title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: Following a peace deal between the Bozizé government and the Séléka rebel coalition in January 2013, Bozizé dismissed Touadéra on 12 January 2013, in accordance with the terms of the agreement, which required that a new prime minister be appointed from the political opposition.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: Later, Touadéra announced his intention to stand as an independent candidate in the October 2015 presidential election.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: In 2008, the Euclid Consortium initiative hosted by the University of Bangui led to the formation of an intergovernmental university named EUCLID (Euclid University) (French: Pôle Universitaire Euclide). In his capacity as Prime Minister, Touadera signed the instrument of participation for the Central African Republic in May 2010. His chief of cabinet, Simplice Sarandji also signed the headquarters agreement for EUCLID in March 2011.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: In April 2012, Touadera personally presided over a graduation ceremony in New York, at the Permanent Mission of the Central African Republic to the United Nations, for a graduating diplomat of Burundi. After his tenure as Prime Minister, Touadera became EUCLID's High Steward, an honorary role.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: Touadéra stood as a candidate in the December 2015–February 2016 presidential election. After finishing second in the first round of voting, he received the support of the majority of defeated candidates for the second round, which he won with 62% of the vote. He was sworn in on 30 March 2016. Speaking on the occasion, he vowed to pursue disarmament and "make CAR a united country, a country of peace, a country facing development". He appointed Simplice Sarandji as Prime Minister on 2 April 2016. Sarandji was Touadéra's campaign manager during the election and Touadéra's chief of staff during his own time as Prime Minister.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: After he was sworn into office, France confirmed that it will end its military intervention in Central African Republic. France had around 2,500 troops deployed in the country as part of Operation Sangaris, supporting about 10,000 United Nations peacekeepers. Without France's support, Touadéra now faces the immediate challenge of maintaining security in major cities.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: The Central African Republic saw a 36 percent drop in its gross domestic product in 2013. The economy has slowly grown since then, but the agricultural sector — the main contributor to GDP — is still struggling and the government is struggling to raise revenues.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: Faustin-Archange Touadera's personal security detail is reportedly composed of members of the Russian Wagner Group.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: He was a deacon in a Baptist church of the Fraternal Union of Baptist Churches. and is still a member of this union.


title: Faustin-Archange Touadéra

text: Touadéra is married to both Brigitte Touadéra and Marguerite "Tina" Touadéra. Both women had reportedly been vying for the title of First Lady of the Central African Republic behind the scenes. Faustin-Archange Touadéra has three children.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: A low-FODMAP diet is a person's global restriction of consumption of all fermentable carbohydrates (FODMAPs), recommended only for a short time. A low-FODMAP diet is recommended for managing patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and can reduce digestive symptoms of IBS including bloating and flatulence.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: If the problem lies with indigestible fiber instead, the patient may be directed to a low-residue diet.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: A low-FODMAP diet might help to improve short-term digestive symptoms in adults with functional abdominal Bloating and irritable bowel syndrome, but its long-term use can have negative effects because it causes a detrimental impact on the gut microbiota and metabolome. It should only be used for short periods of time and under the advice of a specialist. More studies are needed to evaluate its effectiveness in children with irritable bowel syndrome.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: There is only a little evidence of its effectiveness in treating functional symptoms in inflammatory bowel disease from small studies that are susceptible to bias. More studies are needed to assess the true impact of this diet on health.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: In addition, the use of a low-FODMAP diet without medical advice can lead to serious health risks, including nutritional deficiencies and misdiagnosis, so it is advisable to conduct a complete medical evaluation before starting a low-FODMAP diet to ensure a correct diagnosis and that the appropriate therapy may be undertaken.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: Since the consumption of gluten is suppressed or reduced with a low-FODMAP diet, the improvement of the digestive symptoms with this diet may not be related to the withdrawal of the FODMAPs, but of gluten, indicating the presence of an unrecognized celiac disease, avoiding its diagnosis and correct treatment, with the consequent risk of several serious health complications, including various types of cancer.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: A low-FODMAP diet is highly restrictive in various groups of nutrients, can be impractical to follow in the long-term and may add an unnecessary financial burden.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: Below are low-FODMAP foods categorized by group according to the Monash University "Low-FODMAP Diet".


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: The basis of many functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) is distension of the intestinal lumen. Such luminal distension may induce pain, a sensation of bloating, abdominal distension and motility disorders. Therapeutic approaches seek to reduce factors that lead to distension, particularly of the distal small and proximal large intestine. Food substances that can induce distension are those that are poorly absorbed in the proximal small intestine, osmotically active, and fermented by intestinal bacteria with hydrogen (as opposed to methane) production. The small molecule FODMAPs exhibit these characteristics.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: Over many years, there have been multiple observations that ingestion of certain short-chain carbohydrates, including lactose, fructose and sorbitol, fructans and galactooligosaccharides, can induce gastrointestinal discomfort similar to that of people with irritable bowel syndrome. These studies also showed that dietary restriction of short-chain carbohydrates was associated with symptoms improvement.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: These short-chain carbohydrates (lactose, fructose and sorbitol, fructans and GOS) behave similarly in the intestine. Firstly, being small molecules and either poorly absorbed or not absorbed at all, they drag water into the intestine via osmosis. Secondly, these molecules are readily fermented by colonic bacteria, so upon malabsorption in the small intestine they enter the large intestine where they generate gases (hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane). The dual actions of these carbohydrates cause an expansion in volume of intestinal contents, which stretches the intestinal wall and stimulates nerves in the gut. It is this 'stretching' that triggers the sensations of pain and discomfort that are commonly experienced by people with IBS.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: The FODMAP concept was first published in 2005 as part of a hypothesis paper. In this paper, it was proposed that a collective reduction in the dietary intake of all indigestible or slowly absorbed, short-chain carbohydrates would minimise stretching of the intestinal wall. This was proposed to reduce stimulation of the gut's nervous system and provide the best chance of reducing symptom generation in people with IBS (see below). At the time, there was no collective term for indigestible or slowly absorbed, short-chain carbohydrates, so the term 'FODMAP' was created to improve understanding and facilitate communication of the concept.


title: Low-FODMAP diet

text: The low FODMAP diet was originally developed by a research team at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia. The Monash team undertook the first research to investigate whether a low FODMAP diet improved symptom control in patients with IBS and established the mechanism by which the diet exerted its effect. Monash University also established a rigorous food analysis program to measure the FODMAP content of a wide selection of Australian and international foods. The FODMAP composition data generated by Monash University updated previous data that was based on limited literature, with guesses (sometimes wrong) made where there was little information.


title: Secant method

text: In numerical analysis, the secant method is a root-finding algorithm that uses a succession of roots of secant lines to better approximate a root of a function "f". The secant method can be thought of as a finite-difference approximation of Newton's method. However, the secant method predates Newton's method by over 3000 years.


title: Secant method

text: As can be seen from this formula, two initial values and are required. Ideally, they should be chosen close to the desired zero.


title: Secant method

text: Starting with initial values and , we construct a line through the points and , as shown in the picture above. In slope–intercept form, the equation of this line is


title: Secant method

text: We then use this new value of as and repeat the process, using and instead of and . We continue this process, solving for , , etc., until we reach a sufficiently high level of precision (a sufficiently small difference between and ):


title: Secant method

text: The iterates formula_5 of the secant method converge to a root of formula_6 is,if the initial values formula_7 and formula_8 are sufficiently close to the root. The order of convergence is "φ", where


title: Secant method

text: This result only holds under some technical conditions, namely that formula_6 be twice continuously differentiable and the root in question be simple (i.e., with multiplicity 1).


title: Secant method

text: If the initial values are not close enough to the root, then there is no guarantee that the secant method converges. There is no general definition of "close enough", but the criterion has to do with how "wiggly" the function is on the interval formula_11. For example, if formula_6 is differentiable on that interval and there is a point where formula_13 on the interval, then the algorithm may not converge.


title: Secant method

text: The secant method does not require that the root remain bracketed, like the bisection method does, and hence it does not always converge. The false position method (or ) uses the same formula as the secant method. However, it does not apply the formula on formula_14 and formula_15, like the secant method, but on formula_14 and on the last iterate formula_17 such that formula_18 and formula_19 have a different sign. This means that the false position method always converges; however, only with a linear order of convergence. Bracketing with a super-linear order of convergence as the secant method can be attained with improvements to the false position method (see Regula falsi § Improvements in "regula falsi") such as the ITP method or Illinois method.


title: Secant method

text: The secant method can be interpreted as a method in which the derivative is replaced by an approximation and is thus a quasi-Newton method.


title: Secant method

text: If we compare Newton's method with the secant method, we see that Newton's method converges faster (order 2 against "φ" ≈ 1.6). However, Newton's method requires the evaluation of both formula_6 and its derivative formula_24 at every step, while the secant method only requires the evaluation of formula_6. Therefore, the secant method may occasionally be faster in practice. For instance, if we assume that evaluating formula_6 takes as much time as evaluating its derivative and we neglect all other costs, we can do two steps of the secant method (decreasing the logarithm of the error by a factor "φ" ≈ 2.6) for the same cost as one step of Newton's method (decreasing the logarithm of the error by a factor 2), so the secant method is faster. If, however, we consider parallel processing for the evaluation of the derivative, Newton's method proves its worth, being faster in time, though still spending more steps.


title: Secant method

text: The following graph shows the function "f" in red and the last secant line in bold blue. In the graph, the "x" intercept of the secant line seems to be a good approximation of the root of "f".


title: Secant method

text: It is very important to have a good stopping criterion above, otherwise, due to limited numerical precision of floating point numbers, the algorithm can return inaccurate results if running for too many iterations. For example, the loop above can stop when one of these is reached first: abs(x0 - x1) < tol, or abs(x0-x1)/abs(x1) < tol, or abs(f(x1)) < tol.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: Major General Tunku Ismail Idris Abdul Majid Abu Bakar Iskandar ibni Sultan Ibrahim Ismail (Jawi: تونكو إسماعيل إدريس عبدالمجيد أبو بكر إسكندر ابن سلطان إبراهيم إسماعيل; born 30 June 1984) is the Tunku Mahkota (Crown Prince) of Johor, heir apparent and first in line of succession to the throne of Johor. He is the eldest son of the current Sultan of Johor, Sultan Ibrahim Ismail and his consort Permaisuri (Queen) of Johor, Raja Zarith Sofiah. He is the grandson of both Sultan Iskandar of Johor and Sultan Idris Shah II of Perak.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: He is also a half third cousin of Nazrin Shah of Perak (the current Sultan of Perak) since both share a common male ancestor (Idris Shah I of Perak). He is also a grandnephew as well as nephew by marriage of Abdullah of Pahang, the Sultan of Pahang and an 11th cousin of Tengku Muhammad Ismail, the crown prince of Terengganu since they both share a common male ancestor (Tun Habib Abdul Majid).


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: Tunku Ismail completed his early education at Sekolah Sri Utama and Sekolah Rendah Kebangsaan St. Joseph in Johor Bahru. He subsequently received lower secondary education at the Australian International School in Singapore and continued with his higher secondary studies at Hale School in Perth, Western Australia, until 2002. Tunku Ismail is the eldest among six siblings. Like his father, Tunku Ismail has no tertiary (academic) qualification.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: Tunku Ismail was appointed Raja Muda (literally means "Younger King," but taken to mean as second Heir Apparent or son of the Crown Prince) on 8 April 2006 by his grandfather, the late Sultan of Johor, and placing him second in line to the throne (Now first in line after the passing of Sultan Iskandar). Tunku Ismail was appointed as the Tunku Mahkota of Johor on 28 January 2010.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: Following a family tradition of getting trained in armed forces, with his late grandfather in the Malaysian Army and father in the US Army, Tunku Ismail aspired for a career in the Indian Armed Forces. In July 2003, he enrolled as a cadet officer in the Indian Military Academy (IMA), India's premier military training school located at Dehradun. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in December 2004 and absorbed into the Indian Army. He was promoted to the rank of captain in December 2007. His father and grandfather also had trained at IMA.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: The Malaysian prince is the first foreigner to lead a unit of Indian Army in the Indian Republic Day Parade. On 26 January 2007, with a rank of captain in Indian Army, he led a mounted column of Jaipur-based 61 Cavalry regiment to salute president of India A. P. J. Abdul Kalam during the Republic Day celebrations. The president himself chose Tunku Ismail to lead the unit of around 400 men of the world's only non-ceremonial horse-mounted cavalry. The parade was witnessed by chief guest of the day president of Russia Vladimir Putin and his entourage, along with other dignitaries of Indian politics and military amidst tight security. Tunku Ismail's father Tunku Ibrahim Ismail flew in from Johor Bahru on 23 January 2007 to be present at the celebrations while his son added a chapter to the history of Indian Army.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: A polo enthusiast, Tunku Ismail is a skilful horse rider. He was bestowed the "Best in Riding" award among IMA cadets between 2003 and 2004. He is also a polo player for his regiment and has won many trophies. In football, he is the owner of Johor FC.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: The prince is also a sports car enthusiast. All of his cars are registered under the same licence plate of "TMJ", an abbreviation from the title "Tunku Mahkota Johor" which is also his nickname as addressed informally by Malaysians within and outside Johor.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: He is noted for his religious moderation and veiled criticism of more conservative Muslims who denounced him for shaking hands with women in 2016.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: On 2 December 2022, Tunku Ismail was installed as the new Chancellor of Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) at the first session of the university’s 22nd convocation at Dewan Sultan Ibrahim.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: His Royal Highness the DYAM Tunku Mahkota (Crown Prince) of Johor, Tunku Ismail Idris ibni Sultan Ibrahim has been appointed as the President of Johor Football Association (PBNJ). The EGM held in Johor Bahru saw the Crown Prince appointed as the new president replacing the former, Jais Sarday. Among his plans to help bring back Johorean football to its former glory, the Crown Prince merged the Johor teams (which previously were Johor FC, MBJB and MP Muar) into only one where all of the players wear the "Jengking" (Scorpion) Team Jersey. .


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: Tunku Ismail's leadership on the club Johor Darul Ta'zim F.C also oversaw its success as the first Southeast Asian club to lift the AFC Cup in 2015.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: In 2014, the Football Association of Malaysia (FAM) appointed the Tunku Ismail Sultan Ibrahim as an advisor to the previous FAM president, his uncle, Sultan Abdullah of Pahang. Tunku Ismail assisted and worked hand in hand with FAM in improving the quality of football within the country, particularly with the national team as well as the junior teams.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: As predicted, there were several concerns about the news, particularly with Tunku Ismail having lost the FAM presidency election to Tengku Abdullah earlier that year. Besides that, he had been extremely vocal with his criticisms on the nation's footballing body. However, the then Johor FA president was extremely optimistic about the new role, claiming that he will only be pushing for the betterment of football within the country.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: On 24 October 2008, reports surfaced about a confrontation and a royal scuffle which allegedly occurred in a nightclub at Crowne Plaza Hotel in Kuala Lumpur between two princes. Tunku Nadzimuddin, a member of the Negeri Sembilan household, filed a police report accusing of a Johor royal whom he identified the culprit to be Tunku Ismail; for initiating the confrontation and assaulting him in the face and head. A friend of Tunku Nadzimuddin, Shamshudhuha Ishak, a lawyer, filed another police report accusing of Tunku Ismail's bodyguards of assaulting him and losing two teeth in the process.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: The following September, Tunku Nadzimuddin lodged a complaint against the police and the Attorney-General chambers for not responding to the police report that he had made earlier for a RM50 million monetary settlement over the alleged episode. In a press interview, Tunku Nadzimuddin claimed that he was roughed up by Tunku Ismail and his bodyguards after the a friend of Tunku Ismail called Tunku Nadzimuddin that he had wanted to apologise over a bottle-throwing incident, while Tunku Nadzimuddin was partying. Tunku Nadzimuddin looked for Tunku Ismail with Shamshudhuha, but they quickly assaulted by Tunku Ismail's bodyguards. Shamshudhuha was beaten unconscious, while Tunku Nadzimuddin was threatened by Tunku Ismail with a pistol pointing to his head, and led to a hotel room where they were confined. The police later arrived after Tunku Nadzimuddin called for his mother. The Johor royalty denied Tunku Nadzimuddin's claims, and stated that Tunku Ismail was barred from meeting Tunku Nadzimuddin that night for security reasons.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: On 24 October 2014, Tunku Ismail married a 21-years-old commoner Che' Puan Besar Khaleeda at Istana Bukit Serene in a private ceremony. The solemnisation ceremony was performed by Johor mufti Dato' Mohd Tahrir Samsudin. The royal wedding took place at the Istana Besar.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: Khaleeda, daughter of Bustamam Daud and Aziyah Abdul Aziz, is the youngest of five siblings and was born in Kuala Lumpur.


title: Tunku Ismail Idris

text: The couple's first child, a daughter named "Her Highness" Tunku Khalsom Aminah Sofiah, was born on 25 June 2016. Their second child, a son named "His Royal Highness" Tunku Iskandar Abdul Jalil Abu Bakar Ibrahim, was born 14 October 2017. A third child and second son, "His Highness" Tunku Abu Bakar Ibrahim, was born on 17 July 2019. A fourth child and second daughter, "Her Highness" Tunku Zahrah Zarith Aziyah, was born on 21 April 2021.


title: Crimson Desert

text: Crimson Desert is an upcoming open world action adventure and action role-playing game developed and published by Pearl Abyss.


title: Crimson Desert

text: Crimson Desert is set in a medieval fantasy world, on a continent called Pywel. Macduff, the main character, is a mercenary who finds himself beleaguered by the burdens of leadership and painful memories of his past.


title: Crimson Desert

text: The game was originally planned as a prequel to "Black Desert Online" but the development of the game eventually transformed into something else and the game changed to a single player game set in the same universe. In December 2020, after the release of the trailer at the Game Awards, Pearl Abyss released commentary videos to explain the development of the game and their vision for it. The game uses an upgraded version of Black Desert Online proprietary game engine called "BlackSpace Engine".


title: Super Gremlin

text: "Super Gremlin" is a song by American rapper Kodak Black, released on October 30, 2021, from the Sniper Gang label compilation "Sniper Gang Presents Syko Bob & Snapkatt: Nightmare Babies", a Halloween-themed project. It impacted US urban contemporary radio on January 11, 2022, and peaked at number 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The song is also included on Kodak's fourth studio album, "Back for Everything".


title: Super Gremlin

text: The song is taken from Sniper Gang rappers Syko Bob and Snapkatt's album, "Sniper Gang Presents Syko Bob & Snapkatt: Nightmare Babies", an 11-track project, of which Kodak appears on eight tracks. "HotNewHipHop"s Aron A. noted how fans praised the song "as return to form" for Kodak.


title: Super Gremlin

text: On December 3, 2021, YouTubers Zias and B. Lou released a video of Kodak joining them for a reaction video of "Super Gremlin". Portions of the video went viral due to Kodak's "peculiar", "odd" behavior. This led to Kodak responding to people accusing him of being on drugs, tweeting "Lol I B Fakin Like I'm Sleepy, Ion B High Guys I Get Drug Tested Consistently".


title: Super Gremlin

text: The vocal sample featured in the beginning and during the choruses is taken from a song called "Errror" by German indie rock band How to Loot Brazil.


title: Super Gremlin

text: Revolt's Jon Powell called the song a standout from "Nightmare Babies". In their listing of best hip hop producers of 2021, "XXL"s Kemet High commended producer ATL Jacob's work during the year, exclaiming: "Most importantly, Jacob helped Kodak Black score his latest hit with 'Super Gremlin', a song that has since erupted more than a bottle of Coca-Cola with a handful of Mentos dropped into it".


title: Super Gremlin

text: The music video, released on November 1, 2021, is Halloween-themed, combining scenes of Kodak Black driving around with visuals of blood-stained rooms, a padded cell, crime scene tape, and a dominatrix.


title: Super Gremlin

text: American rapper Latto released "Super Gremlin Freestyle" on December 27, 2021, which she recorded in her Atlanta studio. It was accompanied by a video.


title: Victon

text: Victon (; stylized as VICTON, an acronym for Voice to New World) is a South Korean boy group formed in 2016 by IST Entertainment. The group is composed of six members: Han Seung-woo, Kang Seung-sik, Lim Se-jun, Do Han-se, Choi Byung-chan and Jung Su-bin. They debuted on November 9, 2016, with their extended play "Voice to New World". Originally a septet, Heo Chan left the group on October 11, 2022, following a DUI controversy.


title: Victon

text: Members Chan, Seungwoo, Seungsik and Byungchan joined A Cube Entertainment in 2014 and were among the company's first batch of male trainees. Hanse and Sejun joined a year later, followed by last-minute addition, former Cube Entertainment trainee Subin. Several of the members had experience working with their label-mates whilst still trainees, having been back-up dancers for Apink at their 2015 "Pink Island" concerts and recorded backing vocals for Huh Gak's album.


title: Victon

text: In August 2016, Plan A Entertainment (formerly A Cube Entertainment) released details regarding the new group they planned to debut, referred to as "Plan A Boys", and their upcoming reality show that would chronicle the group's preparation for debut, titled "Me & 7 Men," with the first episode airing August 30 on Mnet.


title: Victon

text: On September 1, Seungsik, Sejun and Hanse released a digital single as Plan A Boys in collaboration with Huh Gak titled "#Begin Again", accompanied by a music video starring Huh Gak and all seven members of the group.


title: Victon

text: Following the finale of "Me & 7 Men", the group's official debut was set for November 9. For their debut, Plan A held a debut showcase for the group on November 9, announcing their group name Victon, an acronym for "Voice to a New World", with their debut EP "Voice to New World" with the dual title tracks "I'm Fine" and "What Time Is It Now?" being released the same day.


title: Victon

text: On March 2, 2017, Victon released their second EP, "Ready", with the lead single titled "Eyez Eyez". Despite being relative rookies, the members were personally involved in the production process, with Hanse writing all his rap parts and Chan and Seungwoo co-creating the choreography for "Eyez Eyez" and the other promoted song "Blank" (얼타). "Eyez Eyez" is primarily in the futuresynth genre, with the group's second EP intended to show a different musical side to the group than their debut release. Critics also noted from its music video and more sophisticated choreography that the group had adopted a more mature and charismatic image.


title: Victon

text: Victon's third EP, "Identity", was released on August 23, with a total of five tracks including the lead single "Unbelievable". They also held a comeback showcase at the Samsung Hall at Ewha Womans University on the same day as the album's release.


title: Victon

text: Their fourth EP, "From. Victon", was released on their one year anniversary on November 9. The EP contains six tracks including the title track "Remember Me".


title: Victon

text: On February 18, 2018, Plan A Entertainment announced that Victon would have a three-week busking project in various locations throughout Seoul and Gyeonggi Province. They performed songs from their previous albums as well as unreleased songs such as "On My Way", performed by Hanse and Seungsik.


title: Victon

text: On May 23, Victon released their first single album "Time of Sorrow". The song topped the Tower Records chart in Japan, despite the group not having made their official debut in the country and only performed at KCON Japan.


title: Victon

text: In early 2019, Seungwoo and Byungchan participated as contestants in "Produce X 101". On July 11, it was announced by Play M Entertainment (formerly Plan A) that Byungchan would be leaving the show permanently to recover from the increasing pain from his chronic Achilles tendinitis. On the final episode on July 19, Seungwoo came third in the vote rankings and became a member of new boy group X1, originally on a contract for five years.


title: Victon

text: Victon made their comeback as a six-member group on November 4 with their fifth mini album "Nostalgia" and lead single "Nostalgic Night". The release attracted much more attention and the group became a top 3 trending search topic on domestic online music sites. "Nostalgic Night" earned the group their first music show win since their debut. After completing domestic promotions, they embarked on an Asian concert tour, playing at venues in Thailand, Philippines, Japan and Taiwan before concluding it with two sold-out encore concerts at the Olympic Hall in Seoul, the first time they have held their own full concert.


title: Victon

text: Play M announced on January 29 that following a solo fanmeeting in February, Seungwoo would return to promote with Victon and the group would make a comeback in March, following X1's disbandment earlier that month. On March 9, Victon released their sixth mini album "Continuous" and its lead single "Howling". Their lead single, “Howling”, achieved first place on "The Show", on March 17, and was the group's first win with all seven members. It was announced later by Play M that member Byungchan would sit out of group promotions due to a herniated disk in his neck. From April 14 Seungwoo and Seungsik co-hosted the radio show "Blanket Kick" (이불킥), which airs on Naver's streaming app Naver NOW. on Tuesday nights; Chan eventually replaced Seungwoo as co-host on July 20, 2021 due to the latter's impending enlistment.


title: Victon

text: On June 2, the group returned with their second single album "Mayday". They won first place on "The Show" on June 9 for "Mayday", marking the group's third win.


title: Victon

text: In August, Seungwoo made his solo debut with the EP "Fame" and lead single "Sacrifice", making him the first member of Victon with an official solo debut.


title: Victon

text: In October, Hanse confirmed he was working on a solo mixtape release, although without a set release date.


title: Victon

text: On November 4, it was announced that Victon would be releasing their first full studio album "" on December 1 with the lead single "What I Said". Subsequently, it was announced that the release of their new album would be delayed after the members had come into contact with an external staff member who had tested positive for COVID-19. Although all members tested negative, they decided to complete the quarantine period.


title: Victon

text: Following the delay, the album was released on January 11, 2021. The group held a comeback show that same day and it was aired on Mnet and its digital channel M2. The album includes four solo songs, one each for Seungsik, Chan, Sejun and Hanse, respectively.


title: Victon

text: Following the release of their first studio album, the members worked on solo projects in 2021. In March, Hanse and Chan participated in Seoul Fashion Week as models for the collection "SETSETSET", marking their second consecutive appearance as models at Seoul Fashion Week. Seungwoo released his second EP "Fade" and lead single "See You Again" on June 28. He enlisted for his mandatory military service as a member of the military band on July 28. Then, in August, Seungsik released the single "Look for the Silver Lining" in collaboration with the music company Clef, as part of a donation project for the charity Good Neighbors. Then, Hanse made his solo debut on September 25 with the digital album "Blaze" with the double title tracks "Take Over" and "Public Enemy".


title: Victon

text: In October, Seungsik, Hanse, Sejun, and Chan participated in a charity project with the charity Good Neighbors for the International Day for the Eradication of Poverty.


title: Victon

text: On November 9, Victon released the single "Sweet Travel" to commemorate their fifth anniversary. On November 26, Chan tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Victon

text: On January 18, Victon returned with their third single album "Chronograph". The album included the lead single of the same name and its English version, which is their first song in English. The music video for "Chronograph" reached 10 million views within three days, the fastest of the group's music videos to reach that mark. The album was also noted for offering a more "environmentally conscious" version of buying the album, where those who purchased the album could order a version that just had the normal inclusions of a physical album, such as photocards, but then also receive a digital version of the album.


title: Victon

text: In March, the group released an original soundtrack for the drama "Business Proposal" titled "You are Mine", with Seungsik, Sejun, and Byungchan participating.


title: Victon

text: On October 11, IST Entertainment announced that Chan would be leaving the group following his DUI, and the group will remain with 6 members.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund II Augustus (, ; 1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548. He was the first ruler of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the last male monarch from the Jagiellonian dynasty.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund was the only son of Italian-born Bona Sforza and Sigismund the Old. From the beginning he was groomed and extensively educated as a successor. In 1529 he was crowned "vivente rege" while his father was still alive. Sigismund Augustus continued a tolerance policy towards minorities and maintained peaceful relations with neighbouring countries, with the exception of the Northern Seven Years' War which aimed to secure Baltic trade. Under his patronage, culture flourished in Poland; he was a collector of tapestries from the Low Countries and collected military memorabilia as well as swords, armours and jewellery. Sigismund Augustus' rule is widely considered as the apex of the Polish Golden Age; he established the first regular Polish navy and the first regular postal service in Poland, known today as Poczta Polska. In 1569 he oversaw the signing of the Union of Lublin between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and introduced an elective monarchy.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund Augustus married three times; his first wife, Elizabeth of Austria, died in 1545 at just eighteen. He was then involved in several relationships with mistresses, the most famous being Barbara Radziwiłł, who became Sigismund's second wife and Queen of Poland in spite of his mother's disapproval. The marriage was deemed scandalous and was fiercely opposed by the royal court and the nobility. Barbara died five months after her coronation, presumably due to ill health, however, rumours circulated that she was poisoned. Sigismund finally wedded Catherine of Austria, but remained childless throughout his life.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund Augustus was the last male member of the Jagiellons. Following the death of his sister Anna in 1596 the Jagiellonian dynasty came to an end.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund Augustus was born in Kraków on 1 August 1520 to Sigismund I the Old and his wife, Bona Sforza of Milan. His paternal grandparents were Casimir IV Jagiellon, King of Poland, and Elizabeth of Austria. Sigismund's maternal grandparents, Gian Galeazzo Sforza and Isabella of Aragon, daughter of King Alfonso II of Naples, both ruled the Duchy of Milan until Sforza's suspicious death in 1494.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Throughout his youth, Sigismund Augustus was under the careful watch of his mother, Bona. Being the only legitimate male heir to the Polish throne throughout his father's reign, he was well educated and taught by the most renowned scholars in the country. It was also his mother's wish to name her only son Augustus, after the first Roman Emperor Gaius Octavius Augustus. However, this decision was met with Sigismund the Old's strong disapproval, who hoped for a lineage of Sigismunds on the Polish throne. Consequently, it was established that the child will bear two names to settle the conflict. The tradition of adopting Augustus as a second or middle name was also observed during the coronation of Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski who became King Stanisław II Augustus in 1764.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: In 1530, the ten-year-old Sigismund Augustus was crowned by Primate Jan Łaski as co-ruler alongside his father, in accordance with the "vivente rege" law. Sigismund the Old hoped to secure his son's succession to the throne and maintain the Jagiellonian dynasty's position in Poland. The move was crucial to silence the members of nobility who were against the Jagiellons and viewed the action as a step towards absolutism. The law was officially abolished by the Henrician Articles, or the new constitution adopted between nobles and the newly elected king Henry of Valois in 1573.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund Augustus began his reign as the Grand Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1544 and initially opposed the Polish–Lithuanian union, thus hoping to leave his throne to his heirs.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: When Sigismund Augustus was co-crowned, Chancellor Krzysztof Szydłowiecki organized a preliminary marriage treaty between the young king and Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I. The marriage was signed on 10–11 November 1530 in Poznań, however, the arrangement was delayed by Queen Bona Sforza, who detested the new bride. The treaty was renewed on 16 June 1538 in Wrocław by Johannes Dantiscus and the betrothal ceremony took place on 17 July 1538 in Innsbruck. Bona continued to lobby against the marriage and instead proposed Margaret of France to potentially form an alliance with the French against the Habsburgs.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: On 5 May 1543, Elizabeth's escorted convoy entered Kraków and was greeted with enthusiasm by both the nobles and the townsfolk. The same day 16-year-old Elizabeth married 22-year-old Sigismund Augustus, whom she met for the first time shortly before marriage vows. The ceremony was performed at the Wawel Cathedral and the wedding continued for two weeks. Bona began to plot against the new queen. As a result, the newly wedded couple decided to reside in Vilnius, far from the royal court.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Despite the initial euphoria demonstrated by royal subjects, the marriage was unsuccessful from the very beginning. Sigismund Augustus did not find Elizabeth attractive and continued to have extramarital affairs with several mistresses, the most famous being Barbara Radziwiłł. Elizabeth was also known to be timid, meek and apprehensive due to strict upbringing. The young and garrulous king was also repulsed by Elizabeth's newly diagnosed epilepsy and subsequent seizures. Only Sigismund the Old and some nobles showed compassion towards the new Queen, who was disregarded by her husband and scorned by Bona. Sigismund Augustus was indifferent to her health condition; when the seizures continued to intensify he abandoned Elizabeth and returned to Kraków to collect her dowry. He also sent for Ferdinand's doctors to travel the long distance from Vienna knowing that Elizabeth was ailing and deteriorating fast. She eventually died unattended and exhausted from the epileptic attacks on 15 June 1545 at the age of 18.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: From the outset of his reign, Sigismund Augustus came into collision with the country's privileged nobility, who had already begun curtailing the power of the great families. The ostensible cause of the nobility's animosity to the King was his second marriage, secretly contracted before his accession to the throne, with the Lithuanian, Calvinist and former mistress, Barbara Radziwiłł, the daughter of Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł. The marriage was announced by the king himself on 2 February 1548 in Piotrków Trybunalski.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The young and beautiful Barbara was despised by Queen Bona, who attempted to annul the marriage at any cost. The agitation was also abundant at Sigismund's first Sejm (parliament) sitting on 31 October 1548 where the deputies threatened to renounce their allegiance unless the new king repudiated Barbara. The nobles portrayed Barbara as an opportunistic prostitute that charmed the king for her own benefit. That perception was shared with Bona Sforza, who decisively eliminated all her rivals by any means to stay in power. The young monarch even considered abdicating. By 1550, when Sigismund summoned his second Sejm, the nobles had begun to be in his favor; the nobility was rebuked by Marshal Piotr Kmita Sobieński, who accused them of attempting to unduly diminish the legislative prerogatives of the Polish Crown. Furthermore, Bona was removed from Wawel and sent to Mazovia where she established her own small courtly entourage.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Unlike her predecessor, Barbara was disliked by the royal court and led a more secluded life with Sigismund Augustus, who was deeply in love with her. On the other hand, she was ambitious, intelligent, perceptive and had an exemplar taste in fashion. She always wore precious pearl necklaces when sitting for portraits. The mutual admiration between Sigismund and Barbara made the relationship "one of the greatest love affairs in Polish history". While still married to Elizabeth, Sigismund Augustus ordered the construction of a secret passage connecting the Royal Castle in Vilnius with the nearby Radziwiłł Palace so that the couple could meet frequently and discreetly.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Due to her unpopularity in Poland, Barbara often expressed her wish to reside permanently in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. To ease the situation, Sigismund Augustus provided a luxurious lifestyle and expensive gifts for his wife at Wawel Castle since her arrival in Kraków on 13 February 1549. The monarch also granted Barbara several provinces to administer and provide income. Although ambitious and bright, she showed lack of interest in political life, but had some influence over decisions made by Sigismund. This also caused an uproar among the nobility. To avoid an armed rebellion, Sigismund was forced to form an alliance with his former father-in-law, Emperor Ferdinand I. This allowed for Barbara's coronation as Queen of Poland on 7 December 1550 by Primate Mikołaj Dzierzgowski. Queen Bona eventually succumbed to her son's demand and accepted the marriage.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Since the day Sigismund and Barbara met, she complained of poor health, particularly stomach and abdominal pain. After the coronation her condition deteriorated rapidly. She was tormented by strong fever, diarrhea, nausea and lack of appetite. After careful observation by hired medics, a lump was discovered on her stomach filled with pus. Sigismund Augustus gravely despaired and sent for doctors and even folk healers from the entire country. He personally tended to his sick wife despite her foul smell and dedicated himself when necessary; the king hoped to take Barbara to the hunting castle at Niepołomice and ordered to demolish the small city gate so her carriage could pass freely. However, Barbara died on 8 May 1551 in Kraków after continuous pain and agony. It was her dying wish that she'd be buried in Lithuania, her homeland. The body was transported to Vilnius Cathedral, where she was finally buried on 23 June next to Elizabeth of Austria. Her death was a major blow to Sigismund; he often attended her coffin on foot while being transported to Vilnius in hot weather. Sigismund also became more serious and reserved; he avoided balls, temporarily renounced his mistresses and dressed black until death.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The cause of Barbara's death is debatable. Her opponents and family members suggested sexually transmitted diseases due to a number of affairs she had before marrying Sigismund. There were also persistent rumors that she was poisoned by Queen Bona Sforza, who had a long history of eliminating her rivals or enemies quickly and efficiently. However, contemporary historians and experts agree on cervical or ovarian cancer.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The death of Queen Barbara Radziwiłł, five months after her coronation and under distressing circumstances, compelled Sigismund to contract a third, purely political union with his first cousin, the Austrian archduchess Catherine, to avoid an Austro-Russian alliance. She was also the sister of his first wife, Elizabeth, who had died within a year of her marriage to him, before his accession. Catherine, unlike previous queens, was considered dull and obese. Sigismund Augustus found her immensely unattractive despite accepting the marriage and organizing a pompous wedding ceremony on 30 July 1553. On the other hand, Catherine showed resentment towards Sigismund because of how he treated her sister and first wife, Queen Elizabeth. She accused him of negligence and indifference during her sudden illness, which caused premature death. The correspondence between the two remained purely formal and political for the remainder of their lives.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Since her coronation, Catherine acted as Austria's puppet at the Polish court; she was tasked with espionage and obtaining important information for the benefit of the Habsburgs. Sigismund Augustus was aware of the scheme, but, by marrying Catherine, Austria promised to stay neutral and abandon plans with Russia. This neutrality was undermined by Catherine's actions, who followed her father's policy and objected the return of John Sigismund Zápolya and Isabella Jagiellon (Sigismund's sister) to Hungary. She would conspire with the Habsburg envoys prior to an audience with the king. She would also dictate what and how the envoys should express their views. When Sigismund Augustus found out of Catherine's intrigues, he sent her to Radom and excluded from political life.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: As Sigismund lost all hope of children by his third bride; he was the last male Jagiellon in the direct line so the dynasty was threatened with extinction. He sought to remedy this by adultery with two of the most beautiful of his countrywomen, Barbara Giza and Anna Zajączkowska but was unable to impregnate either of them. The Sejm was willing to legitimize, and acknowledge as Sigismund's successor, any male heir who might be born to him; however, the King remained childless.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The King's marriage was a matter of great political import to Protestants and Catholics alike. The Polish Protestants hoped that he would divorce and remarry and thus bring about a breach with Rome at the very crisis of the religious struggle in Poland. He was not free to remarry until Queen Catherine's death on 28 February 1572, but he followed her to the grave less than six months later.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Unlike his father, Sigismund Augustus was more frail and sickly. Shortly before turning 50, his health rapidly declined. Being involved in many affairs and holding a large number of mistresses, historians agree that the king had venereal disease which caused him to be infertile. At 16, he also contracted malaria which further contributed to his inability of producing any offspring. By 1558 Sigismund had gout and since 1568 he also suffered from kidney stones, which triggered immense pain. He employed numerous medics, healers or even quack doctors and imported expensive ointments from Italy. By the end of his life, the king was losing teeth and vigour, possibly due to tuberculosis. Antonio Maria Graziani recalls that Sigismund was unable to keep standing without a cane when greeting Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Commendone.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: During spring of 1572, Sigismund Augustus became feverish. Untreated tuberculosis made him feeble and impotent, but he was able to travel to his private retreat in Knyszyn. While at Knyszyn, he corresponded with his diplomats and nobles, highlighting that he was feeling well and hoped to recover. Great Marshal Jan Firlej denied these claims and reported that the king was bleeding severely due to consumption and was troubled by pain in the chest and lumbar.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund died in Knyszyn on 7 July 1572 at 6 in the afternoon, surrounded by a group of senators and envoys. The official cause of death given by the medics was consumption. His body placed on a catafalque and remained at the nearby Tykocin Castle until 10 September 1573 when it was transported back to Kraków through Warsaw. After transporting the remains of Barbara Radziwiłł from Kraków to Vilnius, Sigismund was building a church in the Vilnius Castle Complex which should have served as his family's mausoleum, however it was still uncompleted in 1572. Consequently, he was laid to rest at the Wawel Cathedral on 10 February 1574. The stately funeral ceremony, attended by his sister Anna Jagiellon, was the last spectacle of its kind in the Kingdom of Poland. No other Polish monarch was buried with such pomp and splendour. His death introduced an elective monarchy in Poland which lasted until the final partition at the end of the 18th century.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund Augustus was the last male member of the Jagiellonian dynasty. The death of his childless sister, Anna, in 1596 marked the end of the dynasty.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: In addition to his family connections, Sigismund II Augustus was allied to the Habsburgs as member of the Order of the Golden Fleece.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund's reign was marked by a period of temporary stability and external expansion. He witnessed the bloodless introduction of the Protestant Reformation into Poland and Lithuania, and the "peero-cratic" upheaval that placed most political power in the hands of the Polish nobility; he saw the collapse of the Knights of the Sword in the north, which led to the Commonwealth's acquisition of Livonia as a Lutheran duchy and the consolidation of Turkey's power in the southeast. A less imposing figure than his father, the elegant and refined Sigismund II Augustus was nevertheless an even more effective statesman than the stern and majestic Sigismund I the Old.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund II possessed to a high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the Jagiellons, and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish Sejm and national assembly. Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled his nation. According to diplomats, everything went as Sigismund wished and he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to obtain more funds from the Sejm than his father ever could, and at one of the parliament sittings he won the hearts of the assembled envoys by unexpectedly appearing in a simple grey coat of a Mazovian lord. Like his father, a pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him the nation, often distrustful of the Germans. He also avoided serious complications and skirmishes with the powerful Turks.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: During Sigismund Augustus' reign, Livonia was in political turmoil. His father, Sigismund I, permitted Albert of Prussia to introduce the Protestant Reformation and secularize the southern part of the Teutonic Order State. Albert then established Europe's first Protestant state in the Duchy of Prussia in 1525, but under Polish suzerainty. However, his efforts to introduce Protestantism to the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the northernmost part of the region was met with fierce resistance and divided the Livonian Confederation. When Albert's brother Wilhelm and Archbishop of Riga attempted to implement a Lutheran church order in his diocese, the Catholic estates rebelled and arrested both Wilhelm and his bishop coadjutor, Duke Christopher of Mecklenburg.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: As Prussia was a tributary state of the Polish Crown, Sigismund Augustus, a Catholic, was forced to intervene in favour of Protestant Albert and his brother Wilhelm. In July 1557 the Polish forces left for Livonia. The armed intervention proved to be successful; the Catholic Livonians surrendered and signed the Treaty of Pozvol on 14 September 1557. The agreement placed most Livonian territories under Polish protection and "de facto" became part of Poland. Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order, was granted the newly established Duchy of Courland and Semigallia. Wilhelm was restored to his former position as archbishop on Sigismund's demand, with the Lutheran church order being enacted.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The incorporation of Courland into the Polish sphere of influence created an alliance which threatened Russia's plans on expanding into the Baltic coast. Sigismund directed the alliance against Ivan the Terrible to protect lucrative trade routes in Livonia, thus creating a new valid "casus belli" against the Russian Tsardom. On 22 January 1558, Ivan invaded the Baltic states and started the Livonian War, which lasted 25 years until 1583. Russia's eventual defeat in the war legally partitioned Livonia between Poland (Latvia, southern Estonia) and Sweden (central-northern Estonia). The Polish sector became subsequently known as Polish Livonia or "Inflanty"; it was settled with colonists from Poland proper resulting in systematic polonisation of these lands.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: When the Kalmar Union between Sweden and Denmark was disbanded in 1523 due to Swedish resentment of Danish tyranny, Baltic trade became threatened. The port city of Gdańsk (Danzig), Poland's wealthiest city, faced difficulties due to ongoing conflict on the sea and piracy. The capital, Kraków, was also affected as the trade route from the Baltic ran through Gdańsk and along the Vistula River to the southern province of Lesser Poland. Gdańsk, which was privileged with its own army and government, resisted against Sigismund's order of sending privateers and creating the first Polish Admiralty in their city. Most of the deputies in the city council were merchants and tradesmen of German descent or Protestants who were either politically leaning towards Sweden or fighting for the status of an independent 'city state'. 11 Polish privateers sent by Sigismund were eventually executed, which greatly angered the king. Poland then joined Denmark against Sweden for Baltic domination.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The war ended as "status quo ante bellum" in 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin, which was signed by Bishop Martin Kromer on behalf of Sigismund. However, the ineffective conflict did have its input in establishing Poland's first registered naval fleet (Naval Commission) in 1568.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund's most striking legacy may have been the Union of Lublin, which united Poland and Lithuania into one state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, jointly with German-speaking Royal Prussia and Prussian cities. This achievement might well have been impossible without the monarch's personal approach to politics and ability to mediate.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: At first, the treaty was perceived as a threat to Lithuanian sovereignty. Lithuanian magnates were afraid of losing their powers, since the proposed union would lower their rank and status to an equivalent with petty nobility rather than wealthier Polish aristocracy. On the other hand, the unification would provide a strong alliance against Russian (Muscovite) attack from the east. Lithuania was ravaged by the Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars which endured for over 150 years. During the Second War, Lithuania lost of its territory to Russia, and the final defeat in the Livonian War would result in the country's incorporation into the Russian Tsardom. Furthermore, the Poles were reluctant to aid Lithuania without a "quid pro quo". The most vocal opponent of the union was Sigismund's brother-in-law, Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł (), who viewed the agreement as "peaceful annexation of Lithuania" by Poland. He also resisted polonisation policies which forced ethnic Lithuanians to change their names and native language to Polish or Latin.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: As another war with Russia loomed, Sigismund Augustus pressed the members of parliament (Sejm) for the union, gradually gaining more followers due to his persuasive abilities and auspicious diplomacy. The potential union agreement would lead to the eviction of Lithuanian landowners who opposed the transition of territory from multi-ethnic Lithuania to Poland. Such terms were causing an outrage among the most renowned members of Lithuanian upper classes, but Sigismund was decisive and ruthless in this matter. Moreover, the personal union between the two countries created by the marriage of Jadwiga with Jogaila in 1385 was not entirely constitutional. Being the last male member of the Jagiellons, childless Sigismund sought to preserve his dynasty's legacy. The newly proposed constitutional union would create one large Commonwealth state, with one elected monarch who would simultaneously reign over both domains.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The initial Sejm negotiations on unity in January 1569, near the Polish city of Lublin, were futile. The right of Poles to settle and own land in the Grand Duchy was questioned by Lithuanian envoys. Following Mikołaj Radziwiłł's departure from Lublin on 1 March 1569, Sigismund announced the incorporation of then-Lithuanian Podlachia, Volhynia, Podolia and Kiev provinces into Poland, with strong approval from the local Ruthenian (Ukrainian) gentry. Those historic regions, which once belonged to the Kievan Rus', were disputed between Lithuania and Russia. However, the Ruthenian nobles were eager to capitalise on the political or economic potential offered by the Polish sphere and agreed to the terms. Previously, the Kingdom of Ruthenia or "Ukraine" was abolished in 1349, after Poland and Lithuania split modern-day Ukraine in the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars. Now, under the Union of Lublin, all Ukrainian and Ruthenian territories which were alien in culture, customs, religion and language to the Polish people would be annexed by Catholic Poland. Strong westernisation and polonisation would follow, including the clandestine suppression of the Ukrainian Eastern Orthodox Church by future king Sigismund III. Ruthenia remained under Polish rule until the Cossack uprisings against Polish domination and the Partitions of Poland, when Ukraine was annexed by the Russian Empire.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The Lithuanians were compelled to return to the Sejm negotiations under Jan Hieronim Chodkiewicz and continue negotiations. The Polish nobility once again pressed for the full incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland, however, the Lithuanians disapproved. The parties eventually agreed on a federal state on 28 June 1569 and on 1 July 1569 the Union of Lublin was signed at Lublin Castle, thus establishing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund Augustus ratified the unification act on 4 July, and henceforth governed one of the largest and multicultural countries of 16th-century Europe.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: In comparison to his staunchly Catholic father, Sigismund Augustus paid little attention to the matters of faith and religion. Having a large number of mistresses before, during and after being married, he was viewed by the clergy as an adulterer and libertine. Sigismund was also reasonably tolerant towards minorities and supported nobles of different faith and nationality to be part of the national assembly, the Sejm. He continued his father's policies, but was more accepting of the Protestant Reformation in Poland (only to the status of a minority religion). Several magnates converted to Calvinism or Lutheranism during the Reformation started by Martin Luther and John Calvin, most notably Stanisław Zamoyski, Jan Zamoyski, Mikołaj Rej, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Johannes a Lasco (Jan Łaski) and Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Throughout the 16th century, Frycz Modrzewski advocated for renouncing Rome's authority and establishing a separate and independent Polish Church. His initiative was chiefly inspired by the creation of the Anglican Church by Henry VIII in 1534. Sigismund Augustus was lenient towards the idea, particularly due to the sudden spread of Protestantism among courtiers, advisors, nobles and peasants. Calvinism became especially popular among the upper classes as it promoted democratic freedoms and called for rebellion against absolutism, which the privileged Polish nobility favoured. During the 1555 Sejm session in Piotrków, the nobles intensively discussed the rights of priests in the newly proposed Polish Church and demanded the abolition of celibacy. Some Catholic bishops were supportive of the concepts and acknowledged the need for uniting Poland, Lithuania, Prussia and their vassals under a common religion. Sigismund agreed to the postulates, however, under the condition that Pope Paul IV will be in favour. Instead, Paul IV was enraged that such a proposition emerged for him to accept; he declined and refused to grant consent. Facing potential excommunication, the assembly were forced to abandon their plans. Nevertheless, Protestantism continued to flourish and spread. In 1565, the Polish Brethren came into existence as a Nontrinitarian sect of Calvinism.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: One year after Sigismund's death the Warsaw Confederation was adopted as the first European act granting religious freedoms. Despite this, Protestantism in Poland ultimately declined during the fierce Counter-Reformation measures under the despotic and arch-Catholic Sigismund III Vasa, who ruled for nearly 45 years. For instance, the Polish Brethren were banned, hunted down and its leaders executed.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund Augustus carried on with the development of several royal residencies including Wawel, Vilnius Castle, Niepołomice and the Royal Castle in Warsaw. In the 1560s he acquired the Tykocin Castle and rebuilt it in Renaissance style. During the reign of Sigismund Augustus the structure served as a royal residence with an impressive treasury and library as well as the main arsenal of the crown.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund Augustus was a passionate collector of jewels and gemstones. According to nuncio Bernardo Bongiovanni's relation, his collection was cached in 16 chests. Among the precious items in his possession was Charles V's ruby of 80,000 scudos' worth, as well as the Emperor's diamond medal with Habsburgs Eagle on one side and two columns with a sign "Plus Ultra" on the other side. In 1571, after the death of his nephew John Sigismund Zápolya, he inherited the "Hungarian Crown" used by some Hungarian monarchs. A "Swedish Crown" was also made for him. The Polish king treated those crowns as a family keepsake, and kept them in a private vault in the Tykocin Castle. He had also a sultan's sword of 16,000 ducats' worth, 30 precious horse trappings and 20 different private-use armours. The king's possession included a rich collection of tapestries (360 pieces), commissioned by him in Brussels in the years 1550–1560.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: The king enjoyed reading, especially short stories, poems and satires. Under the influence of bishop Piotr Myszkowski, Poland's then greatest writer and poet Jan Kochanowski joined the royal court in 1563. It is uncertain whether Sigismund and Kochanowski were friends, however, Kochanowski's correspondence clearly highlights that the two had close contact and he assisted the monarch at most important occasions, including military maneuvers in Lithuania in 1567. Kochanowski was also present during the signing of Lublin Union in 1569.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: Sigismund was fond of foreign craft-makers and employed Italian goldsmiths, jewellers and medalists, very much like his father. One of the more renowned figures brought to Poland was Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio. In Italy, Caraglio was one of the first reproductive printmakers. In Poland, Sigismund tasked him with the production of cameos, medallions, coins and jewellery. Numerous medals and roundels from this period feature the last members of the Jagiellonian dynasty. When Sigismund's mother Bona died in 1557, Sigismund had to collect his inheritance from the Italian estates. On 18 October 1558, the king granted the right to arrange the first regular Polish postal service operating from Kraków to Venice, thus establishing Poczta Polska (Polish Post). All maintenance costs were borne by the Crown and the post was mostly managed by Italians or Germans. Additional couriers travelled between Kraków, Warsaw and Vilnius. Since 1562, the postal route also encompassed Vienna and cities in the Holy Roman Empire, which enabled continuous correspondence with the Habsburgs.


title: Sigismund II Augustus

text: In 1573, the first permanent bridge over the Vistula River in Warsaw and also the longest wooden bridge in Europe at the time was named in Sigismund's honour.


title: 2021 G20 Rome summit

text: The 2021 G20 Rome summit was the sixteenth meeting of Group of Twenty (G20), which was held in Rome, the capital city of Italy, on 30–31 October 2021.


title: 2021 G20 Rome summit

text: Five leaders did not attend the G20 summit. Of them, Chinese leader Xi Jinping and Russian President Vladimir Putin participated via video link; Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who rarely leaves the country on foreign trips, sent his Secretary of Foreign Affairs Marcelo Ebrard on his behalf; and Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida and South African President Cyril Ramaphosa both skipped the summit due to elections being held in each respective nation.


title: 2021 G20 Rome summit

text: The US Biden administration and the European Union reached an agreement on 30 October to roll back the steel and aluminium tariff regime that had been imposed by the Trump administration in 2018. The agreement retained some protection for American steel and aluminum producers by adopting a tariff-rate quota regime. It also ended retaliatory tariffs on American goods the EU had imposed and cancelled a scheduled tariff increase by the EU.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen (; ; born 12 June 1952), also known by his Orthodox Russian name Nikolai Kirillovich Romanov (Николай Кириллович Романов), and recognized with the regnal name Emperor Nicholas III by Monarchist Party supporters of the Imperial Throne, is the eldest son of Emich, 7th Prince of Leiningen and his wife, Duchess Eilika of Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, and is an elder brother of Andreas, 8th Prince of Leiningen.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: He is a claimant to the defunct throne of the Russian Empire, held until 1917 by the Imperial House of Romanov, as a grandson of Grand Duchess Maria Kirillovna (1907–1951), eldest child of Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich, who claimed the Russian crown from exile in 1924. He is a great-great-grandson of Emperor Alexander II of Russia and grandnephew of Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich of Russia. In 2013, the Monarchist Party of Russia declared him the primary heir to the Russian throne upon his conversion from Lutheranism to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, and in 2014 announced the formation of the "Imperial Throne", wherein Karl Emich had agreed to assume imperial dignity as "Emperor Nicholas III". As such, however, he came into competition with the widely recognized pretender to the throne, Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna of Russia, who is recognized by the Patriarch of Moscow.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: He married Princess Margarita of Hohenlohe-Öhringen on 8 June 1984. He had one daughter by this marriage, Princess Cécilia of Leiningen (born 10 June 1988). Princess Margarita died in 1989 in a car accident.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: On 24 May 1991, Prince Karl Emich married morganatically Gabriele Renate Thyssen. After an inheritance dispute, he desisted claim to the family's legacy in favour of his younger brother Andreas, 8th Prince of Leiningen. The couple had one daughter, Princess Theresa Anna Elisabeth of Leiningen (born 16 April 1992) In 1998, Karl Emich and Gabriele were divorced and she became the second wife of the Aga Khan IV.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: He married Countess Isabelle von und zu Egloffstein in a civil ceremony on 8 September 2007 in Amorbach, and in a religious ceremony on 7 June 2008 in Pappenheim (her maternal grandmother, Countess Ursula (1927-2018), was the heiress of the Pappenheim estate, and a member of the mediatised House of Pappenheim). On 12 April 2010, they had a son, Prince Emich of Leiningen. The family lives at .


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: Because his marriage to Countess Isabelle would not have been deemed equal according to the Pauline Laws, their son, Prince Emich, though considered a dynast of the House of Leiningen, cannot inherit his claim to the headship of the House of Romanov, which shall pass to his brother, Prince Andreas (1955 - ), and the latter's descendants born of equal marriages upon the death of Karl Emich, and on the condition that they should convert to Orthodoxy.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: In 2000, Karl Emich began the final round of a lawsuit to inherit £100 million worth of castles, property, and a Mediterranean island that had been denied him by his family because he chose to marry Thyssen. Karl Emich was disinherited shortly after his 1991 wedding, as his mother, father, and brother Andreas withheld approval, contending that the bride did not meet the mediatized family's traditional standard for aristocratic lineage. The marriage was therefore deemed to constitute a violation of an 1897 Leiningen family edict requiring that dynastically valid marriages be authorised by the head of the Leiningen family (or by successful appeal to a panel of mediatized nobles), such permission historically being granted for brides descended from royalty or the titled nobility. Karl remarked about the whole affair,


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: "From the very beginning of our marriage I was turned into an enemy. We were both subjected to enormous pressure. No marriage can withstand that sort of thing in the long term. I had hoped things would improve when our child arrived. But after our daughter was born, nothing happened. My mother has refused to speak to me since the wedding".


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: Karl Emich maintained that the stress this feud put upon his marriage is the reason why Thyssen left him, converted to Islam, and eloped with Aga Khan IV.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: The Russian Monarchist Party recognises Karl as the heir to the Russian throne, since he and his wife converted on 1 June 2013, from Lutheranism to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, enabling his accession. The couple received Orthodox names of Nikolai Kirillovich and Yekaterina Fyodorovna.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: In early 2014 Russian Monarchist Party leader Anton Bakov announced he views the "Imperial Throne" from the point of international law as a subject of state sovereignty regardless of any other attributes, referring to analogies with the Holy See. He outlined that Karl Emich, upon adhering to the Orthodox denomination, obtained a right to take this see according to pre-Revolution Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire. Bakov proposed that the Prince accept the throne, thereby forming a new independent state and incorporate it into Bakov's promotional projects such as the Monarchist Party's Imperial Throne micronation and several others. In April 2014 Bakov and Karl Emich appeared in a newspaper textual and photo report declaring that the Prince accepted the proposals as well as the title of "Emperor Nicholas III" (as successor to Nicholas II). In the report Bakov emphasized that Karl Emich has long been an entrepreneur but henceforth he would refrain from all non-royalist related public activities. The report included a "Manifesto Grant of the Constitution to the State", signed by Nicholas III, proclaiming the formation of the sovereign state "Imperial Throne" aimed at consolidating all the people around the world devoted to Christian monarchism. The see in the documents is viewed as a legacy of the first-ever Christian Roman Imperial Throne of Constantine the Great, deemed to have passed through the Byzantine Empire to the Russian Empire and the House of Romanov by religious process.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: Later Bakov announced he has purchased a plot of land in Montenegro to form a location for the new state (80 ha, "twice as big as Vatican"), and is in negotiations with Montenegro authorities for recognition of the state. He also announced that Russian President Vladimir Putin declined to grant such a plot in Yekaterinburg (Bakov's residence and site of the 1918 Romanov assassination) in response to Karl Emich's request, transmitted to Putin by Bakov, a former MP. In early 2015, as a follow-up to the International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis, Bakov told the press there are talks with Montenegro authorities to establish an offshore zone at this plot, aimed at providing financial intermediation to Russian companies. Also in 2015 Imperial Throne representatives claimed to be in talks with the authorities of the neighboring Republic of Macedonia and Albania on possible collaboration and future state recognition. In particular, Bakov met with Macedonian Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski. Later there was a similar talk with President of Gambia Yahya Jammeh at the 70th UN General Assembly session in New York. Also, talks were held with Macedonian and Montenegro Eastern Orthodox clergy — Bakov discusses creation of churches associated with Imperial Throne and proposes canonization of Russian ancient ruler Ivan III and his wife Sophia Palaiologina. Talks with Gaston Browne, Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda, also took place. In early 2017 it was announced by many world mass media that there is a preliminary consent of the government of Kiribati to sell three inhabited Pacific islands to Bakov to set up the state which is expected to be renamed to Romanov Empire. Kiribati rejected the proposal in February 2017.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: In December 2017, Bakov announced that the purchase of artificial islands belonging to the Republic of The Gambia had been successfully negotiated and the Romanov Empire had become a partially recognised country. The claim was denied by the Gambian government.


title: Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen

text: In June 2021 Karl Emich, or Nikolai Kirillovich (Nicholas III) gave his first-ever interview in Russian language where he clarified his civil and political attitude and told some details about history of his family.


title: Telephone numbers in Bangladesh

text: The subscriber number is the number unique to each individual telephone/mobile following the area/operator code. The Area/operator codes in Bangladesh are listed below, with a typical number format, where "X" denotes the Area/Operator code and "N" denotes the individual subscriber's telephone/mobile number.


title: Telephone numbers in Bangladesh

text: Typical format for a mobile phone number is 01XXX NNNNNN, e.g. 01054 694200 when dialed inside Bangladesh, and +880 1XXX NNNNNN when dialed internationally.


title: Telephone numbers in Bangladesh

text: 02 – Dhaka, Gopalganj District, Narayongonj District, Narsingdi District, IMS Number (Malopara, Shalbagan, Tanore, Godagari, Noahata- Rajshahi && Jessore University)


title: Joyce Maynard

text: Daphne Joyce Maynard (born November 5, 1953) is an American novelist and journalist. She began her career in journalism in the 1970s, writing for several publications, most notably "Seventeen" magazine and "The New York Times". Maynard contributed to "Mademoiselle" and "Harrowsmith" magazines in the 1980s, while also beginning a career as a novelist with the publication of her first novel, "Baby Love" (1981). Her second novel, "To Die For" (1992), drew from the Pamela Smart murder case and was adapted into the 1995 film of the same name. Maynard received significant media attention in 1998 with the publication of her memoir "At Home in the World", which deals with her affair with J. D. Salinger.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: Maynard has published novels in a wide range of literary genres, including fiction, young adult fiction, and true crime. Her sixth novel, "Labor Day" (2009), was adapted into the 2013 film of the same name, directed by Jason Reitman. Her most recent novels include "The Good Daughters" (2010), "After Her" (2013), "Under the Influence" (2016), and "Count the Ways" (2021).


title: Joyce Maynard

text: Maynard was born in Durham, New Hampshire, the daughter of Fredelle (née Bruser), a journalist, writer, and English teacher, and Max Maynard, a painter and professor of English at the University of New Hampshire (and brother of theologian Theodore Maynard). Her father was born in India to English missionary parents and later moved to Canada; her mother was born in Saskatchewan to Jewish immigrants from Russia.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: Maynard attended the Oyster River school district and Phillips Exeter Academy. She won Scholastic Art and Writing Awards in 1966, 1967, 1968, 1970, and 1971. In her teens, she wrote regularly for "Seventeen" magazine. She entered Yale University in 1971 and sent a collection of her writings to the editors of "The New York Times Magazine". They asked her to write an article about growing up in the 1960s, which was published under the title "An 18-Year-Old Looks Back on Life" in the magazine's April 23, 1972 issue. After the article was published, Maynard received a letter from fiction writer J. D. Salinger, then 53 years old, who complimented her writing and warned her of the dangers of publicity.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: Maynard and Salinger exchanged letters. After her freshman year at Yale, she moved into his house in Cornish, New Hampshire. Salinger and his wife had divorced in 1967. While living with him for eight months, mid-1972 until March 1973, Maynard wrote her first book, a memoir titled "Looking Back: A Chronicle of Growing Up Old in the Sixties", which was published in 1973 soon after Maynard and Salinger ended their relationship.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: Maynard withheld information about their relationship until her 1998 memoir "At Home in the World". The memoir, which accounts for her entire life up to that point, is best known for its in-depth retelling of her relationship with Salinger, whom she portrays as a predator. At its publication, many reviewers furiously panned the book, such as Jonathan Yardley from the "Washington Post," who called it "indescribably stupid".


title: Joyce Maynard

text: During the same year, she auctioned the letters that Salinger had written to her. Software developer Peter Norton bought the letters for $156,500 and returned them to Salinger.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: In 2021, Maynard would write on the relationship in "Vanity Fair" relating to Allen v. Farrow, stating that "I was groomed to be the sexual partner of a narcissist who nearly derailed my life", going into detail on the other relations with teenagers Salinger had at the same time, and "[w]hen he sent me away less than a year later with words of contempt and disdain, I believed the failure was mine, and that I was no longer worthy of his love or even respect." With regards to the reception of her memoirs, she notes the negative reception, adding "I was accused of trying to sell books, to make money from my brief and inconsequential connection to a great man", noting "[O]ne writer, Cynthia Ozick—hardly alone among celebrated authors, weighing in with her condemnation—portrayed me as a person who, in possession of no talent of my own, had attached myself to Salinger to 'suck out' his celebrity."


title: Joyce Maynard

text: After moving out of Salinger's house in 1973, Maynard bought a house in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. From 1973 to 1975, she contributed commentaries to a series called "Spectrum" on CBS Radio. In 1975, she joined the staff of "The New York Times" as a general assignment reporter and feature writer. She left "The New York Times" in 1977, when she married Steve Bethel. They moved to New Hampshire and had three children, Audrey, Charlie, and Wilson.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: From 1984 to 1990, Maynard wrote the weekly syndicated column "Domestic Affairs", dealing with marriage, parenthood, and family life. She worked as book reviewer and columnist for "Mademoiselle" and "Harrowsmith" magazines. In 1986 she helped lead the opposition to the construction of the nation's first high-level nuclear waste dump in her home state of New Hampshire, a campaign she described in a "New York Times" cover story in April 1986.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: Maynard published her first novel, "Baby Love", in 1981. Her 1992 novel "To Die For" drew from the Pamela Smart murder case and was adapted into the 1995 film of the same name, directed by Gus Van Sant and starring Nicole Kidman, Matt Dillon, and Joaquin Phoenix. In the late 1990s, she wrote to her readers in an online discussion forum, "The Domestic Affairs Message Board".


title: Joyce Maynard

text: She published two books of young adult fiction: "The Usual Rules" (2003) and "The Cloud Chamber" (2005). Her true crime book, "Internal Combustion" (2006), dealt with the case of Nancy Seaman, a Michigan resident who was convicted of killing her husband in 2004. The novel "Labor Day" was published in 2009 and turned into a movie of the same name, written and directed by Jason Reitman. Her other novels include "The Good Daughters" (2010), "After Her" (2013), and "Under the Influence" (2016).


title: Joyce Maynard

text: She married Steve Bethel in 1977 and divorced him in 1989. They had three children together; daughter Audrey and sons Charlie and Wilson.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: Maynard and her sister Rona, a writer and retired editor of "Chatelaine" magazine, collaborated on an examination of their sisterhood. Rona Maynard's memoir "My Mother's Daughter" was published in the fall of 2007.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: In February 2010, Maynard adopted two Ethiopian girls. In spring 2011, she told friends and family she could no longer care for the girls. She sent them to live with a family in Wyoming and, citing their privacy, removed all references to them from her website.


title: Joyce Maynard

text: On July 6, 2013, she married lawyer Jim Barringer. He died on June 16, 2016, of pancreatic cancer. Their relationship and his death was the subject of her 2017 memoir "The Best of Us".


The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) is the only complete novel written by American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The work relates the tale of the young Arthur Gordon Pym, who stows away aboard a whaling ship called the "Grampus". Various adventures and misadventures befall Pym, including shipwreck, mutiny, and cannibalism, before he is saved by the crew of the "Jane Guy". Aboard this vessel, Pym and a sailor named Dirk Peters continue their adventures farther south. Docking on land, they encounter hostile black-skinned natives before escaping back to the ocean. The novel ends abruptly as Pym and Peters continue toward the South Pole.


title: The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket

text: The story starts out as a fairly conventional adventure at sea, but it becomes increasingly strange and hard to classify. Poe, who intended to present a realistic story, was inspired by several real-life accounts of sea voyages, and drew heavily from Jeremiah N. Reynolds and referenced the Hollow Earth theory. He also drew from his own experiences at sea. Analyses of the novel often focus on possible autobiographical elements as well as its portrayal of race and the symbolism in the final lines of the work.


text: Difficulty in finding literary success early in his short story-writing career inspired Poe to pursue writing a longer work. A few serialized installments of "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" were first published in the "Southern Literary Messenger", though never completed. The full novel was published in July 1838 in two volumes. Some critics responded negatively to the work for being too gruesome and for cribbing heavily from other works, while others praised its exciting adventures. Poe himself later called it "a very silly book". The novel later influenced Herman Melville and Jules Verne.


text: Arthur Gordon Pym was born on the island of Nantucket, famous for its fishing harbor and whaling. His best friend, Augustus Barnard, is the son of the captain of a whaling ship. One night, the two boys become drunk and decide, on Augustus's whim, to take advantage of the breeze and sail out on Pym's sailboat, the "Ariel". The breeze, however, turns out to be the beginnings of a violent storm. The situation gets critical when Augustus passes out drunk, and the inexperienced Pym must take control of the dinghy. The "Ariel" is overtaken by the "Penguin", a returning whaling ship. Against the captain's wishes, the crew of the "Penguin" turns back to search for and rescue both Augustus and Pym. After they are safely back on land, they decide to keep this episode a secret from their parents.


text: His first ocean misadventure does not dissuade Pym from sailing again; rather, his imagination is ignited by the experience. His interest is further fueled by the tales of a sailor's life that Augustus tells him. Pym decides to follow Augustus as a stowaway aboard the "Grampus", a whaling vessel commanded by Augustus's father that is bound for the southern seas. Augustus helps Pym by preparing a hideout in the hold for him and smuggling Tiger, Pym's faithful dog, on board. Augustus promises to provide Pym with water and food until the ship is too far from shore to return, at which time Pym will reveal himself.


text: Due to the stuffy atmosphere and vapors in the dark and cramped hold, Pym becomes increasingly comatose and delirious over the days. He can't communicate with Augustus, and the promised supplies fail to arrive, so Pym runs out of water. In the course of his ordeal, he discovers a letter written in blood attached to his dog Tiger, warning Pym to remain hidden, as his life depends on it.


text: Augustus finally sets Pym free, explaining the mysterious message, as well as his delay in retrieving his friend: a mutiny had erupted on the whaling ship. Part of the crew was slaughtered by the mutineers, while another group, including Augustus's father, were set adrift in a small boat. Augustus survived because he had befriended one of the mutineers, Dirk Peters, who now regrets his part in the uprising.


text: Peters, Pym, and Augustus hatch a plan to seize control of the ship: Pym, whose presence is unknown to the mutineers, will wait for a storm and then dress in the clothes of a recently dead sailor, masquerading as a ghost. In the confusion sure to break out among the superstitious sailors, Peters and Augustus, helped by Tiger, will take over the ship again. Everything goes according to plan, and soon the three men are masters of the "Grampus": all the mutineers are killed or thrown overboard except one, Richard Parker, whom they spare to help them run the vessel. (At this point, the dog Tiger disappears from the novel; his unknown fate is a loose end in the narrative.)


text: The storm increases in force, breaking the mast, tearing the sails and flooding the hold. All four manage to survive by lashing themselves to the hull. As the storm abates, they find themselves safe for the moment, but without provisions. Over the following days, the men face death by starvation and thirst.


text: They sight an erratically moving Dutch ship with a grinning red-capped seaman on deck, nodding in apparent greeting as they approach. Initially delighted with the prospect of deliverance, they quickly become horrified as they are overcome with an awful stench. They soon realize that the apparently cheerful sailor is, in fact, a corpse propped up in the ship's rigging, his "grin" a result of his partially decomposed skull moving as a seagull feeds upon it. As the ship passes, it becomes clear that all its occupants are rotting corpses.


text: As time passes, with no sign of land or other ships, Parker suggests that one of them should be killed as food for the others. They draw straws, following the custom of the sea, and Parker is sacrificed. This gives the others a reprieve, but Augustus soon dies from wounds received when they reclaimed the "Grampus", and several more storms batter the already badly damaged ship. Pym and Peters float on the upturned hull and are close to death when they are rescued by the "Jane Guy", a ship out of Liverpool.


text: On the "Jane Guy", Pym and Peters become part of the crew and join the ship on its expedition to hunt sea calves and seals for fur, and to explore the southern oceans. Pym studies the islands around the Cape of Good Hope, becoming interested in the social structures of penguins, albatrosses, and other sea birds. Upon his urging, the captain agrees to sail farther south towards the unexplored Antarctic regions.


text: The ship crosses an ice barrier and arrives in open sea, close to the South Pole, albeit with a mild climate. Here the "Jane Guy" comes upon a mysterious island called Tsalal, inhabited by a tribe of black, apparently friendly natives led by a chief named Too-Wit. The color white is alien to the island's inhabitants and unnerves them, because nothing of that color exists there. Even the natives' teeth are black. The island is also home to many undiscovered species of flora and fauna. Its water is also different from water elsewhere, being strangely thick and exhibiting multicolored veins.


text: The natives' relationship with the sailors is initially cordial, so Too-Wit and the captain begin trading. Their friendliness, however, turns out to be a ruse and on the eve of the ship's proposed departure, the natives ambush the crew in a narrow gorge. Everyone except Pym and Peters is slaughtered, and the "Jane Guy" is overrun and burned by the malevolent tribe.


text: Pym and Peters hide in the mountains surrounding the site of the ambush. They discover a labyrinth of passages in the hills with strange marks on the walls, and disagree about whether these are the result of artificial or natural causes. Facing a shortage of food, they make a desperate run and steal a pirogue from the natives, narrowly escaping from the island and taking one of its inhabitants prisoner.


text: The small boat drifts farther south on a current of increasingly warm water, which has become milky white in color. After several days they encounter a rain of ashes and then observe a huge cataract of fog or mist, which splits open to accommodate their entrance upon approach. The native dies as a huge shrouded white figure appears before them.


text: Here the novel ends abruptly. A short post-scriptural note, ostensibly written by the book's editors, explains that Pym was killed in an accident and speculates his final two or three chapters were lost with him, though assuring the public the chapters will be restored to the text if found. The note further explains that Peters is alive in Illinois but cannot be interviewed at present. The editors then compare the shapes of the labyrinth and the wall marks noted by Pym to Arabian and Egyptian letters and hieroglyphs with meanings of "Shaded", "White", and "Region to the South".


text: In order to present the tale as an authentic exploration, Poe drew from contemporary travel journals. Poe's most significant source was the explorer Jeremiah N. Reynolds, whose work "Address on the Subject of a Surveying and Exploring Expedition to the Pacific Ocean and the South Seas" was reviewed favorably by Poe in January 1837. Poe used about 700 words of Reynolds' address in Chapter XVI, almost half the length of the chapter. In 1843, Poe also praised Reynolds in a review of "A Brief Account of the Discoveries and Results of the United States' Exploring Expedition" printed in "Graham's Magazine". It is unknown whether Poe and Reynolds ever met. Shortly before Poe's mysterious death, he is said to have called out the name "Reynolds" in his delirium. If true, this may have reflected the influence of Jeremiah Reynolds.


text: In a footnote to Chapter XIII, Poe refers to the "Polly", a wreck which drifted for six months across the Atlantic Ocean in 1811–1812. Poe probably read this history in an 1836 book by R. Thomas, "Remarkable Events and Remarkable Shipwrecks", from which he quotes verbatim.


text: In Chapter XVI, Poe recounts Captain James Cook's circumnavigation of the globe aboard the "Resolution" that reached 70°10′ latitude. He also drew from "A Narrative of Four Voyages" (1832), an account by Benjamin Morrell that became a bestseller. "A Narrative of Four Voyages" may have given Poe the idea of the summarized title of his novel. Poe may have used these real-life accounts in an attempt to hoax his readers into believing the novel was an autobiographical narrative by Pym.


text: In addition to historical sources, Poe was influenced by fiction writers. "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge was a general influence, and scenes of Pym and Dirk Peters in a cave echo scenes in Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe", which many reviewers noted at the time, including London publications such as the "Court Gazette" and the "Torch". The ship of corpses recalls the legend of the "Flying Dutchman", a ship which is cursed and unable to return home.


text: Poe also incorporated the theories of Reynolds and John Cleves Symmes Jr. on the Hollow Earth. The theory of these works was that a hole at the South Pole led to the interior of the planet, where undiscovered civilizations prospered. As Symmes wrote, the earth was "hollow, habitable, and widely open about the poles". This theory, which he presented as early as 1818, was taken seriously throughout the nineteenth century. Symmes' theory had already served Poe when he wrote, in 1831, "MS. Found in a Bottle", based partly on "Symmes' Theory of the Concentric Spheres", published in 1826. "MS. Found in a Bottle" is similar to Poe's novel in setting, characterization, and some elements of plot. Other writers who later fictionalized this theory include Edgar Rice Burroughs and L. Frank Baum.


text: In describing life on a long sea voyage, Poe also drew from personal experience. In 1815, a six-year-old Poe along with his foster-parents traveled from Norfolk, Virginia to Liverpool, England, a journey of 34 days. During the difficult trip, young Poe asked his foster father, John Allan, to include him in a letter he was writing. Allan wrote, "Edgar says Pa say something for me, say I was not afraid of the sea." The family returned to the United States in 1820 aboard the "Martha" and docked in New York after 31 days. Closer to the time Poe wrote his novel, he had sailed during his military career, the longest trip being from Boston to Charleston, South Carolina.


text: "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" has defied a universally accepted interpretation. Scholar Scott Peeples wrote that it is "at once a mock nonfictional exploration narrative, adventure saga, bildungsroman, hoax, largely plagiarized travelogue, and spiritual allegory" and "one of the most elusive major texts of American literature." Biographer James M. Hutchisson writes that the plot both "soars to new heights of fictional ingenuity and descends to new lows of silliness and absurdity".


text: One reason for the confusion comes from many continuity errors throughout the novel. For example, Pym notes that breaking a bottle while trapped in the hold saved his life because the sound alerted Augustus to his presence while searching. However, Pym notes that Augustus did not tell him this until "many years elapsed", even though Augustus is dead eight chapters later. Nevertheless, much of the novel is carefully plotted. Novelist John Barth notes, for example, that the midway point of the novel occurs when Pym reaches the equator, the midway point of the globe.


text: Scholar Shawn Rosenheim believes that the use of hieroglyphs in the novel served as a precursor to Poe's interest in cryptography. The pictographs themselves were likely inspired by "The Kentuckian in New-York" (1834) by William Alexander Caruthers, where similar writing is the work of a black slave. Unlike the previous sea-voyage tales that Poe had written, such as "MS. Found in a Bottle", Pym is undertaking this trip on purpose. It has been suggested that the journey is about establishing a national American identity as well as discovering a personal identity.


text: Poe also presents the effects of alcohol in the novel. The opening episode, for example, shows that intoxicated people can sometimes seem entirely sober and then, suddenly, the effects of alcohol show through. Such a depiction is a small version of a larger focus in the novel on contradictions between chaos and order. Even nature seems unnatural. Water, for example, is very different at the end of the novel, appearing either colorful or "unnaturally clear." The sun by the end shines "with a sickly yellow lustre emitting no decisive light" before seemingly being extinguished.