Republika Slovenija" / Народна Република Словенија). It retained this name until 9 April 1963, when its name was changed again, this time to "Socialist Republic of Slovenia" (, ).


title: Socialist Republic of Slovenia

text: On 8 March 1990, the Socialist Republic of Slovenia removed the prefix "Socialist" from its name, becoming the Republic of Slovenia, though remaining a constituent state of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until 25 June 1991, when it enacted the laws resulting in independence.


title: Socialist Republic of Slovenia

text: In September 1989, numerous constitutional amendments were passed by the Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, which introduced parliamentary democracy to the country. The same year Action North both united the opposition and democratized communist establishment in Slovenia as the first defense action against Milošević's supporters' attacks, leading to Slovenian independence.


title: Socialist Republic of Slovenia

text: The word 'Socialist' was removed from the name of the then state on 7 March 1990. The socialist infrastructure was largely dissolved. The first open democratic election was held on 8 April 1990. The parliamentary elections were won by the opposition, known as the DEMOS coalition led by the dissident Jože Pučnik. At the same time, Milan Kučan, the former chairman of the League of Communists of Slovenia (ZKS), was elected President of the Republic. The democratically elected parliament nominated the Christian Democratic leader Lojze Peterle as Prime Minister, which effectively ended the 45-year-long rule of the Communist Party. During this period, Slovenia retained its old flag and coat of arms, and most of the previous symbols as it awaited the creation of new symbols that would eventually come after independence. The old national anthem, "Naprej zastava slave", had already been replaced by the "Zdravljica" in March 1990.


title: Socialist Republic of Slovenia

text: On 23 December 1990, a referendum on independence was held in Slovenia, at which 94.8% of the voters (88.5% of the overall electorate) voted in favour of secession of Slovenia from Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991, the acts about the Slovenian independence were passed by the Assembly. Following a short Ten-Day War, the military of Slovenia secured its independence; by the end of the year, its independence was recognized by the wider international community.


title: Digital video

text: Digital video is an electronic representation of moving visual images (video) in the form of encoded digital data. This is in contrast to analog video, which represents moving visual images in the form of analog signals. Digital video comprises a series of digital images displayed in rapid succession.


title: Digital video

text: Digital video is audio and video mixed together to make a production. the data gathered used to create a video, rather than a series of photos put together. Digital video have many advantages such as easy copying, multicasting, easy sharing and storage. Video recorded on tape is used on a computer on media player. Digital video is made of images displayed rapidly frequencies of 15, 24,30, and 60 frames per second.


title: Digital video

text: Digital video was first introduced commercially in 1986 with the Sony D1 format, which recorded an uncompressed standard-definition component video signal in digital form. In addition to uncompressed formats, popular compressed digital video formats today include H.264 and MPEG-4. Modern interconnect standards used for playback of digital video include HDMI, DisplayPort, Digital Visual Interface (DVI) and serial digital interface (SDI).


title: Digital video

text: Digital video can be copied and reproduced with no degradation in quality. In contrast, when analog sources are copied, they experience generation loss. Digital video can be stored on digital media such as Blu-ray Disc, on computer data storage, or streamed over the Internet to end users who watch content on a desktop computer screen or a digital smart TV. Today, digital video content such as TV shows and movies also include a digital audio soundtrack.


title: Digital video

text: The basis for digital video cameras are metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) image sensors. The first practical semiconductor image sensor was the charge-coupled device (CCD), invented in 1969 by Willard S. Boyle, who won a Nobel Prize for his work in physics. Following the commercialization of CCD sensors during the late 1970s to early 1980s, the entertainment industry slowly began transitioning to digital imaging and digital video over from analog video the next two decades. The CCD was followed by the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), developed in the 1990s. CMOS are beneficial because of their small size, high speed, and low power usage. CMOS are most commonly found today in the digital cameras in iPhones, used as the image censor for the device.


title: Digital video

text: In the 1970s, pulse-code modulation (PCM) induced the birth of digital video coding, demanding high bitrates of 45-140 Mbps for standard-definition (SD) content. By the 1980s, the discrete cosine transform (DCT) became the standard for digital video compression.


title: Digital video

text: The first digital video coding standard was H.120, created by the (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) or CCITT (now ITU-T) in 1984. H.120 was not practical due to weak performance. H.120 was based on differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM), a compression algorithm that was inefficient for video coding. During the late 1980s, a number of companies began experimenting with DCT, a much more efficient form of compression for video coding. The CCITT received 14 proposals for DCT-based video compression formats, in contrast to a single proposal based on vector quantization (VQ) compression. The H.261 standard was developed based on DCT compression, becoming first practical video coding standard. Since H.261, DCT compression has been adopted by all the major video coding standards that followed.


title: Digital video

text: MPEG-1, developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG), followed in 1991, and it was designed to compress VHS-quality video. It was succeeded in 1994 by MPEG-2/H.262, which became the standard video format for DVD and SD digital television. It was followed by MPEG-4/H.263 in 1999, and then in 2003 it was followed by H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, which has become the most widely used video coding standard.


title: Digital video

text: Starting in the late 1970s to the early 1980s, video production equipment that was digital in its internal workings was introduced. These included time base correctors (TBC) and digital video effects (DVE) units. They operated by taking a standard analog composite video input and digitizing it internally. This made it easier to either correct or enhance the video signal, as in the case of a TBC, or to manipulate and add effects to the video, in the case of a DVE unit. The digitized and processed video information was then converted back to standard analog video for output.


title: Digital video

text: Later on in the 1970s, manufacturers of professional video broadcast equipment, such as Bosch (through their Fernseh division) and Ampex developed prototype digital videotape recorders (VTR) in their research and development labs. Bosch's machine used a modified 1 inch type B videotape transport and recorded an early form of CCIR 601 digital video. Ampex's prototype digital video recorder used a modified 2-inch quadruplex videotape VTR (an Ampex AVR-3) fitted with custom digital video electronics and a special "octaplex" 8-head headwheel (regular analog 2" quad machines only used 4 heads). Like standard 2" quad, the audio on the Ampex prototype digital machine, nicknamed by its developers as "Annie," still recorded the audio in analog as linear tracks on the tape. None of these machines from these manufacturers were ever marketed commercially.


title: Digital video

text: Digital video was first introduced commercially in 1986 with the Sony D1 format, which recorded an uncompressed standard definition component video signal in digital form. Component video connections required 3 cables, but most television facilities were wired for composite NTSC or PAL video using one cable. Due this incompatibility the cost of the recorder, D1 was used primarily by large television networks and other component-video capable video studios.


title: Digital video

text: In 1988, Sony and Ampex co-developed and released the D2 digital videocassette format, which recorded video digitally without compression in ITU-601 format, much like D1. In comparison, D2 had the major difference of encoding the video in composite form to the NTSC standard, thereby only requiring single-cable composite video connections to and from a D2 VCR. This made it a perfect fit for the majority of television facilities at the time. D2 was a successful format in the television broadcast industry throughout the late '80s and the '90s. D2 was also widely used in that era as the master tape format for mastering laserdiscs.


title: Digital video

text: D1 & D2 would eventually be replaced by cheaper systems using video compression, most notably Sony's Digital Betacam, that were introduced into the network's television studios. Other examples of digital video formats utilizing compression were Ampex's DCT (the first to employ such when introduced in 1992), the industry-standard DV and MiniDV and its professional variations, Sony's DVCAM and Panasonic's DVCPRO, and Betacam SX, a lower-cost variant of Digital Betacam using MPEG-2 compression.


title: Digital video

text: One of the first digital video products to run on personal computers was "PACo: The PICS Animation Compiler" from The Company of Science & Art in Providence, RI. It was developed starting in 1990 and first shipped in May 1991. PACo could stream unlimited-length video with synchronized sound from a single file (with the ".CAV" file extension) on CD-ROM. Creation required a Mac, and playback was possible on Macs, PCs, and Sun SPARCstations.


title: Digital video

text: QuickTime, Apple Computer's multimedia framework, was released in June 1991. Audio Video Interleave from Microsoft followed in 1992. Initial consumer-level content creation tools were crude, requiring an analog video source to be digitized to a computer-readable format. While low-quality at first, consumer digital video increased rapidly in quality, first with the introduction of playback standards such as MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 (adopted for use in television transmission and DVD media), and the introduction of the DV tape format allowing recordings in the format to be transferred directly to digital video files using a FireWire port on an editing computer. This simplified the process, allowing non-linear editing systems (NLE) to be deployed cheaply and widely on desktop computers with no external playback or recording equipment needed.


title: Digital video

text: The widespread adoption of digital video and accompanying compression formats has reduced the bandwidth needed for a high-definition video signal (with HDV and AVCHD, as well as several commercial variants such as DVCPRO-HD, all using less bandwidth than a standard definition analog signal). These savings have increased the number of channels available on cable television and direct broadcast satellite systems, created opportunities for spectrum reallocation of terrestrial television broadcast frequencies, and made tapeless camcorders based on flash memory possible, among other innovations and efficiencies.


title: Digital video

text: Culturally, digital video has allowed video and film to become widely available and popular, beneficial to entertainment, education, and research. Digital video is increasingly common in schools, with students and teachers taking an interest in learning how to use it in relevant ways. Digital video also has healthcare applications, allowing doctors to track infant heart rates and oxygen levels.


title: Digital video

text: In addition, the switch from analog to digital video impacted media in various ways, such as in how business use cameras for surveillance. Closed circuit television (CCTV) switched to using digital video recorders (DVR), presenting the issue of how to store recordings for evidence collection. Today, digital video is able to be compressed in order to save storage space.


title: Digital video

text: Digital Television, also known as DTV, is the production and transmission of digital video from networks to consumers. This technique uses digital encoding instead of analog signals used prior to the 1950s. As compared to analog methods, DTV is faster and provides more capabilities and options for data to be transmitted and shared.


title: Digital video

text: Digital video comprises a series of digital images displayed in rapid succession. In the context of video, these images are called frames. The rate at which frames are displayed is known as the frame rate and is measured in frames per second (FPS). Every frame is a digital image and so comprises a formation of pixels. The color of a pixel is represented by a fixed number of bits of that color where the information of the color is stored within the image. For example, 8-bit captures 256 levels per channel, and 10-bit captures 1,024 levels per channel. The more bits, the more subtle variations of colors can be reproduced. This is called the color depth, or bit depth, of the video.


title: Digital video

text: In interlaced video each "frame" is composed of two halves of an image. The first half contains only the odd-numbered lines of a full frame. The second half contains only the even-numbered lines. These halves are referred to individually as "fields". Two consecutive fields compose a full frame. If an interlaced video has a frame rate of 30 frames per second the field rate is 60 fields per second, though both part of interlaced video, frames per second and fields per second are separate numbers.


title: Digital video

text: By definition, bit rate is a measurement of the rate of information content from the digital video stream. In the case of uncompressed video, bit rate corresponds directly to the quality of the video because bit rate is proportional to every property that affects the video quality. Bit rate is an important property when transmitting video because the transmission link must be capable of supporting that bit rate. Bit rate is also important when dealing with the storage of video because, as shown above, the video size is proportional to the bit rate and the duration. Video compression is used to greatly reduce the bit rate while having little effect on quality.


title: Digital video

text: Bits per pixel (BPP) is a measure of the efficiency of compression. A true-color video with no compression at all may have a BPP of 24 bits/pixel. Chroma subsampling can reduce the BPP to 16 or 12 bits/pixel. Applying jpeg compression on every frame can reduce the BPP to 8 or even 1 bits/pixel. Applying video compression algorithms like MPEG1, MPEG2 or MPEG4 allows for fractional BPP values to exist.


title: Digital video

text: BPP represents the "average" bits per pixel. There are compression algorithms that keep the BPP almost constant throughout the entire duration of the video. In this case, we also get video output with a constant bitrate (CBR). This CBR video is suitable for real-time, non-buffered, fixed bandwidth video streaming (e.g. in videoconferencing). Since not all frames can be compressed at the same level, because quality is more severely impacted for scenes of high complexity, some algorithms try to constantly adjust the BPP. They keep the BPP high while compressing complex scenes and low for less demanding scenes. This way, it provides the best quality at the smallest average bit rate (and the smallest file size, accordingly). This method produces a variable bitrate because it tracks the variations of the BPP.


title: Digital video

text: Standard film stocks typically record at 24 frames per second. For video, there are two frame rate standards: NTSC, at 30/1.001 (about 29.97) frames per second (about 59.94 fields per second), and PAL, 25 frames per second (50 fields per second). Digital video cameras come in two different image capture formats: interlaced and progressive scan. Interlaced cameras record the image in alternating sets of lines: the odd-numbered lines are scanned, and then the even-numbered lines are scanned, then the odd-numbered lines are scanned again, and so on.


title: Digital video

text: One set of odd or even lines is referred to as a "field", and a consecutive pairing of two fields of opposite parity is called a "frame". Progressive scan cameras record all lines in each frame as a single unit. Thus, interlaced video captures the scene motion twice as often as progressive video does for the same frame rate. Progressive-scan generally produces a slightly sharper image, however, motion may not be as smooth as interlaced video.


title: Digital video

text: Digital video can be copied with no generation loss; which degrades quality in analog systems. However, a change in parameters like frame size, or a change of the digital format can decrease the quality of the video due to image scaling and transcoding losses. Digital video can be manipulated and edited on non-linear editing systems.


title: Digital video

text: Digital video has a significantly lower cost than 35 mm film. In comparison to the high cost of film stock, the digital media used for digital video recording, such as flash memory or hard disk drive is very inexpensive. Digital video also allows footage to be viewed on location without the expensive and time-consuming chemical processing required by film. Network transfer of digital video makes physical deliveries of tapes and film reels unnecessary.


title: Digital video

text: Digital television (including higher quality HDTV) was introduced in most developed countries in early 2000s. Today, digital video is used in modern mobile phones and video conferencing systems. Digital video is used for Internet distribution of media, including streaming video and peer-to-peer movie distribution.


title: Digital video

text: Many types of video compression exist for serving digital video over the internet and on optical disks. The file sizes of digital video used for professional editing are generally not practical for these purposes, and the video requires further compression with codecs to be used for recreational purposes.


title: Digital video

text: , the highest image resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 132.7 megapixels (15360 x 8640 pixels). The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific high speed cameras that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second for brief periods of recording.


title: Digital video

text: Live digital video consumes bandwidth. Recorded digital video consumes data storage. The amount of bandwidth or storage required is determined by the frame size, color depth and frame rate. Each pixel consumes a number of bits determined by the color depth. The data required to represent a frame of data is determined by multiplying by the number of pixels in the image. The bandwidth is determined by multiplying the storage requirement for a frame by the frame rate. The overall storage requirements for a program can then be determined by multiplying bandwidth by the duration of the program.


title: Digital video

text: These calculations are accurate for uncompressed video, but due to the relatively high bit rate of uncompressed video, video compression is extensively used. In the case of compressed video, each frame requires only a small percentage of the original bits. This reduces the data or bandwidth consumption by a factor of 5 to 12 times when using lossless compression, but more commonly, lossy compression is used due to its reduction of data consumption by factors of 20 to 200. Note that it is not necessary that all frames are equally compressed by the same percentage. Instead, consider the "average" factor of compression for "all" the frames taken together.


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: The 60th Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), took place on April 11, 1988, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles beginning at 6:00 p.m. PDT. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 22 categories honoring films released in 1987. The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by Samuel Goldwyn Jr. and directed by Marty Pasetta. Actor Chevy Chase hosted the show for the second consecutive year. Two weeks earlier in a ceremony held at The Beverly Hilton in Beverly Hills, California, on March 27, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Shirley Jones.


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: "The Last Emperor" won all nine awards it was nominated for, including Best Picture and Best Director for Bernardo Bertolucci. For their performances in "Moonstruck", Cher and Olympia Dukakis won Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, respectively. Michael Douglas won Best Actor for his role in "Wall Street"; Sean Connery won Best Supporting Actor for "The Untouchables". The telecast garnered 42.2 million viewers in the United States.


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: The nominees for the 60th Academy Awards were announced on February 16, 1988, at 5:38 a.m. PST (13:38 UTC) at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California, by Robert Wise, president of the Academy, and actress Shirley MacLaine. "The Last Emperor" received the most nominations with nine total; "Broadcast News" came in second with seven.


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: The winners were announced at the awards ceremony on April 11, 1988. "The Last Emperor" became the second film after 1958's "Gigi" to earn nine Oscar nominations and win all of them. For the first time in Oscar history, all five Best Director nominees were born outside the United States. Best Actor winner Michael Douglas became the second person to win Oscars for both acting and producing; he previously won a Best Picture award as co-producer of "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest".


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: The award honors "creative producers whose bodies of work reflect a consistently high quality of motion picture production".


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or performed musical numbers.


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: In view of the 60th anniversary of the Academy Awards, the Academy hired film producer Samuel Goldwyn Jr. in October 1987 to oversee the telecast for the second straight year. Three months later, Goldwyn selected actor and comedian Chevy Chase to emcee the 1988 ceremony. In addition, after being held at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion for almost two decades, AMPAS decided to move the telecast to the Shrine Auditorium in order to accommodate more rehearsal time and take advantage of the large venue's seating capacity. This marked the first time the facility served as the site for the Oscars since the 20th ceremony held in 1948. Additionally, Goldwyn and Passetta originally planned to feature pre-recorded red carpet arrivals footage of actors who had roles in the 59 previous Best Picture winners. However, the segment was dropped altogether due to traffic problems amongst guests arriving to the ceremony.


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: Furthermore, the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike, which began more than a month before the ceremony, affected the telecast and its surrounding events. Despite the Writers Guild of America refusing to grant a waiver permitting writers to work on the scripted dialogue for the gala, the three head writers for the telecast, Ernest Lehman, Melville Shavelson, and Jack Rose, assured to the Academy and ABC that more than half of the material had already been completed. To compensate for the missing portions of the script, Goldwyn heavily utilized comedians such as John Candy, Billy Crystal, Eddie Murphy, and Robin Williams to ad lib and improvise jokes. During the show, many of the participants expressed support for the writers such as Best Supporting Actor winner Sean Connery who remarked in his acceptance speech, "If such a thing as a wish accompanied this award mine would be that we ended the writers' strike."


title: 60th Academy Awards

text: At the time of the nominations announcement on February 16, the combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees at the US box office was $221 million with an average of $48.9 million. "Fatal Attraction" was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $142 million in the domestic box office receipts. The film was followed by "Broadcast News" ($36.7 million), "Moonstruck" ($25.4 million), "The Last Emperor" ($11.9 million), and "Hope and Glory" ($5.2 million).