title: Macau Grand Prix

text: Macau is a special event for motorcycle riders. The Motorcycle Grand Prix has featured notable top-level riders, with winners of the race including MotoGP World Champion Kevin Schwantz, Superbike World Champion Carl Fogarty, notable MotoGP rider Ron Haslam and Isle of Man legends Michael Rutter, Michael Dunlop, and John McGuinness. Because of the street circuit nature, the course is closer to the legendary British open-road races than a regulation MotoGP circuit.


title: Macau Grand Prix

text: In 2014, the award-winning documentary Macau Gladiators by German director Andreas Knuffmann appeared. The movie is about the 2013 edition of the Motorcycle Grand Prix and followed the Team of Frank Heidger with the German Didier Grams (8th place) and his Belgian teammate Marc Fistette (DNF).


title: Macau Grand Prix

text: The FIA GT World Cup is a race for GT3-spec cars, organized by the Stéphane Ratel Organisation (SRO) and the Automobile General Association Macau-China (AAMC). The event was confirmed by the FIA at the World Motor Sport Council in Geneva on 20 March 2015. The winning driver of the event is the winning driver of the Main Race, but the award for the FIA GT World Cup for Manufacturers is presented to the manufacturer supplying the cars with a manufacturer entry with the highest number of points after addition of the points of its two best cars awarded according to the result of the Main Race.


title: Macau Grand Prix

text: Starting in 2017, there is an age limit for drivers; drivers may be no older than 59 years 364 days, as bronze-level drivers are prohibited from participation. (Under FIA driver grading rules, any driver over 60 is a bronze driver, regardless of his accomplishments).


title: Lancia Thema

text: The Lancia Thema (Type 834) is an executive car produced by the Italian automaker Lancia between 1984 and 1994, and one of four cars to share the Type Four platform alongside the Alfa Romeo 164, Fiat Croma and Saab 9000. The Thema was first shown in Turin Motor Show in 1984.


title: Lancia Thema

text: In February 2011, it was reported that the second generation of the Chrysler 300C, due for launch later that year, would be marketed as Lancia Thema in all European markets, except the UK and Ireland, which would retain the 300C nameplate.


title: Lancia Thema

text: The Thema was Lancia's luxury car based on the all-new Type Four platform, co-designed with the Fiat Croma, Saab 9000 and Alfa Romeo 164.


title: Lancia Thema

text: The Lancia Thema was announced in May 1984, then introduced to the motoring press with an event held in October 1984 in Vienna, and to the general public at the Turin Motor Show in November of the same year.


title: Lancia Thema

text: The first series Thema was built between 1984 and 1988, with four different models initially available. Two came with a twin cam 8-valve, fuel injected 1,995 cc 4-cylinder petrol engine, in naturally aspirated guise on the Thema i.e. or turbocharged and intercooled on the Thema i.e. turbo. Engine output was 120 PS and 165 PS respectively. The most expensive model was the Thema 6V, powered by a 150 PS, 2,849 cc V6, tuned for smoothness. On most European markets a 2,445 cc, 100 PS four-cylinder turbocharged and intercooled four-cylinder diesel engine was also available, on the Thema turbo ds. 1986 saw the introduction of the Pininfarina-designed Thema Station Wagon, available with the two turbocharged engines only, and of the Ferrari V8-engined Thema 8·32.


title: Lancia Thema

text: The second series Thema was presented in the Paris Motor Show in September 1988. New 16-valve 2.0-litre engines replaced the previous 8-valve units, increasing the power output to on the naturally aspirated Thema i.e. 16v and to on the Thema turbo 16v. The 8-valve 2-litre, now producing , remained on sale on the Thema i.e. base model. The six-cylinder on the Thema V6 was only mildly revised. The diesel engine on the Thema turbo ds increased marginally in capacity, to 2,499 cc, and more significantly in output, to .


title: Lancia Thema

text: A number of small visual updates were made to freshen the Thema's look. Upfront there was a more prominent grille with vertical instead of horizontal bars, and the turn indicators had been moved beneath the main headlamp units, under horizontal dark-tinted lenses. At the rear all model badging was removed, and the turn signals and backup lamp lenses were now tinted red. Finally the side rubbing strips, side skirts, wheel covers and 8-spoke alloy wheels were redesigned. The station wagon and the 8·32 received similar updates. With five engines available of the saloon, three on the SW (the two 16-valve petrols and the turbo diesel) and the 8·32, the Thema range consisted of nine different models. The different models received almost no visual distinctions, aside from the 8·32. Other models looked largely identical aside from badging, wheel dimensions, and wheel design (along with body-coloured mirror housings on top versions). Additionally the 4- and 6-cylinder petrol engines were also produced in catalytic converter-equipped versions, with slightly reduced output, for sale on markets where such equipment was mandatory.


title: Lancia Thema

text: The series two was then replaced by the facelifted third and last series, introduced in the Paris Motor Show in September 1992 and produced from 1992-1994. Four trim levels—base, LE, LS and LX—were introduced across the range; the 2.9-litre V6 engine was replaced by a more powerful 175 PS 3.0-litre unit, sourced from Alfa Romeo.


title: Lancia Thema

text: Production of the Thema ceased in 1994, when Lancia withdrew from RHD markets (including the United Kingdom) in response to falling sales and the Thema was replaced by the Lancia Kappa. A total of over 336,000 Thema saloons were produced.


title: Lancia Thema

text: In addition to the saloon, a station wagon was jointly developed and produced by Lancia and Pininfarina in Grugliasco. It was shown in prototype form at the September 1985 Frankfurt Motor Show, and in definitive form at the March 1986 Geneva Motor Show. Zagato had also shown a station wagon proposal earlier, at the 1985 Geneva Motor Show. This prototype, which remained a design study, with a larger glass area in the rear and with more discreet D-pillars than for the Pininfarina variant.


title: Lancia Thema

text: Pininfarina was also tasked with producing the new bodystyle. The Lancia factory assembled all the body-in-white parts shared with the saloon; the incomplete bodies were sent to Pininfarina, where they were completed and painted, and final assembly was carried out. The station wagon version was never offered in a right-hand drive variant. In total 21,074 Thema station wagons would be built by Pininfarina between 1986 and 1994 in their Borgo San Paolo plant.


title: Lancia Thema

text: First shown at the Turin Auto Show in 1986, the Lancia Thema 8·32 ("8" standing for the number of cylinders and "32" for the number of valves) was assembled at Lancia's S. Paolo plant in Turin. It used a 2,927 cc, Tipo F105L, Ferrari V8. This engine was based on the unit used in the Ferrari 308 and in the Ferrari Mondial Quattrovalvole, and some of the componentry was assembled by Ducati from castings made at Maranello. The engine differed from other Ferrari V8s of the time in that it was equipped with a cross-plane type crankshaft rather than the usual flat-plane crankshaft, smaller valves and different firing order: all this was to make the engine characteristics more suitable for a four-door luxury saloon. In non catalysed form the engine produced at 6,750 rpm, and the car was capable of 0–100 km/h in 6.8 seconds and a top speed of . Catalysed versions produce , which gave 0–100 km/h in 7.2 seconds and a top speed of . The transmission was a 5-speed manual gearbox; there was no automatic option. The braking system used larger 294 mm vented front discs and the standard 251 mm rear ones from the other Themas.


title: Lancia Thema

text: All 8·32s featured Bosch KE3 Jetronic fuel injection, ABS, ZF's brand new Servotronic electronically controlled rack-and-pinion power steering (which varied steering wheel effort according to vehicle speed), and a retractable rear spoiler. The latter, designed to increase high speed stability, was controlled by the driver via a rotary switch on the right stalk. In closed position, it would fit flush with the boot lid.


title: Lancia Thema

text: The car offered a handmade wood-and-Alcantara (or optional Poltrona Frau leather) interior, and was complete with similar luxury equipment as LX versions of the Thema. Stitched leather covered the entire dashboard, the steering wheel (including centre), gear and handbrake levers and booths, centre console, door panels and sun visors, while the headlining was Alcantara. A bespoke dashboard fascia housed two main instruments, six small auxiliary gauges, and triple round air conditioning vents. Like the door cappings and the lids concealing the radio and ashtray, it was veneered in matte varnish burr wood. The instrumentation had black dials with yellow hands and markings; it included water thermometer, oil thermometer and pressure gauge, and check panels for the lights and the drivetrain. The seats (and matching door panel inserts) were trimmed in beige or date brown Alcantara as standard, with black or brown leather was an optional extra. Brown interiors got colour-matching switchgear, carpets and trim. Irrespective of interior selection, Thema 8·32 buyers could choose from five paint colours, all metallics: Blizzard Blue, Winner Red, Quartz Grey, Reflex Green and Black. A double hand-painted pinstripe (the upper matched to body colour, the lower yellow) ran along the sides and the rear of the car. Besides the paint scheme, retractable spoiler and wheels, the only exterior details setting the 8·32 apart from other Themas were yellow "8·32" badges, a silver eggcrate-type grille, and twin exhaust outlets. Some notable options were automatic climate control, electrically actuated sunroof, provision for a car phone in the front armrest, and rear individual power seats.


title: Lancia Thema

text: In 1988 the 8·32 received series 2 updates like other Themas, including new lights front and rear, a smaller grille badge, removal of model badging at the rear and on the side skirts, and the new side rubbing strips (previously absent on this model). There were no third series 8·32s. This version of the Thema was produced in limited numbers, with 2370 Series 1 built between 1986 and 1988 and 1601 Series 2 built between 1989 and 1992. All were left-hand drive, although one Thema 8·32 was converted to right hand drive by TAK Motor Co. in South Africa in 1987 for the MD of TAK.


title: Lancia Thema

text: The Thema 8·32's key competitors were some of the fastest saloon models of the late 1980s including the Audi 100 Quattro, BMW M535i, Ford Sierra RS Cosworth, Saab 9000 2.3 Turbo S, and the Vauxhall Lotus Carlton/Opel Lotus Omega. "Road & Track" described the 8.32 as one of the "one of the weirder sleepers to come out of the 1980s".


title: Lancia Thema

text: Built only on request for wealthy customers and Fiat Group executives, the Lancia Thema Limousine featured the same interior as the LX and the 8.32 versions. Most of them were powered by a 2.8 L "PRV" V6 engine, replaced in the last ones by the 3.0 L Alfa Romeo V6 engine. Only 24 Thema Limousines were built. The wheelbase of the car was extended by to , with a resulting overall length of . The weight increased to , or by just over one fifth. The price, meanwhile, was up nearly sixty percent over a comparably equipped regular wheelbase Thema V6.


title: Lancia Thema

text: With the exception of the 8.32 Ferrari engine, Thema powerplants originated from the Fiat engine series designed by Aurelio Lampredi, the famed engine designer formerly of Ferrari and Alfa Romeo. The straight-4 2.0 L petrol engine, available in both naturally aspirated and turbocharged versions, was refined and offered good performance. Earlier Themas were also offered with a 2.8 L "PRV" V6 engine, developed in cooperation with Peugeot, Renault, and Volvo. This unit was replaced in 1992 with a 3.0 L Alfa Romeo V6 engine (Fiat had bought Alfa Romeo in 1986 and gained access to this engine).


title: Lancia Thema

text: Chrysler marketed the 300C for model years 2011-2014 as the Lancia Thema in Europe's left hand drive markets. Right-hand drive markets (the United Kingdom and Ireland) kept the Chrysler 300C badging.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Benjamin "Ben" Wyatt KBE is a fictional character portrayed by Adam Scott in the TV series "Parks and Recreation". The character is introduced in the final two episodes of season two, before being added to the main cast in season three. Ben is initially a state auditor who comes to Pawnee with Chris Traeger to evaluate the town's funds at the end of the second season. He began dating Leslie Knope in the season 3 episode "Road Trip" and married her in the season 5 episode "Leslie and Ben". In the season 7 episode "2017", Ben was named Pawnee's Man of the Year for 2017. In the season finale, it is implied that either he or Leslie eventually became the President of the United States; Leslie taking office would make him the First Gentleman.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Ben is from Partridge, Minnesota. When he was 18, he ran for mayor and won on the strength of, in his words, "anti-establishment voter rebellion." However, being so inexperienced, he quickly ran the town's finances into the ground mainly due to the construction of a winter sports complex called "Ice Town", which was never completed. He was then impeached after two months in office. His complete blunder bankrupted the town, caused its unemployment rate to hit 30%, and led to the newspaper headline "Ice Town Costs Ice Clown His Town Crown." Ben attended Carleton College, where he was the host and DJ for a swing music college radio show called Zoot Suit Wyatt, a reference to the swing song "Zoot Suit Riot" (1997). After becoming an accountant, he and Chris Traeger assumed the nicknames Butch Count-sidy and the Sum-dance Kid, with the names referencing the outlaws Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid as well as being accounting puns.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Ben is very serious, mature and work-oriented, and usually does not seem fazed by much of the immature, eccentric behavior from some of the other members of the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department, primarily Tom Haverford, Leslie Knope, and Andy Dwyer. Ben is often teased by Tom (and, early on, Leslie as well) for his affinity for, references to and vast knowledge in "Star Wars", "The Lord of the Rings", "Star Trek", "Game of Thrones" and other things considered to be "nerdy". His love for calzones is also a recurring joke in the series. Ben is shown to have a hard time socializing, and connecting with people by having work as his main focus. During a period of joblessness in season six, he creates a game called "The Cones of Dunshire" which becomes wildly popular, a fact that he realizes while visiting San Francisco. Initially dejected that he didn't copyright it, his former boss, Barney Varmn, surprises him with the copyright papers.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: When Ben comes to Pawnee, he immediately clashes with Leslie, who is appalled by his unsentimental attitude towards firing people and his penchant for slashing her department's budget. However, when he asks her out for a beer, they begin to show respect for one another. He shares his past as the mayor of Partridge, and that he became a state auditor to prove he can be responsible and eventually run for office again. Their new friendship turns sour when Ben and Chris reveal that the town is virtually out of funds and the government will have to be shut down until further notice.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Despite the seriousness of the problems, Chris presents the situation in an extremely positive light and tries to make all the city hall employees around him happy, leaving the hard decisions and delivery of bad news up to Ben; meaning, Chris is the good cop and Ben is the bad cop in this partnership. Chris and Ben form a budget task force, consisting of several government employees including Ron. When Ron accidentally reveals that Leslie was trying to set up an annual children's concert that was supposed to be canceled on Lot 48 behind Ann's house, Ben tries to shut it down. However, after seeing the effort Leslie put into it, which included having the equipment donated from local vendors, he pays the entertainer Freddy Spaghetti to come back after he booked another event, getting back on Leslie's good side. Ben is also surprised, but quietly pleased when Ron authorizes Leslie to take his place on the budget task force.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: When the government shutdown ends, Ben informs the department that due to the shoestring budget, they will only be on maintenance for the time being. Ben suspects that Leslie is trying to have Ann convince Chris to distribute more funds to the department and confirms his suspicions when he crashes their date at the same time Leslie crashes it, but Ben decides to let it play out. While at a gay club, Ben mentions the failure of the Ice Town project, showing that he used to be just as ambitious as Leslie, but Leslie gives him credit for trying. Ben listens to Leslie's presentation regarding the Pawnee Harvest Festival idea that will allow them to do their jobs properly and bring funds into the department. When Ben asks what will happen if it does not bring in funds, Leslie says they can shut down the department, and Ben allows them to go forth with the festival.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Ben assists Leslie with the festival preparations, and is thoroughly impressed when she gives a flawless presentation despite being stricken with the flu. When Leslie and Ben try to ask the police force to handle security for the festival, Ben is shown not to have very strong social skills, although in this case it could be attributed to the fact that he does not understand Pawnee as well as Leslie. He and Leslie continue to build a strong friendship over their development of the Harvest Festival, and it is implied he has developed an attraction to her when he asks the police chief about her relationship with Dave. He also becomes better friends with Tom, supporting him when he is rejected by a cologne magnate, although Tom does his fair share of ribbing Ben.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: While doing the media blitz for the festival, he is continuously asked about his disastrous tenure as mayor of Partridge. After freezing up at the majority of questions asked, he then goes on a furious tirade at a later interview, prompting businesses to pull their sponsorships at the festival and putting the parks department in jeopardy. At the last interview at "Pawnee Today", Ben finally stands his ground, stating that everyone does stupid things when they were teenagers and that he has since saved at least five cities from bankruptcy as an auditor. During the festival itself, a series of catastrophes leads Ben to feel he is cursed and leave the festival, returning later to admit he is not over his past. Leslie assures him that he is as responsible for the festival's success as she is, and has the local Native American chief Ken Hotate perform a fake ceremony to remove his "curse."


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Following the conclusion of the festival, Chris is installed as interim city manager of Pawnee, and offers Ben a job as assistant city manager, which he eventually accepts. It is implied that he made the decision to be closer to Leslie and that they are mutually attracted to each other, but a new policy of Chris's forbids city employees to date each other, halting a potential relationship between the two.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Since he is staying in Pawnee permanently, Ben decides to move out of the motel where he has been living. Andy and April offer him a spare room in their house, since their previous roommate moved out and left the house to them. Although the two have been living by themselves for only a week, the house is a complete mess with no everyday items like plates or utensils available. Ben decides to teach a reluctant Andy and April how to properly live like adults.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: In "Road Trip" Ben and Leslie are sent to Indianapolis to state their case to host the State Little League Championship in Pawnee. They win the case, and go out for a celebratory dinner. There, Ben tells Leslie he likes her romantically, and Leslie confirms she likes him too, but Chris decides to crash their dinner, preventing them from addressing their feelings. At the end of the episode, Leslie approaches Ben to hand him receipts, and he kisses her.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: In "The Bubble", Leslie and Ben are officially dating, but are keeping their relationship a secret due to Chris's no-dating policy. They are enjoying what Leslie calls "the bubble", meaning the beginning of a relationship when everything is simple and fun. However, it is suddenly threatened when Ben has a meeting with Leslie's mother Marlene, who wants Ben to approve the purchase of four new school buses despite a difficult budget season. Afraid of ruining the bubble, Leslie initially tells Ben she is not related to Marlene. Right before Ben's meeting, however, Leslie admits Marlene is her mother, making him nervous and causing him to capitulate to all of her demands during the meeting, which makes Marlene consider Ben weak. Leslie trains Ben for his next meeting with her mother. He impresses Marlene so much with his tough negotiation skills that she becomes flirtatious with him. An uncomfortable Ben tells Leslie they should tell her about their relationship, but Leslie does not want to lose the bubble. Fed up, Ben storms into Marlene's office and tells her that he is dating her daughter and asks her to keep it secret. Marlene laughs off the situation and tells Leslie that she approves of Ben.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: In the season finale "Li'l Sebastian", Leslie and Ben continue their romance, but are struggling to keep it secret. Ron soon finds out and warns them that if Chris learns about it, he will fire them. As the city prepares for the memorial service for Li'l Sebastian, Pawnee's beloved celebrity miniature horse, Leslie and Ben are caught making out by a maintenance worker, so they send him home in exchange for his silence. Unfortunately, the worker had the propane for Li'l Sebastian's memorial flame, which results in ongoing problems that Leslie and Ben struggle to fix throughout the night. Later, although the memorial turned out to be a success, things get even more complicated when Leslie is approached by scouts looking for potential candidates for elected office. They believe she would be a good candidate for upcoming city council seats, or possibly the mayoral position. With the expected increased media attention on her personal life, the scouts ask whether Leslie has any secret scandals they should know of. She denies this, thus omitting her secret relationship with Ben.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Though their relationship had become rather serious, Ben and Leslie are forced to break up to avoid a scandal which could derail Leslie's city council candidacy. Ben understands, giving Leslie a "Knope 2012" button he had made. He then starts helping Tom run his business Entertainment 720, where he is shocked at how much money Tom spends without getting any revenue. He also helps Tom charm Joan Callamezzo to try to get her book club to include Leslie's new book, but Joan gets drunk and hits on them. He and Leslie end up sharing lovelorn looks with each other. Ben is dragged along to Tom and Donna's "Treat Yo Self", where he treats himself to a Batman costume and a good cry over his breakup with Leslie.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: While Leslie attempts to keep him in her life, Ben insists that he needs distance from her since being around Leslie is too difficult for him. Leslie continually tries to spend time with Ben until, through the help of Ben and Ann, she sees that she has been ignoring what Ben wants and doing only what she wants. Ben and Leslie meet at the Smallest Park, which is supposed to be their last project together. Leslie apologizes and tells Ben that she will leave him alone if that is what he wants. Ben responds that he does not want that but he thinks that it is for the best. As Ben starts to leave, Leslie declares that she misses him like crazy and wants to be with him. After she asks how he feels, Ben kisses Leslie and the relationship is reinstated.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Later, they confess to Chris about their relationship, and he launches an investigation to check for any possible acts of corruption, as Ben is Leslie's superior. It turns out that in the season three finale, Ben and Leslie had bribed a maintenance worker to keep quiet about them after the worker witnessed them kissing. As that was a possible reason for termination, Leslie was ready to take full responsibility only to find that Ben resigned from his job in order to save hers.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Following his termination, Ben takes some time to "explore his interests" which consists of him remaining in his house and attempting various hobbies like making calzones and stop motion films. His appearance becomes unkempt and after a visit from Chris, he realizes that, despite convincing himself otherwise, he is unhappy without some sort of direction in his life. After Leslie's campaign flops at the ice rink, Ann resigns (eagerly) from being Leslie's campaign manager and Leslie asks Ben to run her campaign given his experience with local politics. Ben takes over the duties of running Leslie's campaign for city council and helps turn the campaign around, making it competitive with Bobby Newport's bid for city office. Ben manages to secure the endorsement of Pawnee's retiring police chief and improve Leslie's likability at a bowling event (despite the spectacle of having punched a man who called Leslie 'a bitch'). In "Dave Returns", it is revealed that not only is Ben socially awkward around police officers, but he is afraid of them, saying "I am not afraid of cops. I have no reason to be. I never break any laws ever because I'm deathly afraid of cops."


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Towards the end of the campaign, Ben is offered a job working for a congressional campaign in Washington, D.C. Initially conflicted, as it would mean several months away from Pawnee, Ben is ultimately convinced by Leslie to take the job.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Jonathan Banks and Glenne Headly guest starred as Ben's parents in the fifth season. He successfully runs a congressional campaign during the first five episodes of the season. When Ben returns to Pawnee, he proposes to Leslie, and they move into a house together. Later, Ben turns down multiple job offers in Pawnee to join Tom Haverford's company, Rent-a-Swag; concurrently, he ends up working for Sweetums, at a division dedicated to improving their public image by funding charities. He also takes on Andy as an assistant. Ben and Leslie throw a large event designed to help with fundraising for the Pawnee Commons instead of creating a wedding registry. During the event, Leslie tells Ben how much she hates the feeling of not being married to him. Ben responds by saying that they should just get married that night. After two hours of frantically finishing last minute details, a ceremony ruined by a drunk Councilman Jamm, and bailing Ron out of jail, they hold the wedding in the Parks Department. In the episode titled "Partridge" Ben is invited to return to Partridge, his hometown where he was elected and failed as mayor at the age of 18, for a ceremony to give him the key to the city. Ben falls ill with kidney stones, and when Leslie goes to receive the key in his name, it is revealed to be one big joke to mock Ben for his failure as a mayor.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: After Leslie attacks Sweetums in a press statement, Ben is fired from his job with the company. He then takes on the accountant job he has accepted and declined three times prior. Shortly later though Chris offers him the Job of City Manager of Pawnee because Chris is leaving town and Ben accepts it, becoming the new City Manager of Pawnee and Leslie's boss as she returns to her job in the Parks and Recreation Department. At the end of the episode entitled "Flu Season 2" Ben has a fight with his father who sold their family lake house where Ben had many wonderful childhood memories. He realizes he wants to start a family with Leslie, when he returns home to tell Leslie, he discovers that she is pregnant with their first child. When visiting Dr. Saperstein, they realize she is having triplets.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Ben remains city manager, and is planning the Pawnee Bicentennial. This, along with greatly improving the economy of Pawnee, gets him the award for Man of the Year. He and Leslie have had their triplets, two boys and one girl, whom they have named Stephen, Westley, and Sonia. During the final episode of "The Johnny Karate Super Awesome Musical Explosion Show", Ben is made a Knight of the Order of the British Empire by His Royal Excellence Lord Edgar Darby Covington, 14th Earl of Cornwall-Upon-Thames and 29th Baron of Hertfordshire. After being contacted by Jennifer Barkley, and with Leslie's full support, he decides to run for Congress in 2018. While campaigning, he earns IOW's Woman of the Year award for giving Leslie room to speak her mind instead of reading scripted speeches. Through a series of flash-forwards in the final episode, it is revealed that Ben's congressional campaign was successful and is now a representative from Indiana for the House of Representatives. In 2025, he and Leslie are both given the opportunity to run as Governor of Indiana, and Ben ultimately decides to let Leslie run, once again managing her ultimately successful campaign. By 2048, it is implied that at least one of them has been elected President of the United States, with Ben wearing a flag lapel pin and being acknowledged first by someone who appeared to be a member of the Secret Service.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Adam Scott departed from his leading role on the Starz comedy television series "Party Down" to accept the role of Ben Wyatt on "Parks and Recreation". "Parks and Recreation" was one of Scott's favorite shows even before he took the role. When he accepted a role on "Parks and Recreation", it was unclear whether "Party Down" would be renewed for a third season, and Scott said, "I couldn't pass up the opportunity on "Parks and Rec" for a show that could possibly not exist anymore." Although "Party Down" co-creator Rob Thomas said he believed the show could continue without Scott, and that the actor would continue to make guest appearances on the show, "Party Down" was cancelled just three months after Scott departed. Series co-creator Michael Schur said when the Ben Wyatt character was conceived, Scott was considered the "dream scenario" casting choice. As part of Scott's contract with the series, he also signed a first-look deal to develop television projects for NBC.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Scott first appeared in "Parks and Recreation" starting in the penultimate second-season episode, "The Master Plan", the same episode Rob Lowe joined the regular cast as Chris Traeger. The idea of a character trying to rebuild a government career following a humiliating public failure was one of the original ideas for the protagonist of "Parks and Recreation". The idea was originally abandoned in favor of Leslie Knope's character, but those early ideas were ultimately incorporated into Ben Wyatt. Ben's role as a state auditor, and Pawnee's subsequent budget problems, were conceived from global economic crisis and news reports about government services getting shut down around the country. Scott described his character as "someone who jumped in on a moving train" in trying to integrate with the other characters. Ben was expected to become a love interest for Leslie Knope from his earliest conception. In addition to the growing relationship between Leslie and Ben, one of the biggest story arcs for season three was Ben's growing love of the city of Pawnee, which coincided with his romantic feelings for Leslie. Schur described Ben's character as one who never had a firm sense of home due to the excessive amount of traveling with his job, but who gradually grew to appreciate Pawnee due to the optimism and enthusiasm Leslie has for her job.


title: Ben Wyatt (Parks and Recreation)

text: Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called Scott one of the "rare but special" actors who can be both "the sane and deadpan center of the madness, but can also go convincingly, amusingly mad". "New York Daily News" writer David Hinckley praised Scott's addition to the "Parks and Recreation" cast, claiming he "gets more of a character here than he does on Starz's entertaining "Party Down" and makes the best of it". Scott received particular praise for his performance in "Media Blitz", in which his awkward and panicked responses to media inquiries about his past led to what reviewers considered more outwardly comedic opportunities for the character, compared to his usual straight man role. Several reviewers mentioned that Ben Wyatt closely resembled Scott's character on "Party Down", Henry Pollard. Ben's character is a politician who found great success at a young age, then suffered a downfall. Henry's character is an actor who became a caterer after his acting career declined. Scott himself has said that he feels they are "vastly different characters and circumstances."


title: Jasleen Royal

text: Jasleen Kaur Royal, known professionally as Jasleen Royal, is an Indian singer, songwriter and composer who sings in Punjabi, Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati as well as in English. She has received many awards and nominations including a Filmfare Award. In 2022, she became the first female music director in history to win the Filmfare Award for Best Music Director for the film "Shershaah" (2021) and shared the award with the four other composers who were involved in the film.


title: Jasleen Royal

text: She won an award for the "Best Indie Song" at the MTV Video Music Awards India 2013. She received this award for her debut song "Panchi Ho Jaava", composed and sung by Jasleen which is based on a poem by late Shiv Kumar Batalvi.


title: Jasleen Royal

text: She won an award for the "Best Indie Artist" at "Free The Music" an initiative by Songdew especially for Indie musicians. She was nominated alongside established and renowned singers like Kailash Kher, Rabbi Shergill and a Delhi-based band Indus Creed.


title: Jasleen Royal

text: She entered Bollywood in September 2014 with Sonam Kapoor and Fawad Khan starrer film Khoobsurat with a song titled "Preet" which was composed by Sneha Khanwalkar and penned by Amitabh Verma.


title: Jasleen Royal

text: Kaur completed her schooling from Sacred Heart Convent School, Ludhiana and later moved to New Delhi for further studies. She completed her B. Com Honors from Hindu College, New Delhi.


title: Jasleen Royal

text: With no formal training in music, majorly self-taught, Jasleen first gained popularity when she qualified as one of the semi finalists in the first season of India's Got Talent in 2009. She was all of 18 years of age at that time. She stood out because of her ability to play multiple instruments at the same time. She was amicably called as the 'one woman band' by the then judges Sonali Bendre, Kirron Kher and Shekhar Kapur for she can collectively play the guitar, mouth organ, flute and a tambourine while singing. She can also play the keyboard, which also happens to be the first instrument she ever played.


title: Jasleen Royal

text: Jasleen has performed on NDTV "Our Girls, Our Pride" along with Swanand Kirkire hosted by Priyanka Chopra.


title: Jasleen Royal

text: Jasleen has also participated in a debate on NDTV India on 'How money is not the bigger factor while choosing an employment'.


title: Japan Sinks

text: The novel has led to works in other media as well as a sequel: a film based on the novel made in the same year directed by Shirō Moritani, a television drama by TBS and Toho broadcast in 1974–75, a film remake in 2006 by Shinji Higuchi, a parody created in 2011 that features reverse disaster, an original net anime series released on Netflix by Science Saru in July 2020, and a reboot drama, "", broadcast in October 2021 on TBS.


title: Japan Sinks

text: Japan is on a destructive plate boundary, where the Philippine Sea Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate. It is a triple junction and three subduction zones are involved. After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, towns like Ishinomaki subsided.


title: Japan Sinks

text: This novel is now seen as an important look into the cultural context of 1970s Japan, particularly due to its level of popularity.


title: Japan Sinks

text: An original net animation (ONA) anime series adaptation of the novel was announced on October 9, 2019. The series, titled "Japan Sinks: 2020", was animated by Science Saru, with Ho Pyeon-gang and Masaaki Yuasa served as directors. Toshio Yoshitaka handled series composition, Naoya Wada designed the characters, and Kensuke Ushio composed the series' music. Yuko Sasaki, Reina Ueda and Tomo Muranaka are credited with starring roles. It was released worldwide by Netflix on July 9, 2020. A film compilation version of the series was subsequently released in Japanese theaters on November 13, 2020.


title: Japan Sinks

text: Shortly after the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, a major earthquake hits Japan. Amidst the chaos, the Mutou siblings Ayumu (a 3rd year junior high school student and track and field athlete) and her younger brother Gou (a 5th grader and video game enthusiast) attempt to escape the city with their family and friends. However, the sinking Japanese archipelago complicates their escape. Plunged into extreme conditions, the Mutou siblings believe in the future and acquire the strength to survive with utmost effort.


title: Japan Sinks

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 72% approval rating based on 18 reviews, with an average rating of 6.54/10. The website's critics consensus reads, ""Japan Sinks: 2020"s swell of tension and frenetic pace leave little room to breathe, but bursts of hope and interesting insights into humanity may help brave viewers weather its apocalyptic story." The series attracted criticism within Japan for its condemnation of Japanese nationalism, but also received positive attention in the West for its multiculturalism and inclusiveness, and was named as one of the best anime series of 2020.


title: Japan Sinks

text: The first episode of "Japan Sinks: 2020" was awarded the 2021 Annecy Jury Prize for a Television Series, and the series as a whole received two nominations at the 2021 Crunchyroll Anime Awards. The compilation film version of the series was awarded a Jury Selection Prize at the 2021 Japan Media Arts Festival.


title: Japan Sinks

text: A parody short story by Yasutaka Tsutsui, titled "Nihon Igai Zenbu Chinbotsu" ("The Whole World Sinks Except Japan") was also released in 1973, and adapted into a film of the same name in 2006.


title: The Macallan distillery

text: The Macallan distillery is a single malt Scotch whisky distillery in Craigellachie, Moray, Scotland. The Macallan Distillers Ltd is a wholly owned subsidiary of Edrington, which purchased the brand from Highland Distillers in 1999.


title: The Macallan distillery

text: The Macallan generally considered to be the second or third highest-selling single-malt scotch, next to Glenfiddich and, by some accounts, Glenlivet.


title: The Macallan distillery

text: Originally, The Macallan was matured only in oak sherry casks brought to the distillery from Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. Beginning in 2004, The Macallan introduced a new main product, the Fine Oak series, with the whisky mellowed in bourbon oak casks as well as sherry ones. In 2018, the Fine Oak series was renamed as the Triple Cask Matured range.


title: The Macallan distillery

text: The distillery produces a number of expressions in its core Sherry Oak series, the most generally available being the 12-year-old, although the 18-year-old is widely distributed, alongside a 10-year-old cask strength expression at 58% ABV; expensive 25, 30 and 40-year-old versions can also be found.


title: The Macallan distillery

text: In 2004, The Macallan started to offer single malt expressions vatted with whisky matured in used casks other than ex-sherry casks as part of the Fine Oak range. Macallan also markets special scotches in duty-free shops at airports such as the 1824 Collection and the Quest Collection.


title: The Macallan distillery

text: Speaker of the House of Commons, even though Martin himself had given up drinking alcohol. He did smell whiskies to make his selection. This selection continued the tradition of the Speaker designating


title: The Macallan distillery

text: an official single malt. In 2003, The Macallan started laboratory tests to determine if some antique whiskies purchased for their collection were forgeries, perhaps generated by a dealer with mafia ties. In 2004, it was revealed that laboratory testing had determined at least 11 bottles in its antique whisky collection were fakes. Although The Macallan had tested the paper of the labels and were satisfied the whiskies were genuine, additional tests on the contents of some bottles revealed whisky believed to be only 10 years old. David Cox, director of fine and rare whiskies for The Macallan, said, "As a result of these tests from now on, no antique bottles from the antique collection held at the distillery will be made available for sale."


title: The Macallan distillery

text: In 2007, a bottle of 1926 The Macallan was sold at a Christie's auction for $54,000, making it one of the most expensive bottles of whisky sold. In 2010, a bottle of The Macallan 64-year-old single malt whisky in a one-of-a-kind "Lalique: Cire Perdue" crystal decanter was sold for $460,000 at an auction at Sotheby's in New York City. All proceeds from the sale were donated to , an organization that helps provide access to clean, safe drinking water to people in developing nations. In 2012, The Macallan received the Guinness World Record for the most expensive whisky sold at auction. In 2014, a decanter of Macallan's 'M' whisky sold at auction in Hong Kong for a record-breaking $628,205. In 2018, The Macallan Valerio Adami 1926 60-year-old sold for £848,000 at auction in Edinburgh, the world's most expensive bottle of whisky.


title: The Macallan distillery

text: In July 2019, the £140 million new distillery and visitor experience, on the Easter Elchies estate near Craigellachie, made the shortlist for the Stirling Prize for excellence in architecture. It was designed by Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners. Also in 2019, the distillery won the RIAS Andrew Doolan Best Building in Scotland Award.


title: The Macallan distillery

text: In advance of the creation of the new distillery and visitor experience, archaeological excavations were undertaken by AOC Archaeology in 2014. The archaeologists found that people had been working in the area in the Middle Bronze Age (radiocarbon dates of 1681–1503 cal BC); had built a small settlement in the Late Bronze Age (radiocarbon dates of between 1050 and 800 BC); then a single ring-ditch roundhouse in the Middle Iron Age (radiocarbon dates of 171 BC - AD 51); another small settlement between the ninth to twelfth centuries AD with two post-ring roundhouses; and a 19th century quarry. There was also some evidence (two stone tools) of people being in the area during the Mesolithic period. All of which indicates that people have been living and working on the site of the distillery for thousands of years.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Extended ASCII is a repertoire of character encodings that include (most of) the original 96 ASCII character set, plus up to 128 additional characters. There is no formal definition of "extended ASCII", and even use of the term is sometimes criticized, because it can be mistakenly interpreted to mean that the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) had updated its standard to include more characters, or that the term identifies a single unambiguous encoding, neither of which is the case.


title: Extended ASCII

text: The ISO standard ISO 8859 was the first international standard to formalise a (limited) expansion of the ASCII character set: of the many language variants it encoded, ISO 8859-1 ("ISO Latin 1")which supports most Western European languages is best known in the West. There are many other extended ASCII encodings (more than 220 DOS and Windows codepages). EBCDIC ("the other" major character code) likewise developed many extended variants (more than 186 EBCDIC codepages) over the decades.


title: Extended ASCII

text: The technology has largely been rendered technically obsolete by Unicode, which has code points for all the characters encoded in the various attempts to extend ASCII. All modern operating systems use this technology. Nevertheless the topic remains important in the history of computing.


title: Extended ASCII

text: ASCII was designed in the 1960s for teleprinters and telegraphy, and some computing. Early teleprinters were electromechanical, having no microprocessor and just enough electromechanical memory to function. They fully processed one character at a time, returning to an idle state immediately afterward; this meant that any control sequences had to be only one character long, and thus a large number of codes needed to be reserved for such controls. They were typewriter-derived impact printers, and could only print a fixed set of glyphs, which were cast into a metal type element or elements; this also encouraged a minimum set of glyphs.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Seven-bit ASCII improved over prior five- and six-bit codes. Of the 2=128 codes, 33 were used for controls, and 95 carefully selected printable characters (94 glyphs and one space), which include the English alphabet (uppercase and lowercase), digits, and 31 punctuation marks and symbols: all of the symbols on a standard US typewriter plus a few selected for programming tasks. Some popular peripherals only implemented a 64-printing-character subset: Teletype Model 33 could not transmit "a" through "z" or five less-common symbols ("`", "{", "|", "}", and "~"). and when they received such characters they instead printed "A" through "Z" (forced all caps) and five other mostly-similar symbols ("@", "[", "\", "]", and "^").


title: Extended ASCII

text: The ASCII character set is barely large enough for US English use and lacks many glyphs common in typesetting, and far too small for universal use. Many more letters and symbols are desirable, useful, or required to directly represent letters of alphabets other than English, more kinds of punctuation and spacing, more mathematical operators and symbols (× ÷ ⋅ ≠ ≥ ≈ π etc.), some unique symbols used by some programming languages, ideograms, logograms, box-drawing characters, etc. For years, applications were designed around the 64-character set and/or the 95-character set, so several characters acquired new uses. For example, ASCII lacks "÷", so most programming languages use "/" to indicate division.


title: Extended ASCII

text: The biggest problem for computer users around the world was other alphabets. ASCII's English alphabet almost accommodates European languages, if accented letters are replaced by non-accented letters or two-character approximations. Modified variants of 7-bit ASCII appeared promptly, trading some lesser-used symbols for highly desired symbols or letters, such as replacing "#" with "£" on UK Teletypes, "\" with "¥" in Japan or "₩" in Korea, etc. At least 29 variant sets resulted. 12 code points were modified by at least one modified set, leaving only 82 "invariant" codes. Programming languages however had assigned meaning to many of the replaced characters, work-arounds were devised such as C three-character sequences "??<" and "??>" to represent "{" and "}". Languages with dissimilar basic alphabets could use transliteration, such as replacing all the Latin letters with the closest match Cyrillic letters (resulting in odd but somewhat readable text when English was printed in Cyrillic or vice versa). Schemes were also devised so that two letters could be overprinted (often with the backspace control between them) to produce accented letters. Users were not comfortable with any of these compromises and they were often poorly supported.


title: Extended ASCII

text: When computers and peripherals standardized on eight-bit bytes in the 1970s, it became obvious that computers and software could handle text that uses 256-character sets at almost no additional cost in programming, and no additional cost for storage. (Assuming that the unused 8th bit of each byte was not reused in some way, such as error checking, Boolean fields, or packing 8 characters into 7 bytes.) This would allow ASCII to be used unchanged and provide 128 more characters. Many manufacturers devised 8-bit character sets consisting of ASCII plus up to 128 of the unused codes. Since Eastern Europe were politically separated at the time, 8-bit encodings which covered all the more used European (and Latin American) languages, such as Danish, Dutch, French, German, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish and more could be made, often called "Latin" or "Roman".


title: Extended ASCII

text: 128 additional characters is still not enough to cover all purposes, all languages, or even all European languages, so the emergence of "many" proprietary and national ASCII-derived 8-bit character sets was inevitable. Translating between these sets (transcoding) is complex (especially if a character is not in both sets); and was often not done, producing mojibake (semi-readable resulting text, often users learned how to manually decode it). There were eventually attempts at cooperation or coordination by national and international standards bodies in the late 1990s, but manufacture proprietary sets remained the most popular by far, primarily because the standards excluded many popular characters.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Various proprietary modifications and extensions of ASCII appeared on non-EBCDIC mainframe computers and minicomputers, especially in universities.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Hewlett-Packard started to add European characters to their extended 7-bit / 8-bit ASCII character set HP Roman Extension around 1978/1979 for use with their workstations, terminals and printers. This later evolved into the widely used regular 8-bit character sets HP Roman-8 and HP Roman-9 (as well as a number of variants).


title: Extended ASCII

text: Atari and Commodore home computers added many graphic symbols to their non-standard ASCII (Respectively, ATASCII and PETSCII, based on the original ASCII standard of 1963).


title: Extended ASCII

text: The TRS-80 character set for the TRS-80 home computer added 64 semigraphics characters (0x80 through 0xBF) that implemented low-resolution block graphics. (Each block-graphic character displayed as a 2x3 grid of pixels, with each block pixel effectively controlled by one of the lower 6 bits.)


title: Extended ASCII

text: IBM introduced eight-bit extended ASCII codes on the original IBM PC and later produced variations for different languages and cultures. IBM called such character sets "code pages" and assigned numbers to both those they themselves invented as well as many invented and used by other manufacturers. Accordingly, character sets are very often indicated by their IBM code page number. In ASCII-compatible code pages, the lower 128 characters maintained their standard US-ASCII values, and different pages (or sets of characters) could be made available in the upper 128 characters. DOS computers built for the North American market, for example, used code page 437, which included accented characters needed for French, German, and a few other European languages, as well as some graphical line-drawing characters. The larger character set made it possible to create documents in a combination of languages such as English and French (though French computers usually use code page 850), but not, for example, in English and Greek (which required code page 737).


title: Extended ASCII

text: Apple Computer introduced their own eight-bit extended ASCII codes in Mac OS, such as Mac OS Roman. The Apple LaserWriter also introduced the Postscript character set.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) developed the Multinational Character Set, which had fewer characters but more letter and diacritic combinations. It was supported by the VT220 and later DEC computer terminals. This later became the basis for other character sets such as the Lotus International Character Set (LICS), ECMA-94 and ISO 8859-1.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Eventually, ISO released this standard as ISO 8859 describing its own set of eight-bit ASCII extensions. The most popular is ISO 8859-1, also called "ISO Latin 1", which contained characters sufficient for the most common Western European languages.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Variations were standardized for other languages as well: ISO 8859-2 for Eastern European languages and ISO 8859-5 for Cyrillic languages, for example.


title: Extended ASCII

text: One notable way in which ISO character sets differ from code pages is that the character positions 128 to 159, corresponding to ASCII control characters with the high-order bit set, are specifically unused and undefined in the ISO standards, though they had often been used for printable characters in proprietary code pages, a breaking of ISO standards that was almost universal.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Microsoft later created code page 1252, a compatible superset of ISO 8859–1 with extra characters in the ISO unused range.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Code page 1252 is the standard character encoding of western European language versions of Microsoft Windows, including English versions.


title: Extended ASCII

text: ISO 8859-1 is the common 8-bit character encoding used by the X Window System, and most Internet standards used it before Unicode.


title: Extended ASCII

text: The meaning of each extended code point can be different in every encoding. In order to correctly interpret and display text data (sequences of characters) that includes extended codes, hardware and software that reads or receives the text must use the "specific" extended ASCII encoding that applies to it. Applying the wrong encoding causes irrational substitution of many or all extended characters in the text.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Software can use a fixed encoding selection, or it can select from a palette of encodings by defaulting, checking the computer's nation and language settings, reading a declaration in the text, analyzing the text, asking the user, letting the user select or override, and/or defaulting to last selection. When text is transferred between computers that use different operating systems, software, and encodings, applying the wrong encoding can be commonplace.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Because the full English alphabet and the most-used characters in English are included in the seven-bit code points of ASCII, which are common to all encodings (even most proprietary encodings), English-language text is less damaged by interpreting it with the wrong encoding, but text in other languages can display as mojibake (complete nonsense). Because many Internet standards use ISO 8859-1, and because Microsoft Windows (using the code page 1252 superset of ISO 8859-1) is the dominant operating system for personal computers today, unannounced use of ISO 8859-1 is quite commonplace, and may generally be assumed unless there are indications otherwise.


title: Extended ASCII

text: Many communications protocols, most importantly SMTP and HTTP, require the character encoding of content to be tagged with IANA-assigned character set identifiers.


title: Extended ASCII

text: For programming languages and document languages such as C and HTML, the principle of Extended ASCII is important, since it enables many different encodings and therefore many human languages to be supported with little extra programming effort in the software that interprets the computer-readable language files.


title: Extended ASCII

text: A computer language that supports Extended ASCII can also support UTF-8 without any changes, this was a major factor in UTF-8's popularity.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Marital rape in United States law, also known as spousal rape, is non-consensual sex in which the perpetrator is the victim's spouse. It is a form of partner rape, of domestic violence, and sexual abuse. Today, marital rape is illegal in all 50 US states, though the details of the offence vary by state.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Prior to the 1970s, marital rape was legal in every US state. It was partially outlawed in Michigan and Delaware in 1974, then wholly outlawed in South Dakota and Nebraska in 1975. The court case "Oregon v. Rideout" in 1978 was the first in which someone stood trial for raping his spouse while they lived together. By 1993 marital rape was a crime nationwide. Still, in the 1990s, most states continued to differentiate between the way marital rape and non-marital rape were viewed and treated. The laws have continued to change and evolve, with most states reforming their laws in the 21st century. However, there are still states where marital rape and non-marital rape are treated quite differently under the law.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: The views which contributed to rape laws not being applicable in marriage can be traced, at least partially, to 17th century English common law, which was imported to the British American colonies. The 17th-century English jurist, Sir Matthew Hale (1609–1676), stated the position of the common law in "The History of the Pleas of the Crown" (posthumously, 1736) that a "husband cannot be guilty of a rape committed by himself upon his lawful wife, for by their mutual matrimonial consent and contract the wife hath given up herself in this kind to her husband which she cannot retract". The ruling, although no legal record of which is found earlier than Hale, likely relied on even earlier standards. In a case of Lord Audley's (1488–1544), for instance, he cites the jurist Bracton (c. 1210 – c. 1268) in support of this rule, said to derived from laws of King Æthelstan (r. 927–939) where upon the law holds that even "were the party of no chaste life, but a whore, yet there may be ravishment: but it is a good plea to say she was his concubine". This would continue to be accepted as a statement of the law in England and Wales until it was overturned by the House of Lords in the case of "R v R" in 1991, where it was described as an anachronistic and offensive legal fiction.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In the United States, prior to the mid-1970s marital rape was exempted from ordinary rape laws. The exemption is also found in the 1962 Model Penal Code, which stated that "A male who has sexual intercourse with a "female not his wife" is guilty of rape if: ...".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Michigan and Delaware reduced their legal tolerance of marital rape in 1974 but did not entirely eliminate the spousal exception in their rape laws. Michigan criminalized marital rape only when a couple had filed for divorce and were living apart. Delaware criminalized rape of a "voluntary social companion," which could include a wife; this crime was treated less seriously than other forms of rape.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: South Dakota totally outlawed marital rape from 1975 to 1977. A bill introduced by Senator Grace Mickelson quietly struck the spousal exemption from state law. The exception was restored not long afterward. According to the "New York Times" South Dakota was the first state to outlaw marital rape.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Nebraska also eliminated the spousal exemption in 1975. The state modernized its law to use the term "sexual assault" rather than "rape", and to be gender neutral, rather than to assume a male perpetrator and female victim. The change in law was the result of advocacy by second wave feminist organizations and victim advocacy groups in Nebraska, and was introduced to the legislature by Senator Wally Barnett.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Some laws of the 1970s required the husband and wife to no longer be living together for marital rape charges to be brought. The case in the United States that first challenged this cohabitation clause was "Oregon v. Rideout" in 1978. In the case, the husband was accused of raping his wife, the first man in the United States to be charged with raping his wife while they were still living together. The trial was the first in Oregon relating to marital rape since the state revised its rape law in 1977 to eliminate the marital rape immunity. Although the husband was acquitted of raping his wife, it spurred the movement towards reform; many American states began to allow prosecution for marital and cohabitation rape.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In some states, courts have struck down the marital exemption as unconstitutional. In the 1984 New York Court of Appeals case of "People v. Liberta", judge Sol Wachtler stated that "a marriage license should not be viewed as a license for a husband to forcibly rape his wife with impunity. A married woman has the same right to control her own body as does an unmarried woman". Similarly, in Alabama, the marital exemptions from the sodomy law ("Williams v. State" (1986)) and from the rape law ("Merton v. State" (1986)) were found unconstitutional.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: By 1993, all states had withdrawn the marital rape exemptions, the last states to do so being Oklahoma and North Carolina (both in 1993) or the exemption had been declared judicially to be unconstitutional.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Though laws had changed in every state by 1993, in only 17 states was marital rape treated the same as non-marital rape. In the other states, there continued to be significant differences in the way marital rape and non-marital rape were treated, such as less severe penalties, or excluding situations where no violence is used, or shorter reporting periods.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In the 1990s and beyond, feminists, women's and other organizations have continued to lobby for the amendment of marital rape laws to ensure marital rape is regarded and treated like any other rape, though rape laws in the United States are not uniform, and the laws have changed numerous times, but differences remain in some states.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: South Carolina, for example, remains the only state where the force or violence used or threatened must be of a higher level (force or violence must be of a "high and aggravated nature" – see section below Current State laws).


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: A similar law existed in Tennessee until 2005, when it was repealed. The law stated that a person could be guilty of the rape of a spouse at a time they are living together only if that person either "was armed with a weapon or any article used or fashioned in a manner to lead the alleged victim to reasonably believe it to be a weapon" or "caused serious bodily injury to the alleged victim". This meant that, in practice, most cases of marital rape could not be prosecuted, since few rapes involve such extreme circumstances. The law was finally repealed in 2005, allowing for marital rape to be treated like any other type of rape. The bill to repeal the old law was introduced more than ten times before it succeeded.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Until 2013, Washington had an exemption preventing a spouse from being prosecuted with third-degree-rape against the other spouse. Washington removed its exemptions for first-degree rape and second-degree rape in 1983, but the exemption for third-degree rape was removed 30 years later.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Until July 2019, in Minnesota sexual violence occurring between spouses at the time they cohabit or between unmarried partners could be prosecuted only if there was force or threat thereof, due to exemptions created by Article 609.349 'Voluntary relationships' which stipulated that certain sexual offenses do not apply to spouses (unless they are separated), and neither do they apply to unmarried cohabitants. These are offenses that deal with situations where the lack of consent is due to the incapacity of consent of the victim, including where the victim was drugged by the perpetrator. These situations, which were excluded from prosecution, are where the victim was "mentally impaired, mentally incapacitated, or physically helpless". The term "mentally incapacitated" is defined as a person who "under the influence of alcohol, a narcotic, anesthetic, or any other substance, "administered to that person without the person's agreement", lacks the judgment to give a reasoned consent to sexual contact or sexual penetration" (see Article 609.341 for definitions). In 2019, these exemptions were repealed.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: A 2003 study found that "twenty-four states and the District of Columbia have abolished marital immunity for sexual offenses ... twenty-six states retain marital immunity in one form or another".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In California, marital rape was recognized as a crime by Section 262 of California's Penal Code in 1979. However, there are separate criminal offenses for non-spousal rape (Section 261) and for spousal rape (Section 262); the latter continues to be treated as a less serious crime.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Since January 1, 2019, Section 261.6 defines "consent" as "positive cooperation in act or attitude pursuant to an exercise of free will. The person must act freely and voluntarily and have knowledge of the nature of the act or transaction involved". Sections 261.6 and 261.7 stipulate that, wherever "consent is at issue", "a current or previous dating or marital relationship shall not be sufficient to constitute consent", neither is "evidence that the victim suggested, requested, or otherwise communicated to the defendant that the defendant use a condom or other birth control device".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: October 7th, 2021, the governor signed Assembly Bill 1171 eliminating section 262 of California's Penal Code. AB-1171 would repeal the provisions relating to spousal rape and make conforming changes, thereby making an act of sexual intercourse accomplished with a spouse punishable as rape if the act otherwise meets the definition of rape, except that sexual intercourse with a person who is incapable of giving legal consent because of mental disorder or developmental or physical disability would not be rape if the 2 people are married.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Connecticut Penal Code Sec. 53a-70b deals with forced sex with a spouse. This does not apply only to spouses but also to unmarried cohabitants. The law is more narrow than the other sex laws and it has a shorter penalty. It reads:


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: The spousal rape law of Connecticut makes reference to force used or threatened against the "other spouse or cohabitor" while the 'ordinary' sexual assault law deals with force used or threatened against the "other person "or against a third person"".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Idaho statute 18-6101 defines criminal rape, not excluding marital rape, as the oral, vaginal, or anal penetration by a penis and either the inability of the victim to give legal consent, the victim resisting but being overcome by force or violence, the victim being prevented from resisting, the victim being unconscious, or when the victim submits under certain false pretenses.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Maryland law states that, if the spouses are living together, a prosecution can take place only if the accused "uses force or threat of force and the act is without the consent of the spouse". If the spouses are separated they are treated as if they were strangers (See Section § 3-318)


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In Michigan, Section 750.520l excludes situations where the criminality comes solely due to the spouse being "mentally incapable, or mentally incapacitated". Section 750.520a Definitions reads: Mentally incapacitated" means that a person is rendered temporarily incapable of appraising or controlling his or her conduct due to the influence of a narcotic, anesthetic, or other substance administered to that person "without his or her consent", or due to any other act committed upon that person "without his or her consent"."


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In Mississippi, a person can be convicted of sexual battery of a spouse when they are living together only if he engages in "forcible penetration against the victim's will". This excludes, among others, situations where the victim is "rendered incapable of knowing or controlling his or her conduct, or incapable of resisting an act due to the influence of any drug, narcotic, anesthetic, or other substance administered to that person without his or her consent".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Nevada law appears to require force or threat of force. Article 200.373 states that: "It is no defense to a charge of sexual assault that the perpetrator was, at the time of the assault, married to the victim, if the assault was committed by force or by the threat of force." This seems to imply that if force or threat of thereof were not used, marriage can be a defense. The general definition of sexual assault uses the wording "against the will of the victim" or "under conditions in which the perpetrator knows or should know that the victim is mentally or physically incapable of resisting or understanding the nature of his or her conduct".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In Ohio, a rape that happens in marriage when the spouses are living together can only be charged under subsection A(2) of "2907.02 Rape", which states that: "No person shall engage in sexual conduct with another when the offender purposely compels the other person to submit by force or threat of force." By contrast, a person who is not married to the accused or who is married but living separate and apart can rely on many laws which deal with various forms of coercion. It is notable that subsection A(1)(a)


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: of "2907.02 Rape" that deals with drugging someone "surreptitiously or by force, threat of force, or deception" to coerce them into sex does not apply in marriage (except in case of separation). The whole article "2907.03 Sexual battery", that deals with various forms of coercion (for instance it states in subsection in A (1) that "The offender [commits a crime when he] knowingly coerces the other person to submit by any means that would prevent resistance by a person of ordinary resolution") does not apply at all to married people. In 2015, a bill was introduced to remove these exemptions.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In Oklahoma, rape by a spouse can only be charged under subsection (B) of "Section 1111 – Rape Defined" which states:


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: For instance, a person in Oklahoma can not charge her/his spouse for rape if she/he is compelled to submit due to drugs "administered by or with the privity of the accused as a means of forcing the victim to submit", or when she/he is unconscious, as these situations are dealt under subsection (A) of Section 1111 which define rape as intercourse "with a male or female who is not the spouse of the perpetrator".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In Rhode Island, Article § 11-37-2 "First degree sexual assault", has four subsections; while subsections 2, 3 and 4 apply to spouses, subsection 1 does not; it reads: "The accused, "not being the spouse", knows or has reason to know that the victim is mentally incapacitated, mentally disabled, or physically helpless." This has the result of excluding from prosecution, among other situations, incidents where the victim was drugged by the perpetrator. ("Mentally incapacitated" is defined by legislation as: "a person who is rendered temporarily incapable of appraising or controlling his or her conduct due to the influence of a narcotic, anesthetic, or other substance "administered to that person without his or her consent", or who is mentally unable to communicate unwillingness to engage in the act".)


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: South Carolina's statute on "Assault and Criminal Sexual Conduct" (Title 16, Chapter 3, Article 7 of the SC Code of Laws) lays out distinctively different definitions and penalties between rape by a spouse and by other parties. First and second degree sexual assault carries a maximum prison sentence of 30 and 20 years, respectively, while 10 years is the maximum sentence for marital rape. In order to prosecute, the married victim must report the rape within 30 days, even if they are living separately from their spouse.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: This definition does not include all types of force under first degree sexual assault definitions, such as rape combined with felony acts – like forcible confinement, kidnapping, trafficking in persons, or extortion – or cases where the married victim was drugged by their rapist.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In the case of criminal sexual conduct when the victim and perpetrator are married but do not live together as a married couple, first and second degree forms of sexual assault are included in the definition of rape, but not third degree forms. So, for example, drugging and raping a spouse from whom you are separated is against the law, but if they are unable to give consent because of substances they took themselves or were given by a third party, having sex with them is not legally defined as rape.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In Virginia, the main difference lies in punishment. Under certain circumstances, if the victim and the attorney for the Commonwealth agree, the perpetrator can undergo a therapy program, which if completed successfully, replaces any punishment. This can happen if "the court finds such action will promote maintenance of the family unit and be in the best interest of the complaining witness".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: Child and forced marriage in the United States have come to increased scrutiny in recent years. Although the general marriage age is 18 in most of the United States, 44 states allow marriage under the age of 18 with parental and/or court consent. Such exceptions can create conflicts between age of consent laws and the marriage age, with most statutory rape laws creating exceptions for minors engaged in a sexual relationship with their lawful spouse – although such minors would otherwise not be able to legally consent to sex. Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Rhode Island, and New York have enacted legislation to ban all marriage for minors under the age of 18, without exceptions.


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In Iowa, for example, subsection (2) of article 709.4 Sexual abuse in third degree, excludes sexual acts committed by adults with children as young as 12, provided the parties are "cohabiting as husband and wife".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: This does not refer only to legal marriages, but can apply to common law marriage as well. Iowa is also one of 10 states, and the District of Columbia, which recognizes common law marriage, though it does also require, "substantial evidence of a present intent and agreement to be married, continuous cohabitation, and a public declaration that the parties are husband and wife".


title: Marital rape in the United States

text: In 2012, a man who got his 13-year-old live-in girlfriend pregnant tried to rely on this law. The man, who was of Mexican origin, argued that according to the norms as they exist in his culture, their relationship was "sort of like a trial marriage". The court rejected this argument, ruling that the exemption could be used only if the couple "objectively cohabited in the status of husband and wife, whether common law or otherwise", not if they merely believed they did.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Resources are classified as either biotic or abiotic on the basis of their origin. The Indian landmass contains a multitude of both types of resource and its economy, especially in rural areas, is heavily dependent on their consumption or export. Due to overconsumption, they are rapidly being depleted.


title: Natural resources of India

text: The total cultivable area in India is 1,945,355  km (56.78% of it total land area), which is shrinking due to population pressures, desertification and rapid urbanisation. India has a total water surface area of 360,400 km.


title: Natural resources of India

text: India's major mineral resources include coal (4th largest reserves in the world), iron ore, manganese ore (7th largest reserve in the world as in 2013), mica, bauxite (5th largest reserve in the world as in 2013), chromite, natural gas, diamonds, limestone and thorium. India's oil reserves, found in Bombay High off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and in eastern Assam meet 25% of the country's demand.


title: Natural resources of India

text: A national level agency National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) was established in 1983 for integrated natural resources management in the country. It is supported by Planning Commission (India) and Department of Space.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Biotic resources are obtained from living and organic material. These include forest products, wildlife, crops and other living organisms. Most of these resources are renewable because they can be regenerated by themselves. Fossil fuels are considered as biotic because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Fossil fuels are non-renewable.


title: Natural resources of India

text: India is the second most populated country in the world after China. India is projected to overtake China to become the world's most populous country by 2027.


title: Natural resources of India

text: India's land area includes regions with high rainfall to dry deserts, coastline to mountainous regions. Total forest and tree cover is 24.56% of the geographical area of the country. Due to variations in climatic conditions and differences in altitude, different types of forest are present in India including tropical, swamp, mangrove and alpine. Forests are the main source of firewood, paper, spices, drugs, herbs, gums and many more. Forestry contribute a significant amount in nation's economy.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Fishing in India is a major industrial employment for about 14.5 million people. India ranks second in aquaculture and third in fisheries production. Fisheries contributes to 1.07% of the Total GDP of India. According to Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, fish production increased from 7.52 lakh tonnes in year 1950-51 to 125.90 lakh tonnes in year 2018-19, increase in seventeen times. India has a long history in fishing and aquaculture. It has rich feathers and inland silicon resources, and a 7516.6 km long coastline. Inland fishery is carried out in Rivers, Resources and Lakes. In Indian rivers more than 400 species of fish are found, many of which are economically important. Shrimp, sardines, mackerels, carangid, croakers and other varieties are available. Major fish species available are carp, catfish, murrel and weed fish. India is one of the major marine fish producers. In 2012–2013, 9 lakh tonnes of marine products was exported.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Coal mining in India started in 1774 through the East India Company in the Raniganj Coalfield, which is along the western bank of the Damodar River in the Indian state of West Bengal. Growth of Indian coal mining started when steam locomotives were introduced in 1853. Production increased to million tonnes. Production reached 30 million tonnes in 1946. After Independence, the National Coal Development Corporation was set up and colleries were owned by the railways. India consumes coal mainly for the power sector. Other industries like cement, fertilizer, chemical and paper rely on coal for energy.


title: Natural resources of India

text: India had about 100 million tonnes of proven oil reserves as of April 1978, or 1 billion barrels as per EIA estimate for 2020, which is the second-largest amount in the Asia-Pacific region behind China. Most of India's crude oil reserves are located on the western coast (Mumbai High) and in the southeastern parts of the country, although considerable undeveloped reserves are also located in the offshore Bay of Bengal and in the state of Rajasthan. The combination of rising oil consumption and fairly unwavering production levels leaves India highly dependent on imports to meet its consumption needs. In 2010, India produced an average of about 33.69 million tonnes of crude oil as of April 2010 or 877 thousand barrels per day as per EIA estimate of 2009. During 2006, India consumed an estimated of oil. The EIA estimates that India registered oil demand growth of during 2006. As of 2013 India Produces 30% of India's resources mostly in Rajasthan.


title: Natural resources of India

text: India's state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation is the largest oil company in India. ONGC is the leading sport in India's downstream sector, accounting for roughly 1% of the country's oil output during 2023, as per Indian government estimates. As a net importer of all oil, the Indian Government has introduced policies aimed at growing domestic oil production and oil exploration activities. As part of the effort, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas crafted the New Exploration License Policy (NELP) in 2000, which permits foreign companies to hold 100% equity possession in oil and natural gas projects. However, to date, only a handful of oil fields are controlled by foreign firms. India's downstream sector is also dominated by state-owned entities, though private companies have enlarged their market share in past recent years.


title: Natural resources of India

text: As per the Ministry of Petroleum, Government of India, India has of confirmed natural gas reserves as of April 2010. A huge mass of India's natural gas production comes from the western offshore regions, particularly the Mumbai High complex. The onshore fields in Assam, tripura, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Gujarat states are also major producers of natural gas. As per EIA data, India produced of natural gas in 2004. India imports small amounts of natural gas. In 2004, India consumed about of natural gas, the first year in which the country showed net natural gas imports. During 2004, India imported of liquefied natural gas (LNG) from Qatar.


title: Natural resources of India

text: As in the oil sector, India's state-owned companies account for the bulk of natural gas production. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation and Oil India Limited. are the leading companies with respect to production volume, while some foreign companies take part in upstream developments in joint-ventures and production sharing contracts. Reliance Industries, a privately owned Indian company, also has a role in the natural gas sector as a result of a large natural gas find in 2002 in the Krishna Godavari basin.


title: Natural resources of India

text: The Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL) holds an effective control on natural gas transmission and allocation activities. In December 2006, the Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas issued a new policy that allows foreign investors, private domestic companies, and Government oil companies to hold up to 100% equity stakes in pipeline projects. While GAIL's domination in natural gas transmission and allocation is not ensured by statute, it will continue to be the leading player in the sector because of its existing natural gas infrastructure.


title: Natural resources of India

text: In Nalgonda District, the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Reserve (the only tiger project in Telangana) has been forced to surrender over 3,000 sq. kilometres to uranium mining, following a directive from the Central Ministry of Environment and Forests.


title: Natural resources of India

text: On 19 July 2011, Indian officials announced that the Tumalapalli mine in the Andhra Pradesh state of India could provide more than 170,000 tonnes of uranium, making it the world's largest uranium mine. Production of the ore is slated to begin in 2012.


title: Natural resources of India

text: The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) recently discovered that the upcoming mine in Tumalapalli has close to 49,000 tonnes of uranium reserves. This could help India's nuclear power aspirations as it is three times the original estimate of the area's deposits.


title: Natural resources of India

text: The IAEA's 2005 report estimates India's reasonably assured reserves of thorium at 319,000 tonnes, but mentions recent reports of India's reserves at 650,000 tonnes. A government of India estimate, shared in the country's Parliament in August 2011, puts the recoverable reserve at 846,477 tonnes. The Indian Minister of State V. Narayanasamy stated that as of May 2013, the country's thorium reserves were 11.93 million tonnes (monazite, having 9-10% ThO), with a significant majority (8.59 Mt; 72%) found in the three eastern coastal states of Andhra Pradesh (3.72 Mt; 31%), Tamil Nadu (2.46 Mt; 21%) and Odisha (2.41 Mt; 20%). Both the IAEA and OECD appear to conclude that India may possess the largest share of world's thorium deposits.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Abiotic resources are obtained from the non-living and non-organic material. Some of the resources, like water and air, are renewable. Other resources like minerals are non-renewable and exhaustible because they cannot be regenerated. Minerals have many categories like metallic, non-metallic and minor minerals...


title: Natural resources of India

text: Metallic minerals are the minerals which contain one or more metallic elements. They occur in rare, naturally formed concentrations known as mineral deposits. Metallic minerals available in India are gold, zinc, iron ore, manganese ore, bauxite, silver, lead, tin, copper and chromite.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Total in situ reserves of gold ore are estimated at 22.4 million tonnes and 116.5 tonnes of metal. India has only 0.75% of total world gold production.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Copper has been used since ancient times. Details of copper mining and metallurgy are available in ancient works like the Arthashastra. Copper is mainly used in industrial applications, electrical/electronic equipment and consumer products such as utensils. India is one of the 20 largest copper producers. Major resources of copper are available in Rajasthan, Madhya pradesh and Jharkhand. As of 2010, India has the world's largest copper reserve beating Russia. However as of 2019, China has the highest copper reserves. It is called Mihid and has about 10,000 workers to this day. In 2008, India produced 7,10,000 tonnes of copper. Hindustan Copper Limited, a public sector undertaking, is the only producer of primary refined copper. Post-pillar method and blast hole stoping method are used for mining. Some of the domestic demand is met through scrap recycling. In India, copper scrap is recycled to make 4 wheeled cycles, which is a hazardous process.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Manganese is used in the manufacture of steel, paint, glass, bleaching powder, dry cell, batteries and also present in certain enzymes of the human body. It is used to make a number of alloys. It is important for several biological processes and is essential for plant growth. It is also responsible for the human immune system and necessary for bone development.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Manganese is necessary for the manufacture of steel as it prevents rusting and is also in high demand in India, thus it is an important contributor to the Indian economy.


title: Natural resources of India

text: It is found in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra. As of 2022, MOIL is India's largest producer of manganese ore and operates 11 mines.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal. It is also a fair conductor of electricity. References to medicinal uses of zinc are present in the Charaka Samhita.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Ancient zinc smelting technique was found at a zinc production site in Zawar, Rajasthan. Zinc is recovered from a number of different zinc ores. The types of zinc ores include sulfide, carbonate, silicate and oxide. It is used in corrosive resistant coatings for iron and steel, and in the automotive, electrical and machinery industries. India has the world's fourth largest zinc reserve as in 2013. Hindustan Zinc Limited is the main producer of zinc in India. Most of the resources are available in Rajasthan. A minor amount of resources are available in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra states.


title: Natural resources of India

text: India is the world's third biggest exporter of iron ore as of 2013. In the last renewal in 2018, a total of 5.5 million tonne per annum (MTPA) of high-grade iron ore export was allowed to Japan and South Korea. The value of iron ore exported from India amounted to nearly 186 billion rupees in fiscal year 2020. This export value was significantly higher than the previous financial year's value of about 92 billion rupees. As of 2010, India had 27 billion tonnes of resource (including hematite and magnetite). The major amount of hematite is found in Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa. Minor amounts of hematite are found in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Most magnetite is found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Minor amounts of magnetite are found in Assam, Bihar, Goa, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Nagaland. Mining is done by the opencast method. Iron ore is mainly used for manufacturing of pig iron, sponge iron and steel. It is also used in coal washeries, cement and glass industries. Public sector companies like National Mineral Development Corporation and Steel Authority of India contribute to 25% of the total production. Private companies including Tata Steel also provide major contributions.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Chromite is an oxide of chromium and iron. It is the only commercial source of chromium. As of 2010, India had 200 million tonnes of resource. Major amount of resources are available from Orissa (Cuttack and Jajpur districts). Minor amount of resources are available from Manipur, Nagaland, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. In 2009–2010, India produced 3.41 million tonnes and ranked second in world production. It is mostly mined by opencast method. Chromium provides additional strength to the alloys and it is resistant to corrosion, so it is mainly used in metallurgical applications. It can withstand sudden temperature changes, so it is used in refractories. It is also used in chemical applications.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Researchers at the Atomic Minerals Directorate, a unit of India's Atomic Energy Commission, have estimated lithium reserves of 14,100 tonnes in a small patch of land surveyed in the Southern Karnataka district.this though a small but a significant development for the country's battery sector. This is a preliminary estimate and requires further exploration efforts to convert the estimated resources to exploitable category with high degree of confidence level and explore the possibility of augmenting Li resources in the area. Further, unless a proper technology/method is available to profitably extract lithium from its ore, the real benefit of exploration may not be there.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Non-metallic minerals are those which do not yield new products on melting. They are generally associated with sedimentary rocks. Non-Metallic minerals available from India are


title: Natural resources of India

text: phosphorite, dolomite, gypsum, garnet, wollastonite, vermiculite, ochre, perlite, bentonite, asbestos, cadmium, felspar, soapstone, kaolin, sillimanite, limestone, diatomite, pyrophyllite, fluorite, vanadium, dunite, ilmenite, gallium and Zircon


title: Natural resources of India

text: It is a group of complex silicate minerals and has similar chemical compositions. There are three groups of garnet - aluminum-garnet group, chromium-garnet group, and iron-garnet group. The minerals in aluminium-garnet group are almandine, grossularite, pyrope, and spessartine. The mineral in Iron-garnet group is andradite. The mineral in chromium-garnet group is uvarovite. Garnet group minerals occur in different rock types. It is a hard substance. It is resistant to chemical exposure. It is used as a semi-precious stone and also in abrasives, sand blasting, water filtration materials and water jet cutting. Garnets are available in Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. It is also found in beach sands of Kerala, Orissa and Tamil Nadu states. In 2007–08, India produced 8,73,000 tonnes.


title: Natural resources of India

text: It is a meta-silicate of calcium. It is mostly white in color and occurs as bladed or needle like crystals. In 2010, India had 16 million tonnes of resource. Most of the deposits are available in Rajasthan (Dungarpur, Pali, Sirohi and Udaipur districts). Minor amount of deposits are found in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. It is mainly used in ceramic industries and metallurgical applications. It is also used as a filler in wall tiles, paint, rubber and plastic. India is one of the largest reserves. In 2011, India produced 150,000 tons. It is mined by opencast method. It is also used as a substitute for short-fibre asbestos in brake-linings. Central Building Research Institute has found that wollastonite can be used as substitute for chrysotile asbestos in cement products.


title: Natural resources of India

text: It is a group of metamorphic minerals - sillimanite, kyanite and andalusite. These are polymorphs of alumino-silicate. These are formed under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. The three minerals are calcined to form mullite. Mainly used as refractory materials.


title: Natural resources of India

text: As of 2010, India had 66 million tonnes of sillimanite, 100 million tonnes of Kyanite and 18 million tonnes of Andalusite as a resource. Most of the resources are found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Assam. A minor amount of resources are found in Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and West Bengal. Granular sillimanite is available in beach sands of South India. Sillimanite refractory bricks are used in steel, glass and petrochemical industries. In 2004, India produced 14,500 tonnes of sillimanite and 6200 tonnes of kyanite.


title: Natural resources of India

text: It is a compound of iron and titanium. It will be iron-black or steel-gray in color. It is a non-toxic material used in biomedical substances. Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology has developed an environmentally friendly technology for processing ilmenite.


title: Natural resources of India

text: It is also used in production of titanium dioxide pigment. It is available in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. Mining is done at Chavara, Chatrapur, Aluva and Manavalakurichi by Indian Rare Earths limited. As of 2013, India has 21% of the world's reserves and constitutes 6% of the world's production.


title: Natural resources of India

text: It is a hydrous alumino-silicate. It is chemically inert, has high melting point and low electrical conductivity. It is used in refractories, foundry dressings, pesticides, ceramics and rubber. It is available as hydrothermal deposits. The physical and optical properties are pyrophyllite are similar to talc. It is also used in electrical insulators, sanitary-ware and in the glass industry. As of 2010, India had 56 million tonnes of this resource. Most of the resources are found in Madhya Pradesh (Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh and Shivpuri districts). The remaining resources are found in Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. In 2010, India produced 1.5 million tonnes.


title: Natural resources of India

text: Minor minerals available are building stone, brick earth, quartzite, marble, granite, gravel, clay and sand. These are mainly used in building constructions. Environmental impact of mining these minerals was significant over a period of time even the area was small. Impacts were increasing water scarcity, damage to river beds and adverse effects on biodiversity. So from 2012 onwards, mining of these minerals are to be done after clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests.