title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: The next day the first suitor calls Mangal to reject his proposal after seeing Tulshi's DJ avatar in the newspaper. Mangal is thoroughly shocked and cannot come to terms that he was completely unaware of his sister's profession which is considered unacceptable in contemporary society and prohibits Tulshi from pursuing her DJ activity. She is deeply hurt by this and seeks solace with Suraj, whose confession pushes her into further grief. Suraj, with persistent efforts, is able to win back her trust. On the other side, Mangal comes to terms with his defeat and plans another act to get revenge. He meets Suraj's parents and proposes Tulshi's marriage with Suraj which everyone agrees to, despite Tulshi and Suraj doubting this sudden change of heart.


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: On the day of their engagement, Mangal tricks Gurnam into talking about dowry, which he records, and has the Dhillons arrested for dowry. Tulshi is heartbroken yet again as she cannot approve Suraj asking for dowry and resigns her fate to Mangal, who arranges her meeting with the second suitor he had spoken earlier and their marriage is fixed in haste.


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: After seeking bail, Suraj discovers that Mangal is in a romantic relation with a woman, Kavya (Neha Pendse), who is married to a OCD-esque maths professor Chinmay Godbole (Vijay Raaz). Seeking revenge, Suraj produces evidence of adultery to Chinmay and asks him to press charges of adultery on Mangal, which he refuses because he hates the courts where nothing is in order. Suraj realises Kavya's plight and then tortures Chinmay by putting everything in sight out of order, forcing him to sign the divorce papers.


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: On the day of Tulshi's marriage, Kavya rushes to Mangal and tells him that Suraj made her husband sign the divorce papers. Mangal, who was unsure of the match from the beginning, realises his mistake and apologies to Tulshi and Rekha, and they flee from the marriage. They go to the railway station where Suraj is returning with his parents to their native place forever to escape from the humiliation of their dowry charges. Out of desperation, Mangal pulls the emergency chain to stop it and searches for Suraj. He is able to finally reunite Tulshi and Suraj, but the TTE charges him for stopping the train. As Mangal has forgotten to carry his wallet, he is unable to pay the fine; when the Dhillons refuse as well, Mangal is sent to jail.


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Mumbai Mirror wrote," If you’re in the market for a feature film that doesn’t employ your brains too much but leaves you largely satisfied, this one won’t disappoint."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Times Now says, " कुल मिलाकर कहा जाए तो फिल्म सूरज पे मंगल भारी एक सिंपल और मजेदार फिल्म है जिसे आप आराम से और सुकून से देख सकते हैं."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Box Office Worldwide wrote, "Though Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari was set in the 90s it was quite confusing at times. The characters don’t look like they are in the 90s mostly because of their appearance. The makers tried to do some political satire which is decent. SPMB is one such film that we can enjoy with the entire family."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Cinestaan wrote, "The love angle between Suraj and Tulshi, an important pillar of the story, turns out to be the only major weak link since the two fall in love in a jiffy. Of all the creative liberties taken here, this is one that you find most hard to accept. But with the negatives vastly outnumbered by the positives, the end result is an ideal Diwali entertainer. Go for it, but without forsaking safety."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Times of India reporter Pallabi Dey Purkayastha wrote," Suraj Pe Mangal Bhaari’ is a witty satire – on the "gori"-"kaali" hangover, what qualifies as good or bad behaviour in today’s world and how little soothsayers know about marriages."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: The Hindu entertainment journalist wrote, " Perhaps, it is time that film industries in India woke up to the fact that COVID-19 has brought in the acceptance among audiences on the type of films that deserves to be watched on the big screen. The ones that bet on witty dialogues and entertainingly sketched scenes for success can very well stand the test of time even if they are viewed on a mobile screen."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: India Today entertainment editor wrote, " Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari offers some genuine laughs and some equally genuine performances by a stellar cast."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: DNA India entertainment editor said, "Go watch it in theatres and take your family along. You won't be disappointed. Also, wait for the credit scenes, for they will keep you longing for more."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Anna MM Vetticad from First Post said," Suraj "Pe Mangal Bhari" is funny – very funny – up to a point. It is also intermittently political, inconsistent and not half as sharp as it set out to be."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Bollywood Hungama says,"Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari is a decent entertainer and a clean family film that works because of its plot, the depiction of the mid-90s era and the performances."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Zee News wrote, " Full to Dhamal, this movie will give feel good experience to audience. This is a gift for movie lovers."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Khaleej Times entertainment news editor wrote, "If it’s laughs you are looking out for then "Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari" is bound to give you a rollicking time at the cinemas."


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Magzter says, "Barring a few glitches, Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari offers a different take on situational comedy. See it for the performances and for Diljit and Manoj's comic timing. The film's climax is a send-off to the iconic railway scene of Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge.".


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: Whizbliz, "What a come back of Bollywood in Cinemas with Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari. The movie is simply fun to watch and filled with a lot of surprising elements!!!"


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: SpotboyE, "Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari Is Fun While It Lasts. Thanks to Manoj Bajpayee and Diljit Dosanjh whose killer vibes for one another give the comedy the fuel and the fire that it needs to sustain itself to the very end"


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: The film's music was composed by Javed - Mohsin and Kingshuk Chakravarty while lyrics written by Danish Sabri, Kunaal Vermaa, Abhishek Sharma and Mellow D. The song 'Bad Boys' was inspired from a Tamil song, Love Pannalama' by STR and the Snoop Dogg song 'The Episode'.


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: The principal photography began on 6 January 2020 but was halted in March 2020 owing to COVID-19 pandemic in India before resuming in July 2020.


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: It was theatrically released on 15 November 2020 coinciding with Diwali amid the 50% occupancy theatrical guideline owing to COVID-19 pandemic in India.


title: Suraj Pe Mangal Bhari

text: The film was made available to stream on OTT platform ZEE5 on 25 March 2021 after being on Zee Plex from 4 December 2020.


title: Lauren Schmidt Hissrich

text: Lauren Schmidt-Hissrich ( ) is an American television producer and screenwriter. She is the series creator of the television series "The Witcher".


title: Lauren Schmidt Hissrich

text: She was raised in Westerville, Ohio, United States, and graduated from Wittenberg University in Springfield, Ohio, in 2000 with a BA in English literature and creative writing.


title: Lauren Schmidt Hissrich

text: She has written scripts for television series "The West Wing" and "Justice", as well as written and produced shows such as "Parenthood", "Do No Harm", "Private Practice", "Daredevil", "The Defenders" and "The Umbrella Academy". She is the show runner and executive producer of "The Witcher", a Netflix original series based on the book series by Andrzej Sapkowski.


title: Lauren Schmidt Hissrich

text: She lives in Los Angeles with her husband Michael Hissrich—who is also a television producer—and two sons, Harry and Ben.


title: Proofreading

text: Proofreading is the reading of a galley proof or an electronic copy of a publication to find and correct reproduction errors of text or art. Proofreading is the final step in the editorial cycle before publication.


title: Proofreading

text: A "galley proof" (familiarly, "a proof") is a typeset version of copy or a manuscript document. It may contain typographical errors ("printer's errors"), as a result of human error during typesetting. Traditionally, a proofreader looks at an increment of text on the copy, compares it to the corresponding typeset increment, and then marks any errors (sometimes called "line edits") using standard proofreaders' marks. Unlike copy editing, the defining procedure of a proofreading service is to work directly with two sets of information at the same time. Proofs are then returned to the typesetter for correction. Correction-cycle proofs will typically have one descriptive term, such as "bounce", "bump", or "revise" unique to the department or organization and used for clarity to the strict exclusion of any other. It is a common practice for "all" such corrections, no matter how slight, to be sent again to a proofreader to be checked and initialed, thus establishing the principle of higher responsibility for proofreaders as compared to their typesetters or artists.


title: Proofreading

text: "Copy holding" or "copy reading" employs two readers per proof. The first reads the text aloud literally as it appears, usually at a comparatively fast but uniform rate. The second reader follows along and marks any pertinent differences between what is read and what was typeset. This method is appropriate for large quantities of boilerplate text where it is assumed that there will be comparatively few mistakes.


title: Proofreading

text: Experienced copy holders employ various codes and verbal shortcuts that accompany their reading. The spoken word "digits", for example, means that the numbers about to be read are not words spelled out; and "in a hole" can mean that the upcoming segment of text is within parentheses. "Bang" means an exclamation point. A "thump" or "screamer" made with a finger on the table represents the initial cap, comma, period, or similar obvious attribute being read simultaneously. Thus the line of text "(He said the address was 1234 Central Blvd., and to hurry!)" would be read aloud as ""in a hole" [thump] "he said the address was digits 1 2 3 4" [thump] "central" [thump] "buluhvuhd" [thump] "comma and to hurry bang"". Mutual understanding is the only guiding principle, so codes evolve as opportunity permits. In the above example, two thumps after "buluhvuhd" might be acceptable to proofreaders familiar with the text.


title: Proofreading

text: "Double reading" is when a single proofreader checks a proof in the traditional manner and then another reader repeats the process. Both initial the proof. Note that with both copy holding and double reading, responsibility for a given proof is necessarily shared by the two proofreaders.


title: Proofreading

text: "Scanning" is used to check a proof without reading it word for word, has become common with computerization of typesetting and the popularization of word processing. Many publishers have their own proprietary typesetting systems, while their customers use commercial programs such as Word. Before the data in a Word file can be published, it must be converted into a format used by the publisher. The end product is usually called a "conversion". If a customer has already proofread the contents of a file before submitting it to a publisher, there will be no reason for another proofreader to re-read it from the copy (although this additional service may be requested and paid for). Instead, the publisher is held responsible only for formatting errors, such as typeface, page width, and alignment of columns in tables; and production errors such as text inadvertently deleted. To simplify matters further, a given conversion will usually be assigned a specific template. Given typesetters of sufficient skill, experienced proofreaders familiar with their typesetters' work can accurately scan their pages without reading the text for errors that neither they nor their typesetters are responsible for.


title: Proofreading

text: Proofreaders are expected to be consistently accurate by default because they occupy the last stage of typographic production before publication.


title: Proofreading

text: Before it is typeset, copy is often marked up by an editor or customer with various instructions as to typefaces, art, and layout. Often these individuals will consult a style guide of varying degrees of complexity and completeness. Such guides are usually produced in-house by the staff or supplied by the customer, and should be distinguished from professional references such as "The Chicago Manual of Style", the "AP Stylebook", "The Elements of Style", and "The Gregg Reference Manual". When appropriate, proofreaders may mark errors in accordance with their house guide instead of the copy when the two conflict. Where this is the case, the proofreader may justifiably be considered a "copy editor".


title: Proofreading

text: Checklists are common in proof-rooms where there is sufficient uniformity of product to distill some or all of its components into a list. They may also act as a training tool for new hires. Checklists are never comprehensive, however: proofreaders still have to find all mistakes that are "not" mentioned or described, thus limiting their usefulness.


title: Proofreading

text: The term "proofreading" is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to copy editing, and vice versa. Although there is necessarily some overlap, proofreaders typically lack any real editorial or managerial authority. What they "can" do is mark queries for typesetters, editors, or authors. To clarify matters at the outset, some advertised vacancies come with a notice that the job advertised is not a writing or editing position and will not become one. Creativity and critical thinking by their very nature conflict with the strict copy-"following" discipline that commercial and governmental proofreading requires. Thus, proofreading and editing are fundamentally separate responsibilities. In contrast, "copy editors" focus on a sentence-by-sentence analysis of the text to "clean it up" by improving grammar, spelling, punctuation, syntax, and structure. The copy editor is usually the last editor an author will work with. Copy editing focuses intensely on style, content, punctuation, grammar, and consistency of usage.


title: Proofreading

text: Copy editing and proofreading are parts of the same process, their necessity depends on the stage of the writing process. Copy editing is required during the drafting stage. A copy editor polishes the text for precision and conciseness. The copy editors attempt to understand the purpose of the writing and the intended audience; therefore, they will ask questions such as where the document will be published and who will read it, and edit accordingly. Proofreading is the last step of the editing process. The scope of proofreading is limited as the proofreader focuses only on reading the text to ensure the document is error-free and ready for publication.


title: Proofreading

text: Primary examples include job seekers' own and student term papers. Proofreading such material presents a special challenge, first because the proofreader/editor is usually the author; second because such authors are usually unaware of the inevitability of mistakes and the effort required to find them; and third, as final mistakes are often found when stress levels are highest and time shortest, readers fail to identify them as mistakes. Under these conditions, proofreaders tend to see only what they want to see.


title: Proofreading

text: Examples of proofreaders in fiction include "The History of the Siege of Lisbon" ("Historia do Cerco de Lisboa"), a 1989 novel by Nobel laureate Jose Saramago, the short story "Proofs" in George Steiner's "Proofs and Three Parables" (1992), and the short story "Evermore" in "Cross Channel" (1996) by Julian Barnes, in which the protagonist Miss Moss is a proofreader for a dictionary. Under the headline "Orthographical" in James Joyce's 1922 novel "Ulysses", the protagonist Leopold Bloom, watching the typesetter foreman Mr. Nannetti read over a "limp galleypage", thinks "Proof fever". Isaac Asimov's short story "Galley Slave" features a robot proofreader.


title: Proofreading

text: For documents that do not require a formal typesetting process, such as reports, journal articles and e-publications, the costs involved with making changes at the proofreading stage are no longer as relevant. This, along with the time and cost pressures felt by businesses, self-publishers and academics, has led to a demand for one-stage proofreading and copy-editing services where a professional proofreader/copy-editoroften a freelancer, sometimes now called an author editorwill be contracted to provide an agreed level of service to an agreed deadline and cost.


title: Proofreading

text: Proof-editing tends to exist outside of the traditional publishing realm, and it usually involves a single stage of editing. It is considered preferable to have separate copy-editing and proofreading stages, so proof-editing is thus a compromise but one that modern professional on-screen proofreaders and copy-editors are increasingly offering in order to meet the demand for flexible proofreading and editing services.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner is a London suburb in the London borough of Harrow, Greater London, England, northwest of Charing Cross, close to the border with Hillingdon, historically in the county of Middlesex. The population was 31,130 in 2011.


title: Pinner

text: Originally a mediaeval hamlet, the St John Baptist church dates from the 14th century and other parts of the historic village include Tudor buildings. The newer High Street is mainly 18th-century buildings, while Bridge Street has a more urban character and many chain stores.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner was originally a hamlet, first recorded in 1231 as "Pinnora", although the already archaic "-ora" (meaning 'hill') suggests its origins lie no later than circa 900. The name "Pinn" is shared with the River Pinn, which runs through the middle of Pinner. Another suggestion of the name is that it means 'hill-slope shaped like a pin'.


title: Pinner

text: The oldest part of the town lies around the fourteenth-century parish church of St. John the Baptist, at the junction of the present day Grange Gardens, The High Street and Church Lane. The church was originally a chapel of ease to St Mary's Church in Harrow, and was first mentioned in 1234. It was rebuilt in the early fourteenth-century, and rededicated in 1321. The parish became independent of St Mary's in 1766, when the first perpetual curate was appointed; not until the Wilberforce Act of 1868 did it appoint its first vicar, one William Hind. The earliest surviving private dwelling, East End Farm Cottage, dates from the late fifteenth century.


title: Pinner

text: The village expanded rapidly between 1923 and 1939 when a series of garden estates, including the architecturally significant Pinnerwood estate conservation area – encouraged by the Metropolitan Railway – grew around its historic core. It was largely from this time onwards that the area (including Hatch End, which forms the northeastern part of Pinner) assumed much of its present-day suburban character. The area is now continuous with neighbouring suburban districts including Rayners Lane and Eastcote.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner contains a large number of homes built in the 1930s Art Deco style, the most grand of which is the Grade II listed Elm Park Court at the junction of West End Lane and Elm Park Road. Pinner is also the site of one of the UK's oldest chartered fairs, held annually since 1336.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner lay within the historic county of Middlesex; it was located at the western end of the hundred of Gore, before it was in the Hendon Rural District. In 1965 it became a part of the London Borough of Harrow in the newly formed ceremonial county of Greater London.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner's St John the Baptist parish church was consecrated in 1321, but built on the site of an earlier Christian place of worship. The west tower and south porch date from the 15th century.


title: Pinner

text: Harrow Council has been governed by the Conservative Party since 2022. Pinner has two wards, Pinner and Pinner South, each represented by three councillors.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner is in the Brent and Harrow constituency for the London Assembly which has been represented since 2008 by Navin Shah (Labour). Since the 2010 general election, Pinner has been part of the Ruislip, Northwood and Pinner parliamentary constituency, currently served by David Simmonds.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner includes Pinner Village at its centre, along with the localities of Pinner Green and Pinnerwood Park Conservation Area to the north. To the north east is the larger area of Hatch End, served by Hatch End railway station (originally opened as "Pinner").


title: Pinner

text: The River Pinn flows through Pinner, flowing in a diagonal direction. Large parks and open spaces are Pinner Memorial Park, Pinner Village Gardens, Pinner Wood (woodlands) and Pinner Park (farmland).


title: Pinner

text: Much of Pinner has an elevation of about to . Nower Hill rises to a peak of about above sea level while Pinner Park peaks at . The semi-rural Pinnerwood area is steep, and rises to a peak of over around Pinner Hill Golf Course.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner is both a religiously and culturally mixed area, with the ethnic minority population having grown significantly since the 1970s. Pinner ward nonetheless had the highest concentration of people describing themselves as white in the London Borough of Harrow, at 72 per cent of the population in 2011. In 2013 the Pinner South ward had the next highest proportion of white people in the borough at 69.4 per cent. Various churches, a synagogue and others serve the religious needs of the community.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner also has the lowest crime rate in the whole of London, with several independent schools and single-sex schools with a prestigious reputation, making it a popular area for affluent families. In the 2014/15 period, the Pinner South ward had a crime rate of 24.5, which was the lowest out of all 628 wards of Greater London. The ward also has (data from 2009 to 2013) the second highest female life expectancy in the capital: 91.7 years, only bettered by Holland ward in Kensington and Chelsea.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner holds a number of Fairs and Fetes that are renowned in North West London for bringing its diverse and cosmopolitan community together.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner has a rugby union team, Pinner and Grammarians RFC, a member club of the Rugby Football Union. It is the most junior team to have supplied a President to the RFU. Pinner also has a cricket team, Pinner Cricket Club, and a youth football club, Pinner United FC. The area also has a golf course, Pinner Golf course.


title: Pinner

text: In addition to numerous restaurants and a number of public houses, Pinner has an amateur theatre group, Pinner Players, who have been performing in the area since 1936 and currently stage productions at Pinner Village Hall off Chapel Lane.


title: Pinner

text: The Heath Robinson Museum in Pinner Memorial Park was opened in 2016 and is dedicated to the work of the cartoonist William Heath Robinson.


title: Pinner

text: He learned they were the wife and the younger sister of a surgeon living at Stanmore, who had come in the small hours from a dangerous case at Pinner, and heard at some railway station on his way of the Martian advance.


title: Pinner

text: Pinner Underground station was opened in 1885 and is on the Metropolitan line in London fare zone 5. In normal off-peak conditions the train takes approximately half an hour to Baker Street Underground station and approximately three-quarters of an hour to Aldgate Underground station.


title: Pinner

text: Hatch End railway station was opened in 1842 and is on the London Overground Watford DC line in London fare zone 6. In normal off-peak conditions it roughly takes three-quarters of an hour to Euston railway station.


title: Pinner

text: The brown plaques are awarded by the Harrow Heritage Trust, who secure the protection, preservation, restoration and improvement of the character and amenities of the London Borough of Harrow.


title: Pinner

text: London's blue plaques scheme, run by English Heritage, celebrates the links between notable figures of the past and the buildings in which they lived and worked.


title: Pinner

text: The architecture in Pinner has evolved greatly over the centuries. The majority of the architecture is conserved by private residents or by Harrow council's Conservation Team.


title: Nipple clamp

text: A nipple clamp is a type of sex toy that is applied to a person's nipples to pinch them. Varieties of nipple clamp include clothes-pin-style, tweezer and clover. Nipple clamps are used to cause pain in the nipples as part of certain BDSM activities. They are also used to produce erotic stimulation as part of nipple play. In this context they are not primarily used to produce pain but rather to increase nipple sensation. Their use traps blood in the nipples, increasing the sensitivity of the nipple. The sexologist Carol Queen says that "clamps are also very useful for hands-free nipple play".


title: Nipple clamp

text: The first literary depiction of the nipple clamp was in 1790, in the novel "Justine" by the Marquis de Sade.


title: Nipple clamp

text: As the nipples are an erogenous zone, nipple clamps can be used to heighten sensation and may lead to orgasm. BDSM practices, such as the use of a safeword, are often employed when nipple clamps are used. Before the clamps are applied the nipples are typically stimulated manually or orally to prepare them. Pulling on the nipples to elongate them makes it easier to attach the clamps. Once the nipples are erect they are held taut and the "jaws" of the clamps are closed slowly, usually on the base of the nipples where they meet the areolae as this area is less sensitive than the tip. The technique for ensuring a firm grip on the nipples varies depending on their size. Small nipples are often clamped along with part of the areolae, while large nipples are sometimes clamped without first being erected. Subsequently the tension is increased, and this is often accompanied by additional manual or oral stimulation.


title: Nipple clamp

text: For safety reasons the length of time for which nipple clamps are worn is limited. Bruising and soreness can result if they are used for more than 10 minutes at a time. If the blood circulation to the nipple is cut for too long there is also a risk of damage to the tissue and nerves. Changes in skin colour can be used to determine the level of blood flow, which needs to be re-established regularly to prevent any permanent damage. When the clamps are removed the restricted blood flow rushes back into the nipples and releases oxytocin, a hormone associated with orgasm. This can make skin sensations more intense and pleasurable. The restriction and reintroduction of blood flow into the nipples can be painful, and this is used as part of some BDSM activities such as breast torture.


title: Nipple clamp

text: Nipple clamps are also be used in BDSM for predicament bondage. They can be connected to a secondary attachment point such as a hook on a wall or a piece or furniture so that the wearer is unable to move without pulling on their nipples. To avoid this they have to remain in a position which is uncomfortable or in which they can be tickled or tortured. Similarly nipple clamps can be attached to a leash allowing the wearer to be led by their clamps.


title: Nipple clamp

text: Different kinds of nipple clamps can produce different sensations and different intensities. The area covered by the clamps affects the experience, with some clamps being more or less suitable for individuals with different sized nipples. Carol Queen says that: "Some clamps cover a wider surface area and might be preferred by people with bigger nipples... Thin or small tips on clamps focus the pressure down to one small spot instead of spreading it out." Heavy clamps or additional weights can be used to pull on the nipples resulting in a tugging sensation which can give additional stimulation and pleasure. A number of designs are commercially produced, including clothes-pin style clamps, tweezer clamps and butterfly clamps. Some have additional features, such as extra weights or built-in vibrators. Nipple clamps can be applied to pierced nipples once the piercings have fully healed. Clamps specifically designed for pierced nipples can be attached directly to the piercings or applied behind them.


title: Nipple clamp

text: Nipple clamps are typically used in pairs and are sometimes connected by a chain. Both nipples are tugged simultaneously if the chain is pulled. A second chain attached midway along the first may be connected to a clit clamp attached the clitoris or onto a cock ring. This arrangement is called a "Y clamp" from the shape of the chains linking the three points on the body.


title: Nipple clamp

text: A clothes-pin style or alligator clamp works like a common household clothes-pin. It has two short lengths of metal, joined by a spring to keep one end closed; in its simplest form, it is made of a crocodile clip. Its serrated jaws are usually covered with removable rubber sheaths to protect the nipple from damage and to reduce pain. This type often comes with screws to adjust the pressure. It can produce a high intensity of sensation, especially if it has teeth, and is mostly used by experienced users.


title: Nipple clamp

text: A tweezer clamp looks like a pair of regular tweezers. It consists of two short lengths of metal, no more than in length, fixed together at one end and open at the other end. The open ends are curved slightly to improve their ability to grip the nipple.


title: Nipple clamp

text: These clamps are lightweight and adjustable and their starting pressure is mild, making them suitable for beginners. They are one of the most popular types of nipple clamp on sale. Typically, they have small rubber sheaths over the open ends for comfort, to protect the nipple from damage and to reduce slippage. A small ring wraps around the two pieces of metal and is used to adjust the tension.


title: Nipple clamp

text: The user places the two sides of the metal head either side of the nipple, then by sliding the ring along the clamp shaft towards the nipple, causes the two halves to close tighter together. Tension can thus be adjusted depending on the location of the ring — the closer the ring is along the shaft toward the nipple, the tighter the clamp.


title: Nipple clamp

text: The clover clamp, also referred to as "butterfly clamp" or "bird clamp" is of Japanese origin and was designed for clamping sails or sewing fabric. The clamp is flat, about long and wide, and has an eyelet to which a chain or cord can be attached. If this is pulled a mechanism inside the clamp moves the jaws closer together and provides increasing tension. When they are applied to the nipples a spring hinge holds them in place under tension and provides a very high pain level. They are used for nipple torture in the BDSM community. To increase the tension on the nipples, small weights are sometimes attached to the clamps or the chain. These can be weights designed specifically for this purpose or weights such as fishing sinkers can be used. Another use for the clamps is to keep a person in one place. If a cord is tied from the clamp to a fixed place, the wearer of the clamps cannot move away because the clamps will tighten as they move. This technique can be used for predicament bondage. The removal of the clamps is also painful and different methods of removal can increase or decrease this pain.


title: Nipple clamp

text: These clamps have small points of contact and hence their pinch is usually painful, especially on people with larger nipples. They are usually only used by more experienced users for the purposes of edging, orgasm denial or nipple torture.


title: Nipple clamp

text: A magnetic clamp pinches the nipple between two strong magnets. The pressure applied cannot be varied in the way that it can using adjustable clamps. Magnetic clamps typically produce a high level of pain akin to clover clamps and are more suitable for experienced wearers.


title: Mobilization

text: Mobilization is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word "mobilization" was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the Prussian Army. Mobilization theories and tactics have continuously changed since then. The opposite of mobilization is demobilization.


title: Mobilization

text: Mobilization became an issue with the introduction of conscription, and the introduction of the railways in the 19th century. Mobilization institutionalized the mass levy of conscripts that was first introduced during the French Revolution. A number of technological and societal changes promoted the move towards a more organized way of deployment. These included the telegraph to provide rapid communication, the railways to provide rapid movement and concentration of troops, and conscription to provide a trained reserve of soldiers in case of war.


title: Mobilization

text: The Roman Republic was able to mobilize at various times between 6% (81–83 BCE) to as much as 10% (210s BCE) of the total Roman population, in emergencies and for short periods of time. This included poorly-trained militia.


title: Mobilization

text: The Confederate States of America is estimated to have mobilized about 11% of its free population in the American Civil War (1861–1865). The Kingdom of Prussia mobilized about 6–7% of its total population in the years 1760 and 1813. The Swedish Empire mobilized 7.7% in 1709.


title: Mobilization

text: Armies in the seventeenth century possessed an average of 20,000 men. A military force of this size requires around 20 tons of food per day, shelter, as well as all the necessary munitions, transportation (typically horses or mules), tools, and representative garments. Without efficient transportation, mobilizing these average-sized forces was extremely costly, time-consuming, and potentially life-threatening. Soldiers could traverse the terrain to get to war fronts, but they had to carry their supplies. Many armies decided to forage for food; however, foraging restricted movement because it is based on the presumption that the army moves over land possessing significant agricultural production.


title: Mobilization

text: However, due to new policies (like conscription), greater populations, and greater national wealth, the nineteenth-century army was composed of an average of 100,000 men. For example, in 1812 Bonaparte led an army of 600,000 to Moscow while feeding off plentiful agricultural products introduced by the turn of the century, such as potatoes. Despite the advantages of mass armies, mobilizing forces of this magnitude took much more time than it had in the past.


title: Mobilization

text: The Second Italian War of Independence illustrated all of the problems in modern army mobilization. Prussia began to realize the future of mobilizing mass armies when Napoleon III transported 130,000 soldiers to Italy by military railways in 1859. French caravans that carried the supplies for the French and Piedmontese armies were incredibly slow, and the arms inside these caravans were sloppily organized. These armies were in luck, however, in that their Austrian adversaries experienced similar problems with sluggish supply caravans (one of which apparently covered less than three miles per day).


title: Mobilization

text: Not only did Prussia take note of the problems in transporting supplies to armies, but it also took note of the lack of communication between troops, officers, and generals. Austria's army was primarily composed of Slavs, but it contained many other ethnicities as well. Austrian military instruction during peacetime utilized nine different languages, accustoming Austrian soldiers to taking orders only in their native language. Conversely, in an effort to augment the efficacy of the new “precision rifle” developed by the monarchy, officers were forced to only speak German when giving orders to their men. Even one Austrian officer commented at Solferino that his troops could not even comprehend the command, “Halt.” This demonstrates the "communicative" problems that arose quickly with the advent of the mass army.


title: Mobilization

text: Intricate plans for mobilization contributed greatly to the beginning of World War I, since in 1914, under the laws and customs of warfare then observed (not to mention the desire to avoid compromising national security), general mobilization of one nation's military forces was invariably considered an act of war by that country's likely enemies.


title: Mobilization

text: In 1914, the United Kingdom was the only European Great Power without conscription. The other Great Powers (Austria-Hungary, Italy, France, Germany and Russia) all relied on compulsory military service to supply each of their armies with the millions of men they believed they would need to win a major war. France enacted the “Three Year Law” (1913) to extend the service of conscripted soldiers to match the size of the German army, as the French population of 40 million was smaller than the German population of 65 million people. The Anglo-German naval arms race began, sparked by the German enactment of the Second Naval Law. Each of the Great Powers could only afford to keep a fraction of these men in uniform in peacetime, the rest were reservists with limited opportunities to train. Maneuvering formations of millions of men with limited military training required intricate plans with no room for error, confusion, or discretion after mobilization began. These plans were prepared under the assumption of worst-case scenarios.


title: Mobilization

text: For example, German military leaders did not plan to mobilize for war with Russia whilst assuming that France would not come to her ally's aid, or vice versa. The Schlieffen Plan therefore dictated not only mobilization against both powers, but also the order of attack—France would be attacked first regardless of the diplomatic circumstances. To bypass the fortified Franco-German frontier, the German forces were to be ordered to march through Belgium. Whether or not Russia had committed the first provocation, the German plan agreed to by Emperor William II called for the attack on Russia to take place only after France was defeated.


title: Mobilization

text: Similarly, the Russian Stavka's war planning assumed that war against either Austria-Hungary or Germany would mean war against the other power. Although the plan allowed flexibility as to whether the main effort would be made against Germany or Austria-Hungary, in either case units would be mobilized on the frontiers of both Powers. On July 28, 1914, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (William's cousin) ordered partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary only. While war with Austria-Hungary seemed inevitable, Nicholas engaged in a personal dialogue with the German Emperor in an attempt to avoid war with Germany. However, Nicholas was advised that attempts to improvise a partial mobilization would lead to chaos and probable defeat if, as pessimists on the Russian side expected, no amount of diplomacy could convince the Germans to refrain from attacking Russia whilst she was engaged with Germany's ally. On July 29, 1914, the Tsar ordered full mobilization, then changed his mind after receiving a telegram from Kaiser Wilhelm. Partial mobilization was ordered instead.


title: Mobilization

text: The next day, the Tsar's foreign minister, Sergey Sazonov once more persuaded Nicholas of the need for general mobilization, and the order was issued that day, July 30. In response, Germany declared war on Russia.


title: Mobilization

text: Germany mobilized under von Moltke the Younger's revised version of the Schlieffen Plan, which assumed a two-front war with Russia and France. Like Russia, Germany decided to follow its two-front plans despite the one-front war. Germany declared war on France on August 3, 1914, one day after issuing an ultimatum to Belgium demanding the right of German troops to pass through as part of the planned pincer action of the military. Finally, Britain declared war on Germany for violating Belgian neutrality.


title: Mobilization

text: Thus the entangling alliances of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente directed the intricate plans for mobilization. This brought all of the Great Powers of Europe into the Great War without actually utilizing the provisions of either alliance.


title: Mobilization

text: The mobilization was like a holiday for many of the inexperienced soldiers; for example, some Germans wore flowers in the muzzles of their rifles as they marched. Trains brought soldiers to the front lines of battle. The Germans timetabled the movements of 11,000 trains as they brought troops across the Rhine River. The French mobilized around 7,000 trains for movement. Horses were also mobilized for war. The British had 165,000 horses prepared for cavalry, the Austrians 600,000, the Germans 715,000, and the Russians over a million.


title: Mobilization

text: Britain's Dominions including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa were compelled to go to war when Britain did. However, it was largely left up to the individual Dominions to recruit and equip forces for the war effort. Canadian, Australian and New Zealand mobilizations all involved the creation of new field forces for overseas service rather than using the existing regimental structures as a framework. In the case of Canada, the Militia Minister, Sir Sam Hughes, created the Canadian Expeditionary Force from whole cloth by sending telegrams to 226 separate reserve unit commanders asking for volunteers to muster at Valcartier in Quebec. The field force served separately from the Militia (Canada's peacetime army); in 1920 the Otter Commission was compelled to sort out which units would perpetuate the units that served in the trenches—the CEF or the prewar Militia. A unique solution of perpetuations was instituted, and mobilization during the Second World War did not repeat Sir Sam Hughes' model, which has been described by historians as being more closely akin to ancient Scottish clans assembling for battle than a modern, industrialized nation preparing for war.


title: Mobilization

text: "Colonials" served under British command though, perhaps owing to the limited autonomy granted to the Dominions regarding their respective mobilizations, the Dominions eventually compelled the British government to overrule the objections of some British commanders and let the Dominion forces serve together instead of being distributed amongst various British divisions. The "colonials" would go on to be acknowledged by both the British and German high commands as being elite British units. In May 1918, when command of the Australian Corps passed from William Birdwood to John Monash, it became the first British Empire formation commanded totally free of British officers.


title: Mobilization

text: On May 23, 1915, Italy entered World War I on the Allied side. Despite being the weakest of the big four Allied powers, the Italians soon managed to populate its army from 560 to 693 infantry battalions in 1916; the army had grown in size from 1 million to 1.5 million soldiers. On August 17, 1916, Romania entered the war on the Allied side, mobilizing an army of 23 divisions. Romania was quickly defeated however by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria. Bulgaria went so far as to ultimately mobilize 1.2 million men, more than a quarter of its population of 4.3 million people, a greater share of its population than any other country during the war.


title: Mobilization

text: The production of supplies gradually increased throughout the war. In Russia, the expansion of industry allowed a 2,000 percent increase in the production of artillery shells - by November 1915, over 1,512,000 artillery shells were being produced per month. In France, a massive mobilization by the female population to work in factories allowed the rate of shell production to reach 100,000 shells a day by 1915.


title: Mobilization

text: Both sides also began drawing on larger numbers of soldiers. The British Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener, appealed for hundreds of thousands of soldiers, which was met with an enthusiastic response. 30 new British divisions were created. The response by volunteers allowed the British to put off the introduction of conscription until 1916. New Zealand followed suit, with Canada also eventually introducing conscription with the Military Service Act in 1917.


title: Mobilization

text: On April 6, 1917, the United States entered the war on the Allied side. At the entrance, the U.S. only could mobilize its army of 107,641 soldiers, ranked only seventeenth in size worldwide at the time. The United States Navy quickly mobilized, adding 5 dreadnoughts to the Allied navy. However, conscription quickly ensued. By March 1918, 318,000 U.S. soldiers had been mobilized to France. Eventually, by October 1918, a force of 2 million U.S. soldiers joined in the war effort.


title: Mobilization

text: Poland partly mobilized its troops on August 24, 1939, and fully mobilized on August 30, 1939, following the increased confrontations with Germany since March 1939. On September 1, 1939 Germany invaded Poland, which prompted both France and Britain to declare war on Germany. However, they were slow to mobilize, and by the time Poland had been overrun by the Axis powers, only minor operations had been carried out by the French at the Saar River.


title: Mobilization

text: Canada actually carried out a partial mobilization on August 25, 1939, in anticipation of the growing diplomatic crisis. On September 1, 1939, the Canadian Active Service Force (a corps-sized force of two divisions) was mobilized even though war was not declared by Canada until September 10, 1939. Only one division went overseas in December 1939, and the government hoped to follow a "limited liability" war policy. When France was invaded in May 1940, the Canadian government realized that would not be possible and mobilized three additional divisions, beginning their overseas employment in August 1940 with the dispatch of the 2nd Canadian Division (some units of which were deployed to Iceland and Newfoundland for garrison duty before moving to the UK). Canada also enacted the National Resources Mobilization Act in 1940, which among other things compelled men to serve in the military, though conscripts mobilized under the NRMA did not serve overseas until 1944. Conscripts did, however, serve in the Aleutian Islands Campaign in 1943 though the anticipated Japanese defense never materialized due to the evacuation of the enemy garrison before the landings. Service in the Aleutians was not considered "overseas" as technically the islands were part of North America.


title: Mobilization

text: The United Kingdom mobilized 22% of its total population for direct military service, more than any other nation of WWII era.


title: Mobilization

text: Volodymyr Zelenskyy, the President of Ukraine, signed a decree on February 24, 2022 on the general mobilization of the population in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Mobilization

text: Conscripts and reservists were called up over the next 90 days to "ensure the defense of the state, maintaining combat and mobilization readiness". Men between the ages of 18-60 were prohibited from leaving the country .


title: Mobilization

text: Vladimir Putin, the President of Russia, announced a partial mobilization on 21 September 2022 of existing reservists, most particularly those that have military experience. According to claims of the Russian defence minister Sergei Shoigu, 300,000 reservists would be mobilized.


title: Mobilization

text: Economic mobilization is the preparation of resources for usage in a national emergency by carrying out changes in the organization of the national economy.


title: Mobilization

text: It is reorganizing the functioning of the national economy to use resources most effectively in support of the total war effort. Typically, the available resources and productive capabilities of each nation determined the degree and intensity of economic mobilization. Thus, effectively mobilizing economic resources to support the war effort is a complex process, requiring superior coordination and productive capability on a national scale. Importantly, some scholars have argued that such large scale mobilization of society and its resources for the purposes of warfare have the effect of aiding in state building. Herbst argues that the demands of reacting to an external aggressor provides a strong enough impetus to force structural changes and also forge a common national identity.


title: Merle Travis

text: Merle Robert Travis (November 29, 1917 – October 20, 1983) was an American country and western singer, songwriter, and guitarist born in Rosewood, Kentucky, United States. His songs' lyrics often discussed both the lives and the economic exploitation of American coal miners. Among his many well-known songs and recordings are "Sixteen Tons", "Re-Enlistment Blues", "I am a Pilgrim" and "Dark as a Dungeon". However, it is his unique guitar style, still called "Travis picking" by guitarists, as well as his interpretations of the rich musical traditions of his native Muhlenberg County, Kentucky, for which he is best known today. Travis picking is a syncopated style of guitar fingerpicking rooted in ragtime music in which alternating chords and bass notes are plucked by the thumb while melodies are simultaneously plucked by the index finger. He was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970 and elected to the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1977.


title: Merle Travis

text: Merle Travis was born and raised in Muhlenberg County, Kentucky, a place which would inspire many of Travis' original songs. (This is the same coal mining county mentioned in the John Prine song "Paradise".) He became interested in the guitar early in life and originally played one made by his brother. Travis reportedly saved his money to buy a guitar for which he had window-shopped for some time.


title: Merle Travis

text: Merle's guitar playing style was developed out of a native tradition of fingerpicking in western Kentucky. Among its early practitioners was the black country blues guitarist Arnold Shultz. Shultz taught his style to several local musicians, including Kennedy Jones, who passed it on to other guitarists, notably Mose Rager, a part-time barber and coal miner, and Ike Everly, the father of The Everly Brothers. Their thumb and index fingerpicking method created a solo style that blended lead lines picked by the finger and rhythmic bass patterns picked or strummed by the thumbpick. This technique captivated many guitarists in the region and provided the main inspiration to young Travis. Travis acknowledged his debt to both Rager and Everly, and appears with Rager on the DVD "Legends of Country Guitar" (Vestapol, 2002).


title: Merle Travis

text: At the age of 18, Travis performed "Tiger Rag" on a local radio amateur show in Evansville, Indiana, leading to offers of work with local bands. In 1937 Travis was hired by fiddler Clayton McMichen as guitarist in his Georgia Wildcats. He later joined the Drifting Pioneers, a Chicago-area gospel quartet that moved to WLW radio in Cincinnati, the major country music station north of Nashville. Travis' style amazed everyone at WLW and he became a popular member of their barn dance radio show the "Boone County Jamboree" when it began in 1938. He performed on various weekday programs, often working with other WLW acts including Louis Marshall "Grandpa" Jones, the Delmore Brothers, (in Alton Delmore's book "Truth is Stranger Than Publicity" on pages 274–275, Alton describes how he taught Merle Travis how to read and write music) Hank Penny and Joe Maphis, all of whom became lifelong friends.


title: Merle Travis

text: In 1943, he and Grandpa Jones recorded for Cincinnati used-record dealer Syd Nathan, who had founded a new label, King Records. Because WLW barred their staff musicians from recording, Travis and Jones used the pseudonym The Sheppard Brothers. Their recording of "You'll Be Lonesome Too" was the first to be released by King Records, subsequently known for its country recordings by the Delmore Brothers and Stanley Brothers as well as R&B legends Hank Ballard, Wynonie Harris and most notably James Brown.


title: Merle Travis

text: With World War II and the threat of being drafted, Travis enlisted in the US Marine Corps. His stint as a Marine was very brief, and he returned to Cincinnati. When the Drifting Pioneers left radio station WLW, leaving a half-hour hole in the schedule that needed filling, Merle, Grandpa Jones and the Delmore Brothers formed a gospel group called "The Brown's Ferry Four". Performing a repertoire of traditional white and black gospel songs, with Merle singing bass, they became one of the most popular country gospel groups of the time, recording nearly four dozen sides for the King label between 1946 and 1952. The Brown's Ferry Four has been called "possibly the best white gospel group ever."


title: Merle Travis

text: During this period, Travis appeared in several soundies, an early form of music video intended for visual jukeboxes where customers could view as well as hear the popular performers of the day. His first soundie was "Night Train To Memphis" with the band Jimmy Wakely and his Oklahoma Cowboys and Girls, including Johnny Bond and Wesley Tuttle along with Colleen Summers (who later married Les Paul and became Mary Ford). His performance of "Why'd I Fall For Abner" with Carolina Cotton was chosen for inclusion in the 2007 PBS documentary "Soundies". Several years later he recorded a set of Snader Telescriptions, short music videos intended for local television stations needing "filler" programming. His performances included playful duets with his then-wife Judy Hayden as well as several songs from his 1947 album "Folk Songs from the Hills" (see below).


title: Merle Travis

text: Travis performed in stage shows and landed bit parts and singing roles in several B westerns. He recorded for small labels there until 1946 when he was signed to Hollywood-based Capitol Records. Early hits like "Cincinnati Lou", "No Vacancy", "Divorce Me C.O.D., "Sweet Temptation", "So Round, So Firm, So Fully Packed", and "Three Times Seven", all his own compositions, gave him national prominence, although they did not all showcase the guitar work that Travis was renowned for among his peers. His design for a solid body electric guitar, built for him by Paul Bigsby with a single row of tuners, is thought to have inspired longtime Travis pal Leo Fender's design of the famous Broadcaster in 1950. The Travis-Bigsby guitar now resides in the Music Hall of Fame Museum.


title: Merle Travis

text: In 1946, asked to record an album of folk songs, Travis combined traditional songs with several original compositions recalling his family's days working in the mines. The result was released as the 4-disk 78 rpm box set "Folk Songs of the Hills". This album, featuring Travis accompanied only on his guitar, contains his two most enduring songs, both centered on the lives of coal miners: "Sixteen Tons" and "Dark as a Dungeon".


title: Merle Travis

text: "Sixteen Tons" became a No. 1 "Billboard" country hit for Tennessee Ernie Ford in 1955 and has been recorded many times over the years. Travis and Molly Bee appeared together as guests on November 24, 1960, on NBC's "The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford". The darkly philosophical "Dark As A Dungeon", although never a hit single, became a folk standard during the 1960s folk revival, and has been covered by many artists including Johnny Cash in his best-selling concert album "At Folsom Prison", by Dolly Parton on her "9 to 5 and Odd Jobs" album and by Travis himself, along with the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band in the landmark 1972 album "Will the Circle Be Unbroken". In spite of its initial lack of commercial success, "Folk Songs of the Hills", with added tracks, has remained in print virtually ever since.


title: Merle Travis

text: Travis was a popular radio performer throughout the 1940s and 1950s. He appeared on many country music television shows, co-hosting a show "Merle Travis and Company" with his wife Judy Hayden around 1953. He was a regular member of the Hollywood Barn dance broadcast over radio station KNX, Hollywood, and of the Town Hall Party, which was broadcast first as a radio show on KXLA out of Pasadena, California and later as a TV series in 1953–1961. However, his personal life became increasingly troubled. A heavy drinker and at times desperately insecure despite his multitude of talents (including prose writing, taxidermy, cartooning and watch repair), he was involved in various violent incidents in California, and he married several times in the course of his life. He suffered from serious stage fright, though amazed fellow performers added that once onstage, he was an effective and even charismatic performer. In spite of his problems he was respected and admired by his friends and fellow musicians. Longtime Travis fan Doc Watson named his son Merle Watson, and Travis admirer Chet Atkins named his daughter Merle Atkins, in Travis' honor.


title: Merle Travis

text: Travis' string of chart-topping honky-tonk hits in the 1940s did not continue into the 1950s, despite the reverence of friends like Grandpa Jones and Hank Thompson, with whom he toured and recorded as lead guitarist (Thompson, who could pick Travis-style, even had Gibson design him a Super 400 hollow body electric guitar identical to the one Travis began using in 1952.) Travis continued recording for Capitol in the 1950s, broadening his repertoire to include new guitar instrumentals, blues and boogie numbers. His uptempo single "Merle's Boogie Woogie" showed him working with multi-part disc recording at the same time as Les Paul.


title: Merle Travis

text: He found greater exposure after an appearance in the successful 1953 movie "From Here to Eternity" singing and playing "Reenlistment Blues", and following the success of his friend Tennessee Ernie Ford's million-selling rendition of "Sixteen Tons" in 1955. His reputation as a folk-inspired singer-composer and guitarist grew after the appearance of the album "The Merle Travis Guitar" in 1956, the reissue of "Folk Songs of the Hills" with four additional tracks under the title "Back Home" in 1957, and "Walkin' the Strings" in 1960, the latter two of which won 5-star ratings from "Rolling Stone". His career acquired a second wind during the American folk music revival in the late 1950s and early 1960s, leading to appearances at clubs, folk festivals and at Carnegie Hall as a guest of Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs in 1962. In the mid-1960s he moved to Nashville and joined the Grand Ole Opry. During this time he became a close friend and occasional hunting partner of Johnny Cash.


title: Merle Travis

text: Merle Travis is now acknowledged as one of the most influential American guitarists of the 20th century. His unique guitar style inspired many guitarists who followed, most notably Chet Atkins, who first heard Travis's radio broadcasts on Cincinnati's WLW "Boone County Jamboree" in 1939 while living with his father in rural Georgia. Among the many other guitarists influenced by Travis are Scotty Moore, Earl Hooker, Lonnie Mack, and Marcel Dadi. His son, Thom Bresh (1948–2022), had continued playing in Travis's style on a custom-made "Langejans Dualette".


title: Merle Travis

text: Although his early tutors were among the first to use the thumbpick in guitar playing, freeing the fingers to pick melody, Travis' style, according to Chet Atkins, went on in musical directions "never dreamt about" by his predecessors. His trademark mature style incorporated elements from ragtime, blues, boogie, jazz and Western swing, and was marked by rich chord progressions, harmonics, slides and bends, and rapid changes of key. He could shift quickly from finger-picking to flatpicking in the midst of a number by gripping his thumbpick like a flat pick. In his hands, the guitar resembled a full band. As his son Thom Bresh puts it, on first hearing his father as a child "I thought it was just the coolest sound, because it sounded like a whole bunch of instruments coming from one guitar. In it, I heard rhythm parts, I heard melodies, I heard chords and all this wrapped up in one." Equally at home on acoustic and electric guitar, Travis was one of the first to exploit the full range of techniques and sonorities available on the electric guitar.


title: Merle Travis

text: Though Chet Atkins was the most prominent guitarist to be inspired by Merle Travis, the two players' styles were significantly different. As Atkins explained, "While I play alternate bass strings which sounds more like a stride piano style, Merle played two bass strings simultaneously on the one and three beats, producing a more exciting solo rhythm, in my opinion. It was somewhat reminiscent of the great old black players." The resemblance was no coincidence; Travis himself acknowledged the influence of black guitarists such as Blind Blake, the foremost ragtime and blues guitarist of the late 1920s and early 1930s.


title: Merle Travis

text: Travis' style is explained and exemplified by Marcel Dadi on the DVD "The Guitar of Merle Travis", which includes live video performances by Travis of classics such as "John Henry" and "Nine Pound Hammer" as well as transcriptions of Travis solos in tablature.


title: Merle Travis

text: After a career dip during which he struggled to overcome alcohol and drug abuse, Travis put his career back on track in the 1970s. He appeared frequently on such country music TV shows as "The Porter Wagoner Show", "The Johnny Cash Show", "Austin City Limits", "Grand Old Country", and "Nashville Swing"; and his featured performances on the 1972 Nitty Gritty Dirt Band album "Will the Circle Be Unbroken" introduced him to a new generation of roots music enthusiasts. His 1974 album of duets with Chet Atkins, "The Atkins - Travis Traveling Show", won a Grammy award in the category "Best Country Instrumental," and a later album "Travis Pickin"' received another nomination. In 1976, he contributed to the musical score of the Academy Award-winning documentary Harlan County, USA. Toward the end of the 1970s, he signed a new contract with the Los-Angeles-based country music label CMH, which launched one of the most prolific recording periods in his career. The many titles that followed included new guitar solo albums, duets with Joe Maphis, a blues album, and a double LP tribute to the legendary country fiddler Clayton McMichen, with whom he had played in the 1930s.


title: Merle Travis

text: In 1983, Travis died of a heart attack at his Tahlequah, Oklahoma home. His body was cremated and his ashes scattered around a memorial erected to him near Drakesboro, Kentucky.


title: Merle Travis

text: Although many of his original LP albums are still unissued on CD, Travis' posthumous discography continues to grow, due in large part to the efforts of independent labels. A live concert album "Merle Travis in Boston 1959" released by Rounder Records in 1993 documents Travis' singing and guitar work still at its peak. A major retrospective of Travis' work and career ("Guitar Rags and a Too Fast Past", five CDs with an 80-page booklet authored by Rich Kienzle, who interviewed many of Travis' contemporaries) was produced by Bear Family Records in 1994, and includes much previously unreleased material. The Country Routes label has issued several transcriptions of his radio broadcasts of the 1940s and 1950s. Several recent DVDs published by Vestapol and Bear Family have collected many of his music videos and television appearances. He was an honoree of the two-hour television special "An Evening of Country Greats: A Hall of Fame Celebration" in 1996, and two classic Travis performances were included in the four-part PBS television documentary "American Roots Music" in 2001, available in CD and DVD formats.


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: Braeden Matthew Lemasters (born January 27, 1996) is an American actor, musician, and singer. He is best known for his role as Albert Tranelli in the TNT comedy-drama series "Men of a Certain Age". He has made guest appearances in several television series such as, "Criminal Minds", "ER", "House", "Grey's Anatomy" and Amazon Prime Video's "The Romanoffs". He is also the lead guitarist and singer for the American alternative rock band Wallows.


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: In films, Lemasters has appeared in the thriller film "The Stepfather" (2009), the romantic comedy film "Easy A" (2010), the family comedy film "A Christmas Story 2" (2012) and the horror film "Totem" (2017).


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: Braeden Matthew Lemasters was born in Warren, Ohio, to Dave and Michelle Lemasters. He has an older brother, Austin. When he was young his family moved to Santa Clarita, California, so that he could pursue a career in acting. He grew up listening to The Beatles and Arctic Monkeys, and learned how to play guitar.


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: Lemasters began his acting career at the age of 9, playing the role of Frankie in an episode of "Six Feet Under" (2005). In 2006, he played the role of a child with Autism syndrome in the medical drama television series "House". Subsequently he had minor roles in "Criminal Minds", "ER", and "The Closer". In 2007, he appeared as Jacob Marshall-LaHaye in the Christian drama television film "Love's Unending Legacy", for which he earned his first Young Artist Award nomination. Later that year he was featured in "Sacrifices of the Heart", "Life", "Grey's Anatomy" and "Wainy Days".


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: From 2009, Lemasters began starring in the TNT series "Men of a Certain Age" as Albert Tranelli. He earned various awards and nominations for the role, including a Peabody Award and a nomination for Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series. He was in the show for two seasons until it ended in 2011. He also had a supporting role in the 2009 remake of "The Stepfather".


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: In 2010, he appeared in the teen romantic comedy film "Easy A", as the young version of Penn Badgley's character Todd. The following year, he starred as Ralphie Parker in the sequel film of A Christmas Story.


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: From 2013-2014, Lemasters starred as Victor McAllister in ABC's "Betrayal". The next year, Lemasters starred in the horror comedy film "" alongside Dove Cameron and Tiffany Espensen. The film was based on the novel by R.L. Stine of the same name.


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: In 2017, Lemasters was cast as Trevor in the second season of "T@gged". He reprised the role again in the third season of the series. In 2018, he starred in the adventure comedy drama "Flock of Four", in which he played Joey Grover, a talented amateur pianist in 1950s Pasadena.


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: In addition to acting, Lemasters is also a singer and lead guitarist for the band Wallows with Cole Preston (drums), and Dylan Minnette (singer, guitar). The band won the Battle Of The Bands Contest (2010) sponsored by radio station KYSR in 2010 and played on the 2011 Vans Warped Tour. They have since performed at several popular Los Angeles venues including the Roxy Theater and Whisky a Go Go.


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: The band began releasing songs independently in April 2017 starting with "Pleaser", which reached number two on the Spotify Global Viral 50 chart.


title: Braeden Lemasters

text: In 2018, Wallows signed a deal with Atlantic Records and released their major label debut EP, "Spring", including singles "Pictures of Girls" and "These Days". They performed "Pictures of Girls" on "The Late Late Show with James Corden" on May 8, 2018. The band released their debut studio album, "Nothing Happens" in 2019, which featured the hit single "Are You Bored Yet?" In 2020, they released their second EP "Remote". The band released their sophomore album "Tell Me That It's Over" in March 2022.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Animal locomotion, in ethology, is any of a variety of methods that animals use to move from one place to another. Some modes of locomotion are (initially) self-propelled, e.g., running, swimming, jumping, flying, hopping, soaring and gliding. There are also many animal species that depend on their environment for transportation, a type of mobility called passive locomotion, e.g., sailing (some jellyfish), kiting (spiders), rolling (some beetles and spiders) or riding other animals (phoresis).


title: Animal locomotion

text: Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a suitable microhabitat, or to escape predators. For many animals, the ability to move is essential for survival and, as a result, natural selection has shaped the locomotion methods and mechanisms used by moving organisms. For example, migratory animals that travel vast distances (such as the Arctic tern) typically have a locomotion mechanism that costs very little energy per unit distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must frequently move quickly to escape predators are likely to have energetically costly, but very fast, locomotion.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The anatomical structures that animals use for movement, including cilia, legs, wings, arms, fins, or tails are sometimes referred to as "locomotory organs" or "locomotory structures".


title: Animal locomotion

text: The term "locomotion" is formed in English from Latin "loco" "from a place" (ablative of "locus" "place") + "motio" "motion, a moving".


title: Animal locomotion

text: Animals move through, or on, four types of environment: aquatic (in or on water), terrestrial (on ground or other surface, including arboreal, or tree-dwelling), fossorial (underground), and aerial (in the air). Many animals—for example semi-aquatic animals, and diving birds—regularly move through more than one type of medium. In some cases, the surface they move on facilitates their method of locomotion.


title: Animal locomotion

text: In water, staying afloat is possible using buoyancy. If an animal's body is less dense than water, it can stay afloat. This requires little energy to maintain a vertical position, but requires more energy for locomotion in the horizontal plane compared to less buoyant animals. The drag encountered in water is much greater than in air. Morphology is therefore important for efficient locomotion, which is in most cases essential for basic functions such as catching prey. A fusiform, torpedo-like body form is seen in many aquatic animals, though the mechanisms they use for locomotion are diverse.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The primary means by which fish generate thrust is by oscillating the body from side-to-side, the resulting wave motion ending at a large tail fin. Finer control, such as for slow movements, is often achieved with thrust from pectoral fins (or front limbs in marine mammals). Some fish, e.g. the spotted ratfish ("Hydrolagus colliei") and batiform fish (electric rays, sawfishes, guitarfishes, skates and stingrays) use their pectoral fins as the primary means of locomotion, sometimes termed labriform swimming. Marine mammals oscillate their body in an up-and-down (dorso-ventral) direction.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Other animals, e.g. penguins, diving ducks, move underwater in a manner which has been termed "aquatic flying". Some fish propel themselves without a wave motion of the body, as in the slow-moving seahorses and "Gymnotus".


title: Animal locomotion

text: Other animals, such as cephalopods, use jet propulsion to travel fast, taking in water then squirting it back out in an explosive burst. Other swimming animals may rely predominantly on their limbs, much as humans do when swimming. Though life on land originated from the seas, terrestrial animals have returned to an aquatic lifestyle on several occasions, such as the fully aquatic cetaceans, now very distinct from their terrestrial ancestors.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Benthic locomotion is movement by animals that live on, in, or near the bottom of aquatic environments. In the sea, many animals walk over the seabed. Echinoderms primarily use their tube feet to move about. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad that can create a vacuum through contraction of muscles. This, along with some stickiness from the secretion of mucus, provides adhesion. Waves of tube feet contractions and relaxations move along the adherent surface and the animal moves slowly along. Some sea urchins also use their spines for benthic locomotion.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Crabs typically walk sideways (a behaviour that gives us the word "crabwise"). This is because of the articulation of the legs, which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. However, some crabs walk forwards or backwards, including raninids, "Libinia emarginata" and "Mictyris platycheles". Some crabs, notably the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, the Portunidae especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.


title: Animal locomotion

text: A stomatopod, "Nannosquilla decemspinosa", can escape by rolling itself into a self-propelled wheel and somersault backwards at a speed of 72 rpm. They can travel more than 2 m using this unusual method of locomotion.


title: Animal locomotion

text: "Velella", the by-the-wind sailor, is a cnidarian with no means of propulsion other than sailing. A small rigid sail projects into the air and catches the wind. "Velella" sails always align along the direction of the wind where the sail may act as an aerofoil, so that the animals tend to sail downwind at a small angle to the wind.


title: Animal locomotion

text: While larger animals such as ducks can move on water by floating, some small animals move across it without breaking through the surface. This surface locomotion takes advantage of the surface tension of water. Animals that move in such a way include the water strider. Water striders have legs that are hydrophobic, preventing them from interfering with the structure of water. Another form of locomotion (in which the surface layer is broken) is used by the basilisk lizard.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Gravity is the primary obstacle to flight. Because it is impossible for any organism to have a density as low as that of air, flying animals must generate enough lift to ascend and remain airborne. One way to achieve this is with wings, which when moved through the air generate an upward lift force on the animal's body. Flying animals must be very light to achieve flight, the largest living flying animals being birds of around 20 kilograms. Other structural adaptations of flying animals include reduced and redistributed body weight, fusiform shape and powerful flight muscles; there may also be physiological adaptations. Active flight has independently evolved at least four times, in the insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats. Insects were the first taxon to evolve flight, approximately 400 million years ago (mya), followed by pterosaurs approximately 220 mya, birds approximately 160 mya, then bats about 60 mya.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Rather than active flight, some (semi-) arboreal animals reduce their rate of falling by gliding. Gliding is heavier-than-air flight without the use of thrust; the term "volplaning" also refers to this mode of flight in animals. This mode of flight involves flying a greater distance horizontally than vertically and therefore can be distinguished from a simple descent like a parachute. Gliding has evolved on more occasions than active flight. There are examples of gliding animals in several major taxonomic classes such as the invertebrates (e.g., gliding ants), reptiles (e.g., banded flying snake), amphibians (e.g., flying frog), mammals (e.g., sugar glider, squirrel glider).


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some aquatic animals also regularly use gliding, for example, flying fish, octopus and squid. The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 meters (160 ft), though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to . To glide upward out of the water, a flying fish moves its tail up to 70 times per second.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Several oceanic squid, such as the Pacific flying squid, leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish. Smaller squids fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 m. Small fins towards the back of the mantle help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The neon flying squid has been observed to glide for distances over 30 m, at speeds of up to 11.2 m/s.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Soaring birds can maintain flight without wing flapping, using rising air currents. Many gliding birds are able to "lock" their extended wings by means of a specialized tendon. Soaring birds may alternate glides with periods of soaring in rising air. Five principal types of lift are used: thermals, ridge lift, lee waves, convergences and dynamic soaring.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Ballooning is a method of locomotion used by spiders. Certain silk-producing arthropods, mostly small or young spiders, secrete a special light-weight gossamer silk for ballooning, sometimes traveling great distances at high altitude.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Forms of locomotion on land include walking, running, hopping or jumping, dragging and crawling or slithering. Here friction and buoyancy are no longer an issue, but a strong skeletal and muscular framework are required in most terrestrial animals for structural support. Each step also requires much energy to overcome inertia, and animals can store elastic potential energy in their tendons to help overcome this. Balance is also required for movement on land. Human infants learn to crawl first before they are able to stand on two feet, which requires good coordination as well as physical development. Humans are bipedal animals, standing on two feet and keeping one on the ground at all times while walking. When running, only one foot is on the ground at any one time at most, and both leave the ground briefly. At higher speeds momentum helps keep the body upright, so more energy can be used in movement.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Jumping (saltation) can be distinguished from running, galloping, and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch. Many terrestrial animals use jumping (including hopping or leaping) to escape predators or catch prey—however, relatively few animals use this as a primary mode of locomotion. Those that do include the kangaroo and other macropods, rabbit, hare, jerboa, hopping mouse, and kangaroo rat. Kangaroo rats often leap 2 m and reportedly up to 2.75 m at speeds up to almost . They can quickly change their direction between jumps. The rapid locomotion of the banner-tailed kangaroo rat may minimize energy cost and predation risk. Its use of a "move-freeze" mode may also make it less conspicuous to nocturnal predators. Frogs are, relative to their size, the best jumpers of all vertebrates. The Australian rocket frog, "Litoria nasuta", can leap over , more than fifty times its body length.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Other animals move in terrestrial habitats without the aid of legs. Earthworms crawl by a peristalsis, the same rhythmic contractions that propel food through the digestive tract.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Leeches and geometer moth caterpillars move by looping or inching (measuring off a length with each movement), using their paired circular and longitudinal muscles (as for peristalsis) along with the ability to attach to a surface at both anterior and posterior ends. One end is attached and the other end is projected forward peristaltically until it touches down, as far as it can reach; then the first end is released, pulled forward, and reattached; and the cycle repeats. In the case of leeches, attachment is by a sucker at each end of the body.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Due to its low coefficient of friction, ice provides the opportunity for other modes of locomotion. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called "tobogganing", which conserves energy while moving quickly. Some pinnipeds perform a similar behaviour called "sledding".


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such climbing animals is in trees; for example, the gibbon is specialized for arboreal movement, travelling rapidly by brachiation (see below).


title: Animal locomotion

text: Others living on rock faces such as in mountains move on steep or even near-vertical surfaces by careful balancing and leaping. Perhaps the most exceptional are the various types of mountain-dwelling caprids (e.g., Barbary sheep, yak, ibex, rocky mountain goat, etc.), whose adaptations can include a soft rubbery pad between their hooves for grip, hooves with sharp keratin rims for lodging in small footholds, and prominent dew claws. Another case is the snow leopard, which being a predator of such caprids also has spectacular balance and leaping abilities, such as ability to leap up to 17m (50ft).


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by adhesion using suckers. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as geckos can also perform similar feats.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Modern birds, though classified as tetrapods, usually have only two functional legs, which some (e.g., ostrich, emu, kiwi) use as their primary, Bipedal, mode of locomotion. A few modern mammalian species are habitual bipeds, i.e., whose normal method of locomotion is two-legged. These include the macropods, kangaroo rats and mice, springhare, hopping mice, pangolins and homininan apes. Bipedalism is rarely found outside terrestrial animals—though at least two types of octopus walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, so they can use the remaining arms to camouflage themselves as a mat of algae or floating coconut.


title: Animal locomotion

text: There are no three-legged animals—though some macropods, such as kangaroos, that alternate between resting their weight on their muscular tails and their two hind legs could be looked at as an example of tripedal locomotion in animals.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Many familiar animals are quadrupedal, walking or running on four legs. A few birds use quadrupedal movement in some circumstances. For example, the shoebill sometimes uses its wings to right itself after lunging at prey. The newly hatched hoatzin bird has claws on its thumb and first finger enabling it to dexterously climb tree branches until its wings are strong enough for sustained flight. These claws are gone by the time the bird reaches adulthood.


title: Animal locomotion

text: A relatively few animals use five limbs for locomotion. Prehensile quadrupeds may use their tail to assist in locomotion and when grazing, the kangaroos and other macropods use their tail to propel themselves forward with the four legs used to maintain balance.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Insects generally walk with six legs—though some insects such as nymphalid butterflies do not use the front legs for walking.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Arachnids have eight legs. Most arachnids lack extensor muscles in the distal joints of their appendages. Spiders and whipscorpions extend their limbs hydraulically using the pressure of their hemolymph. Solifuges and some harvestmen extend their knees by the use of highly elastic thickenings in the joint cuticle. Scorpions, pseudoscorpions and some harvestmen have evolved muscles that extend two leg joints (the femur-patella and patella-tibia joints) at once.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The scorpion "Hadrurus arizonensis" walks by using two groups of legs (left 1, right 2, Left 3, Right 4 and Right 1, Left 2, Right 3, Left 4) in a reciprocating fashion. This alternating tetrapod coordination is used over all walking speeds.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Centipedes and millipedes have many sets of legs that move in metachronal rhythm. Some echinoderms locomote using the many tube feet on the underside of their arms. Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance, the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction. Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate. The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move in a wave, with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases. Some multi-armed, fast-moving starfish such as the sunflower seastar ("Pycnopodia helianthoides") pull themselves along with some of their arms while letting others trail behind. Other starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving, which exposes the sensory tube feet and eyespot to external stimuli. Most starfish cannot move quickly, a typical speed being that of the leather star ("Dermasterias imbricata"), which can manage just in a minute. Some burrowing species from the genera "Astropecten" and "Luidia" have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion, "gliding" across the ocean floor. The sand star ("Luidia foliolata") can travel at a speed of per minute. Sunflower starfish are quick, efficient hunters, moving at a speed of using 15,000 tube feet.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Many animals temporarily change the number of legs they use for locomotion in different circumstances. For example, many quadrupedal animals switch to bipedalism to reach low-level browse on trees. The genus of "Basiliscus" are arboreal lizards that usually use quadrupedalism in the trees. When frightened, they can drop to water below and run across the surface on their hind limbs at about 1.5 m/s for a distance of approximately before they sink to all fours and swim. They can also sustain themselves on all fours while "water-walking" to increase the distance travelled above the surface by about 1.3 m. When cockroaches run rapidly, they rear up on their two hind legs like bipedal humans; this allows them to run at speeds up to 50 body lengths per second, equivalent to a "couple hundred miles per hour, if you scale up to the size of humans." When grazing, kangaroos use a form of pentapedalism (four legs plus the tail) but switch to hopping (bipedalism) when they wish to move at a greater speed.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The Moroccan flic-flac spider ("Cebrennus rechenbergi") uses a series of rapid, acrobatic flic-flac movements of its legs similar to those used by gymnasts, to actively propel itself off the ground, allowing it to move both down and uphill, even at a 40 percent incline. This behaviour is different than other huntsman spiders, such as "Carparachne aureoflava" from the Namib Desert, which uses passive cartwheeling as a form of locomotion. The flic-flac spider can reach speeds of up to 2 m/s using forward or back flips to evade threats.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some animals move through solids such as soil by burrowing using peristalsis, as in earthworms, or other methods. In loose solids such as sand some animals, such as the golden mole, marsupial mole, and the pink fairy armadillo, are able to move more rapidly, "swimming" through the loose substrate. Burrowing animals include moles, ground squirrels, naked mole-rats, tilefish, and mole crickets.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Arboreal locomotion is the locomotion of animals in trees. Some animals may only scale trees occasionally, while others are exclusively arboreal. These habitats pose numerous mechanical challenges to animals moving through them, leading to a variety of anatomical, behavioural and ecological consequences as well as variations throughout different species. Furthermore, many of these same principles may be applied to climbing without trees, such as on rock piles or mountains. The earliest known tetrapod with specializations that adapted it for climbing trees was "Suminia", a synapsid of the late Permian, about 260 million years ago. Some invertebrate animals are exclusively arboreal in habitat, for example, the tree snail.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Brachiation (from "brachium", Latin for "arm") is a form of arboreal locomotion in which primates swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms. During brachiation, the body is alternately supported under each forelimb. This is the primary means of locomotion for the small gibbons and siamangs of southeast Asia. Some New World monkeys such as spider monkeys and muriquis are "semibrachiators" and move through the trees with a combination of leaping and brachiation. Some New World species also practice suspensory behaviors by using their prehensile tail, which acts as a fifth grasping hand.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Animal locomotion requires energy to overcome various forces including friction, drag, inertia and gravity, although the influence of these depends on the circumstances. In terrestrial environments, gravity must be overcome whereas the drag of air has little influence. In aqueous environments, friction (or drag) becomes the major energetic challenge with gravity being less of an influence. Remaining in the aqueous environment, animals with natural buoyancy expend little energy to maintain a vertical position in a water column. Others naturally sink, and must spend energy to remain afloat. Drag is also an energetic influence in flight, and the aerodynamically efficient body shapes of flying birds indicate how they have evolved to cope with this. Limbless organisms moving on land must energetically overcome surface friction, however, they do not usually need to expend significant energy to counteract gravity.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Newton's third law of motion is widely used in the study of animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forwards an animal must push something backwards. Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground, swimming and flying animals must push against a fluid (either water or air). The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement. The energetics of locomotion involves the energy expenditure by animals in moving. Energy consumed in locomotion is not available for other efforts, so animals typically have evolved to use the minimum energy possible during movement. However, in the case of certain behaviors, such as locomotion to escape a predator, performance (such as speed or maneuverability) is more crucial, and such movements may be energetically expensive. Furthermore, animals may use energetically expensive methods of locomotion when environmental conditions (such as being within a burrow) preclude other modes.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The most common metric of energy use during locomotion is the net (also termed "incremental") cost of transport, defined as the amount of energy (e.g., Joules) needed above baseline metabolic rate to move a given distance. For aerobic locomotion, most animals have a nearly constant cost of transport—moving a given distance requires the same caloric expenditure, regardless of speed. This constancy is usually accomplished by changes in gait. The net cost of transport of swimming is lowest, followed by flight, with terrestrial limbed locomotion being the most expensive per unit distance. However, because of the speeds involved, flight requires the most energy per unit time. This does not mean that an animal that normally moves by running would be a more efficient swimmer; however, these comparisons assume an animal is specialized for that form of motion. Another consideration here is body mass—heavier animals, though using more total energy, require less energy "per unit mass" to move. Physiologists generally measure energy use by the amount of oxygen consumed, or the amount of carbon dioxide produced, in an animal's respiration. In terrestrial animals, the cost of transport is typically measured while they walk or run on a motorized treadmill, either wearing a mask to capture gas exchange or with the entire treadmill enclosed in a metabolic chamber. For small rodents, such as deer mice, the cost of transport has also been measured during voluntary wheel running.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Energetics is important for explaining the evolution of foraging economic decisions in organisms; for example, a study of the African honey bee, "A. m. scutellata", has shown that honey bees may trade the high sucrose content of viscous nectar off for the energetic benefits of warmer, less concentrated nectar, which also reduces their consumption and flight time.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Passive locomotion in animals is a type of mobility in which the animal depends on their environment for transportation; such animals are vagile but not motile.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The Portuguese man o' war ("Physalia physalis") lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore (sometimes called a "sail"), remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged. Because the Portuguese man o' war has no means of propulsion, it is moved by a combination of winds, currents, and tides. The sail is equipped with a siphon. In the event of a surface attack, the sail can be deflated, allowing the organism to briefly submerge.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The violet sea-snail ("Janthina janthina") uses a buoyant foam raft stabilized by amphiphilic mucins to float at the sea surface.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The wheel spider ("Carparachne aureoflava") is a huntsman spider approximately 20 mm in size and native to the Namib Desert of Southern Africa. The spider escapes parasitic pompilid wasps by flipping onto its side and cartwheeling down sand dunes at speeds of up to 44 turns per second. If the spider is on a sloped dune, its rolling speed may be 1 metre per second.


title: Animal locomotion

text: A spider (usually limited to individuals of a small species), or spiderling after hatching, climbs as high as it can, stands on raised legs with its abdomen pointed upwards ("tiptoeing"), and then releases several silk threads from its spinnerets into the air. These form a triangle-shaped parachute that carries the spider on updrafts of winds, where even the slightest breeze transports it. The Earth's static electric field may also provide lift in windless conditions.


title: Animal locomotion

text: The larva of "Cicindela dorsalis", the eastern beach tiger beetle, is notable for its ability to leap into the air, loop its body into a rotating wheel and roll along the sand at a high speed using wind to propel itself. If the wind is strong enough, the larva can cover up to in this manner. This remarkable ability may have evolved to help the larva escape predators such as the thynnid wasp "Methocha".


title: Animal locomotion

text: Members of the largest subfamily of cuckoo wasps, Chrysidinae, are generally kleptoparasites, laying their eggs in host nests, where their larvae consume the host egg or larva while it is still young. Chrysidines are distinguished from the members of other subfamilies in that most have flattened or concave lower abdomens and can curl into a defensive ball when attacked by a potential host, a process known as conglobation. Protected by hard chitin in this position, they are expelled from the nest without injury and can search for a less hostile host.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Fleas can jump vertically up to 18 cm and horizontally up to 33 cm; however, although this form of locomotion is initiated by the flea, it has little control of the jump—they always jump in the same direction, with very little variation in the trajectory between individual jumps.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Although stomatopods typically display the standard locomotion types as seen in true shrimp and lobsters, one species, "Nannosquilla decemspinosa", has been observed flipping itself into a crude wheel. The species lives in shallow, sandy areas. At low tides, "N. decemspinosa" is often stranded by its short rear legs, which are sufficient for locomotion when the body is supported by water, but not on dry land. The mantis shrimp then performs a forward flip in an attempt to roll towards the next tide pool. "N. decemspinosa" has been observed to roll repeatedly for , but they typically travel less than . Again, the animal initiates the movement but has little control during its locomotion.


title: Animal locomotion

text: Some animals change location because they are attached to, or reside on, another animal or moving structure. This is arguably more accurately termed "animal transport".