title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: An appeal to which the defendant has a right cannot be abridged by the court which is, by designation of its jurisdiction, obligated to hear the appeal. In such an appeal, the appellant feels that some error has been made in his trial, necessitating an appeal. A matter of importance is the basis on which such an appeal might be filed: generally appeals as a matter of right may only address issues which were originally raised in trial (as evidenced by documentation in the official record). Any issue not raised in the original trial may not be considered on appeal and will be considered waived via estoppel. A convenient test for whether a petition is likely to succeed on the grounds of error is confirming that


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: A writ of certiorari, otherwise known simply as cert, is an order by a higher court directing a lower court to send record of a case for review, and is the next logical step in post-trial procedure. While states may have similar processes, a writ of cert is usually only issued, in the United States, by the Supreme Court, although some states retain this procedure. Unlike the aforementioned appeal, a writ of cert is not a matter of right. A writ of cert will have to be petitioned for, the higher court issuing such writs on limited bases according to constraints such as time. In another sense, a writ of cert is like an appeal in its constraints; it too may only seek relief on grounds raised in the original trial.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: A petition for a writ of error coram nobis or error coram vobis challenges a final judgment in a criminal proceeding. Use of this type of petition varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but is usually limited to situations where it was not possible to raise this issue earlier on direct appeal. These petitions focus on issues outside the original premises of the trial, i.e., issues that require new evidence or those that could not otherwise be raised by direct appeal or writs of cert. These often fall in two logical categories: (1) that the trial lawyer was ineffectual or incompetent or (2) that some constitutional right has been violated.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: In 2004, there were about 19,000 non-capital federal habeas corpus petitions filed and there were about 210 capital federal habeas corpus petitions filed in U.S. District Court. The vast majority of these were from state prisoners, not from those held in federal prisons. There are about 60 habeas corpus cases filed in the U.S. Supreme Court's original jurisdiction each year. The U.S. Courts of Appeal do not have original jurisdiction over habeas corpus petitions.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: In 1992, less than 1% of federal habeas corpus petitions involved death penalty sentences, although 21% involved life sentences. At that time about 23% had been convicted of homicide, about 39% had been convicted of other serious violent crimes, about 27% had been convicted of serious non-violent crimes, and about 12% were convicted of other offenses. These are almost exclusively state offenses and thus petitions filed by state prisoners.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: Exhaustion of state-court remedies often takes five to ten years after a conviction, so only state prisoners facing longer prison sentences are able to avail themselves of federal habeas corpus rights without facing a summary dismissal for failure to exhaust state remedies. The lack of state remedies to exhaust also means that the timeline for federal death penalty habeas review is much shorter than the timeline for state death penalty habeas review (which can drag on literally for decades).


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: In 2004, the percentage of federal habeas corpus petitions involving state death sentences was still about 1% of the total.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: About 63% of issues raised in habeas corpus petitions by state court prisoners are dismissed on procedural grounds at the U.S. District Court level, and about 35% of those issues are dismissed based on the allegations in the petition on the merits (on the merits has a different meaning than what it's used for here). About 2% are either "remanded" to a state court for further proceedings (which poses an interesting problem of federalism – the federal court usually issues a writ to the state prison to release the prisoner, but only if the state court does not hold a certain proceeding within a certain time), or, far less frequently, resolved favorably to the prisoner on the merits outright. About 57% of habeas corpus issues dismissed on procedural grounds in 1992 were dismissed for a failure to exhaust state remedies.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: Success rates are not uniform, however. James Liebman, Professor of Law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case that there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995." Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabek in a law review article puts the success rate in habeas corpus cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47% of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted." Most habeas corpus petitioners in death penalty cases are represented by attorneys, but most habeas corpus petitioners in non-death penalty cases represent themselves. This is because federal funds are not available to non-capital state habeas petitioners to pay for attorneys unless there is good cause, there being no federal right to counsel in such matters. However, in state capital cases, the federal government provides funding for the representation of all capital habeas petitioners.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: These success rates predate major revisions in habeas corpus law that restricted the availability of federal habeas corpus relief when AEDPA was adopted in 1996, over a decade ago. Post-AEDPA, the great disparity in success rates remains, however, with the federal courts' overturning of state capital cases a major reason that many states have been unable to carry out a majority of capital sentences imposed and have long backlog lists.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: The time required to adjudicate habeas corpus petitions varies greatly based upon factors including the number of issues raised, whether the adjudication is on procedural grounds or on the merits, and the nature of the claims raised.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: In 1992, U.S. District Courts took an average of two and a half years to adjudicate habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases raising multiple issues that were resolved on the merits, about half of that time-length for other multiple issue homicide cases, and about nine months in cases resolved on procedural grounds.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: AEDPA was designed to reduce the disposition times of federal habeas corpus petitions. But AEDPA has a little impact in non-capital cases, where a majority of cases are dismissed on procedural grounds, very few prisoners prevail and most prisoners are not represented by attorneys. The disposition time in capital cases has actually increased 250% from the time of AEDPA's passage to 2004.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: In 1991, the average number of federal habeas corpus petitions filed in the United States was 14 per 1,000 people in state prison, but this ranged greatly from state to state from a low of 4 per 1,000 in Rhode Island to a high of 37 per 1,000 in Missouri.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: The Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA) produced a brief surge in the number of habeas corpus filings by state prisoners, as deadlines imposed by the act encouraged prisoners to file sooner than they might have otherwise done so, but this had run its course by 2000, and by 2004, habeas corpus petition filing rates per 1,000 prisoners was similar to pre-AEDPA filing rates.


title: Habeas corpus in the United States

text: There was a temporary surge in habeas corpus petitions filed by federal prisoners in 2005 as a result of the "Booker" decision by the U.S. Supreme Court.


title: Art Rooney II

text: Arthur Joseph Rooney II (born September 14, 1952) is the owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League (NFL).


title: Art Rooney II

text: Arthur Joseph Rooney II was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the eldest of nine children of Patricia (Reagan) and longtime Steelers chairman Dan Rooney, and the grandson of Steelers founder “The Chief”, Art Rooney, Sr. He graduated from the University of Pittsburgh in 1978 with a B.A. in Political Science. He then attended Duquesne University’s School of Law, where he earned his J.D. degree in 1982.


title: Art Rooney II

text: Rooney was named team president in May 2003. Prior to that, he served as vice president and general counsel of the Steelers, and has served on the board of directors of the Steelers since 1989. He currently serves as chairman of the NFL’s Stadium Committee, and serves on numerous NFL boards, including the Legislative Committee, the Management Council Executive Committee, the International Committee and the Digital Media Committee. Prior to his father's 2017 death, Rooney II held at least a 20% stake in the Steelers franchise, with a combination of him and his father owning at least 30% and was in line to inherit most of the share Dan Rooney held, which would make Rooney II the majority owner of the team. He is one of only two third-generation owners in the league, the other being John Mara, to whom he is related by marriage. (Mara's brother is married to Rooney's sister, and Rooney is the first cousin once removed of actresses Rooney Mara and Kate Mara.)


title: Art Rooney II

text: He currently holds an Of Counsel position with the law firm Buchanan Ingersoll & Rooney. He is active in the Pittsburgh community, devoting a substantial amount of his time to various organizations. He currently serves on the boards of the Pittsburgh Public Theater, Saint Vincent College, the Heinz History Center and the United Way of America.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: The Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) is a financial intelligence and enforcement agency of the U.S. Treasury Department. It administers and enforces economic and trade sanctions in support of U.S. national security and foreign policy objectives. Under Presidential national emergency powers, OFAC carries out its activities against foreign states as well as a variety of other organizations and individuals, like terrorist groups, deemed to be a threat to U.S. national security.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: As a component of the U.S. Treasury Department, OFAC operates under the Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence and is primarily composed of intelligence targeters and lawyers. While many of OFAC's targets are broadly set by the White House, most individual cases are developed as a result of investigations by OFAC's Office of Global Targeting (OGT).


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: Sometimes described as one of the "most powerful yet unknown" government agencies, OFAC was founded in 1950 and has the power to levy significant penalties against entities that defy its directives, including imposing fines, freezing assets, and barring parties from operating in the United States. In 2014, OFAC reached a record $963 million settlement with the French bank BNP Paribas, which was a portion of an $8.9 billion penalty imposed in relation to the case as a whole.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: Involvement of the U.S. Department of the Treasury in economic sanctions against foreign states dates to the War of 1812, when Secretary Albert Gallatin administered sanctions against the United Kingdom in retaliation for the impressment of American sailors.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: The Division of Foreign Assets Control, the immediate predecessor to OFAC, was established in December 1950. Predecessor agencies of the Division of Foreign Assets Control include Foreign Funds Control, which existed from 1940 to 1947, and the Office of International Finance (1947 to 1950). OFAC's earliest predecessor, Foreign Funds Control, was established by Executive Order 8389 as a unit of the Office of the Secretary of the Treasury on April 10, 1940. The authority to establish Foreign Funds Control was derived from the Trading with the Enemy Act 1917. Among other operations, Foreign Funds Control administered wartime import controls over enemy assets and restrictions on trade with enemy states. It also participated in administering the Proclaimed List of Certain Blocked Nationals, or the "Black List", and took censuses of foreign-owned assets in the United States and American-owned assets abroad. Foreign Funds Control was abolished in 1947, with its functions transferred to the newly established Office of International Finance (OIF). In 1948, OIF activities relating to blocked foreign funds were transferred to the Office of Alien Property, an agency within the Department of Justice.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: The Division of Foreign Assets Control was established in the Office of International Finance by a Treasury Department order in 1950, following the entry of the People's Republic of China into the Korean War; President Harry S. Truman declared a national emergency and blocked all Chinese and North Korean assets subject to U.S. jurisdiction. In addition to blocking Chinese and North Korean assets, the Division administered certain regulations and orders issued under the amended Trading with the Enemy Act. On October 15, 1962, by a Treasury Department order, the Division of Foreign Assets Control became the Office of Foreign Assets Control.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: In addition to the Trading with the Enemy Act and the various national emergencies currently in effect, OFAC derives its authority from a variety of U.S. federal laws, particularly the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), regarding embargoes and economic sanctions.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: In enforcing economic sanctions, OFAC acts to prevent "prohibited transactions", which are described by OFAC as "trade or financial transactions and other dealings in which U.S. persons may not engage unless authorized by OFAC or expressly exempted by statute". OFAC has the authority to grant exemptions to prohibitions on such transactions, either by issuing a general license for certain categories of transactions, or by specific licenses issued on a case-by-case basis. OFAC administers and enforces economic sanctions programs against countries, businesses or groups of individuals, using the blocking of assets and trade restrictions to accomplish foreign policy and national security goals. See United States embargoes for a list of affected countries.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: Under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), the U.S. President is empowered during national emergencies to block the removal of foreign assets under the jurisdiction of the United States. That mandate is executed by OFAC by issuing regulations that direct financial institutions accordingly.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: Between 1994 and 2003, OFAC collected over $8 million in violations of the Cuban embargo, against just under $10,000 for terrorism financing violations. It had ten times more agents assigned to tracking financial activities relating to Cuba than to Osama Bin Laden.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: As part of its efforts to support the Iraq sanctions, in 2005, OFAC fined Voices in the Wilderness $20,000 for gifting medicine and other humanitarian supplies to Iraqis. In a similar case, OFAC imposed and attempted to collect a $10,000 fine, plus interest, against peace activist Bert Sacks for taking medicine to residents of Basra; charges against Sacks were dismissed by the court in December 2012.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: In October 2007, a set of Spanish travel agency websites had their domain name access disabled by eNom: the domain names had been on the OFAC blacklist. When queried, the U.S. Treasury referred to a 2004 press release that claimed the company "had helped Americans evade restrictions on travel to Cuba".


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: In the case of "United States v. Banki", on June 5, 2010, a U.S. citizen was convicted of violating the Iran Trade Embargo for failing to request Iranian currency transfer licenses in advance from OFAC. On August 25, 2010, the Iranian American Bar Association announced that it would file an amicus curiae brief with the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit on "United States v. Banki". It has also hired lawyers to request further guidance from OFAC on import of goods from Iran.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: OFAC publishes a list of Specially Designated Nationals (SDNs), which lists people, organizations, and vessels with whom U.S. citizens and permanent residents are prohibited from doing business. This list differs from the list maintained pursuant to Section 314(a) of the Patriot Act.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: When an entity or individual is placed on the SDN list it can petition OFAC to reconsider. But OFAC is not required to remove an individual or entity from the SDN list. Two federal court cases have found the current Treasury/OFAC process to be constitutionally deficient.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: In August 2009, a federal court ruling in "KindHearts v. Treasury" found that Treasury's seizure of KindHearts assets without notice or means of appeal is a violation of the Fourth and Fifth Amendments.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: On September 23, 2011, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld a lower court's ruling that procedures used by Treasury to shut down the Oregon-based Al Haramain Islamic Foundation in 2004 was unconstitutional. The court said the Fifth Amendment's guarantee of due process required Treasury to give adequate notice of the reasons it puts a group on the terrorist list, as well as a meaningful opportunity to respond. In addition, the court ruled that freezing the group's assets amounts to a seizure under the Fourth Amendment, so that a court order is required.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: As of October 7, 2015, the SDN List had more than 15,200 entries from 155 countries. Of those, 178 entries were for aircraft and 575 entries were for ships ("vessels"). The remaining 14,467 entries were for designated individuals and organizations. OFAC creates separate entries in the SDN list for each alias of a designee, so the number of entries does not reflect the number of designees.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: On September 21, 2021, a cryptocurrency exchange was included in the sanctions list for first time for helping launder illicit funds having source from ransomware attacks. The amounts laundered are more than $160 million between 2018 and 2021.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: OFAC publishes a list of Sectoral Sanctions Identifications (SSI), which lists persons, companies, and entities in sectors of the Russian economy (especially energy, finance, and armaments), prohibiting certain types of activity with these individuals or entities by United States persons, wherever located. This list is maintained following the issuance of EO "Blocking Property of Additional Persons Contributing to the Situation in Ukraine" on March 20, 2014, in accordance with 79 FR 16167.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: On August 13, 2014, the United States Department of Treasury issued guidance for entities under sectoral sanctions. United States increased the number of entities on the sectoral sanctions identifications list by adding subsidiaries of entities under sectoral sanctions that hold 50% or greater ownership by an entity under sectoral sanctions either individually or in the aggregate, either directly or indirectly. Also, US persons cannot use a third party intermediary and they must use caution during "transactions with a non-blocked entity in which one or more blocked persons has a significant ownership interest that is less than 50% or which one or more blocked persons may control by means other than a majority ownership interest."


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: On December 22, 2015, the United States Department of Treasury explicitly listed all entities and their subsidiaries on the sectoral sanctions identifications list using a human readable search.


title: Office of Foreign Assets Control

text: "Table note: The numbers of individuals, companies, vessels, and aircraft are taken from the SDN List. However, any single entry on that list may be a target of multiple sanctions programs, so summing lines of the table will inflate the true sum due to duplication."


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Rakhigarhi or Rakhi Garhi is a village and an archaeological site belonging to the Indus Valley civilisation in Hisar District of the northern Indian state of Haryana, situated about 150 km northwest of Delhi. It was part of the mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilisation, dating to 2600-1900 BCE. It was among the largest settlements of the ancient civilisation, though most of it remains unexavated. The site is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra River plain, some 27 km from the seasonal Ghaggar river.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Most scholars believe it to be between 80 hectares and 100+ hectares in area. Some Indian archaeologists, however, have claimed that the earliest settlements in Rakhigarhi predate the Indus Valley Civilization, and the site itself is 300 hectares in size. Only 5% of the site has been excavated; much of the area is yet to be excavated and published.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Another related excavation sites in the area are Mitathal and the smaller site Lohari Ragho, which are still awaiting excavation.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain, some 27 km from the seasonal Ghaggar river. Today, Rakhigarhi is a small village in Haryana State, India.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: There are many other important archaeological sites in this area, in the old river valley to the east of the Ghaggar Plain. Among them are Kalibangan, Kunal, Balu, Bhirrana, and Banawali.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: According to Jane McIntosh, Rakhigarhi is located in the valley of the prehistoric Drishadvati River that originated in Siwalik Hills. Chautang is a tributary of Sarsuti river which in turn is tributary of Ghaggar river.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Rakhigarhi has 11 excavation mounds, which follow the naming convention of ""RGR-x"" e.g. RGR-1 to RGR-11, with the total size of . Mounds RGR1 to RGR-6 are residential sites belonging to ""pre-formation age early Harappan"" era, while mound RGR-7 is a burial site where human skeletons were found. 1997 and 2000 excavations reported 7 mounds with total site size of . 2014 excavation discovered 2 more mounds, RGR-8 and RGR-9, each with total size of 25 hectares taking the total site size to , thus making Rakhigarhi largest Indus Valley Civilization site by overtaking Mohenjodaro (300 hectares) by 50 hectares. 2016 excavation found 2 more mounds, RGR-10 and RGR-11, making the total number of mounds 11, and total site size .


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Most scholars, including Gregory Possehl, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Raymond Allchin and Rita P. Wright believe it to be between 80 hectares and 100+ hectares in area. Furthermore, Possehl did not believe that all mounds in Rakhigarhi belong to the same Indus Valley settlement, stating, "RGR-6, a Sothi-Siswal site known as Arda, was probably a separate settlement."


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Based on his 1997 and 2000 excavations, Amarendra Nath reported that the site covers more than in size with 7 mounds, five of which were contiguous.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Rakhigarhi, being the largest town and regional trade centre of IVC era, is surrounded by numerous IVC sites nearby in Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab along the Gagghar-Hakra river course. The important ones among those are the Bhirrana (4 phases of IVC with earliest dated to 8th-7th millennium BCE) 86 km northwest, Kunal (belonging to "Kunal cultural" which is the cultural ancestor of Rehman Dheri site) 75 km northwest, Siswal (belonging to "Sothi-Siswal culture" dated to 3800 BC, contemporaneous to "Early-Harappan Phase") 75 km west, and Kalibangan (another large regional IVC city with several phases starting from Early harappan phase) 235 km west, and few more.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: While the earliest excavation of IVC sites started from Harappa in 1921-1922 and Mohenjo-daro in 1931, the excavations at Rakhigarhi were first carried out in 1969, followed by more excavations in 1997–98, 1998–99 and 1999–2000, between 2011–16 and 2021 onward. There are 11 mounds in Rakhigarhi which are named RGR-1 to RGR-11, of which RGR-5 is thickly populated by establishment of Rakhishahpur village and is not available for excavations. RGR-1 to RGR-3, RGR6 to RGR9 and some part of RGR-4 are available for excavations.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: In 1963, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) began excavations at this site, and, though little has been published about the excavations.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: In 1969, Kurukshetra University's team studied and documented the site led by its Dean of Indic studies Dr. Suraj Bhan.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: In 1997–98, 1998–99 and 1999–2000, ASI team began to excavate the site again, which was led by its director Dr. Amrender Nath who published his findings in scholarly journals. After 2000, excavations were stopped for years because of a CBI investigation on the misuse of funds. Much of the findings are donated to the National Museum, New Delhi.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: From 2011 to 2016, Deccan College carried out several substantial excavations led by its then Vice Chancellor and archaeologist Dr. Vasant Shinde, several members of the team published their findings in various academic journals.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: From 2021 onward, more excavation by ASI commenced. Central University of Haryana and Dr Vasant Shinde also expressed interest in commencing excavation.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: ASI has carbon dated mound labelled RGR-1, RGR-2, RGR-6 and RGR-7. The RGR-6 has two layers of "Preharappan Phase" dating to 5,640 years before present (BP) and 5,440 (BP). The RGR-1 has "Early Harappan Phase" dating to 5,200 and 4,570 years BP. The RGR-2 also has "Early Harappan Phase" dated to 5,200 and 4,570 years as well as two additional samples belonging to "Mature Harappan Phase" dating to 4,040 and 3,900 years BP. RGR-7, which is a cemetery or a burial site from "Mature Harappan Phase", dates back to 4600 BP.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: In 2014 six radiocarbon datings from excavations at Rakhigarhi between 1997 and 2000 were published, corresponding to the three periods at the site as per archaeologist Amarendra Nath (Pre-formative, Early Harappan, and Mature Harappan). Mound RGR-6 revealed a Pre-formative stage designated as Sothi Phase with the following two datings: formula_1 and formula_2 years before present, converted to formula_3 B.C.E. and formula_4 B.C.E.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: The ASI's detailed excavation of the site revealed the size of the lost city and recovered numerous artefacts, some over 5,000 years old. Rakhigarhi was occupied at Early Harappan times. Evidence of paved roads, drainage system, large rainwater collection, storage system, terracotta bricks, statue production, and skilled working of bronze and precious metals have been uncovered. Jewellery, including bangles made from terracotta, conch shells, gold, and semi-precious stones, have also been found.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Digging so far reveals a well planned city with 1.92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan. The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali. Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies. There are brick lined drains to handle sewage from the houses. Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artifacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found. A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver. A gold foundry with about 3000 unpolished semi-precious stones has been found. Many tools used for polishing these stones and a furnace were found there. A burial site has been found with 11 skeletons, with their heads in the north direction. Near the heads of these skeletons, utensils for everyday use were kept. The three female skeletons have shell bangles on their left wrists. Near one female skeleton, a gold armlet has been found. In addition semi precious stones have been found lying near the head, suggesting that they were part of some sort of necklace.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: A granary belonging to mature Harappan phase (2600 BCE to 2000 BCE) has been found here. Granary is made up of mud-bricks with a floor of ramped earth plastered with mud. It has 7 rectangular or square chambers. Significant traces of lime & decomposed grass are found on the lower portion of the granary wall indicating that it can also be the storehouse of grains with lime used as insecticide & grass used to prevent entry of moisture. Looking at the size, it appears to be a public granary or a private granary of elites.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Hunting tools like copper hafts and fish hooks have been found here. Presence of various toys like mini wheels, miniature lids, sling balls, animal figurines indicates a prevalence of toy culture. Signs of flourishing trade can be seen by the excavation of stamps, jewelry and 'chert' weights. Weights found here are similar to weights found at many other IVC sites confirming presence of standardized weight systems.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Cotton cloth traces preserved on silver or bronze objects were known from Rakhigarhi, Chanhudaro and Harappa. An impressive number of stamps seals were also found at this site.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: A cemetery of Mature Harappan period is discovered at Rakhigarhi, with eight graves found. Often brick covered grave pits had wooden coffin in one case. Different type of grave pits were undercut to form an earthen overhang and body was placed below this; and then top of grave was filled with bricks to form a roof structure over the grave.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: So far 53 burial sites with 46 skeletons have been discovered. Anthropological examination done on 37 skeletons revealed 17 to be of adults, 8 to be of subadults while the age of 12 skeletons could not be verified. Sex detection of 17 skeletons was successful out of which 7 were male and 10 female skeletons. Most of the burials were typical burials with skeletons in a supine position. Atypical burials had skeletons in a prone position. Some graves are just pits while some are brick lined and contain pottery. Some of them also had votive pots with Animal remains symbolizing offerings to the dead. Bone remains of secondary burials were not charred hence ruling out the possibility of cremation practices. While these burials retained many of the Harappan features, group burials and prone position burials are distinct. Paleo-parasitical studies and DNA analysis to determine the lineage is being undertaken.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Parasite eggs which were once existed in the stomach of those buried were found in the burial sites along with human skeletons. Analysis of Human aDNA obtained from human bones as well as analysis of parasite and animal DNA will be done to assert origins of these people.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: In April 2015, four 4,600-year-old complete human skeletons were excavated from mound RGR-7. These skeletons belonged to two male adults, one female adult (classified as 'I6113') and one child. Pottery with grains of food as well as shell bangles were found around these skeletons. As the skeletons were excavated scientifically without any contamination, archaeologists think that with the help of latest technology on these skeletons and DNA obtained, it is possible to determine how Harappans looked like 4500 years ago. Shinde et al. (2019) have carried out DNA-tests on a single skeleton. Results announced in September 2018, and a paper published in "Cell Magazine" in 2019, show that the DNA did not include any traces of steppe ancestry, in line with the Aryan migration theory, which says that Indo-Aryans migrated to India from the steppes after the Harappan civilization had started to disintegrate. The DNA of a male skeleton (classified as 'I4411') shows affinity with present-day South Indian tribal populations, most notably the Irula people. A total of 61 skeletons were found till 2016.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Two of the skeletons, a man between 35 and 40 years old and women in early 20s, who died around the same time. They were found buried together side by side with men's head facing the women. Their ceremonial burial indicates that they were not in illicit relationship and the lovebirds were likely married to each other. Pots found in their grave likely carried food and water as offering to the dead. The agate found near he collar bone of the male was likely part of a necklace. The male was tall and female was . Their skeleton had no abnormalities, injuries or sign of disease. They were both likely ""quite healthy"" at the time of their death.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: In May 2012, the Global Heritage Fund declared Rakhigarhi one of the ten most endangered heritage sites in Asia facing the threat of irreparable loss and destruction due to development pressures, insufficient management and looting. A 2012 study by the Sunday Times found that the site is not being looked after; the iron boundary wall is broken, and villagers sell the artefacts they dig out of the site and parts of site are now being encroached by private houses. Due to the lack of site protection the site is being destroyed by soil erosion, encroachments, illegal sand lifting, theft of archaeological artifacts for illegal sale. It is a punishable crime to sell or buy artifacts found in the ancient sites. 80% of mound 6 – a residential site of Harappan Era and 7 which is a burial site where 4 human skeletons were recovered in 2015 have been destroyed due to cultivation and soil mining.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Parts of mounds R4 and R5 have been encroached by the villagers who have built 152 houses. The ASI has only 83.5 acres of the 350-hectare site that entails 11 archaeological mounds, due to encroachments and pending court cases for the removal of the encroachments.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: In February 2020, Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced that the site of Rakhigarhi would be developed as an iconic site. ASI has commenced the plan to remove encroachments from the site, including 152 houses on the R4 and R5 mounds. Villages, whose houses in the site will be removed, will be relocated and rehabilitated in the housing flats on another location.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: Rakhigarhi, which is an Indus Valley civilisation site, also has a museum developed by the state government. There is also Haryana Rural Antique Museum 60 km away, which is maintained by CCS HAU in its Gandhi Bhawan, exhibits evolution of agriculture and vanishing antiques. Jahaj Kothi Museum, named after George Thomas, is located inside Firoz Shah Palace Complex and maintained by Archaeological Survey of India.


title: Rakhigarhi

text: To develop Rakhigarhi as the global heritage, two johad (water bodies) across the road to museum are developed as lake along the lines of Sukhna Lake. The lake has been deepened by digging and traditional ghats with burji on the banks of lake have been constructed. A park is developed the spare land of the lake. A walking track around the lake, with shady trees and fruit trees, has been constructed for the tourists. The traditional ghats represent the past scenario when paleo-Drishadvati river use to flow through Rakhigahri which had ghats for transporting goods for trade, via Lothal port and Dholavira, as far as Mesopotamia (ancient cities of Elam and Sumer iIraq).


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive is an American rock band from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, that formed in 2004. The band, led and founded by Anthony Green, consisted of former members from This Day Forward and Taken.


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive quickly made a name for themselves in the indie music scene in little over two years with their 2005 debut album, "Juturna", and second album, "On Letting Go", released in 2007. Both albums were released on Equal Vision Records. Their third album, "Blue Sky Noise", was released via Atlantic Records in 2010. After parting ways with Atlantic Records, the band's fourth album, "Violent Waves", was released independently in 2012. Their fifth album, "Descensus", was released by Sumerian Records in 2014, and their sixth, The Amulet, with Hopeless Records in October 2017. The band would follow with two EPs on Rise Records: "A Dream About Love" in October 2021, and "A Dream About Death" in February 2022. The band would then announce an indefinite hiatus in October 2022.


title: Circa Survive

text: Vocalist Anthony Green left the band Saosin, in 2004, later noting "the big thing was that I was just scared. I was scared of committing". Green met up with Colin Frangicetto, a friend with whom he had "jammed" during his stay, and they decided to begin recording and recruiting. Thus, Circa Survive was born.


title: Circa Survive

text: Frangicetto and Green, with full support from Equal Vision Records, then recruited Brendan Ekstrom. Ekstrom had been Frangicetto's bandmate in This Day Forward, which had recently disbanded. Both Ekstrom and Frangicetto had toured with Taken during their This Day Forward days, and procured Nick Beard, the previous bass guitarist of Taken, as Circa Survive's next member. The band met Stephen Clifford through Vadim Taver of the band Marigold (and also from This Day Forward); "Steve jammed with us for a week and from there it was on," said Frangicetto.


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive's first release was the EP, "The Inuit Sessions", on March 18, 2005. It contained four tracks: "Act Appalled", "Handshakes at Sunrise", "The Great Golden Baby", and "Suspending Disbelief".


title: Circa Survive

text: "Juturna", Circa Survive's first album, was released on April 19, 2005, in the United States and on January 31, 2006, in Japan on Equal Vision Records. It had been initially announced via the band's MySpace page in November 2004. Details as to its sound remained vague, although the band stated they would keep their fans posted via their website, MySpace page, PureVolume page, and YouTube page. Shortly before its official release, the album was posted on their MySpace page in its entirety. "Juturna" peaked at No. 183 on the "Billboard" 200. The album was produced by Brian McTernan at Salad Days Studios in Baltimore.


title: Circa Survive

text: The band drew inspiration for the album from "House of Leaves" and "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind". During an online Q&A session on April 20, 2010, Brendan dismissed the claim that "Juturna" was a concept album based on Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, but did say that there is an underlying concept. That concept is speculated by fans to be vaguely about human memories. "Oh, Hello" exemplifies this with its lyrics. The decision to call the album's bonus track that appears after "Meet Me In Montauk" and the silence that follows it at 8:56, "House of Leaves" was more or less a joint one by the band and their fans. Various members of the band have stated that they have read at least some portion of the book over the years since its 2000 release.


title: Circa Survive

text: The album's sound is characterized by its prominent utilization of effects-laden, dual guitar melodies over polyrhythmic percussion. The guitarists' approach to songwriting takes on characteristics of jazz and shoegaze music. The album has since gone on to be considered massively influential to the post-hardcore community. Members of the band have recently recognized King Crimson, Björk, Thee Silver Mt. Zion Memorial Orchestra, and Godspeed You! Black Emperor as influences on the album's sound.


title: Circa Survive

text: "On Letting Go" is Circa Survive's second album. Released on May 29, 2007, by Equal Vision Records, the album entered the U.S. "Billboard" 200 at #24, selling about 24,000 copies in its first week. Up to July 11, 2007, it had sold 51,357 copies in the U.S. alone.


title: Circa Survive

text: As with previous albums, Esao Andrews designed the artwork and Brian McTernan produced the album. The band's sound did not radically change with this release. It was still polished and refined, with guitars and drums much tighter (but still meandering when needed to) and bass more prominent. Lyrically, the band "...evokes an era when hazy lyricism and reckless introspection were prerequisites for legitimacy and timelessness."


title: Circa Survive

text: In spring 2008, Circa Survive released an On Letting Go B-side, "1,000 Witnesses", to fans through the charity Invisible Children in an effort to raise money for the cause. In June 2008, they also released the B-side "The Most Dangerous Commercials" as a charity download to help support the relocation of local music shop Siren Records, in Doylestown, Pennsylvania.


title: Circa Survive

text: After supporting Thrice and Pelican for their spring 2008 tour, Circa Survive returned to Philadelphia to write for the then-untitled third album. A short leg of shows in the Eastern U.S. occurred in late 2008 and four shows were played in Southern California in February 2009. After that, the band did not tour again until the tentatively planned headlining tour for their forthcoming third album. Anthony Green's growth as a guitarist played a major role on "Blue Sky Noise", which the band framed as an entirely "new chapter".


title: Circa Survive

text: On August 3, Circa Survive stated that they had begun recording their third album in Toronto and had chosen David Bottrill as producer. They also stated, "After completing our contract with Equal Vision we embarked on a long search to find our next home. We met with lots of labels and decided that Atlantic Records is the best place for us to continue our growth as a band and to help us release our music around the world." On Twitter, they stated that they would be recording 16 songs, but that they would not all be on the album. However, they said they would release them all somehow. They posted eight video updates showing some song teases. Studio recording was completed at the end of October 2009 and mixing was completed on February 1, 2010 by Rich Costey.


title: Circa Survive

text: On February 16, 2010, they announced their new album would be titled "Blue Sky Noise", and would be released on April 20, 2010. The album could be pre-purchased, and those who did so received a digital copy of the album a week early, and the first single, "Get Out", instantly. The album entered the "Billboard" 200 at No. 11, the band's highest position.


title: Circa Survive

text: On October 18, 2010, Myspace Transmissions released a live EP of the band playing five tracks from "Blue Sky Noise" as well as a cover of the Nirvana song, "Scentless Apprentice".


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive's second EP, "Appendage", was released on November 30, 2010. It contains five tracks: "Sleep Underground" (Demo), "Stare Like You'll Stay", "Everyway", "Backmask" and "Lazarus".


title: Circa Survive

text: On April 16, 2012, Circa Survive began recording their fourth record, "Violent Waves". On June 25, 2012, Circa launched the Violent Waves Pre-Order webpage, officially announcing the album's title and release date, August 28, 2012, along with a new song titled "Suitcase". The band also confirmed that the album would be self-released.


title: Circa Survive

text: On March 3, 2014, it was announced via Pitchfork that Circa Survive would be releasing a 7-inch vinyl record split with the band Sunny Day Real Estate for Record Store Day 2014 (April 19). The split features "Lipton Witch" by Sunny Day Real Estate - their first new song in 14 years - and "Bad Heart" by Circa Survive, a b-side that was recorded after the release of 2012's "Violent Waves" album.


title: Circa Survive

text: In mid April 2014, Circa Survive once again entered Studio 4 in Conshohocken, PA to record their fifth album with producer/engineer Will Yip. They recorded 11 songs during the sessions and concluded recording by the end of May. On May 19, 2014 during a Saosin interview at Skate and Surf, Anthony Green stated that Circa Survive "have a new record coming out, hopefully in the fall, I mean I fucking shouldn't even say that, probably".


title: Circa Survive

text: On April 19, 2014, the band released a split EP release with Sunny Day Real Estate titled "Sunny Day Real Estate / Circa Survive Split 7"".


title: Circa Survive

text: On August 15, 2014, the band announced their signing to Sumerian Records for the release of the fifth album and also a reissue of their fourth album "Violent Waves".


title: Circa Survive

text: In an Alternative Press interview published in August 2014, Green said, "Well, the next Circa record is done. We’re in the final process of getting the final mixes right now." "It’s definitely the most aggressive Circa record we’ve ever made. It’s the first record of ours I’ve been able to listen to front to back without having that song that I’m like, 'Yeah, I could’ve done better here.' Every song has this moment in it that makes me feel ridiculous. I feel like I just outdid myself. I feel like we did better than we did before."


title: Circa Survive

text: The album, entitled "Descensus" was released on November 24, 2014. The album art was once again made by Esao Andrews.


title: Circa Survive

text: On October 27, 2014, the band released the first single and music video from "Descensus" titled "Schema". The second single "Only the Sun" was shown on November 5, 2014. Its video features visuals used in the tour for the album with Title Fight, Tera Melos and Pianos Become the Teeth.


title: Circa Survive

text: In January 2017 the band began a tour to celebrate ten years of 'On Letting Go' with support from MewithoutYou and Turnover.


title: Circa Survive

text: On July 10, 2017 the band announced their next LP "The Amulet". Alongside the announcement they released a single titled "Lustration" with accompanying music video. The album was released on September 22, 2017 through Hopeless Records. On August 10, 2017, the band released its second music video single "Rites of Investiture". On August 30, 2017, they released their third and title track single "The Amulet". Shortly before the LP's release on September 14, 2017, the band released its final music video single "Premonition of the Hex".


title: Circa Survive

text: The band announced a co-headlining tour with Thrice, accompanied by Balance and Composure and Chon, across North America beginning in San Jose on November 2.


title: Circa Survive

text: In October 2018, the band released two songs called "Dark Pools" and "Indras Net" for the upcoming deluxe edition of "The Amulet" on November 2, 2018. As well as a video for the song "Flesh and Bone".


title: Circa Survive

text: On June 4, 2021, the band teased a new single during the credits of the "Live Sky Noise" livestream. On October 8th, the band would release the single as "Imposter Syndrome" and announced an EP coming later that month.


title: Circa Survive

text: On October 22nd, 2021, the band released "A Dream About Love", followed by "A Dream About Death" on February 4, 2022. These EPs represent a slight departure from the band's established sound, embracing a more electronic approach.


title: Circa Survive

text: On August 30, 2022, the band announced that their members would be transitioning away from Circa Survive as their full-time job, leading to speculation on the band’s future. Green would clarify on his Twitter page that the group had not disbanded. However, on October 18, 2022, the band confirmed they were taking an indefinite hiatus.


title: Circa Survive

text: On October 19, 2022, Circa Survive announced they would combine both "Dream" EPs and re-release them as the band's seventh studio album titled "Two Dreams" due out December 16, 2022. The album release will be accompanied by live session videos.


title: Circa Survive

text: According to lead singer Anthony Green, Circa Survive have been influenced by Deftones, Thrice, Paul Simon, dredg, and Björk. Green cites Nirvana as a major influence, with Circa Survive frequently performing covers of Nirvana songs. Green stated that one of his favorite albums is Mapping an Invisible World by Days Away.


title: Circa Survive

text: Throughout their musical career, but particularly with respect to their first album "Juturna", the 2004 film "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind" has been a large influence on Circa Survive. The album's hidden track is based on the Mark Z. Danielewski novel "House of Leaves", lending it an unofficial title. Lyrically, their third album "Blue Sky Noise" is based on Green's struggles with mental illness, with many of the lyrics written during his voluntary three-week stay in a mental health facility.


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive has toured on several occasions, including national tours within the United States. They toured in winter 2005 with My Chemical Romance and Thrice. That summer they co-headlined a tour. Circa Survive has also opened for Mutemath, Mae and Dredg on each of their headlining tours. Circa Survive played The Bamboozle festival in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2011 in New Jersey. They also played a few dates on The Vans Warped Tour in 2005. In early 2006, they embarked on a tour of Europe with Coheed and Cambria and Thrice, after having previously completed a tour in September 2005 with Motion City Soundtrack. They also toured with Saves The Day, Moneen and Pistolita. In summer 2006, they embarked on their first headlining tour, "The Twilight Army Tour", with The Receiving End of Sirens, Days Away, Portugal. The Man, YouInSeries and Keating. Then in fall 2006, they went on tour with Thursday, Rise Against and Billy Talent. The band also played on the Rockstar Alternative Press Tour headlining with Cute Is What We Aim For, and with supporting act As Tall As Lions.


title: Circa Survive

text: In April 2007, Circa Survive played at the Coachella arts and music festival in Indio, California. In summer 2007, the band played the entire Vans Warped Tour alongside bands such as Coheed and Cambria, The Used, Anberlin and Bad Religion. Circa Survive opened for My Chemical Romance's 2007 shows in Worcester and Australian and New Zealand shows as well. Circa Survive opened as the main support for Thirty Seconds to Mars September 14, 2007, at the Brixton Academy. Circa Survive completed touring with Ours, Fear Before, with Dear and the Headlights and The Dear Hunter in November, 2007. On New Year's Eve 2007 they had a coming home show with Thursday and The Gaslight Anthem played at The Starland Ballroom in Sayreville, New Jersey. The band is in the Kerrang! 2008 Tour with Madina Lake, Coheed and Cambria and Fightstar. It was announced on January 24, 2008, that Circa Survive would be going on a spring 2008 tour with Thrice and Pelican.


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive is known to add humor and props to their live concerts. Anthony Green frequently wears dresses to outdoor music festivals, most notably The Bamboozle in 2006 and The Vans Warped Tour in 2007. The band's on Letting Go tour included a silent film projected above the band.


title: Circa Survive

text: In 2010, after mixing for "Blue Sky Noise" was completed in February, Circa Survive began performing shows in the midwest United States in March, often accompanied by Good Old War and The Christmas Lights. The band performed at the annual SXSW festival in Austin, Texas, from March 18 to 24. They also performed in Anaheim at the Hoodwink Festival on March 26 and at The Bamboozle on March 27. One month later, following the release of "Blue Sky Noise" on April 20, Circa Survive embarked on an extended tour with Coheed and Cambria and Torche, beginning in Charlotte, North Carolina, on April 22 and ending on May 29 in Atlantic City. On June 19, 2010, Circa Survive performed at Santa Monica Beach at the Pac Sun Beach Ballyhoo event, which was shut down early due to overcrowding before the band could perform their last two songs. After an eleven-day U.S. west coast tour in late July, Circa Survive embarked on a September European tour with Middle Class Rut, beginning in Hamburg, Germany, on September 6 and ending in Nottingham, England, on September 18. Their show in London on September 15 was streamed live over the Internet and attracted more than 43,000 viewers online.


title: Circa Survive

text: They then went on their U.S. "Blue Sky Noise" tour with Animals as Leaders, Dredg and Codeseven. The tour began on October 15, 2010 in Hartford, Connecticut, and concluded on December 13 in Bakersfield, California. They begin touring with Anberlin and Foxy Shazam in January 2011. On February 17, 2011, Circa Survive performed with Timeout Jimmy at the Rutgers Student Center at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. They also opened for Linkin Park during the A Thousand Suns Tour for their shows in Dallas and Houston, Texas.


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive toured with My Chemical Romance as their opening act along with Architects. Both bands opened for My Chemical Romance for the North American leg of The World Contamination Tour.


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive went on their "Violent Waves" tour, which began on September 13, 2012 in New Haven, Connecticut, and ended on October 27, 2012 in Sayreville, New Jersey. Balance and Composure, O'Brother, and Touché Amoré went along as their opening acts. They had 33 shows for this tour. After 6, they played in Atlanta, Georgia for the Nervous Energies Session. They then continued the Violent Waves tour. They had 2 Record Release shows for the new album, both in August.


title: Circa Survive

text: In April 2013, Circa Survive toured Malaysia, Singapore and the Pulp Summer Slam XIII "Til Death Do Us Part" rock festival in Manila, Philippines, on April 27, 2013. The Manila concert featured Circa Survive along with Dragonforce, Amoral, Cannibal Corpse, Coheed and Cambria, As I Lay Dying, A Skylit Drive and 4 local Filipino bands. On April 26, 2013 Circa Survive attended a press conference with Dragonforce and Amoral to promote the Manila rock festival.


title: Circa Survive

text: Circa Survive announced that they would be co-headlining with Minus the Bear, along with opening act Now, Now, in the "Waves Overhead" tour. This tour began March 6, 2013, and ended March 30, 2013.


title: Circa Survive

text: On October 16, 2013, Circa Survive announced a special end-of-the-year show on Saturday, December 28, 2013 at the Shrine Expo Hall in Los Angeles. The band will be "playing an extended set of favorites from all of our albums, along with a few rarities and special guests" and will be filming the show for release in 2014. The show was released on DVD included with the Violent Waves reissue released by Sumerian Records on September 9, 2014.


title: Circa Survive

text: On January 6, 2015, it was announced that Circa Survive would perform on Day 3 (April 12 & 19) of the Coachella Valley Music & Arts Festival in Indio, California.


title: Circa Survive

text: On January 29, 2015, the band announced they would be touring in the Spring of 2015 with Balance and Composure again and Chon.


title: Circa Survive

text: On October 11, 2016, the band announced their On Letting Go Ten Year Anniversary Tour with MewithoutYou and Turnover. On this tour, the band's setlist was composed of the songs from On Letting Go, in the same order as they are presented on the album, interspersed with B-sides and unreleased songs from the writing process.


title: Parallel postulate

text: In geometry, the parallel postulate, also called Euclid's fifth postulate because it is the fifth postulate in Euclid's "Elements", is a distinctive axiom in Euclidean geometry. It states that, in two-dimensional geometry:


title: Parallel postulate

text: "If a line segment intersects two straight lines forming two interior angles on the same side that are less than two right angles, then the two lines, if extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles sum to less than two right angles."


title: Parallel postulate

text: This postulate does not specifically talk about parallel lines; it is only a postulate related to parallelism. Euclid gave the definition of parallel lines in Book I, Definition 23 just before the five postulates.


title: Parallel postulate

text: "Euclidean geometry" is the study of geometry that satisfies all of Euclid's axioms, "including" the parallel postulate.


title: Parallel postulate

text: The postulate was long considered to be obvious or inevitable, but proofs were elusive. Eventually, it was discovered that inverting the postulate gave valid, albeit different geometries. A geometry where the parallel postulate does not hold is known as a non-Euclidean geometry. Geometry that is independent of Euclid's fifth postulate (i.e., only assumes the modern equivalent of the first four postulates) is known as absolute geometry (or sometimes "neutral geometry").


title: Parallel postulate

text: Probably the best-known equivalent of Euclid's parallel postulate, contingent on his other postulates, is Playfair's axiom, named after the Scottish mathematician John Playfair, which states:


title: Parallel postulate

text: "In a plane, given a line and a point not on it, at most one line parallel to the given line can be drawn through the point."


title: Parallel postulate

text: This axiom by itself is not logically equivalent to the Euclidean parallel postulate since there are geometries in which one is true and the other is not. However, in the presence of the remaining axioms which give Euclidean geometry, each of these can be used to prove the other, so they are equivalent in the context of absolute geometry.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Many other statements equivalent to the parallel postulate have been suggested, some of them appearing at first to be unrelated to parallelism, and some seeming so self-evident that they were unconsciously assumed by people who claimed to have proven the parallel postulate from Euclid's other postulates. These equivalent statements include:


title: Parallel postulate

text: However, the alternatives which employ the word "parallel" cease appearing so simple when one is obliged to explain which of the four common definitions of "parallel" is meant – constant separation, never meeting, same angles where crossed by "some" third line, or same angles where crossed by "any" third line – since the equivalence of these four is itself one of the unconsciously obvious assumptions equivalent to Euclid's fifth postulate. In the list above, it is always taken to refer to non-intersecting lines. For example, if the word "parallel" in Playfair's axiom is taken to mean 'constant separation' or 'same angles where crossed by any third line', then it is no longer equivalent to Euclid's fifth postulate, and is provable from the first four (the axiom says 'There is at most one line...', which is consistent with there being no such lines). However, if the definition is taken so that parallel lines are lines that do not intersect, or that have some line intersecting them in the same angles, Playfair's axiom is contextually equivalent to Euclid's fifth postulate and is thus logically independent of the first four postulates. Note that the latter two definitions are not equivalent, because in hyperbolic geometry the second definition holds only for ultraparallel lines.


title: Parallel postulate

text: From the beginning, the postulate came under attack as being provable, and therefore not a postulate, and for more than two thousand years, many attempts were made to prove (derive) the parallel postulate using Euclid's first four postulates. The main reason that such a proof was so highly sought after was that, unlike the first four postulates, the parallel postulate is not self-evident. If the order in which the postulates were listed in the Elements is significant, it indicates that Euclid included this postulate only when he realised he could not prove it or proceed without it.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Many attempts were made to prove the fifth postulate from the other four, many of them being accepted as proofs for long periods until the mistake was found. Invariably the mistake was assuming some 'obvious' property which turned out to be equivalent to the fifth postulate (Playfair's axiom). Although known from the time of Proclus, this became known as Playfair's Axiom after John Playfair wrote a famous commentary on Euclid in 1795 in which he proposed replacing Euclid's fifth postulate by his own axiom. Today, over two thousand two hundred years later, Euclid's fifth postulate remains a postulate.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Proclus (410–485) wrote a commentary on "The Elements" where he comments on attempted proofs to deduce the fifth postulate from the other four; in particular, he notes that Ptolemy had produced a false 'proof'. Proclus then goes on to give a false proof of his own. However, he did give a postulate which is equivalent to the fifth postulate.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965-1039), an Arab mathematician, made an attempt at proving the parallel postulate using a proof by contradiction, in the course of which he introduced the concept of motion and transformation into geometry. He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the "Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral", and his attempted proof contains elements similar to those found in Lambert quadrilaterals and Playfair's axiom.


title: Parallel postulate

text: The Persian mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and poet Omar Khayyám (1050–1123), attempted to prove the fifth postulate from another explicitly given postulate (based on the fourth of the five "principles due to the Philosopher" (Aristotle), namely, "Two convergent straight lines intersect and it is impossible for two convergent straight lines to diverge in the direction in which they converge." He derived some of the earlier results belonging to elliptical geometry and hyperbolic geometry, though his postulate excluded the latter possibility. The Saccheri quadrilateral was also first considered by Omar Khayyám in the late 11th century in Book I of "Explanations of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid". Unlike many commentators on Euclid before and after him (including Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri), Khayyám was not trying to prove the parallel postulate as such but to derive it from his equivalent postulate. He recognized that three possibilities arose from omitting Euclid's fifth postulate; if two perpendiculars to one line cross another line, judicious choice of the last can make the internal angles where it meets the two perpendiculars equal (it is then parallel to the first line). If those equal internal angles are right angles, we get Euclid's fifth postulate, otherwise, they must be either acute or obtuse. He showed that the acute and obtuse cases led to contradictions using his postulate, but his postulate is now known to be equivalent to the fifth postulate.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274), in his "Al-risala al-shafiya'an al-shakk fi'l-khutut al-mutawaziya" ("Discussion Which Removes Doubt about Parallel Lines") (1250), wrote detailed critiques of the parallel postulate and on Khayyám's attempted proof a century earlier. Nasir al-Din attempted to derive a proof by contradiction of the parallel postulate. He also considered the cases of what are now known as elliptical and hyperbolic geometry, though he ruled out both of them.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Nasir al-Din's son, Sadr al-Din (sometimes known as "Pseudo-Tusi"), wrote a book on the subject in 1298, based on his father's later thoughts, which presented one of the earliest arguments for a non-Euclidean hypothesis equivalent to the parallel postulate. "He essentially revised both the Euclidean system of axioms and postulates and the proofs of many propositions from the "Elements"." His work was published in Rome in 1594 and was studied by European geometers. This work marked the starting point for Saccheri's work on the subject which opened with a criticism of Sadr al-Din's work and the work of Wallis.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Giordano Vitale (1633-1711), in his book "Euclide restituo" (1680, 1686), used the Khayyam-Saccheri quadrilateral to prove that if three points are equidistant on the base AB and the summit CD, then AB and CD are everywhere equidistant. Girolamo Saccheri (1667-1733) pursued the same line of reasoning more thoroughly, correctly obtaining absurdity from the obtuse case (proceeding, like Euclid, from the implicit assumption that lines can be extended indefinitely and have infinite length), but failing to refute the acute case (although he managed to wrongly persuade himself that he had).


title: Parallel postulate

text: In 1766 Johann Lambert wrote, but did not publish, "Theorie der Parallellinien" in which he attempted, as Saccheri did, to prove the fifth postulate. He worked with a figure that today we call a "Lambert quadrilateral", a quadrilateral with three right angles (can be considered half of a Saccheri quadrilateral). He quickly eliminated the possibility that the fourth angle is obtuse, as had Saccheri and Khayyám, and then proceeded to prove many theorems under the assumption of an acute angle. Unlike Saccheri, he never felt that he had reached a contradiction with this assumption. He had proved the non-Euclidean result that the sum of the angles in a triangle increases as the area of the triangle decreases, and this led him to speculate on the possibility of a model of the acute case on a sphere of imaginary radius. He did not carry this idea any further.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Where Khayyám and Saccheri had attempted to prove Euclid's fifth by disproving the only possible alternatives, the nineteenth century finally saw mathematicians exploring those alternatives and discovering the logically consistent geometries that result. In 1829, Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky published an account of acute geometry in an obscure Russian journal (later re-published in 1840 in German). In 1831, János Bolyai included, in a book by his father, an appendix describing acute geometry, which, doubtlessly, he had developed independently of Lobachevsky. Carl Friedrich Gauss had also studied the problem, but he did not publish any of his results. Upon hearing of Bolyai's results in a letter from Bolyai's father, Farkas Bolyai, Gauss stated:


title: Parallel postulate

text: "If I commenced by saying that I am unable to praise this work, you would certainly be surprised for a moment. But I cannot say otherwise. To praise it would be to praise myself. Indeed the whole contents of the work, the path taken by your son, the results to which he is led, coincide almost entirely with my meditations, which have occupied my mind partly for the last thirty or thirty-five years."


title: Parallel postulate

text: The resulting geometries were later developed by Lobachevsky, Riemann and Poincaré into hyperbolic geometry (the acute case) and elliptic geometry (the obtuse case). The independence of the parallel postulate from Euclid's other axioms was finally demonstrated by Eugenio Beltrami in 1868.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Euclid did not postulate the converse of his fifth postulate, which is one way to distinguish Euclidean geometry from elliptic geometry. The Elements contains the proof of an equivalent statement (Book I, Proposition 27): "If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the alternate angles equal to one another, the straight lines will be parallel to one another." As De Morgan pointed out, this is logically equivalent to (Book I, Proposition 16). These results do not depend upon the fifth postulate, but they do require the second postulate which is violated in elliptic geometry.


title: Parallel postulate

text: Attempts to logically prove the parallel postulate, rather than the eighth axiom, were criticized by Arthur Schopenhauer in "The World as Will and Idea". However, the argument used by Schopenhauer was that the postulate is evident by perception, not that it was not a logical consequence of the other axioms.


title: Parallel postulate

text: The parallel postulate is equivalent, as shown in, to the conjunction of the Lotschnittaxiom and of Aristotle's axiom. The former states that the perpendiculars to the sides of a right angle intersect, while the latter states that there is no upper bound for the lengths of the distances from the leg of an angle to the other leg. As shown in, the parallel postulate is equivalent to the conjunction of the following incidence-geometric forms of the Lotschnittaxiom and of Aristotle's axiom:


title: Parallel postulate

text: Given a line "a" and two distinct intersecting lines "m" and "n", each different from "a", there exists a line "g" which intersects "a" and "m", but not "n".


title: Parallel postulate

text: As shown in, the splitting of the parallel postulate into the conjunction of these incidence-geometric axioms is possible only in the presence of absolute geometry.


title: Michel Gill

text: Michel Gill (born April 16, 1960), also known as Michael Gill, is an American actor best known for playing President Garrett Walker in the Netflix series "House of Cards" and Gideon Goddard on "Mr. Robot".


title: Michel Gill

text: Gill is a first generation American born to Jewish parents who escaped the Holocaust. Gill's first language was French. He studied at Aiglon College, a prestigious boarding school in Switzerland. After Aiglon, he attended Tufts University before transferring and graduating from the Juilliard School in 1985 (Group 14).


title: Michel Gill

text: Gill is married to fellow "House of Cards" actor Jayne Atkinson (Secretary of State Catherine Durant), whom he met when they were both in a production of "The Heiress" at the Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut.


title: Michel Gill

text: They began dating in 1992 and were married in 1998. Gill and Atkinson reside with their son in the Berkshires.


title: Biogeography

text: Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area. Phytogeography is the branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of plants. Zoogeography is the branch that studies distribution of animals. Mycogeography is the branch that studies distribution of fungi, such as mushrooms.


title: Biogeography

text: Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of organisms is as vital to us today as it was to our early human ancestors, as we adapt to heterogeneous but geographically predictable environments. Biogeography is an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and information from ecology, evolutionary biology, taxonomy, geology, physical geography, palaeontology, and climatology.


title: Biogeography

text: Modern biogeographic research combines information and ideas from many fields, from the physiological and ecological constraints on organismal dispersal to geological and climatological phenomena operating at global spatial scales and evolutionary time frames.


title: Biogeography

text: The short-term interactions within a habitat and species of organisms describe the ecological application of biogeography. Historical biogeography describes the long-term, evolutionary periods of time for broader classifications of organisms. Early scientists, beginning with Carl Linnaeus, contributed to the development of biogeography as a science.


title: Biogeography

text: The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Francisco Jose de Caldas (1768–1816), Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804–1881), Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913) and other biologists and explorers.


title: Biogeography

text: The patterns of species distribution across geographical areas can usually be explained through a combination of historical factors such as: speciation, extinction, continental drift, and glaciation. Through observing the geographic distribution of species, we can see associated variations in sea level, river routes, habitat, and river capture. Additionally, this science considers the geographic constraints of landmass areas and isolation, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies.


title: Biogeography

text: Over periods of ecological changes, biogeography includes the study of plant and animal species in: their past and/or present living "refugium" habitat; their interim living sites; and/or their survival locales. As writer David Quammen put it, "...biogeography does more than ask "Which species?" and "Where". It also asks "Why?" and, what is sometimes more crucial, "Why not?"."


title: Biogeography

text: Modern biogeography often employs the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), to understand the factors affecting organism distribution, and to predict future trends in organism distribution.


title: Biogeography

text: Often mathematical models and GIS are employed to solve ecological problems that have a spatial aspect to them.


title: Biogeography

text: Biogeography is most keenly observed on the world's islands. These habitats are often much more manageable areas of study because they are more condensed than larger ecosystems on the mainland. Islands are also ideal locations because they allow scientists to look at habitats that new invasive species have only recently colonized and can observe how they disperse throughout the island and change it. They can then apply their understanding to similar but more complex mainland habitats. Islands are very diverse in their biomes, ranging from the tropical to arctic climates. This diversity in habitat allows for a wide range of species study in different parts of the world.


title: Biogeography

text: One scientist who recognized the importance of these geographic locations was Charles Darwin, who remarked in his journal "The Zoology of Archipelagoes will be well worth examination". Two chapters in "On the Origin of Species" were devoted to geographical distribution.


title: Biogeography

text: The first discoveries that contributed to the development of biogeography as a science began in the mid-18th century, as Europeans explored the world and described the biodiversity of life. During the 18th century most views on the world were shaped around religion and for many natural theologists, the bible. Carl Linnaeus, in the mid-18th century, initiated the ways to classify organisms through his exploration of undiscovered territories. When he noticed that species were not as perpetual as he believed, he developed the Mountain Explanation to explain the distribution of biodiversity; when Noah's ark landed on Mount Ararat and the waters receded, the animals dispersed throughout different elevations on the mountain. This showed different species in different climates proving species were not constant. Linnaeus' findings set a basis for ecological biogeography. Through his strong beliefs in Christianity, he was inspired to classify the living world, which then gave way to additional accounts of secular views on geographical distribution. He argued that the structure of an animal was very closely related to its physical surroundings. This was important to a George Louis Buffon's rival theory of distribution.


title: Biogeography

text: Closely after Linnaeus, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon observed shifts in climate and how species spread across the globe as a result. He was the first to see different groups of organisms in different regions of the world. Buffon saw similarities between some regions which led him to believe that at one point continents were connected and then water separated them and caused differences in species. His hypotheses were described in his work, the 36 volume "Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière", in which he argued that varying geographical regions would have different forms of life. This was inspired by his observations comparing the Old and New World, as he determined distinct variations of species from the two regions. Buffon believed there was a single species creation event, and that different regions of the world were homes for varying species, which is an alternate view than that of Linnaeus. Buffon's law eventually became a principle of biogeography by explaining how similar environments were habitats for comparable types of organisms. Buffon also studied fossils which led him to believe that the earth was over tens of thousands of years old, and that humans had not lived there long in comparison to the age of the earth.


title: Biogeography

text: Following the period of exploration came the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, which attempted to explain the patterns of biodiversity observed by Buffon and Linnaeus. At the birth of the 19th century, Alexander von Humboldt, known as the "founder of plant geography", developed the concept of physique generale to demonstrate the unity of science and how species fit together. As one of the first to contribute empirical data to the science of biogeography through his travel as an explorer, he observed differences in climate and vegetation. The earth was divided into regions which he defined as tropical, temperate, and arctic and within these regions there were similar forms of vegetation. This ultimately enabled him to create the isotherm, which allowed scientists to see patterns of life within different climates. He contributed his observations to findings of botanical geography by previous scientists, and sketched this description of both the biotic and abiotic features of the earth in his book, "Cosmos".


title: Biogeography

text: Augustin de Candolle contributed to the field of biogeography as he observed species competition and the several differences that influenced the discovery of the diversity of life. He was a Swiss botanist and created the first Laws of Botanical Nomenclature in his work, Prodromus. He discussed plant distribution and his theories eventually had a great impact on Charles Darwin, who was inspired to consider species adaptations and evolution after learning about botanical geography. De Candolle was the first to describe the differences between the small-scale and large-scale distribution patterns of organisms around the globe.


title: Biogeography

text: Several additional scientists contributed new theories to further develop the concept of biogeography. Charles Lyell developed the Theory of Uniformitarianism after studying fossils. This theory explained how the world was not created by one sole catastrophic event, but instead from numerous creation events and locations. Uniformitarianism also introduced the idea that the Earth was actually significantly older than was previously accepted. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that it was possible for species to go extinct. Since he noted that earth's climate changes, he realized that species distribution must also change accordingly. Lyell argued that climate changes complemented vegetation changes, thus connecting the environmental surroundings to varying species. This largely influenced Charles Darwin in his development of the theory of evolution.


title: Biogeography

text: Charles Darwin was a natural theologist who studied around the world, and most importantly in the Galapagos Islands. Darwin introduced the idea of natural selection, as he theorized against previously accepted ideas that species were static or unchanging. His contributions to biogeography and the theory of evolution were different from those of other explorers of his time, because he developed a mechanism to describe the ways that species changed. His influential ideas include the development of theories regarding the struggle for existence and natural selection. Darwin's theories started a biological segment to biogeography and empirical studies, which enabled future scientists to develop ideas about the geographical distribution of organisms around the globe.


title: Biogeography

text: Alfred Russel Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the Amazon Basin and the Malay Archipelago in the mid-19th century. His research was essential to the further development of biogeography, and he was later nicknamed the "father of Biogeography". Wallace conducted fieldwork researching the habits, breeding and migration tendencies, and feeding behavior of thousands of species. He studied butterfly and bird distributions in comparison to the presence or absence of geographical barriers. His observations led him to conclude that the number of organisms present in a community was dependent on the amount of food resources in the particular habitat. Wallace believed species were dynamic by responding to biotic and abiotic factors. He and Philip Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for the theory of evolution as they used Darwin's conclusion to explain how biogeography was similar to a record of species inheritance. Key findings, such as the sharp difference in fauna either side of the Wallace Line, and the sharp difference that existed between North and South America prior to their relatively recent faunal interchange, can only be understood in this light. Otherwise, the field of biogeography would be seen as a purely descriptive one.


title: Biogeography

text: Moving on to the 20th century, Alfred Wegener introduced the Theory of Continental Drift in 1912, though it was not widely accepted until the 1960s. This theory was revolutionary because it changed the way that everyone thought about species and their distribution around the globe. The theory explained how continents were formerly joined in one large landmass, Pangea, and slowly drifted apart due to the movement of the plates below Earth's surface. The evidence for this theory is in the geological similarities between varying locations around the globe, fossil comparisons from different continents, and the jigsaw puzzle shape of the landmasses on Earth. Though Wegener did not know the mechanism of this concept of Continental Drift, this contribution to the study of biogeography was significant in the way that it shed light on the importance of environmental and geographic similarities or differences as a result of climate and other pressures on the planet. Importantly, late in his career Wegener recognised that testing his theory required measurement of continental movement rather than inference from fossils species distributions.


title: Biogeography

text: In 1958 paleontologist Paul S. Martin published "A Biogeography of Reptiles and Amphibians in the Gómez Farias Region, Tamaulipas, Mexico", which has been described as "ground-breaking" and "a classic treatise in historical biogeography". Martin applied several disciplines including ecology, botany, climatology, geology, and Pleistocene dispersal routes to examine the herpetofauna of a relatively small and largely undisturbed area, but ecologically complex, situated on the threshold of temperate – tropical (nearctic and neotropical) regions, including semiarid lowlands at 70 meters elevation and the northernmost cloud forest in the western hemisphere at over 2200 meters.


title: Biogeography

text: The publication of "The Theory of Island Biogeography" by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson in 1967 showed that the species richness of an area could be predicted in terms of such factors as habitat area, immigration rate and extinction rate. This added to the long-standing interest in island biogeography. The application of island biogeography theory to habitat fragments spurred the development of the fields of conservation biology and landscape ecology.


title: Biogeography

text: Classic biogeography has been expanded by the development of molecular systematics, creating a new discipline known as phylogeography. This development allowed scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as island endemics. For example, while classic biogeographers were able to speculate about the origins of species in the Hawaiian Islands, phylogeography allows them to test theories of relatedness between these populations and putative source populations in Asia and North America.


title: Biogeography

text: Biogeography continues as a point of study for many life sciences and geography students worldwide, however it may be under different broader titles within institutions such as ecology or evolutionary biology.


title: Biogeography

text: In recent years, one of the most important and consequential developments in biogeography has been to show how multiple organisms, including mammals like monkeys and reptiles like lizards, overcame barriers such as large oceans that many biogeographers formerly believed were impossible to cross. See also Oceanic dispersal.


title: Biogeography

text: Biogeography now incorporates many different fields including but not limited to physical geography, geology, botany and plant biology, zoology, general biology, and modelling. A biogeographer's main focus is on how the environment and humans affect the distribution of species as well as other manifestations of Life such as species or genetic diversity. Biogeography is being applied to biodiversity conservation and planning, projecting global environmental changes on species and biomes, projecting the spread of infectious diseases, invasive species, and for supporting planning for the establishment of crops. Technological evolving and advances have allowed for generating a whole suite of predictor variables for biogeographic analysis, including satellite imaging and processing of the Earth. Two main types of satellite imaging that are important within modern biogeography are Global Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GLO-PEM uses satellite-imaging gives "repetitive, spatially contiguous, and time specific observations of vegetation". These observations are on a global scale. GIS can show certain processes on the earth's surface like whale locations, sea surface temperatures, and bathymetry. Current scientists also use coral reefs to delve into the history of biogeography through the fossilized reefs.


title: Biogeography

text: Paleobiogeography goes one step further to include paleogeographic data and considerations of plate tectonics. Using molecular analyses and corroborated by fossils, it has been possible to demonstrate that perching birds evolved first in the region of Australia or the adjacent Antarctic (which at that time lay somewhat further north and had a temperate climate). From there, they spread to the other Gondwanan continents and Southeast Asia – the part of Laurasia then closest to their origin of dispersal – in the late Paleogene, before achieving a global distribution in the early Neogene. Not knowing that at the time of dispersal, the Indian Ocean was much narrower than it is today, and that South America was closer to the Antarctic, one would be hard pressed to explain the presence of many "ancient" lineages of perching birds in Africa, as well as the mainly South American distribution of the suboscines.


title: Biogeography

text: Paleobiogeography also helps constrain hypotheses on the timing of biogeographic events such as vicariance and geodispersal, and provides unique information on the formation of regional biotas. For example, data from species-level phylogenetic and biogeographic studies tell us that the Amazonian fish fauna accumulated in increments over a period of tens of millions of years, principally by means of allopatric speciation, and in an arena extending over most of the area of tropical South America (Albert & Reis 2011). In other words, unlike some of the well-known insular faunas (Galapagos finches, Hawaiian drosophilid flies, African rift lake cichlids), the species-rich Amazonian ichthyofauna is not the result of recent adaptive radiations.


title: Biogeography

text: For freshwater organisms, landscapes are divided naturally into discrete drainage basins by watersheds, episodically isolated and reunited by erosional processes. In regions like the Amazon Basin (or more generally Greater Amazonia, the Amazon basin, Orinoco basin, and Guianas) with an exceptionally low (flat) topographic relief, the many waterways have had a highly reticulated history over geological time. In such a context, stream capture is an important factor affecting the evolution and distribution of freshwater organisms. Stream capture occurs when an upstream portion of one river drainage is diverted to the downstream portion of an adjacent basin. This can happen as a result of tectonic uplift (or subsidence), natural damming created by a landslide, or headward or lateral erosion of the watershed between adjacent basins.


title: Biogeography

text: Biogeography is a synthetic science, related to geography, biology, soil science, geology, climatology, ecology and evolution.


title: Biogeography

text: There are many types of biogeographic units used in biogeographic regionalisation schemes, as there are many criteria (species composition, physiognomy, ecological aspects) and hierarchization schemes: biogeographic realms (ecozones), bioregions ("sensu stricto"), ecoregions, zoogeographical regions, floristic regions, vegetation types, biomes, etc.


title: Biogeography

text: The terms biogeographic unit, biogeographic area or bioregion "sensu lato", can be used for these categories, regardless of rank.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Otto (; 27 April 1848 – 11 October 1916) was King of Bavaria from 1886 until 1913. However, he never actively ruled because of alleged severe mental illness. His uncle, Luitpold, and his cousin, Ludwig, served as regents. Ludwig deposed him in 1913, a day after the legislature passed a law allowing him to do so, and became king in his own right.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Otto was the son of Maximilian II and his wife, Marie of Prussia, and the younger brother of Ludwig II.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Prince Otto was born on 27 April 1848, two months premature, in the Munich Residenz. His parents were King Maximilian II of Bavaria and Marie of Prussia. His uncle, King Otto I of Greece, served as his godfather.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Otto had an older brother, Crown Prince Ludwig. They spent most of their childhood with servants and teachers at Hohenschwangau Castle. Their parents were distant and formal, and they were at such a loss about what to say to Otto and Ludwig that they often ignored and even avoided them. Their mother took an interest in what the brothers wore: she ordered for Ludwig to always be dressed in blue and for Otto to always wear red. Their father was strict with the brothers, particularly Ludwig, the heir apparent. Between 1853 and 1863, the brothers spent their summer holidays at the "Royal Villa" in Berchtesgaden, which had been specially built for their father.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Otto served in the Bavarian army from 1863. He was appointed sub-lieutenant on 27 April 1863 and admitted to the Cadet Corps on 1 March 1864. On 26 May 1864, he was promoted to full lieutenant.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: On 10 March 1864, King Maximilian died and Otto's brother, Ludwig, succeeded as King of Bavaria. Between 18 June and 15 July 1864, the two brothers received state visits by the emperors of Austria and Russia.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Otto was promoted to Captain on 27 April 1866 and entered active military service in the Royal Bavarian Infantry Guards. He participated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and as colonel in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. His experiences on the battlefield traumatized him and caused him to have depression and insomnia. When Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor on 18 January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles, Prince Otto and his uncle, Luitpold, represented King Ludwig II, who refused to participate (despite having offered Wilhelm the Imperial title in a letter). Otto then criticized the celebration as ostentatious and heartless in a letter to his brother. Otto despised his ambitious Prussian relatives and cordially disliked his Prussian mother and so they were appalled by the creation of the new German Empire. His hostility was no secret to the Prussian government.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Otto and Ludwig were often seen together during the early years of Ludwig's reign, but they became estranged over time. Ludwig was shy and introverted and eventually became a recluse. Otto was cheerful, outgoing and extroverted until the Franco-Prussian War. In 1868, Otto received the Royal Order of Saint George for the Defense of the Immaculate Conception, the house order of the House of Wittelsbach. In 1869, he joined the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, on the initiative of Cardinal Karl-August von Reisach.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: After the Franco-Prussian War, Otto became very depressed and anxious, which worried his family. Otto had spells during which he slept poorly for days and acted out, followed by periods of time during which he was perfectly normal and lucid. His illness progressively grew worse. Ludwig was horrified because he had been counting on Otto to marry and have a son who could eventually inherit the throne. Otto was placed under medical supervision, and reports about his condition were sent by spies working for the Prussian Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. Doctors reported that Otto was mentally ill in January 1872. From 1873, he was held in isolation in the southern pavilion of Nymphenburg Palace. His attending physician was Dr. Bernhard von Gudden, who later diagnosed Otto's brother, Ludwig, as mentally ill without bothering to examine him and without asking him a single question, which raises questions about his competence and his motives. Both Ludwig and Otto despised Prussia, and their uncle, Luitpold, and Gudden supported Prussia's rise to dominance. Some contemporaries believed that Gudden's diagnoses of Otto and Ludwig were motivated by political considerations and that more could and should have been done to help and treat Otto. Some contemporaries also believed that Bismarck did not want Ludwig nor Otto to remain in power and decided to replace the brothers with their malleable uncle, Luitpold.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: During Corpus Christi Mass in 1875 in the Frauenkirche in Munich, Otto, who had not attended the church service, rushed into the church wearing hunting clothes and fell on his knees before the celebrant, Archbishop Gregor von Scherr, to ask forgiveness for his sins. The High Mass was interrupted, and the prince did not resist when he was led away by two church ministers. Otto was then moved to Schleissheim Palace and was effectively held prisoner there, much to his dismay. Gudden made no effort to treat him; it is possible that Otto was heavily drugged. Otto's last public appearance was his presence at the side of his brother at the King's parade on 22 August 1875, at the Marsfeld in Munich. From 1 June 1876, he stayed for a few weeks in the castle at Ludwigsthal in the Bavarian Forest. In the spring of 1880, his condition worsened. In 1883, he was confined under medical supervision in Fürstenried Palace near Munich, where he would remain for the rest of his life. The palace had been specially converted for his confinement. Ludwig occasionally visited him at night and ordered for no violence to be used against him.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: In 1886, the senior royal medical officer wrote a statement declaring that Otto was severely mentally ill. Otto may have had schizophrenia. It has also been argued that his illness was the result of syphilis, which would also account for the paralysis he had in later years.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: When King Ludwig II was deposed by his ministers on 10 June 1886, his uncle Luitpold took over the rule of the Kingdom of Bavaria and led the affairs of state in Ludwig's place as regent. Only three days later Ludwig II died under unknown circumstances, and Prince Otto succeeded him as King of Bavaria on 13 June 1886 in accordance with the Wittelsbach succession law.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Since Otto was unable to lead the government due to his mental illness (officially it was said: "The King is melancholic"), Prince Regent Luitpold also reigned for him. He did not understand the proclamation of his accession to the throne, which was explained to King Otto at Fürstenried Palace the next day after his accession. He thought his uncle Luitpold was the rightful king. Shortly thereafter, the Bavarian troops were sworn in the name of King Otto I and coins were minted with his portrait.


title: Otto, King of Bavaria

text: Luitpold kept his role as Prince Regent until he died in 1912 and was succeeded by his son Ludwig, who was Otto's first cousin. By then, it had been obvious for some time that Otto would never emerge from seclusion or be mentally capable of actively reigning. Almost as soon as Ludwig became regent, elements in the press and larger society clamoured for Ludwig to become king in his own right.