title: The Amazing Race 24

text: Canadian broadcaster CTV also airs "The Amazing Race" on Sundays. Episodes air at 8:00 p.m. Eastern and Central (9:00 p.m. Pacific, Mountain and Atlantic), with four exceptions. The broadcast of the second episode conflicted with CTV's broadcast of the 86th Academy Awards; "The Amazing Race" was instead shown at 7:00 p.m. in the Atlantic time zone, at 6:00 p.m. in the Eastern time zone, and at 5:00 p.m. in the Central time zone, and immediately after the broadcast of the Oscars in the Pacific and Mountain time zones. The broadcast of the sixth episode conflicted with CTV's broadcast of the 2014 Juno Awards; "The Amazing Race" was instead shown at 7:00 p.m. in the Atlantic and Central time zones, at 8:00 p.m. in the Eastern and Mountain time zones, and at 9:00 p.m. in the Pacific time zone. The broadcast of the eleventh episode was rescheduled due to CTV's broadcast of the season finale of "Once Upon a Time"; "The Amazing Race" was instead shown at 8:00 p.m. in the Atlantic time zone, and at 7:00 p.m. in the rest of the country. The broadcast of the season finale conflicted with CTV's broadcast of the 2014 Billboard Music Awards; "The Amazing Race" was instead shown at 8:00 p.m. in the Atlantic time zone, and at 7:00 p.m. in the rest of the country.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: Carl Henrik Jordan Larsson (born 20 June 1997) is a Swedish professional footballer who plays as a forward for Bundesliga club Schalke 04 and the Sweden national team. Starting his career with Högaborgs BK in Sweden in the early 2010s, Larsson represented Helsingborgs IF, NEC Nijmegen, and IFK Norrköping before joining Spartak Moscow in 2019. He made his full international debut for the Sweden national team in 2018 and was a squad member at UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: While his father played for FC Barcelona between 2004 and 2006, Larsson played for the team's La Masia academy. He began his senior career at Högaborg in the Swedish Football Division 2, the fourth level of the sport in the country. On 19 June 2013, in a match against Tenhults IF, 15-year-old Larsson played alongside his 41-year-old father, who was making a comeback due to an injury crisis at Högaborg.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: Aged 16 in January 2014, Larsson was tracked by another of his father's former employers, Manchester United. Instead, he signed a four-year deal for the city's main club Helsingborgs IF, the same transfer that his father had made 22 years prior.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: Larsson made his first team debut in the Allsvenskan on 27 July 2014, coming on as a substitute for Mattias Lindström in the 73rd minute of a 1–1 home draw against Örebro SK. On 26 August, he made his first start away to Division 2 team Torslanda IK in the second round of the Svenska Cupen, scoring in each half of a 4–1 away win. That November, his father took over as the team's manager, and assured the public that he would not practise nepotism. The following 4 March in the group stage of the competition, Larsson opened a 2–2 draw against Superettan team Syrianska FC with a goal that received attention abroad for the quality of its technique, reminiscent of his father.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: Larsson scored his first league goal for Helsingborg on 6 June 2015 in the second minute of a 3–0 win against Åtvidabergs FF, two weeks before his 18th birthday. On 19 July, he added two more in a 3–1 win over AIK at Olympia, and a further two on 20 August in an 8–1 win at fifth-tier Lunden ÖBK in the second round of the cup, which led to interest from IFK Göteborg.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: After Helsingborg lost their relegation play-off to Halmstads BK in November 2016, Larsson, who scored a late goal that would have kept them up, was attacked by Hooligans from his own team, who rushed onto the pitch and tore off his shirt. His father subsequently planned to send him on holiday for his protection.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: On 2 January 2017, Larsson transferred from Helsingborg to the Dutch Eredivisie as his father did in 1993, and signed for NEC. He made his debut eleven days later in a 1–0 win at Willem II, replacing Kévin Mayi after 59 minutes. He scored his first goals in Dutch football on 18 August, one in each half of a 3–1 home win over Almere City FC in the first game of the season. NEC finished the season with relegation to the Eerste Divisie via the play-offs.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: Larsson returned to the Allsvenskan on 2 January 2018, when he signed a three-year deal with IFK Norrköping. Mainly a substitute in his first season back in the league, he scored just once, in a 3–1 win over Kalmar FF on 15 April. Two weeks later he was sent off as the "VitBlå" suffered a first home defeat of the season to Trelleborgs FF, for a high challenge on Robin Nilsson. On 23 August, in the second round of the Svenska Cupen, he scored a hat-trick in a 10–0 win at sixth-tier Brottby SK.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: In July 2019, in his first European tie, Larsson scored in a 2–1 (4–1 aggregate) win over Ireland's St Patrick's Athletic in the first qualifying round of the UEFA Europa League.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: On 2 August 2019, Russian Premier League club FC Spartak Moscow announced the signing of Larsson for around €4 million.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: He scored his first goal for Spartak on 25 August in a game against PFC Krylia Sovetov Samara. On 27 October 2019, he scored twice after coming on as a substitute in the second half in a 3–0 victory over FC Lokomotiv Moscow.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: In March 2022, FIFA introduced special regulations related to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The regulations allow foreign players in Russia to suspend their contracts until the end of the 2021–22 season and sign with a club outside of Russia until that date. On 4 April 2022, Larsson used the new rule to join AIK on a short-term deal, one of the only Spartak players to do so.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: He made his debut for the club six days later in the home premiere against IFK Norrköping. Larsson went straight into the starting eleven and made an assist after 15 minutes when he lifted the ball from a corner to Alexander Milošević who scored the match's only goal. He scored his first goal for the club on 1 May 2022 during an away match against GIF Sundsvall which ended in a 2–0 victory.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: He scored the second goal for the club on 21 May 2022 when AIK played 2–2 against IK Sirius at Friends Arena. The following match, Larsson scored the decisive goal against his old club Helsingborgs IF at Olympia, which AIK won 2–1. He made his last match for the club on June 26, 2022 when he played 61 minutes when AIK played 1–1 against Degerfors IF. During his time at the club, he produced 3 goals and 2 assists in 11 Allsvenskan matches.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: On 7 October 2015, in the first game of 2016 UEFA European Under-19 Championship qualification in Sint-Niklaas, Belgium, Larsson assisted and then was assisted by Gustaf Nilsson as Sweden won 2–0 against Belarus. They advanced from the qualifying round but were eliminated in the elite round.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: He made his under-21 debut on 3 June 2016, coming on in added time for Arber Zeneli and scoring the winner in a 3–2 victory over Georgia at Rimnersvallen, in qualification for the 2017 European Championship.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: Larsson was one of three forwards chosen by coach Håkan Ericson for the team at the 2016 Olympics in Brazil. However, he was withdrawn by his father and club manager, as Helsingborg only had one other striker available.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: On 7 January 2018, he made his debut for the senior national team playing 64 minutes in a 1–1 friendly draw with Estonia in Abu Dhabi. Two years and two days later he scored his first international goal, the only one of a friendly win against Moldova in Qatar.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: Larsson was called up for a major tournament for the first time when he was included in Sweden's 26-man squad for UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Jordan Larsson

text: He is the son of Henrik Larsson, who played in the same position for Högaborgs BK, Helsingborgs IF, Feyenoord, Celtic, Barcelona, Manchester United and the Sweden national team. The elder Larsson won trophies in the Netherlands, Scotland, Spain and England, totalling 242 goals for Celtic alone. Larsson was born in Rotterdam, while his father played for Feyenoord. He is named after basketball player Michael Jordan. He has Cape Verdean descent through his paternal grandfather. Larsson was regularly seen at Celtic Park when his father played there, and accompanied him on the pitch in trophy celebrations.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The brown tree snake ("Boiga irregularis"), also known as the brown catsnake, is an arboreal rear-fanged colubrid snake native to eastern and northern coastal Australia, eastern Indonesia (Sulawesi to Papua), Papua New Guinea, and many islands in northwestern Melanesia. This snake is infamous for being an invasive species responsible for extirpating the majority of the native bird population in Guam. It is also one of the very few colubrids found in Australia, where elapids are more common.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The brown tree snake preys upon birds, lizards, bats, and rats and other small rodents in its native range. It preys on birds and shrews in Guam. They threaten local birds and lizards such as the Dubious dtella.


title: Brown tree snake

text: Owing to the availability of prey and lack of predators in introduced habitats such as Guam, they have been known to grow to larger sizes than their normal 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft) in length. The longest recorded length of this species is one found on Guam measuring 3 m (9.8 ft).


title: Brown tree snake

text: The reproductive characteristics of the brown tree snake have not been widely studied. The female is known to produce 4 to 12 oblong eggs, long and wide with leathery shells. Females may produce up to two clutches per year depending upon seasonal variations in climate and prey abundance. The female deposits the eggs in hollow logs, rock crevices, and other sites where they are likely protected from drying and high temperatures. Populations on Guam may reproduce year round.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The brown tree snake is a nocturnal, rear-fanged colubrid, possessing two small, grooved fangs at the rear of the mouth. Due to the placement of the fangs and their grooved rather than hollow architecture, the venom is difficult to convey into a bite on a human, and thus is only delivered in small doses. The venom appears to be weakly neurotoxic and possibly cytotoxic with localized effects that are trivial for adult humans; serious medical consequences have been limited to children, who are more susceptible because of their low body mass. The snake has been reported as aggressive, but is not considered dangerous to an adult human. The venom seems to be primarily used to subdue lizards, which can be more easily positioned in the rear of the mouth for venom delivery.


title: Brown tree snake

text: Shortly after World War II, and before 1952, the brown tree snake was accidentally transported from its native range in the South Pacific to Guam, probably as a stowaway in ship cargo or by crawling into the landing gear of Guam-bound aircraft. As a result of abundant prey resources on Guam and the absence of natural predators apart from the native Mariana monitor and feral pigs, brown tree snake populations reached unprecedented numbers. Snakes caused the extirpation of most of the native forest vertebrate species; thousands of power outages affecting private, commercial, and military activities; widespread loss of people's pets; and considerable emotional trauma to residents and visitors alike when snakes invaded human habitats with the potential for envenomation of small children. Since Guam is a major transportation hub in the Pacific, numerous opportunities exist for the brown tree snakes on Guam to be introduced accidentally to other Pacific islands as passive stowaways in ship and air traffic from Guam. To minimize this threat, trained dogs are used to search, locate, and remove brown tree snakes before outbound military and commercial cargo and transportation vessels leave the island. Numerous sightings of this species have been reported on other islands including Wake Island, Tinian, Rota, Okinawa, Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and even Texas in the continental United States. Hawaii is especially at heavy risk from the snake, as direct military flights between Guam and Hawaii are allowed and brown tree snakes are regularly intercepted at landing areas. A successful introduction could pose an immense threat to the already highly threatened endemic birds of the islands. An incipient population was thought to be established on Saipan after sightings around the port, however after 20 years without a sighting it appears that Saipan's biosecurity inspections have worked and the island is free of them. Acetaminophen has been used to help eradicate the snake on Guam.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The brown tree snake is a nocturnal, arboreal species that uses visual and chemical cues in hunting in the tropical rainforest canopy and/or on the ground. It is a member of the subfamily Colubrinae, genus "Boiga", which is a group of roughly twenty five species that are referred to as "cat-eyed" snakes for their vertical pupils. The brown tree snake is generally 1–2 m (3–6 ft) in length in its native range. The snake is long and slender, which facilitates its climbing ability and allows it to pass through tiny spaces in buildings, logs, and other shaded locations, where it seeks refuge during daylight. Variations in coloration occur in the snake's native range, ranging from a lightly patterned brown to yellowish/green or even beige with red, saddle-shaped blotches. They are rear-fanged, have a large head in relation to their body, and can survive for extended periods of time without food.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The brown tree snake is a generalist feeder known to eat a wide variety of foods. When threatened it is highly aggressive and tends to lunge and strike the aggressor repeatedly. The snake has numerous teeth, but only the last two on each side of the upper jaw have grooves, which inject venom as it bites. Therefore, the snake's mouth must be opened as wide as possible to insert and expose its fangs. A chewing movement is used by the snake to inject the venom by means of capillary action along the grooved fangs. The venom is used to subdue and kill prey on which the snake feeds; however, the venom is not considered dangerous to adult humans. In addition to subduing its victim with its venom, the brown tree snake often wraps its body around the prey, like a constrictor, to immobilize the prey while chewing and consuming the animal.


title: Brown tree snake

text: A recent study found that brown tree snakes in Guam can use "lasso locomotion" to climb large smooth cylinders. This type of locomotion has not previously been observed in snakes.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The brown tree snake is native to coastal Australia, Papua New Guinea, and many islands in northwestern Melanesia. The species occurs on variably sized islands, extending from Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia through Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands and into the wettest coastal areas of Northern Australia. The snakes on Guam represent the only documented reproductive population outside the native range. Since January 2016, however, four snakes have been sighted on the island of Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The brown tree snake is not restricted to forested habitats, as it can also occur in grasslands and sparsely forested areas, as well. In Papua New Guinea, it occupies a wide variety of habitats at elevations up to 1,200 m. It is most commonly found in trees, caves, and near limestone cliffs, but frequently comes down to the ground to forage at night. It hides during the day in the crowns of palm trees, hollow logs, rock crevices, caves, and even the dark corners of thatched houses near the roof. Based on the frequency of sightings of this snake, in relation to buildings, poultry, and caged birds, the snake is considered to be common in human-disturbed habitats.


title: Brown tree snake

text: Environmental stressors such as lack of shelter, climate change, overcrowding, and loss of prey have been researched as primary causes of diminished snake density, as they have been found to have direct correlation with the reproductive success of the snake. Current research on the breeding patterns of the brown tree snake is being conducted in hopes of further understanding how these environmental stressors are affecting the population density of the snake on Guam.


title: Brown tree snake

text: A study conducted by I.T. Moore predicted that low body condition would correlate to high levels of stress hormones and low levels of sex steroids in free-living brown tree snakes on Guam when compared with the native snake population in Australia and snakes held in captivity on Guam. After extensive research, the body condition in the free-living snakes was found to be significantly different from the body condition of native and captive snakes. The results determined, "depressed body condition and elevated plasmacorticosteron levels in the free-living animals suggest that a lack of food resources was placing individuals under chronic stress, resulting in suppression of the reproductive system." The study suggested that snakes living under stressful conditions such as high population densities or low prey resources had suppressed reproduction at multiple stages, including steroidogenesis and gametogenesis.


title: Brown tree snake

text: Currently, the brown tree snake population on Guam is declining with an equilibrium population size predicted to be roughly 30 to 50 snakes per hectare (12-20 per acre). The decline in snake population may be identified as a result of depleted food resources, adult mortality, and/or suppressed reproduction. The brown tree snake population on Guam has exceeded the carrying capacity of the island.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The introduction of the brown tree snake on Guam after WWII has had a significant impact on the community dynamics of the island. Upon its introduction the brown tree snake population exploded and spread across the entirety of Guam. The brown tree snake population on the island has reached peak densities of greater than 100 snakes per hectare. This population spike was caused by the copious amount of resources newly available to the brown tree snake upon its introduction. The limitations on the snake's population in its native range is predominantly food based. The snake's food source is far more limited in its native range than on the island of Guam as the prey in its natural range boasts significantly more natural defences to the snake than the prey on Guam.


title: Brown tree snake

text: The predominant population affected by the snake's introduction was that of native bird species such as the Mariana fruit dove, the Guam flycatcher, the rufous fantail and the Micronesian myzomela. The introduction of the brown tree snake into Guam has resulted in extinction of twelve native bird species in total. The Guam National Wildlife Refuge is attempting to prevent the extinction of additional bird species endangered by the snake. Other species significantly affected by the invasion of these snakes were small lizards and small mammals. Research has indicated a direct correlation of the spread of these snakes across the island to the decrease in the populations of these native species. Furthermore, the introduction of the brown tree snake has had an indirect, negative impact on vegetative diversity as its intense predatory nature has decreased populations of vital pollinators including native birds and fruit bats. Data collected from nearby islands lacking brown tree snake populations depict a significant difference in vegetative species richness, that is, islands close to and similar to Guam in which the brown tree snake has not been introduced have greater vegetative species diversity. Overall, the vertebrate fauna and native flora of Guam have suffered tremendously because of the introduction of the brown tree snake.


title: Brown tree snake

text: Given the environmental impact of the brown tree snake, studies have attempted to provide a capturing methodology to alleviate the detrimental effects of the tree snake. The use of mice as bait has shown considerable reduction effects when combined with acetaminophen, to which the snake is particularly sensitive, in a mark-recapture experiment leading to potential widespread application in Guam. When utilizing a precisely defined treated plot with results corrected for immigration and emigration, the additive effect of both acetaminophen and mice usage shows a 0% survival rate of the brown tree snake. In the study, 80 mg of acetaminophen was inserted into mouse carcasses. In addition, one study showed that increasing inter-trap spacing would not only increase efficiency, but also not compromise efficacy as 20-, 30-, and 40-metre long perimeter trap lines were compared and no difference was found. Another study echoed the aforementioned notion of increasing inter-trap spacing.


title: Brown tree snake

text: An investigative study was performed to find predators of the brown tree snake that could possibly serve as a population control method. In this study two actual predators were identified and 55 potential predators were identified: the two actual predators identified were the red-bellied black snake and the cane toad. Actual predators were identified by evidence showing that they would actually prey upon and consume the brown tree snake in a natural habitat whereas potential predators were identified as species that were only physically capable of consuming the brown tree snake. The research collected in this study suggested that even with the introduction of brown tree snake predation, it was unlikely this would serve as an effective brown tree snake population control method. One reason for this conclusion was that the identified actual predators of the brown tree snake are generalist feeders and would cause further detriment to other native island species.


title: Brown tree snake

text: Another possible negative outcome of introducing species as a control method for the brown tree snake population is predation on juvenile cane toads and red-bellied snakes by brown tree snakes themselves, because they are opportunistic and generalist feeders. This investigation determined that the environmental and ecological risk associated with the introduction of these predators was too high to implement. Lastly, red-bellied snakes could pose a threat to the health of humans. The cost of introduction of such predatory species outweighs the benefits and is not practical.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: Origins is the fourth studio album by the American pop rock band Imagine Dragons, released on November 9, 2018 by Kidinakorner, Polydor Records and Interscope Records.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: The album was produced by the band members themselves, frequent collaborator Alex da Kid, Mattman & Robin, John Hill, Joel Little, Tim Randolph, and Jayson DeZuzio, who produced a majority of the band's previous effort, "Evolve" (2017), as well as Jorgen Odegard. Frontman Dan Reynolds described "Origins" as a "sister album" to "Evolve", and that it would complete a cycle of their music.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: "Origins" received generally mixed reviews from critics, but many claimed that the album is an improvement from their previous work "Evolve". The album was preceded by four singles: "Natural", "Zero", "Machine" and "Bad Liar". An additional single, "Birds", was released in 2019.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: The album cover for "Origins", along with several pieces of merchandise revolving around the album were leaked online on October 2, 2018. The following day, Imagine Dragons officially announced the album to the public with a trailer. Within the trailer, the band spoke about why they were releasing a new album so soon after their previous album "Evolve", along with just finishing the Evolve World Tour in September 2018. Lead singer Dan Reynolds stated that although bands typically take a break for a while after touring, the band had already written songs that felt right to produce and release immediately, as they would be in a completely different place in the future. The end of the Evolve World Tour immediately concluded the "Evolve" album cycle, and began the "Origins" album cycle.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: The group announced the title of their fourth album on October 3, 2018, via social media. The album was put up for pre-order that same day. There are three versions of the album: a standard version which includes 12 songs, a deluxe edition which includes 15 songs, and an international deluxe edition which includes 16 songs.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: On October 20, 2018, the band revealed the track listing for the standard version of the album on Twitter. The next day, they revealed the track listing for the deluxe album.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: On July 17, 2018, "Natural" was released as the lead single. To promote the single, it was chosen by ESPN as the anthem of the 2018 "College Football" season. The song has since peaked at No. 13 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Its music video starring the band was released on August 24, 2018.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: On September 19, 2018, "Zero" was released as the second single. The song is featured in the Disney animated film "Ralph Breaks the Internet" and was included in its second official trailer, along with the ending credits for the film. The music video, which takes place in an arcade and includes several references to the film, was released on October 23, 2018. The song peaked at No. 10 on the "Billboard" Hot Rock Songs chart.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: On November 6, 2018, "Bad Liar" was released as the fourth single. The song has since peaked at No. 56 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. A music video for the song was released on January 24, 2019.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: On June 21, 2019, Imagine Dragons released the fifth single off the album, "Birds", featuring Italian singer Elisa. The original album version of the song had already charted in some countries earlier that month. An animated music video for the original song was released on July 23, 2019.


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from ten mainstream critics, "Origins" has an average score of 59 based on ten reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". "The Independent" gave the album a positive review, stating that ""Origins" is further proof of Reynolds' pop songwriting capabilities and also his ambition when it comes to pushing the messages that matter onto the charts. And there's no doubting his sincerity. It's a refreshing quality in a pop frontman." "Newsday" also gave the album a positive review, saying this: "It's no wonder that "Origins" sounds like the start of something even bigger for Imagine Dragons." "Digital Journal" gave the album a highly positive review, saying "Overall, the new Imagine Dragons album is highly eclectic. There is something in it for every music fan. Dan Reynolds and the band never disappoint." "The Heights" gave the album a positive review, stating "While the album may sound bombastic and derivative to critics, "Origins"' eclectic song list is sure to be an instant crowd-pleaser and will impress in the inevitable stadium tour." Another positive review came from "The Daily Campus", which stated that "Imagine Dragons has once again shown why they are one of the most popular rock bands in the world with "Origins" including a plethora of contagious rock-pop anthems that will have fans singing their hearts out across the country."


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: A more mixed review came from AllMusic, which noted that "the group takes pains to be able to fit onto every kind of playlist imaginable: rock, pop, electronic, soul-any popular sound that can be sculpted and shaped by a streaming service" and that "everything sounds vaguely familiar, vaguely connected, all designed to function as a soundtrack to whatever task you'd like". "Pitchfork" also gave the album a mixed review, stating "Reynolds has a story to tell, but the music fails to be the ideal delivery system." "The Guardian" gave the album a negative review, stating that "the most streamed rock band in the world may want us to believe that they are angry philosophers, but the reality doesn't change a gilt-edged mainstream formula." "The Irish Times" was also strongly critical, lambasting the album as a "muddled and incoherent mess with all of the best intentions". "NME" also gave a negative review, stating "scattershot and uninspired, 'Origins', the fourth album from the bafflingly popular Imagine Dragons, make for a grueling listen."


title: Origins (Imagine Dragons album)

text: "Origins" debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 with 91,000 album-equivalent units (including 61,000 pure album sales), making it the band's fourth top two album and their third album to debut at number 2. As of August 31, 2021, the album has been certified Platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of 1 million units in the country alone.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: The 12.8 cm Pak 44 (Pak from German "Panzerabwehrkanone" "anti-tank gun") was a German anti-tank gun used during World War II. It was designed as a result of experiences on the Eastern front in 1943. The German Army came upon the Soviet 122 mm field guns and issued a requirement for a similar weapon. Development initially concentrated on a field gun known as the "Kanone" K 44. However, once heavier Soviet tanks such as the IS-2 started to appear, the design requirements were altered to include an anti-armour role.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: The Pak 44 had short to medium-range performance similar to the 8.8 cm Pak 43, but the 12.8 cm Pak 44 better maintained its anti-tank performance over long to extreme-long ranges – and beyond - while also doubling as an effective field gun when firing high-explosive shells.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: The choice of a 128 mm calibre anti-tank gun was made because of the availability of tooling due to the use of this calibre for naval weapons. The design contracts were awarded to Rheinmetall Borsig and Krupp. The first prototype guns were delivered for testing in late 1943. Rheinmetall had developed a variant of the 128 mm Flak gun, whilst Krupp opted to design a new weapon from the ground up. After initial tests, the Rheinmetall design was dropped and development continued with the Krupp design. However, the service tests showed that a towed anti-tank gun weighing nearly 11 tonnes was impractical, so the towed design was terminated.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: Approximately 50 barrels and breeches were used on existing carriages. The weapon that used the ex-French GPF-T carriage was known as the K 81/1, while the K 81/2 used the ex-Russian carriage. Both of these designs were rushed, and were too heavy, making them cumbersome to deploy. In 1943, a design programme using the Pak 44 as its starting point was started for a gun to mount on the Jagdtiger (Sd. Kfz. 186) and the Maus super-heavy tank. This weapon, of which approximately 100 were produced, was known both as the Pak 44 and Pak 80 / "Panzerjägerkanone" Pjk 80. The performance was identical to the initial design.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: The gun was fed with two-piece ammunition, the projectile and cartridge making up separate pieces. Because of this, the gun could be fired using three different sized propellant charges; a light, medium and heavy charge. The light and medium charges were normally used when the gun was fulfilling the role of an artillery piece, where they would launch the c. 28 kg projectiles to a muzzle velocity of 845 m/s and 880 m/s respectively. The heavy charge was used when the gun was fulfilling its intended role as an anti-tank gun, where it fired a 28.3 kg APCBC-HE projectile (PzGr.43) at a muzzle velocity of 950 m/s. With the heavy charge, and using the PzGr.43 projectile, the Pak 44 was capable of penetrating of 30 degree sloped armor at 500 metres, of 30 degree sloped armour at 1000 metres, at , and at range.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: The 12.8 cm Pak 44 ended up becoming the standard main armament for the Jagdtiger heavy tank destroyer and a tank gun variant was the planned main armament for many future super-heavy tank designs in development during the last months of World War II, including the fully turreted Panzerkampfwagen Maus and E-100, as the 12,8 cm KwK 44 L/55 main gun.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: As is common at this time, this weapon underwent several name changes. At various times it was known as K 44, Pak 44, Kanone 81, Pak 80 and Pjk 80.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: Equipment numbered in the 8x range were temporary items usually issued in small numbers and not regarded as standard issue service weapons. Hence Pak 80 and Pjk 80 were temporary names, as were K81/x.


title: 12.8 cm Pak 44

text: Had this equipment been accepted into full service, it would have had a Pak 4x designation attached. The only difference between the Pak 44 and the K 44 was the mode of operation—the weapon itself was identical.


title: Diborane

text: Diborane(6), generally known as diborane, is the chemical compound with the formula BH. It is a toxic, colorless, and pyrophoric gas with a repulsively sweet odor. Diborane is a key boron compound with a variety of applications. It has attracted wide attention for its electronic structure. Several of its derivatives are useful reagents.


title: Diborane

text: The structure of diborane has D symmetry. Four hydrides are terminal, while two bridge between the boron centers. The lengths of the B–H bonds and the B–H bonds are 1.33 and 1.19 Å respectively. This difference in bond lengths reflects the difference in their strengths, the B–H bonds being relatively weaker. The weakness of the B–H compared to B–H bonds is indicated by their vibrational signatures in the infrared spectrum, being ≈2100 and 2500 cm respectively.


title: Diborane

text: The model determined by molecular orbital theory describes the bonds between boron and the terminal hydrogen atoms as conventional 2-center 2-electron covalent bonds. The bonding between the boron atoms and the bridging hydrogen atoms is, however, different from that in molecules such as hydrocarbons. Each boron uses two electrons in bonding to the terminal hydrogen atoms and has one valence electron remaining for additional bonding. The bridging hydrogen atoms provide one electron each. The BH ring is held together by four electrons forming two 3-center 2-electron bonds. This type of bond is sometimes called a "banana bond".


title: Diborane

text: BH is isoelectronic with CH, which would arise from the diprotonation of the planar molecule ethylene. Diborane is one of many compounds with such unusual bonding.


title: Diborane

text: Of the other elements in group IIIA, gallium is known to form a similar compound digallane, GaH. Aluminium forms a polymeric hydride, (AlH); although unstable, AlH has been isolated in solid hydrogen and is isostructural with diborane.


title: Diborane

text: Extensive studies of diborane have led to the development of multiple syntheses ways. Most preparations entail reactions of hydride donors with boron halides or alkoxides. The industrial synthesis of diborane involves the reduction of BF by sodium hydride (NaH), lithium hydride (LiH) or lithium aluminium hydride (AlLiH):


title: Diborane

text: Two laboratory methods start from boron trichloride with lithium aluminium hydride or from boron trifluoride ether solution with sodium borohydride. Both methods result in as much as 30% yield:


title: Diborane

text: Older methods entail the direct reaction of borohydride salts with a non-oxidizing acid, such as phosphoric acid or dilute sulfuric acid.


title: Diborane

text: Similarly, oxidation of borohydride salts has been demonstrated and remains convenient for small-scale preparations. For example, using iodine as an oxidizer:


title: Diborane

text: As a pyrophoric substance, diborane reacts exothermically with oxygen to form boron trioxide and water:


title: Diborane

text: Diborane also reacts with alcohols similarly. Methanol for example give hydrogen and trimethylborate:


title: Diborane

text: One dominating reaction pattern involves formation of adducts with Lewis bases. Often such initial adducts proceed rapidly to give other products. For example, borane-tetrahydrofuran, which often behaves as an equivalently to diborane, degrades to borate esters. Its adduct with dimethyl sulfide is an important reagent in organic synthesis.


title: Diborane

text: With ammonia diborane forms the diammoniate of diborane, DADB with small quantities of ammonia borane as byproduct. The ratio depends on the conditions.


title: Diborane

text: In the hydroboration reaction, diborane also reacts readily with alkenes to form trialkylboranes. This reaction pattern is rather general and the resulting alkyl borates can be readily derivatized, e.g. to alcohols. Although early work on hydroboration relied on diborane, it has been replaced by borane dimethylsulfide, which is more safely handled.


title: Diborane

text: Pyrolysis of diborane gives hydrogen and diverse boron hydride clusters. For example, pentaborane was first prepared by pyrolysis of diborane at about 200 °C. Although this pyrolysis route is rarely employed, it ushered in a large research theme of borane cluster chemistry.


title: Diborane

text: Diborane reacts with anhydrous hydrogen chloride or hydrogen bromide gas to give a boron halohydride:


title: Diborane

text: Diborane and its variants are central organic synthesis reagents for hydroboration. Alkenes add across the B–H bonds to give trialkylboranes, which can be further elaborated. Diborane is used as a reducing agent roughly complementary to the reactivity of lithium aluminium hydride. The compound readily reduces carboxylic acids to the corresponding alcohols, whereas ketones react only sluggishly.


title: Diborane

text: Diborane was first synthesised in the 19th century by hydrolysis of metal borides, but it was never analysed. From 1912 to 1936, Alfred Stock, the major pioneer in the chemistry of boron hydrides, undertook his research that led to the methods for the synthesis and handling of the highly reactive, volatile, and often toxic boron hydrides. He proposed the first ethane-like structure of diborane. Electron diffraction measurements by S. H. Bauer initially appeared to support his proposed structure.


title: Diborane

text: Because of a personal communication with L. Pauling (who supported the ethane-like structure), H. I. Schlessinger and A. B. Burg did not specifically discuss 3-center 2-electron bonding in their then classic review in the early 1940s. The review does, however, discuss the bridged D structure in some depth: "It is to be recognized that this formulation easily accounts for many of the chemical properties of diborane..."


title: Diborane

text: In 1943, H. Christopher Longuet-Higgins, while still an undergraduate at Oxford, was the first to explain the structure and bonding of the boron hydrides. The article reporting the work, written with his tutor R. P. Bell, also reviews the history of the subject beginning with the work of Dilthey. Shortly afterwards, the theoretical work of Longuet-Higgins was confirmed in an infrared study of diborane by Price.


title: Diborane

text: The structure was re-confirmed by electron-diffraction measurement in 1951 by K. Hedberg and V. Schomaker, with the confirmation of the structure shown in the schemes on this page.


title: Diborane

text: William Nunn Lipscomb Jr. further confirmed the molecular structure of boranes using X-ray crystallography in the 1950s and developed theories to explain their bonding. Later, he applied the same methods to related problems, including the structure of carboranes, on which he directed the research of future 1981 Nobel Prize winner Roald Hoffmann. The 1976 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Lipscomb "for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding".


title: Diborane

text: Traditionally, diborane has often been described as electron-deficient, because the 12 valence electrons can only form 6 conventional 2-centre 2-electron bonds, which are insufficient to join all 8 atoms. However, the more correct description using 3-centre bonds shows that diborane is really electron-precise, since there are just enough valence electrons to fill the 6 bonding molecular orbitals. Nevertheless, some leading textbooks still use the term "electron-deficient".


title: Diborane

text: Because of the exothermicity of its reaction with oxygen, diborane has been tested as a rocket propellant. Complete combustion is strongly exothermic. However, combustion is not complete in the rocket engine, as some boron monoxide, BO, is produced. This conversion mirrors the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, to produce carbon monoxide (CO). Diborane also proved difficult to handle.


title: Diborane

text: Diborane has been investigated as a precursor to metal boride films and for the p-doping of silicon semiconductors.


title: Diborane

text: Diborane is a pyrophoric gas. Commercially available adducts are typically used instead, at least for applications in organic chemistry. These adducts include borane-tetrahydrofuran (borane-THF) and borane-dimethylsulfide.


title: Diborane

text: The toxic effects of diborane are mitigated because the compound is so unstable in air. The toxicity toward laboratory rats has been investigated.


title: Prong (band)

text: Prong is an American heavy metal band formed in New York City in 1986. The band is fronted by guitarist/vocalist Tommy Victor, Prong's sole constant member. To date, they have released 12 studio albums (including a covers album), one live album, four EPs, one DVD and one remix album.


title: Prong (band)

text: Prong had two independent releases, "Primitive Origins" (1987) and "Force Fed" (1989), which attracted the attention of Epic Records, who signed the band in 1989. Their first two albums on Epic, "Beg to Differ" (1990) and "Prove You Wrong" (1991), were released to critical acclaim and garnered attention on MTV's "Headbangers Ball". The band's 1994 album "Cleansing" was also successful, and included one of their well-known songs "Snap Your Fingers, Snap Your Neck". After releasing one more album ("Rude Awakening" in 1996), Prong disbanded in 1997, but reformed in 2002 and has continued to tour and record since then.


title: Prong (band)

text: The band was founded in 1986 by singer/guitarist Tommy Victor (then a sound engineer for the New York City music club CBGB) and bassist Mike Kirkland (doorman at CBGB), who recruited ex-Swans drummer Ted Parsons shortly after. Prong independently released an EP, "Primitive Origins", and a studio album, "Force Fed", in the late 1980s, which were noted for their very raw sound.


title: Prong (band)

text: Prong signed with Epic Records in 1989. Their major label debut album, "Beg to Differ," was released in 1990.


title: Prong (band)

text: In the following year, Kirkland left the band and was replaced by bassist Troy Gregory. Prong issued their fourth release, "Prove You Wrong," which saw the band experiment with programming and electronic samples while still retaining an aggressive yet melodic sensibility.


title: Prong (band)

text: By 1994, Troy Gregory was out of the band and was replaced by Paul Raven and John Bechdel, both from Killing Joke and Murder, Inc. The new line-up released "Cleansing" (Prong's fifth major release). With a slight industrial metal influence, "Cleansing" contained songs that are still considered Prong classics ("Broken Peace" and "Snap Your Fingers, Snap Your Neck") and is Prong's most successful release to date. The videos for these two songs became staples of MTV's "Headbangers Ball". The band toured America with Sepultura and Pantera as an opener for their respective "Chaos A.D." and "Far Beyond Driven" tours. They also undertook a headlining European tour with Life of Agony and The Obsessed as their support.


title: Prong (band)

text: Prong's sixth album "Rude Awakening" was released in 1996. It entered the charts at No. 107 and sold 10,000 units in the United States in its first week. Despite the good sales, Epic Records released the band from their contract three weeks after the album's release. Shortly thereafter, Raven left prior to a tour supporting Type O Negative and was replaced by Rob "Blasko" Nicholson. Mike Riggs later joined on guitar so Victor could focus more on vocals. This line-up later disbanded, with Victor joining Danzig as their guitar player, and Ted Parsons joining Godflesh. Parsons also played with Jesu and toured with Paul Raven in Killing Joke.


title: Prong (band)

text: In 2002, Victor re-formed Prong with bassist Brian Perry (Dirty Looks, Jake E. Lee), drummer Dan Laudo and guitarist Monte Pittman (Madonna). In 2002, after a 42-show American tour that was recorded for a live CD ("100% Live", Locomotive Music) Prong entered the studio and recorded a new CD titled "Scorpio Rising" which was received with mixed responses.


title: Prong (band)

text: Victor played on and off again with Glenn Danzig from 1998 to 2005 in between time with Prong. His final goal of playing and writing on a Danzig record was met with "Circle of Snakes" in 2004.


title: Prong (band)

text: Prong released a live two-disc DVD in 2005 entitled "The Vault" which features performances from the Hulstsfred and With Full Force festivals and a full show in Amsterdam. This disc has Brian Perry and Mike Longworth on bass as Longworth replaced Perry after his departure in 2003. Dan Laudo left the band in 2005 and the band enlisted Aaron Rossi, who used to be in the bands Strife (Victory Records), Shelter (Century Media Records), John 5 (Shrapnel Records), and Ankla (Bieler Bros. Records)


title: Prong (band)

text: Victor and Raven joined Ministry in 2005 to write and tour in support of their 2006 album "Rio Grande Blood". The two also appear on Ministry's follow-up album "The Last Sucker" (2007), although in a more limited capacity.


title: Prong (band)

text: In 2007, Prong signed to Al Jourgensen's 13th Planet Records, who released "Power of the Damager" on October 2, 2007. The band embarked on the "Slicing Across America" and "Slicing Across Europe" tours supporting the album in 2007 and early 2008. Joining Tommy Victor for the tour were Monte Pittman and drummer Aaron Rossi; bassist Paul Raven had died of a heart attack in his sleep on October 20, 2007, at the age of 46.


title: Prong (band)

text: Alexei Rodriguez and Tony Campos from Static-X were on the lineup with Tommy supporting Soulfly on the "Blood Fire War Hate" tour in the fall of 2009. They were replaced by Jason Christopher (bass) in 2011 and Art Cruz (drums) in 2012.


title: Prong (band)

text: The band supported Fear Factory on their tour which ended on June 6, 2010. Prong released a new album, "Carved into Stone", on April 23, 2012, with Long Branch Records/SPV. It was produced by Steve Evetts. The band toured as a headliner and with acts such as Crowbar in the US, and in May 2012 performed "Beg to Differ" in its entirety during a two-week tour in Europe.


title: Prong (band)

text: In the summer of 2013, the band performed an extensive European festival and headline run and also recorded a self-released "Official Bootleg" entitled "Unleashed in the West – Live in Berlin" via Bandcamp.com.


title: Prong (band)

text: After spending November and December 2013 in the studio, Prong released their ninth album, "Ruining Lives", on Steamhammer/SPV in April 2014 and toured extensively in its support. Blabbermouth.net called the album "Tommy Victor's personal liberation." The album was produced by Victor and mixed by Steve Evetts.


title: Prong (band)

text: The band started a second wave of touring behind "Ruining Lives" in July 2014, with European festivals and headline shows. They also toured in North America, both as headliners and as support to Overkill, followed by a tour in Europe as main support to Overkill in October and November.


title: Prong (band)

text: In 2015, the band released the cover album "Songs from the Black Hole", followed a year later by their eleventh studio album "X – No Absolutes". Another album, "Zero Days", was released in 2017. In 2017, at the beginning of August, they played a concert in Polish Woodstock Festival. Prong's next release was the EP "Age of Defiance", released on November 29, 2019. They also have a new full-length studio album in the works.


title: Prong (band)

text: Prong has been described as groove metal, industrial metal, thrash metal and crossover thrash, and is known for combining elements of thrash metal, groove metal, and industrial. Emerging from the New York hardcore scene, Prong, along with bands such as Pantera, Sepultura and Machine Head, is one of the bands of the groove metal movement of the 1990s.


title: Prong (band)

text: Prong cited Killing Joke and Chrome as influences. They have influenced many notable musicians such as Korn's Jonathan Davis, Demon Hunter's Ryan Clark and Nine Inch Nails' Trent Reznor, as well as bands such as Pantera and White Zombie.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: Tineola bisselliella, known as the common clothes moth, webbing clothes moth, or simply clothing moth, is a species of fungus moth (family Tineidae, subfamily Tineinae). It is the type species of its genus "Tineola" and was first described by the Swedish entomologist Arvid David Hummel in 1823. The specific name is commonly misspelled "biselliella" – for example by G. A. W. Herrich-Schäffer, when he established "Tineola" in 1853.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: The larvae (caterpillars) of this moth are considered a serious pest, as they can derive nourishment from clothing – in particular wool, but many other natural fibres – and also, like most related species, from stored foods, such as grains.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: "Tineola bisselliella" is a small moth of body length and wingspan (most commonly ). The head is light ferruginous ochreous, sometimes brownish-tinged. Forewings pale yellowish-ochreous ; base of costa fuscous. Hindwings ochreous grey-whitish. , (it is distinguished from similar species by its yellow-brown or ochreous colouring and red-orange tuft of hair on the head).


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: Females lay eggs in clusters of between 30 and 200 which adhere to surfaces with a gelatin-like glue. These hatch between four and ten days later into near-microscopic white caterpillars which immediately begin to feed. They will also spin mats under which to feed without being readily noticed and from which they will partially emerge at night or under dark conditions to acquire food. Development to the next stage takes place through between five and 45 instars typically over the course of between one month and two years until the pupal stage is reached. At this point, the caterpillars spin cocoons and spend another approximately 10–50 days developing into adults.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: After pupation is complete, the adult moths emerge and begin searching for mates. Females tend to move less than males, and both sexes prefer scuttling over surfaces to flying— some adults never fly at all. Adults can live for an additional 15–30 days, after which they die (otherwise death takes place shortly after mating for males and shortly after egg laying for females). Life cycle may be completed within one month under the most favorable conditions ( and 70-75% relative humidity) but may take several years (lower temperatures and humidity will only slow development, larvae will still hatch and grow at temperatures as low as and can survive up to ).


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: Unlike the caterpillars, the adult moths do not feed: they acquire all of the nutrition and moisture they need while in the larval stage, and once they hatch from cocoons their only goal is to reproduce. They have only atrophied mouth parts and cannot feed on fabric or clothing. All feeding damage is done by the caterpillar (larval) form. Heated buildings allow clothes moths to develop year-round. The overall life cycle from egg to egg typically takes 4–6 months, with two generations per year.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: This moth's natural range is the western Palearctic, but it has been transported by human travelers to other localities. For example, it is nowadays found in Australia. The species' presence has not been recorded in France, Greece, Slovenia and Switzerland, though this probably reflects the lack of occurrence data rather than absence.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: This species is notorious for feeding on clothing and natural fibers; they have the ability to digest keratin protein in wool and silk. The moths prefer dirty fabric for oviposition and are particularly attracted to carpeting and clothing that contains human sweat or other organic liquids which have been spilled onto them; traces of dirt may provide essential nutrients for larval development. Larvae are attracted to these areas not only for the food but for traces of moisture; they do not require liquid water.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: The range of recorded foodstuffs includes cotton, linen, silk and wool fabrics as well as furs. They will eat synthetic fibers if they are blended with wool. Furthermore, they have been found on shed feathers and hair, bran, semolina and flour (possibly preferring wheat flour), biscuits, casein, and insect specimens in museums. In one case, living "T. bisselliella" caterpillars were found in salt. They had probably accidentally wandered there, as even to such a polyphagous species as this one pure sodium chloride has no nutritional value and is in fact a strong desiccant, but this still attests to their robustness. Unfavorable temperature and humidity can slow development, but will not always stop it.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: Both adults and larvae prefer low light conditions. Whereas many other Tineidae are drawn to light, common clothes moths seem to prefer dim or dark areas. If larvae find themselves in a well-lit room, they will try to relocate under furniture or carpet edges. Handmade rugs are a favorite, because it is easy for the larvae to crawl underneath and do their damage from below. They will also crawl under moldings at the edges of rooms in search of darkened areas where fibrous debris has gathered and which consequently hold good food.


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: Airtight containers should be used to prevent re-infestation once eggs, larvae, and moths are killed by any of these methods. Control measures for "T. bisselliella" (and similar species) include the following:


title: Tineola bisselliella

text: The common clothes moth is such a widespread and frequently seen species that it has been described time and again under a variety of junior synonyms and other now-invalid scientific names:


title: Pericardial effusion

text: A pericardial effusion is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pericardial cavity. The pericardium is a two-part membrane surrounding the heart: the outer fibrous connective membrane and an inner two-layered serous membrane. The two layers of the serous membrane enclose the pericardial cavity (the potential space) between them. This pericardial space contains a small amount of pericardial fluid. The fluid is normally 15-50 mL in volume. The pericardium, specifically the pericardial fluid provides lubrication, maintains the anatomic position of the heart in the chest, and also serves as a barrier to protect the heart from infection and inflammation in adjacent tissues and organs.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: By definition, a pericardial effusion occurs when the volume of fluid in the cavity exceeds the normal limit. If large enough, it can compress the heart, causing cardiac tamponade and obstructive shock. Some of the presenting symptoms are shortness of breath, chest pressure/pain, and malaise. Important etiologies of pericardial effusions are inflammatory and infectious (pericarditis), neoplastic, traumatic, and metabolic causes. Echocardiogram, CT and MRI are the most common methods of diagnosis, although chest X-ray and EKG are also often performed. Pericardiocentesis may be diagnostic as well as therapeutic (form of treatment).


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Pericardial effusion presentation varies from person to person depending on the size, acuity and underlying cause of the effusion. Some people may be asymptomatic and the effusion may be an incidental finding on an examination. Others with larger effusions may present with chest pressure or pain, dyspnea, shortness of breath, and malaise (a general feeling of discomfort or illness). Yet others with cardiac tamponade, a life-threatening complication, may present with dyspnea, low blood pressure, weakness, restlessness, hyperventilation (rapid breathing), discomfort with laying flat, dizziness, syncope or even loss of consciousness. This causes a type of shock, called obstructive shock, which can lead to organ damage.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Non-cardiac symptoms may also present due to the enlarging pericardial effusion compressing nearby structures.  Some examples are nausea and abdominal fullness, dysphagia and hiccups, due to compression of stomach, esophagus, and phrenic nerve respectively.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Any process that leads to injury or inflammation of the pericardium and/or inhibits appropriate lymphatic drainage of the fluid from the pericardial cavity leads to fluid accumulation. Pericardial effusions can be found in all populations worldwide but the predominant etiology has changed over time, varying depending on the age, location, and comorbidities of the population in question. Out of all the numerous causes of pericardial effusion, some of the leading causes are inflammatory, infectious, neoplastic and traumatic. These causes can be categorized into various classes, but an easy way to understand them is dividing them into inflammatory versus non-inflammatory.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: How much fluid is stored in the pericardial sac at one particular time is based on the balance between production and reabsorption. Studies have shown that much of the fluid that accumulates in the pericardial sac is from plasma filtration of the epicardial capillaries and a small amount from the myocardium, while the fluid that is drained is mostly via the parietal lymphatic capillaries. Pericardial effusion usually results from a disturbed equilibrium between these two processes or from a structural abnormality that allows excess fluid to enter the pericardial cavity. Because of the limited amount of anatomic space in the pericardial cavity and the limited elasticity of the pericardium, fluid accumulation beyond the normal amount leads to an increased intrapericardial pressure which can negatively affect heart function.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: A pericardial effusion with enough pressure to adversely affect heart function is called cardiac tamponade. Pericardial effusions can cause cardiac tamponade in acute settings with fluid as little as 150mL. In chronic settings, however, fluid can accumulate anywhere up to 2L before an effusion causes cardiac tamponade. The reason behind this is the elasticity of the pericardium. When fluid fills the cavity rapidly, the pericardium cannot stretch rapidly, but in chronic effusions, the gradual fluid collection provides the pericardium enough time to accommodate and stretch with the increasing fluid levels.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Patients with pericardial effusion may have unremarkable physical exams but often present with tachycardia, distant heart sounds and tachypnea. A physical finding specific to pericardial effusion is dullness to percussion, bronchial breath sounds and egophony over the inferior angle of the left scapula. This phenomenon is known as Ewart's sign and is due to compression of the left lung base.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Patients with concern for cardiac tamponade may present with abnormal vitals and what's classically known as the Beck's triad, which consists of hypotension (low blood pressure), jugular venous distension and distant heart sounds. Though these are the classical findings; all three occur simultaneously in only a minority of patients. Patients presenting with cardiac tamponade may also be evaluated for pulsus paradoxus. Pulsus paradoxus is a phenomenon in which systolic blood pressure drops by 10 mmHg or more during inspiration. In cardiac tamponade, the pressure within the pericardium is significantly higher, hence decreasing the compliance of the chambers (the capacity to expand/ conform to volume changes). During inspiration, right ventricle filling in increased, which causes the Interventricular septum to bulge into the left ventricle, hence leading to reduced left ventricular filling and consequently reduced stroke volume and low systolic blood pressure.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Some patients with pericardial effusions may present with no symptoms and the diagnosis can be an incidental finding due to imaging of other illnesses. Patients who present with dyspnea or chest pain have a broad differential diagnosis and it may be necessary to rule out other causes like myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax, acute pericarditis, pneumonia, and esophageal rupture. Initial tests include electrocardiography (ECG) and chest x-ray.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Chest x-ray: is non-specific and may not help identify a pericardial effusion but a very large, chronic effusion can present as "water-bottle sign" on an x-ray, which occurs when the cardiopericardial silhouette is enlarged and assumes the shape of a flask or water bottle. Chest radiograph is also helpful in ruling out pneumothorax, pneumonia, and esophageal rupture.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: ECG: may present with sinus tachycardia, low voltage QRS as well as electrical alternans. Due to the fluid accumulation around the heart, the heart is further away from the chest leads, which leads to the low voltage QRS. Electrical alternans signifies the up-and-down change of the QRS amplitude with every beat due to the heart swinging in the fluid (as displayed in the ultrasound image in the introduction) . These three findings together should raise suspicion for impending hemodynamic instability associated with cardiac tamponade.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Echocardiogram (ultrasound): when pericardial effusion is suspected, echocardiography usually confirms the diagnosis and allows assessment of the size, location and signs of hemodynamic instability. A transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) is usually sufficient to evaluate pericardial effusion and it may also help distinguish pericardial effusion from pleural effusion and MI. Most pericardial effusions appear as an anechoic area (black or without an echo) between the visceral and the parietal membrane. Complex or malignant effusions are more heterogeneous in appearance, meaning they may have variations in echo on ultrasound. TTE can also differentiate pericardial effusion based on the size. Although it's difficult to define size classifications because they vary with institutions, most commonly they are as follows: small <10, moderate 10–20, large >20. An echocardiogram is urgently needed for evaluation when there is concern for hemodynamic compromise, a rapidly developing effusion or history of recent cardiac surgery/procedures.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Cardiac CT and MRI scans: cross-sectional imaging with computed tomography (CT) can help localize and quantify the effusion, especially in a loculated effusion (an effusion contained to one area). CT imaging also helps assess for pericardial pathology (pericardial thickening, constrictive pericarditis, malignancy-associated pericarditis). Whereas cardiac MRI is reserved for patients with poor echocardiogram findings and for assessing pericardial inflammation, especially for patients with continued inflammation despite treatment. CT and MRI imaging can also be used for continued follow up on patients.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Pericardiocentesis: is a procedure in which fluid is aspirated from the pericardial cavity with a needle and catheter. This procedure can be used to analyze the fluid but more importantly can also provide symptomatic relief, especially in patients with hemodynamic compromise. Pericardiocentesis is usually guided by an echocardiogram to determine the exact location of the effusion and the optimal location of puncture site to minimize risk of complications. After the procedure, the aspirated fluid is analyzed for gross appearance (color, consistency, bloody), cell count, and concentration of glucose, protein, and other cellular components (for example lactate dehydrogenase). Fluid may be also sent for gram stain, acid fast stain, or culture if high suspicion of infectious cause. Bloody fluids may also be evaluated for malignant cells.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Treatment depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the heart impairment. For example, pericardial effusion from autoimmune etiologies may benefit from anti-inflammatory medications. Pericardial effusion due to a viral infection usually resolves within a few weeks without any treatment. Small pericardial effusions without any symptoms don't require treatment and may be watched with serial ultrasounds. If the effusion is compromising heart function and causing cardiac tamponade, it will need to be drained. Fluid can be drained via needle pericardiocentesis as discussed above or surgical procedures, such as a pericardial window. The intervention used depends on the cause of pericardial effusion and the clinical status of the patient.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: Pericardiocentesis is the choice of treatment in unstable patients: it can be performed at the bedside and in a timely manner. A drainage tube is often left in place for 24 hours or more for assessment of re-accumulation of fluid and also for continued drainage. Patients with cardiac tamponade are also given IV fluids and/or vasopressors to increase systemic blood pressure and cardiac output.


title: Pericardial effusion

text: But in localized or malignant effusions, surgical drainage may be required instead. This is most often done by cutting through the pericardium and creating a pericardial window This window provides a path for the fluid to be drained directly into the chest cavity, which prevents future development of cardiac tamponade. In localized effusions, it might be difficult to get safe access for pericardiocentesis, hence a surgical procedure is preferred. In case of malignant effusions, the high likelihood of recurrence of fluid accumulation is the main reason for a surgical procedure. Pericardiocentesis is not preferred for chronic treatment options due to risk of infection.


title: Burusho people

text: The Burusho, or Brusho, also known as the Botraj, are an ethnolinguistic group indigenous to the Yasin, Hunza, Nagar, and other valleys of Gilgit–Baltistan in northern Pakistan, as well as in Kashmir. Their language, Burushaski, has been classified as a language isolate.


title: Burusho people

text: Although their origins are unknown, it is claimed that the Burusho people "were indigenous to northwestern India and were pushed higher into the mountains by the movements of the Indo-Aryans, who traveled southward sometime around 1800 B.C."


title: Burusho people

text: Prior to the modern era, the area in which most Burusho now live was part of the independent state of Chitral. The state was a hereditary monarchy, controlled by the Karur dynasty, and headed by a "mir" (a title usually translated as king). In 1947, it became part of Pakistan.


title: Burusho people

text: The construction of the Karakoram Highway during the 1970s brought more extensive contact with the outside world. Many traders, preachers, tourists, and others had new access to the Burusho's homeland, and this subsequently altered the culture and local economy of the area.


title: Burusho people

text: The Burusho are known for their love of music and dance, along with their progressive views towards education and women.


title: Burusho people

text: Upper Hunza, locally called Gojal, is inhabited by people whose ancestors moved up from proper Hunza to irrigate and defend the borders with China and Afghanistan. They speak a dialect called Wakhi, which is influenced by Burushahski and Pamiri languages due to the closeness and contact with these mountain communities. The Shina-speaking people live in the southern Hunza. They have come from Chilas, Gilgit, and other Shina-speaking areas of Pakistan.


title: Burusho people

text: A widely repeated claim of remarkable longevity of the Hunza people has been refuted as a longevity myth, citing a life expectancy of 53 years for men and 52 for women, although with a high standard deviation. There is no evidence that Hunza life expectancy is significantly above the average of poor, isolated regions of Pakistan. Claims of health and long life were almost always based solely on the statements by the local mir (king). An author who had significant and sustained contact with Burusho people, John Clark, reported that they were overall unhealthy.


title: Burusho people

text: A group of 350 Burusho people also reside in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, being mainly concentrated in Batamalu, as well as in Botraj Mohalla, which is southeast of Hari Parbat. This Burusho community is descended from two former princes of the British Indian princely states of Hunza and Nagar, who with their families, migrated to this region in the 19th century A.D. They are known as the "Botraj" by other ethnic groups in the state, and practice Shiite Islam. Arranged marriages are customary.


title: Burusho people

text: Since the partition of India in 1947, the Indian Burusho community have not been in contact with the Pakistani Burusho. The Government of India has granted the Burusho community Scheduled Tribe status, as well as reservation, and therefore, "most members of the community are in government jobs." The Burusho people of India speak Burushashki, also known as Khajuna, and their dialect, known as Jammu & Kashmir Burushashski (JKB), "has undergone several changes which make it systematically different from other dialects of Burushaski spoken in Pakistan". In addition, many Jammu & Kashmiri Burusho are multilingual, also speaking Kashmiri and Hindustani, as well as Balti and Shina to a lesser extent.


title: Burusho people

text: A variety of Y-DNA haplogroups are seen among certain random samples of people in Hunza. Some haplogroups found in the Burusho were R1a1 and R2a, the former of which is associated with Indo-European peoples and the Bronze Age migration into South Asia c. 2000 BC, and probably originated in either South Asia,


title: Burusho people

text: Other Y-DNA haplogroups reaching considerable frequencies among the Burusho are haplogroup J2, associated with the spread of agriculture in, and from, the neolithic Near East, and haplogroup C3, of East Eurasian male origin and possibly representing the patrilineage of Genghis Khan. Present at lower frequency are haplogroups O3, also of East Eurasian male lineage, and Q Siberian male origin, P, F, and G. DNA research groups the male ancestry of some of the Hunza inhabitants with speakers of Pamir languages and other mountain communities of various ethnicities, due primarily to the M124 marker (defining Y-DNA haplogroup R2a), which is present at high frequency in these populations. However, they have also an East Asian genetic contribution, suggesting that at least some of their ancestry originates north of the Himalayas. No Greek genetic component among the Burusho have been detected in tests.


title: Burusho people

text: Healthy living advocate J. I. Rodale wrote a book called "The Healthy Hunzas" in 1948 that asserted that the Hunzas, noted for their longevity and many centenarians, were long-lived because they consumed healthy organic foods, such as dried apricots and almonds, and had plenty of fresh air and exercise. He often mentioned them in his "Prevention" magazine as exemplary of the benefits of leading a healthy lifestyle.


title: Burusho people

text: Dr. John Clark stayed among the Hunza people for 20 months and in his 1956 book "Hunza - Lost Kingdom of the Himalayas" writes: "I wish also to express my regrets to those travelers whose impressions have been contradicted by my experience. On my first trip through Hunza, I acquired almost all the misconceptions they did: The Healthy Hunzas, the Democratic Court, The Land Where There Are No Poor, and the rest—and only long-continued living in Hunza revealed the actual situations". Regarding the misconception about Hunza people's health, Clark also writes that most of his patients had malaria, dysentery, worms, trachoma, and other health conditions easily diagnosed and quickly treated. In his first two trips he treated 5,684 patients.


title: Burusho people

text: The October 1953 issue of "National Geographic" had an article on the Hunza River Valley that inspired Carl Barks' story Tralla La.


title: Briefs

text: Briefs (or a brief) are a type of short, form-fitting underwear and swimwear, as opposed to styles where material extends down the thighs. Briefs have various different styles, usually with a waistband attached to fabric that runs along the pelvis to the crotch and buttocks, and are worn by both men and women. Swim briefs are a variation used as swimwear.


title: Briefs

text: Men's classic briefs were first sold on January 19, 1935, by Coopers, Inc. (now known as Jockey International), in Chicago, Illinois, at Marshall Field's department store. They dubbed the new undergarment the "Jockey", because it offered a similar degree of support as the jockstrap (one style of which is also called "jock briefs" or "support briefs"). The designer of the new style was reportedly inspired by a postcard he had received from a friend visiting the French Riviera depicting a man in a very short, form-fitting bathing suit. 30,000 pairs were sold within three months of their introduction. In the UK, briefs were first sold in 1938. Soon, shops were selling 3,000 pairs of briefs per week.


title: Briefs

text: In the 1960s, fashion underwear was introduced in the United States, and, after a period of decline, became more prominent in the 1970s as the belief that wearing fashionable underwear was less masculine declined. By the 1980s, men's fashion briefs became more popular in the United States; in 1985 they made up 25% of the men's underwear market, whilst they had almost no share circa 1980. The Underoos and Funpals fashion brief brands for children were introduced around that time. According to Hanes marketing director John Wigodsky, women purchased fashion briefs for their husbands for aesthetic reasons, and therefore fashion briefs became more popular with men. In 1990 Tom Zucco of the "Tampa Bay Times" interviewed menswear sellers: one worker stated that about 50% of the underpants sold were white briefs.


title: Briefs

text: During the 1990s to early 2000s, the popularity of men's briefs declined in the U.S. and other places, and boxer shorts became widely portrayed as the casual and masculine choice. However, more recently, as men's fashion has trended in favor of more tailored clothing, form-fitting underwear such as briefs have come back into style, including newer styles like boxer briefs.


title: Briefs

text: In the United States, "jockey shorts" or "jockeys" became an often used generic term for men's briefs. More recently, "tighty-whiteys" (and some less popular variants of it) has become a commonly used slang term for traditional full-cut male briefs.


title: Briefs

text: In the UK the term "jockeys" did not catch on and men's/boys’ briefs are often referred to as "Y-fronts". The term derives from the genericized trademark "Y-Front", property of Jockey International. It, in turn, derives from the inverted Y-shape formed by the seams at the front of the underpants. The colloquialism is used even when the fly opening may differ in style, and not actually form the shape of the inverted letter "Y" fly on Jockey brand briefs.


title: Briefs

text: In Australia, male briefs are referred to as "jocks" but should not be confused with jockstraps (more specifically used by athletes) which expose the buttocks. Australians generally use the word “briefs” to refer to the bikini-style briefs for men, which do not have a fly opening.


title: Briefs

text: "Briefs" additionally is the official name of a specific cut of female underpants similar to male full-rise briefs.


title: Briefs

text: Traditional size briefs for both sexes cover the upper part of the thigh and extend upward up to (or cover, depending on the design) the navel at the waistband. This style is often referred to as "full rise" or "full cut". There are also "low rise" and "mid rise" styles whose measurements vary between manufacturers.


title: Briefs

text: Bikini briefs or simply bikini in context are a style of brief with narrow material at the sides, reminiscent of a bikini, designed for either men or women.


title: Briefs

text: Men's briefs often have a fly—a covered opening on the front of the garment which allows for convenience in urinating. There are several different fly designs in common use, including the standard vertical fly, the horizontal fly, the Y-front fly, and others. The use of a fly is optional, and many styles do not include them. Briefs without a fly-opening are often referred to as "slips" or "slip-briefs", a term that also sees use in non-English speaking European countries.


title: Briefs

text: Unlike boxer shorts, briefs hold the wearer's genitals in a relatively fixed position, which make briefs a popular underwear choice for men who are participating in athletic activities or who prefer more support than loose-fitting underwear can provide. In addition, boxer shorts and boxer briefs may ride up the body uncomfortably when the wearer is running or wearing form-fitting attire. There are different names for variations of the brief depending on the height of the brief at the sides, with names including low-rise, mid-rise, full-rise, sport, active, hip, and bikini. Some briefs have the cut all the way to the waistband on the side, called a tanga.


title: Briefs

text: "Briefs" also refers to a style of women's and girls' panties that is typically cut with a high waist to provide full coverage of the hips and buttocks. A control brief is a kind of high-waisted panty girdle. French-cut or high-cut briefs expose more of the front part of the thigh, while boy briefs have short legs, similar to men's trunk briefs, often combined with a lower waist. Full briefs cover the woman's upper-thighs, with some styles covering up to the navel. Midi briefs are a hybrid between boyshorts and a full brief, sitting on the woman's hips while providing full-coverage. Brazilian-style women's briefs, usually made of modal-fabric, have high-cut legs and sit low across the hips. The back is wider than a thong, but often smaller than other women's brief styles, making Brazilian briefs an ideal choice for women to avoid showing a visible panty line without having to wear a thong.


title: Briefs

text: Briefs is also the name given to costumed outerwear worn by female dancers and athletes in sports such as cheerleading, figure skating, and tennis. These briefs are typically worn under a short skirt; they may be attached to the skirt or dress body, or a separate garment ("cheer briefs").


title: Briefs

text: Research on the effect of men wearing tight underpants, like briefs, on male fertility is inconclusive. Briefs, boxer briefs, etc. have been blamed for negatively affecting sperm production, since they may interfere with cooling of the testes. However, not all research has come to the same conclusion. A study in the October 1998 "Journal of Urology", for example, concluded that underpant type is unlikely to have a significant effect on male fertility.


title: End of the Road (Boyz II Men song)

text: "End of the Road" is a song by American R&B group Boyz II Men for the "Boomerang" soundtrack. It was released in 1992 and was written by Babyface, Antonio L.A. Reid and Daryl Simmons. "End of the Road" achieved domestic and international success. In the United States, "End of the Road" spent a then record breaking 13 weeks at number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, a record broken later in the year by Whitney Houston's 14-week number one hit "I Will Always Love You"; Boyz II Men would later match Houston's record with "I'll Make Love to You", which spent 14 weeks at number one in 1994, and then reclaim the record with "One Sweet Day" (a duet with Mariah Carey), which spent 16 weeks at number one from 1995 to 1996.


title: End of the Road (Boyz II Men song)

text: "End of the Road" was the number one single of 1992 on the "Billboard" Year-End Hot 100 Singles of 1992. It is ranked by "Billboard" as the sixth most successful song of the decade 1990–1999. It is also ranked at number 61 on "Billboard"s "All Time Top 100 Songs". Internationally, "End of the Road" reached number one in Australia, United Kingdom and the Hot 100 Eurochart, among others. "End of the Road" has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of over one million units in the United States. The song also won Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Best R&B Song at the 1993 Grammy Awards. "End of the Road" is written and composed in the key of E-flat major and is set in time signature of 6/8 with a tempo of 150 beats per minute.


title: End of the Road (Boyz II Men song)

text: "End of the Road" was released on June 30, 1992. It was released as a single from the "Boomerang" soundtrack and did not originally appear on Boyz II Men's debut album, "Cooleyhighharmony". It was released after all singles from their debut had been released, and was their fifth single overall. However, "Cooleyhighharmony" was re-issued in 1992 and 1993 to include "End of the Road" due to the success of the single.


title: End of the Road (Boyz II Men song)

text: "End of the Road" debuted at number 53 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on July 18, 1992, jumping to number 30 the following week. The next week the song reached the top ten at number 8, and reached the top five the week after at number 4. The following week, the song peaked at number one, holding the position for 13 consecutive weeks from August 15, 1992 to November 7, 1992. On November 14, the song was finally succeeded by "How Do You Talk To An Angel" by The Heights. It also spent four weeks atop of the "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.


title: End of the Road (Boyz II Men song)

text: Larry Flick from "Billboard" commented, "Good to hear something new by this wonderfully talented group." He described the song as a "retrominded pop/R&B tune", adding that "those now-recognizable harmonies glide over a swaying, doo-wop melody, making the track the perfect complement to a romantic evening. Has the markings of a major multiformat smash." British magazine "Music Week" wrote, "A superior if stylised ballad, with some classically soulful crooning and a smoothly polished finish, it looks set for major success here too. Cute acapella end adds to appeal."


title: End of the Road (Boyz II Men song)

text: The song has been covered by various artists both domestically and internationally including the Korean group BTS and the "a cappella" country group Home Free. and a punk rock group, Me First And The Gimme Gimmes on their fourth album, Take a Break.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: The genetic history of Italy is greatly influenced by geography and history. The ancestors of Italians are mostly Indo-European speakers (Italic peoples such as Latins, Falisci, Picentes, Umbrians, Samnites, Oscans, Sicels and Adriatic Veneti, as well as Celts, Iapygians and Greeks) and pre-Indo-European speakers (Etruscans, Ligures, Rhaetians and Camunni in mainland Italy, Sicani and Elymians in Sicily and the Nuragic people in Sardinia). During the imperial period of Ancient Rome, the city of Rome was also home to people from various regions throughout the Mediterranean basin, including Southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Based on DNA analysis, there is evidence of ancient regional genetic substructure and continuity within modern Italy dating to the pre-Roman and Roman periods.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: In their admixture ratios, Italians are similar to other Southern Europeans, and that is being of primarily Neolithic Early European Farmer ancestry, along with smaller, but still significant, amounts of Mesolithic Western Hunter-Gatherer, Bronze Age Steppe pastoralist (Indo-European speakers) and Chalcolithic or Bronze Age Iranian/Caucasus-related ancestry. Southern Italians are closest to the modern Greeks, while the Northern Italians are closest to the Spaniards and Southern French. There is also Bronze/Iron Age Middle Eastern admixture in Italy, with a much lower incidence in Northern Italy compared with Central Italy and Southern Italy. North African admixture is also found in Southern Italy and the main islands, with the highest incidence being in Sicily.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: Latin samples from Latium in the Iron Age and early Roman Republican period were generally found to genetically cluster closest to modern Northern and Central Italians (four out of six were closest to Northern and Central Italians, while the other two were closest to Southern Italians). DNA analysis demonstrates that ancient Greek colonization had a significant lasting effect on the local genetic landscape of Southern Italy and Sicily ("Magna Graecia"), with modern people from that region having significant Greek admixture. Overall, the genetic differentiation between the Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-Villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant. In 2019, aDNA analysis of Roman fossils detected substantial genetic ancestry shift towards Central and Northern European ancestry in the inhabitants of the city of Rome in late antiquity and the medieval era. The authors tentatively link the origin of this ancestry with Visigoths and Lombards. A 2020 analysis of maternal haplogroups from ancient and modern samples indicates a substantial genetic similarity and continuity between the modern inhabitants of Umbria in central Italy and ancient inhabitants of the region belonging to the Italic-speaking Umbrian culture.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: Multiple DNA studies confirmed that genetic variation in Italy is clinal, going from the Eastern to the Western Mediterranean. The Sardinians are the exception as genetic outliers in Italy and indeed in Europe, resulting from their predominantly Neolithic, Pre-Indo-European and non-Italic Nuragic ancestry. Reflecting the history of Europe and the broader Mediterranean basin, the Italian populations have been found to be made up mostly of the same ancestral components, albeit in different proportions, from the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements of Europe.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: The genetic gap between northern and southern Italians is filled by an intermediate Central Italian cluster, creating a continuous cline of variation that mirrors geography. The only exceptions are some minority populations (mostly Slovene minorities from the region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia) who cluster with the Slavic-speaking Central Europeans in Slovenia, as well as the Sardinians, who are clearly differentiated from the populations of both mainland Italy and Sicily. A study on some linguistic and isolated communities residing in Italy revealed that their genetic diversity at short (0–200 km) and intermediate distances (700–800 km) was greater than that observed throughout the entire European continent.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: The genetic distance between Northern and Southern Italians, although large for a single European nationality, is similar to that between the Northern and the Southern Germans. Northern and Southern Italians began to diverge as early as the Late Glacial, and appear to encapsulate at a smaller scale the cline of genetic diversity observable across Europe.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: Modern humans appeared during the Upper Paleolithic. Specimens of Aurignacian age were discovered in the cave of Fumane and date back about 34,000 years. During the Magdalenian period, the first humans from the Pyrenees populated Sardinia.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: During the Neolithic period, farming was introduced by people from the east and the first villages were built. Weapons became more sophisticated and the first objects in clay were produced. In the late Neolithic era the use of copper spread, and villages were built over piles near lakes. In Sardinia, Sicily and a part of Mainland Italy the Beaker culture spread from Western and Central Europe.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: During the Late Bronze Age the Urnfield Proto-Villanovan culture appeared in Central and Northern Italy. It is characterized by the rite of cremation of dead bodies, which originated from Central Europe. The use of iron began to spread. In Sardinia, the Nuragic civilization flourished.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: At the dawn of the Iron Age much of Italy was inhabited by Italic tribes such as the Latins, Sabines, Samnites, and Umbrians. The Northwest and Alpine territories were populated primarily by pre-Indo European speakers such as the Etruscans, Ligurians, Camunni and Raetians; while Iapygian tribes, possibly of Illyrian origin, populated Apulia.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: From the 8th century BC, Greek colonists settled on the southern Italian coast and founded cities, forming what would be later called Magna Graecia. Around the same time, Phoenician colonists settled on the western side of Sicily. During the same period the Etruscan civilization developed on the coast of Southern Tuscany and Northern Latium. In the 4th century BC, Gauls settled in Northern Italy and in parts of Central Italy. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, different populations of Germanic origin invaded Italy, the most significant being the Lombards, followed five centuries later by the Normans in Sicily.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: Many Italians, especially in Northern Italy and Central Italy, belong to Haplogroup R1b, common in Western and Central Europe. The highest frequency of R1b is found in Garfagnana (76.2%) in Tuscany and in the Bergamo Valleys (80.8%) in Lombardy. This percentage lowers in the south of Italy in Calabria (33.2%). On the other hand 39% of the Sardinians belong to Mesolithic European haplogroup I2a1a.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: A study from the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore found that while Greek colonization left little significant genetic contribution, data analysis sampling 12 sites in the Italian peninsula supported a male demic diffusion model and Neolithic admixture with Mesolithic inhabitants. The results supported a distribution of genetic variation along a north–south axis and supported demic diffusion. South Italian samples clustered with southeast and south-central European samples, and northern groups with West Europe.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: A 2004 study by Semino et al. showed that Italians from the north-central regions had around 26.9% J2; the Apulians, Calabrians and Sicilians had 29.1%, 21.5% and 16.7% J2 respectively; the Sardinians had 9.7% J2.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: A 2018 genetic study, focusing on the Y-chromosome and haplogroups lineages, their diversity and their distribution by taking some 817 representative subjects, gives credit to the traditional northern-southern division in population, by concluding that due to Neolithic migrations southern Italians "show a higher similarity with Middle Eastern and Southern Balkan populations than northern ones; conversely, northern samples are genetically closer to North-West Europe and Northern Balkan groups". The position of Volterra in central Tuscany keeps the debate about the origins of Etruscans open, although the numbers are strongly in favor of the autochthonous thesis: the low presence of J2a-M67* (2.7%) suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people; the presence of Central European lineage G2a-L497 (7.1%) at considerable frequency would rather support a Central European origin of the Etruscans; and finally, the high incidence of European R1b lineages (R1b 50% approx., R1b-U152 24.5%) — especially of haplogroup R1b-U152 — could suggest an autochthonous origin due to a process of formation of the Etruscan civilisation from the preceding Villanovan culture, following the theories of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, as already supported by archaeology, anthropology and linguistics. In 2019, in a Stanford study published in Science, two ancient samples from the Neolithic settlement of Ripabianca di Monterado in province of Ancona, in the Marche region of Italy, were found to be Y-DNA J-L26 and J-M304. Therefore, Y-DNA J2a-M67, downstream to Y-DNA J-L26 and J-M304, is most likely in Italy since the Neolithic and can't be the proof of recent contacts with Anatolia.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: In two villages in Lazio and Abruzzo (Cappadocia and Vallepietra), I1 is the most common Y-DNA, recorded at levels 35% and 28%. In Sicily, further migrations from the Vandals and Saracens have only slightly affected the ethnic composition of the Sicilian people. However, specifically Greek genetic legacy is estimated at 37% in Sicily.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: The Norman Kingdom of Sicily was created in 1130, with Palermo as capital, 70 years after the initial Norman invasion and 40 after the conquest of the last town, Noto in 1091, and would last until 1198. Nowadays it is in north-west Sicily, around Palermo and Trapani, that Norman Y-DNA is common, with 15% to 20% of the lineages belonging to haplogroup I. The North African male contribution to Sicily was estimated between 3.5% and 7.5%. Overall, the estimated Southern Balkan and Western European paternal contributions in Sicily are about 63% and 26% respectively.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: A 2015 genetic study of six small mountain villages in eastern Lazio and one mountain community in nearby western Abruzzo found some genetic similarities between these communities and Near Eastern populations, mainly in the male genetic pool. The Y haplogroup Q, common in Western Asia and Central Asia, was also found among this sample population, suggesting that in the past could have hosted a settlement from Central Asia. Also, it is about 0.6% in continental Italy, but it rises to 2.5% (6/236) in Sicily, where it reaches 16.7% (3/18) in Mazara del Vallo region, followed by 7.1% (2/28) in Ragusa, 3.6% in Sciacca, and 3.7% in Belvedere Marittimo.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: In Italy as elsewhere in Europe the majority of mtDNA lineages belong to the haplogroup H. Several independent studies conclude that haplogroup H probably evolved in West Asia c. 25,000 years ago. It was carried to Europe by migrations c. 20–25,000 years ago, and spread with population of the southwest of the continent. Its arrival was roughly contemporary with the rise of the Gravettian culture. The spread of subclades H1, H3 and the sister haplogroup V reflect a second intra-European expansion from the Franco-Cantabrian region after the last glacial maximum, c. 13,000 years ago.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: African Haplogroup L lineages are relatively infrequent (less than 1%) throughout Italy with the exception of Latium, Volterra, Basilicata and Sicily where frequencies between 2 and 3% have been found.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: A study in 2012 by Brisighelli et al. stated that an analysis of ancestral informative markers "as carried out in the present study indicated that Italy shows a very minor sub-Saharan African component that is, however, slightly higher than non-Mediterranean Europe." Discussing African mtDNAs the study states that these indicate that a significant proportion of these lineages could have arrived in Italy more than 10,000 years ago; therefore, their presence in Italy does not necessarily date to the time of the Roman Empire, the Atlantic slave trade or to modern migration." These mtDNAs by Brisighelli et al. were reported with the given results as "Mitochondrial DNA haplotypes of African origin are mainly represented by haplogroups M1 (0.3%), U6 (0.8%) and L (1.2%) for the 583 samples tested. The haplogroups M1 and U6 can be considered to be of North African origin and could therefore be used to signal the documented African historical input. Haplogroup M1 was observed in only two carriers from Trapani (West Sicily), while U6 was observed only in Lucera, South Apulia, and another at the tip of the Peninsula (Calabria).


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: A 2013 study by Alessio Boattini et al. found 0 of African L haplogroup in the whole Italy out of 865 samples. The percentages for Berber M1 and U6 haplogroups were 0.46% and 0.35%, respectively.


title: Genetic history of Italy

text: A 2014 study by Stefania Sarno et al. found 0 of African L and M1 haplogroups in mainland Southern Italy out of 115 samples. Only two Berber U6 out of 115 samples were found, one from Lecce and one from Cosenza.