title: Herbert Marshall

text: In 1936, Marshall began lending his talents to radio, appearing on "Lux Radio Theatre" (at least 19 appearances), "The Screen Guild Theatre" (at least 16 appearances), "The Jell-O Program" (three appearances, including one as host), "The Burns and Allen Show" (two appearances), "Birds Eye Open House", "The Pepsodent Show" and "Hollywood Star Time" (taking over as host in October 1946). He made radio history in July 1940 as the narrator of "The Lodger", the first audition show of the "Suspense" series (making 20 appearances on the program). His most famous role was as globetrotting intelligence agent Ken Thurston in "The Man Called 'X'" (1944–52). The series, first aired on CBS as a summer replacement for the "Lux Radio Theatre", introduced Thurston as an employee of an agency known only as "The Bureau". His boss, dubbed "The Chief", tasked him with dealing with some of the world's most hardened, sophisticated criminals, including smugglers, murderers, black marketeers, saboteurs, kidnappers, various types of thieves, corrupt politicians and rogue scientists. Thurston's sidekick/nemesis "Egon" Zellschmidt was played by character actor Hans Conried during the first season. From 1945 to 1952, Russian comic and musician Leon Belasco appeared in the same role as "Pegon" Zellschmidt. The show was broadcast not only for the sake of entertainment but it also "alerted an anxious war-weary world to the inherent dangers of resting on its laurels during the brief peace after war."


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Using his own money for travel, Marshall visited many military hospitals during the war. In particular, he focused on encouraging soldiers with amputations to keep a positive attitude and not to think of themselves as handicapped or limited. Despite his usual reluctance to discuss his own injury, he talked freely about his personal experiences in order to give these amputees tips on how to use and adjust to their new artificial limbs. Although mostly kept private, a 1945 article in "Motion Picture Magazine" reported, against Marshall's wishes, on his work at military hospitals. The author Patty De Roulf insisted that his story needed to be told to help injured veterans and their families and to show that "Marshall is doing one of the finest war jobs any human being can do." She interviewed one young officer, who recalled:


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Herbert Marshall gave me back my life. When I found out I had a metal claw instead of a hand, I was completely broken...Then one day, while I was in the hospital, we were told Herbert Marshall, the film star, was coming to talk to us. I was disgusted with the idea. A collar ad, I thought, coming to give us a Pollyanna speech!


title: Herbert Marshall

text: It turned out to be anything but that. Mr. Marshall talked real sense into us. He followed it up with demonstrations, actually showing us what he could do. Before he left, we were convinced that if he had been able to lead a normal life, we could do the same.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: The article also quoted a veteran with a double amputation (left leg and right foot), who praised Marshall for showing him how to dance with a prosthetic leg. He considered the actor's advice and example to be his Ten Commandments. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Head of the Allied Forces in Europe, noted in private that, of all the film stars he met in Europe during the war, he was most impressed with Marshall and Madeleine Carroll (who worked as a nurse at field hospitals).


title: Herbert Marshall

text: After the war, Marshall worked almost exclusively as a supporting actor in films: "Crack-Up" (1946), a noir; "The Razor's Edge" (1946), playing Somerset Maugham; "Duel in the Sun" (1946), the epic Western; "Ivy" (1947), with Joan Fontaine; "High Wall" (1947), another noir; "The Secret Garden" (1949) with Margaret O'Brien at MGM; "The Underworld Story" (1950); "Black Jack" (1950), billed second to George Sanders; and "Anne of the Indies" (1951).


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Beginning in 1950, Marshall performed periodically on television, starting with a production of "An Inspector Calls" for "Robert Montgomery Presents". He was in "The Ford Television Theatre". He appeared as the "mystery guest" on an episode of the popular game show "What's My Line?" in November 1954.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall continued to appear in films such as "Angel Face" (1953), a film noir; "Riders to the Stars" (1954), his first sci fi; "Gog" (1954), another sci-fi in 3-D; "The Black Shield of Falworth" (1954) with Tony Curtis; "The Virgin Queen" (1955) with Davis; "Wicked as They Come" (1956) with Arlene Dahl; and "The Weapon" (1956). He received acclaim for his performances in "Stage Struck" (1958) and "The Fly" (1958).


title: Herbert Marshall

text: However he was more likely to be found on television in "The Best of Broadway" (a version of "The Philadelphia Story"), "The Elgin Hour", "Celebrity Playhouse", "Lux Video Theatre" (including an adaptation of "The Browning Version" and "Now, Voyager"), "The Loretta Young Show", "Playhouse 90", "Studio One in Hollywood", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", and "Adventures in Paradise".


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall's final performances include the feature films "College Confidential" (1960), "Midnight Lace" (1960), "A Fever in the Blood" (1961), "Five Weeks in a Balloon" (1962), "The List of Adrian Messenger" (1963) and "The Caretakers" (1963). He guest starred on episodes of "Hong Kong", "Michael Shayne", "Zane Grey Theater", and "77 Sunset Strip". "They don't seem to make my kind of pictures any more," he said in 1964.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall, a quiet-spoken man who was one of the pillars of the Hollywood British community, was widely respected and well-liked due to his talent and professionalism, pleasant and easygoing demeanor, sensitivity, gentlemanly and courteous manner, witty sense of humour, and his "very great personal charm". Among the actor's many friends in the British community were Edmund Goulding, Eric Blore, Ronald Colman, Clive Brook, Merle Oberon, C. Aubrey Smith, David Niven, Basil Rathbone, Sir Cedric Hardwicke and Brian Aherne. Other friends included Raymond Massey, Rod La Rocque, Vilma Bánky, Kay Francis, Mary Astor, Irving Thalberg, Norma Shearer, Joan Crawford, Melvyn Douglas, Bette Davis and Grace Moore. Although popular and likeable, Marshall suffered from bouts of depression through much of his life. In his free time, he especially enjoyed sketching and fishing.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall was married five times and divorced three. In 1914, he appeared with Mollie Maitland (whose real name was Hilda Lloyd Bosley) in "The Headmaster"; the following year, they were married. Five years later, he first appeared with Edna Best, who became his most frequent stage co-star; they also made three films together ("The Calendar", "Michael and Mary" and "The Faithful Heart"). Marshall and Best were married in November 1928, following their respective divorces (they had been cohabiting for the previous three years). In 1931, Best broke a lucrative contract with MGM and walked off the filming of "The Phantom of Paris" with John Gilbert in order to be with Marshall in New York, where he was performing in a play. In response to a press inquiry, he said: "I'm sorry if Hollywood is annoyed, but Edna and I happen to be in love with each other and we want to be together."


title: Herbert Marshall

text: During a return trip to London in late November 1932, Marshall and a pregnant Best gave an interview in which they stated their intention to briefly return to Hollywood the following summer. They would bring a nanny to help look after their daughter. At some point, Best and young Sarah returned to London while Marshall received more film offers. They continued making trips to see each other. In late 1933, actress Phyllis Barry had tea with Marshall and Claudette Colbert after they returned from Hawaii, where they had been filming "Four Frightened People". She remembered that Marshall "insisted on my talking all the time because he said I sounded just like his wife". By the time Marshall was filming "Riptide" in early 1934, he reportedly was drinking heavily due to his problems with Best and increased phantom pain. (Director Goulding and co-star Norma Shearer successfully convinced him to curb his consumption of alcohol.) Not long after, Goulding introduced him to Gloria Swanson.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: In 1940, after a long separation from her husband and wanting to marry someone else, Best divorced Marshall on grounds of desertion (he lived in Hollywood, and she lived in Britain). She remarried almost immediately. Twenty days later, he married actress and model Elizabeth Roberta "Lee" Russell, a sister of film star Rosalind Russell. Two years prior to their marriage, Russell's recently divorced ex-husband, songwriter Eddy Brandt, initiated an alienation of affection suit for $250,000 against Marshall, whom he accused of stealing his wife. Brandt later told the press that he and the actor settled out of court for $10,000. Marshall publicly denied this claim. In 1947, Russell divorced him in Mexico. They parted on amiable terms. Instead of explaining the reasons for her divorce, she told the press at the time: "I will never say anything against Bart. He is one of the most charming people I have ever known."


title: Herbert Marshall

text: He was married to his fourth wife, former Ziegfeld girl and actress Patricia "Boots" Mallory, from 1947 until her death in 1958. They were wed in August 1947, with Nigel Bruce acting as best man. After a 16-month illness, Mallory died of a throat ailment at age 45. Marshall was deeply troubled by her death and had to be hospitalised for pneumonia and pleurisy less than two months later. He married Dee Anne Kahmann, his final wife, on 25 April 1960 when he was almost 70 years old. She was a twice-divorced, 38-year-old department store buyer. They remained married until his death.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall had a daughter Sarah by Edna Best and another daughter Ann by Lee Russell. Sarah Marshall followed her parents and grandparents into the acting profession, appearing in many of the most popular television shows of the 1960s, including "", "The Twilight Zone", "Perry Mason", "F Troop" and "Daniel Boone". Herbert and Sarah Marshall acted together in a television version of J.B. Priestley's play "An Inspector Calls" in 1951. His younger daughter, Ann Marshall (often called Annie), worked for many years as Jack Nicholson's personal assistant. He also had at least four step-children, two from his marriage to Best and two from his marriage to Mallory. His grandson Timothy M. Bourne, Sarah Marshall's only child, is an independent film producer. Bourne was the executive producer of the Academy Award-winning film "The Blind Side" (2009).


title: Herbert Marshall

text: In the early 1930s, Marshall was commonly rumoured within Hollywood social circles to have had affairs with both his "Trouble in Paradise" co-stars Kay Francis and Miriam Hopkins. In January 1934, Marshall, while still married to Best, began a serious affair with actress Gloria Swanson, who recounted their relationship in her memoirs, "Swanson on Swanson" (1980). She described Marshall at the time of their first meeting as "a handsome man in his early forties with a gentle face and soft brown eyes", who had "one of the most perfect musical voices I had ever heard". Swanson also wrote that the actor was "sweet beyond belief" and "a nice man", who "utterly charmed" her and her children. He constantly wrote her love notes, and when she was out of town, he sent her romantic telegrams almost hourly. (Many of these personal documents now reside at the University of Texas at Austin's Harry Ransom Center archives, as part of the Gloria Swanson Papers.) Newspapers and film fan magazines widely discussed his affair with Swanson at the time, which he made little attempt to keep secret.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: In November 1936, Swanson left him once she accepted that he would not divorce Edna Best to marry her. Although insisting they were "madly in love," she believed that he would not demand a divorce because of his typically docile nature, reluctance to deliberately hurt people, and guilt over his separation from his young daughter. "He would always turn to alcohol rather than face a painful scene," she remembered. Despite an emotional parting, near the end of her life Swanson, who was married six times, wrote: "I was never so convincingly and thoroughly loved as I was by Herbert Marshall."


title: Herbert Marshall

text: A few months into their relationship, Marshall became a subject of media gossip after a confrontation at El Morocco in New York City. A photographer snapped pictures of the couple dining together. The photos were published in newspapers and magazines. When Marshall saw that Swanson was annoyed by the photographer, he "went into one of the most spectacular rages of all times," according to "Modern Screen". In a syndicated column, Ed Sullivan wrote that he watched Marshall "rise violently" from his seat and chase the cameraman down the aisles between the nightclub's tables.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Around two months after this incident, Marshall again received substantial publicity after screenwriter John Monk Saunders (husband of actress Fay Wray) punched him in the face and knocked him to the floor at a dinner party given by director Ernst Lubitsch. According to a wire report, Marshall took exception to something Saunders said about Gloria Swanson. Later that night, after Marshall called Saunders a derogatory name, Saunders hit him while he was, in his own words, "seated...and looking in an opposite direction". Wray later added details unreported at the time. According to her, Marshall referred to Saunders as a "bestial bastard" after the screenwriter ogled Swanson's décolletage. Articles about the incident commonly mentioned Marshall's prosthetic leg, which had only very rarely been talked about in the press up to that point.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: With the increasing public demand for grittier films after the Second World War, the remaining members of the Hollywood British "colony" began to part ways, with some returning to Britain while others stayed in Hollywood. Marshall, like many of his contemporaries who stayed in Hollywood, began to receive far fewer acting offers and, especially toward the end of his life, had to take whatever he could get due to financial reasons. In May 1951, while in the hospital recuperating from corrective surgery, he suffered a "pulmonary embolism around his heart". After NBC aired three episodes of "The Man Called 'X"' that were previously transcribed, Marshall's friends Van Heflin, John Lund and Joseph Cotten filled in (one episode each) until Marshall's return in June 1951.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: Marshall appeared in his last significant film role in "The Caretakers" (1963) with Joan Crawford, who was happy to act with him again 22 years after they made "When Ladies Meet" together. Noting his poor health and heavy drinking, she worked with the film's director to minimise the time Marshall had to be on the set.


title: Herbert Marshall

text: In late 1965, after his final brief film appearance in the thriller "The Third Day", Marshall was admitted to the Motion Picture Relief Fund Hospital for severe depression. Eight days after his release, he died on 22 January 1966 in Beverly Hills, California of heart failure at the age of 75.


title: South Arabia

text: South Arabia () is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and 'Asir, which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and the Dhofar of present-day Oman.


title: South Arabia

text: South Arabia is inhabited by people possessing distinctive linguistic and ethnic affinities, as well as traditions and culture, transcending recent political boundaries. There are two indigenous language groups: the now extinct Old South Arabian languages and the unrelated Modern South Arabian languages, both members of the Semitic family.


title: South Arabia

text: The term "Yamnat" was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions on the title of one of the kings of the second Himyarite Kingdom known as Shammar Yahrʽish II. The term was probably referring to the southwestern coastline of the Arabian peninsula and the southern coastline between Aden and Hadramout. One etymology derives Yemen from , meaning "South", and significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right (𐩺𐩣𐩬). Other sources claim that Yemen is related to "yamn" or "yumn", meaning "felicity" or "blessed", as much of the country is fertile. The Romans called it "Arabia Felix" (fertile Arabia), as opposed to "Arabia Deserta" (deserted Arabia).


title: South Arabia

text: Classical Latin and Greek writers used the name "India" to refer to South Arabia (ancient Yemen). The use of the term "India" arose from the fact that the Persians called the Abyssinians whom they came into contact in South Arabia by the name of the Cushitic people who lived next to them, "i.e.", Indians. Southern Arabia was part of Indian Ocean trade routes for millennia. With the advent of the Omani Empire, ties were strengthened between India and the Eastern Coast of Africa and Madagascar.


title: South Arabia

text: Three thousand years ago, several ancient states occupied the region of South Arabia, being M'ain, Qataban, Hadhramaut, and Saba. In these ancient times South Arabia claimed several notable features: the famous dam at Marib, the cosmopolitan incense trade, as well as the legendary Queen of Sheba. Two thousand years ago the Himyarites became the masters of South Arabia, dominating the region for several centuries. The Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum invaded South Arabia first in the 3rd–4th centuries, then later in the 6th under King Kaleb who subjugated the region, c. 520. They were displaced by Persian forces of the Sassanid dynasty, c.575, who also arrived by sea. A half-century later, in the year 6 A.H. (628), the region converted to Islam.


title: Stanley Caine

text: Stanley Caine (born Stanley Victor Micklewhite; October 1935 – 13 January 2013) was an English actor and the younger brother of actor Sir Michael Caine. He was best known for his role as "Coco" in "The Italian Job", a film released in 1969 also starring Michael Caine.


title: Stanley Caine

text: In addition to his older brother Michael, Stanley had an older maternal half-brother David whom Stan and Michael only knew of after their mother's death in 1989. Their half-brother died in 1992.


title: Stanley Caine

text: Caine was diagnosed with leukaemia in early 2008. He died in his sleep in January 2013 in Ruislip, West London.


title: Edward Byers

text: Edward C. Byers Jr. (born August 4, 1979) is a retired United States Navy SEAL who received the Medal of Honor on February 29, 2016, for the rescue of a civilian in Afghanistan in 2012. Byers retired after 21 years of service on September 19, 2019, at the Washington Navy Yard.


title: Edward Byers

text: Born in Toledo, Ohio, growing up in Grand Rapids, Byers graduated from Otsego High School in Tontogany, Ohio in 1997. He is a Roman Catholic. His father is a World War II Navy veteran. While in his youth, he was a scout in the Boy Scouts of America, achieving the rank of first class.


title: Edward Byers

text: Byers enlisted in the United States Navy in September 1998 and went on to serve as a hospital corpsman. Byers first served at Great Lakes Naval Hospital and was later attached to the 2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines, in 1999 and deployed with the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit aboard . He attended Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL training in 2002 and graduated with BUD/S Class 242. In 2003, Byers attended the Special Operations Combat Medic course. He was assigned to his first SEAL team in May 2004.


title: Edward Byers

text: Byers served 11 overseas deployments, including nine combat tours, deploying multiple times to Iraq and Afghanistan. Over the course of those deployments Byers received four Bronze Star Medals with a valor device, and two Purple Hearts.


title: Edward Byers

text: In December 2014, General Martin Dempsey "strongly recommended" Byers for the Medal of Honor. On February 29, 2016, President Barack Obama presented the Medal of Honor to Byers during a ceremony at the White House. Byers is the sixth SEAL to receive the Medal of Honor. Byers was assigned to Naval Special Warfare Development Group, also known as SEAL Team Six, when he was presented the Medal of Honor. Byers is the first member of the unit to receive the Medal of Honor for an action as a unit member. The next month, Byers requested to return to his SEAL team.


title: Edward Byers

text: In November 2017, Byers was inducted into the Ohio Veterans Hall of Fame. In August 2017, Byers joined fellow Medal of Honor recipient Hershel W. Williams at the launching ceremony for a ship named after Williams. In May 2018, Byers was selected for promotion to master chief petty officer; during that same month Byers was in attendance when Master Chief Special Warfare Operator Britt Slabinski was presented with his Medal of Honor. By July 2018, Byers had received his promotion to master chief.


title: Edward Byers

text: On December 5, 2012, American physician Dr. Dilip Joseph, who had been working with an aid organization, was captured by the Taliban along with two Afghans while returning to their base in Kabul. The U.S. military gathered intelligence on where Dr. Joseph was being held. The commanders were concerned that the hostages might be moved to a new hideout or killed as early as December 9, 2012.


title: Edward Byers

text: On the night of December 8, 2012, Byers and his unit were inserted by helicopter in Qarghah'i District of Laghman Province, eastern Afghanistan. They hiked more than four hours over difficult terrain to reach the compound where the Taliban were holding the hostages. Despite the darkness, an armed guard spotted the SEALs within roughly of the compound and raised an alarm. Petty Officer 1st Class Nicolas D. Checque sprinted forward, killed the guard and entered the compound, with Byers just steps behind.


title: Edward Byers

text: Once inside the compound, Checque was shot by a Taliban fighter from within the single room where the hostages were held. Undeterred, Byers burst into the room, shooting dead an armed Taliban fighter. Byers tackled and straddled another insurgent who was scrambling to the corner of the room to get a rifle. Byers adjusted his night vision goggles to see whether he was the American hostage. When Joseph called out to Byers, Byers killed the insurgent he was straddling and then hurled himself on top of Joseph to protect him from harm. At the same time, Byers pinned another militant to the wall with a hand to the throat until another SEAL shot him.


title: Edward Byers

text: Byers, the unit's medic, attempted to resuscitate Checque on the ground and during a 40-minute flight to Bagram Airfield without success. Checque was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his actions.


title: Edward Byers

text: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty as a Hostage Rescue Force Team Member in Afghanistan in support of Operation ENDURING FREEDOM from 8 to 9 December 2012. As the rescue force approached the target building, an enemy sentry detected them and darted inside to alert his fellow captors. The sentry quickly reemerged, and the lead assaulter attempted to neutralize him. Chief Byers with his team sprinted to the door of the target building. As the primary breacher, Chief Byers stood in the doorway fully exposed to enemy fire while ripping down six layers of heavy blankets fastened to the inside ceiling and walls to clear a path for the rescue force. The first assaulter pushed his way through the blankets, and was mortally wounded by enemy small arms fire from within. Chief Byers, completely aware of the imminent threat, fearlessly rushed into the room and engaged an enemy guard aiming an AK-47 at him. He then tackled another adult male who had darted towards the corner of the room. During the ensuing hand-to-hand struggle, Chief Byers confirmed the man was not the hostage and engaged him. As other rescue team members called out to the hostage, Chief Byers heard a voice respond in English and raced toward it. He jumped atop the American hostage and shielded him from the high volume of fire within the small room. While covering the hostage with his body, Chief Byers immobilized another guard with his bare hands, and restrained the guard until a teammate could eliminate him. His bold and decisive actions under fire saved the lives of the hostage and several of his teammates. By his undaunted courage, intrepid fighting spirit, and unwavering devotion to duty in the face of near certain death, Chief Petty Officer Byers reflected great credit upon himself and upheld the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.


title: Edward Byers

text: While deployed with the 26th MEU, he earned the Surface Warfare Enlisted badge and the Fleet Marine Force Enlisted Warfare Specialist device.


title: Edward Byers

text: Byers is a licensed paramedic and attended Norwich University in Northfield, Vermont, finishing his education to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in strategic studies and defense analysis. Byers graduated from Norwich University and is documented as being part of the College of Graduate and Continuing Studies Class of 2016. In February 2017, as a guest of Bob Latta, Byers attended joint session of congress. In May 2017, Byers was an "honored guest" at a SEAL Family Foundation fundraiser in Rancho Santa Fe, California; later that year, he was inducted into the Ohio Military Veterans Hall of Fame. In 2018, Byers announced the creation of a new award, named after himself, at Otsego High School.


title: Edward Byers

text: In 2021, Byers earned a Master of Business Administration at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: The crew of the RMS "Titanic" were among the estimated 2,208 people who sailed on the maiden voyage of the second of the White Star Line's "Olympic" class ocean sea liners, from Southampton, England to New York City in the United States. Halfway through the voyage, the ship struck an iceberg and sank in the early morning of 15 April 1912, resulting in the deaths of over 1,500 people, including approximately 688 crew members.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: The following is a full list of known crew members who sailed on the maiden voyage of the RMS "Titanic".


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Included in this list are the nine-member Guarantee Group and the eight members of the ship's band, who were given passenger accommodations and treated as both passengers and crew. They are also included in the list of passengers on board RMS "Titanic".


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Survivors are listed with the lifeboat from which they were known to be rescued by the RMS "Carpathia", on 15 April 1912.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Victims whose remains were recovered after the sinking are listed with a superscript next to the body number, indicating the recovery vessel:


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Numbers 324 and 325 were unused, and the six bodies buried at sea by the "Carpathia" also went unnumbered. Several recovered bodies were unidentifiable and thus not all numbers are matched with a person.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Upon recovery, the bodies of 209 identified and unidentified victims of the sinking were brought to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Of those, 121 were taken to the non-denominational Fairview Lawn Cemetery, 59 were repatriated, 19 were buried in the Roman Catholic Mount Olivet Cemetery, and 10 were taken to the Jewish Baron de Hirsch Cemetery. The bodies of the remaining recovered victims were either delivered to family members or buried at sea.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: The "Hometown" field may be misleading. Many crews had secondary or temporary addresses in Southampton, which they gave when signing the crew list, and others may have only recently relocated there. In particular, the number of crew from Merseyside is understated; for example, Chief Engineer Joseph Bell and Chief Steward Andrew Latimer lived with their families in the Liverpool area. Dr. Alan Scarth, in his book "Titanic and Liverpool", identifies 115 crew members with close connections to the city, of whom only 28 survived.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: The engineers were responsible for keeping the engines, generators, and other mechanical equipment on the "Titanic" running. They were the highest paid members of the crew and had the education and technical expertise to operate, maintain, and repair the engineering plant.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Shortly after leaving Southampton, a fire was discovered in the coal bunker of No 6 Boiler Room. For a number of days, coal trimmers were detailed to trace the source of the fire and extinguish it.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: On the night of 14 April, the Second Engineering Officer, John Henry Hesketh – the senior engineer on duty, and Leading Fireman Frederick Barrett were in No 6 Boiler inspecting the coal bunker and confirming the fire was out when the "Titanic" struck the iceberg at 11.40 pm. It ripped this part of the ship and the pair escaped through the connecting tunnel to No 5 Boiler Room, closing the bulkhead doors. Barrett later gave evidence at the Southampton Enquiry.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Most of the engineering crew remained below decks in the engine and boiler rooms: some fighting a losing battle to keep the ship afloat by operating the pumps in the forward compartments as well as keeping the steam up in the boiler rooms, so as to prevent boiler explosion on contact with the water; and others keeping the generators running to maintain power and lights throughout the "Titanic" up until two minutes before the ship sank. It is speculated that their actions delayed the sinking for over an hour and helped keep the ship afloat long enough for nearly all the lifeboats to be launched. Some of the men working downstairs were killed when seawater flooded this section as the ship hit the iceberg.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: There were 421 men and women assigned to the Victualling Department on the "Titanic". The Victualling Department provided all the services for the occupants of the ship; food, housekeeping, laundry, room service, etc.:


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: The "À La Carte Restaurant" was located on B Deck, just below the fourth funnel. It was a private concession managed by A. P. Luigi Gatti, an Italian businessman who owned two other restaurants in London, as well as the "À La Carte Restaurant" on the RMS "Olympic". The restaurant was open from 8:00 am to 11:00 pm and was open only to First Class passengers. The staff were not paid by the White Star Line, but by Mr. Gatti himself, who was on the "Titanic" for its maiden voyage. The restaurant was self-sufficient with its own cooks, waiters, cleanup crew, and other staff. Most of the employees were French or Italian nationals.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Of the entire staff of 66 people, only one male clerk and two female cashiers survived. Several "Titanic" survivors indicated that the restaurant employees were locked in their quarters by the stewards to prevent them from rushing the lifeboats. It has never been confirmed whether this was true or not.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: The "Titanic" five postal clerks—two British, three American—were charged with the supervision and processing of all incoming and outgoing mail on board the ship. On the night of the disaster, the five postal clerks were celebrating Oscar Woody's 41st birthday. After the ship hit the iceberg, Jago Smith was sent to report to Captain Smith on the mailroom's conditions, confirming the knowledge that the ship was sinking. The five clerks set themselves to the task of attempting to save the 200 registered mail sacks by hauling them to the upper decks, with little thought of their own safety. All five mail clerks died; only March and Woody's bodies were recovered.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: Though the nine-member guarantee group were given passenger accommodation, they were also regarded as members of the crew. Headed by the ship's designer, Thomas Andrews, the group's responsibility was to accompany the ship on her maiden voyage to oversee any unfinished work or find and fix any problems that might arise during the voyage. The entire group perished; none of their bodies were recovered.


title: Crew of the Titanic

text: The ship's eight-member orchestra was not on the White Star Line's payroll but was contracted to White Star by the Liverpool firm of C.W. & F.N. Black, which at that time placed musicians on almost all British liners. The musicians boarded at Southampton and traveled as second-class passengers. Until the night of the sinking, the orchestra performed as two separate entities: a quintet led by violinist and official bandleader Wallace Hartley, that played at teatime, after-dinner concerts, and Sunday services, among other occasions; and a violin, cello, and piano trio comprising Roger Bricoux, George Krins, and Theodore Brailey, that played at the À La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien. None of the orchestra members survived.


title: Dushman (1998 film)

text: Dushman (translation: "Enemy") is a 1998 Indian Hindi-language psychological thriller film starring Kajol, Sanjay Dutt and Ashutosh Rana. The film is directed by Tanuja Chandra and produced by Mukesh Bhatt and Pooja Bhatt.


title: Dushman (1998 film)

text: At the 44th Filmfare Awards, "Dushman" won Best Villain (Rana)"," in addition to a nomination for Best Supporting Actress (Tanvi Azmi). Moreover, Kajol also received a Best Actress nomination at the ceremony for her performance in the film, but instead won the award for her performance in "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai".


title: Dushman (1998 film)

text: Sonia and Naina Sehgal (Kajol) are twins. Though identical, they couldn't be more different, with Sonia being outgoing and extroverted, and Naina being shy and introverted. In a parallel storyline, the police are hunting for a sadistic killer and rapist, Gokul Pandit (Ashutosh Rana).


title: Dushman (1998 film)

text: Tragedy strikes the Sehgal household when Gokul rapes and brutally kills Sonia. After a police investigation, Gokul is caught but declared innocent as Sunanda, one of the main witnesses (and Gokul's fiancé) gives a false statement in court. Naina is distraught and vows to hunt down Gokul. Gokul soon goes after Naina and she realizes she needs help to overcome her fear of Gokul. With revenge in her mind, she meets Suraj Singh Rathod (Sanjay Dutt), a blind military veteran, who helps her to rid her fear of Gokul. While Suraj trains Naina, they develop feelings for each other.


title: Dushman (1998 film)

text: One day - after an argument - Suraj refuses to meet Naina and she decides to go after Gokul all by herself, who kidnaps Naina's younger sister (Dia) from school in order to scare Naina. Naina's mother consequently decides to leave for Nainital immediately as her daughter's life is at risk. However, Naina cannot control her hatred and wanted to avenge her sister at any cost. Naina lays a trap for Gokul and tries to kill him but Gokul ties her up and tries to rape her like her sister. Suraj arrives at her house and fights Gokul but ends up being stabbed. Naina manages to get free and fatally shoot Gokul.


title: Dushman (1998 film)

text: Suraj recovers from his injuries and decides to go away from Naina, but he realizes that she loves him and cannot live without him. The movie ends with Naina and Suraj getting together at the airport where Suraj was about to leave the city.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The Senkaku Islands dispute, or Diaoyu Islands dispute, is a territorial dispute over a group of uninhabited islands known as the Senkaku Islands in Japan, the Diaoyu Islands in the People's Republic of China (PRC), and Tiaoyutai Islands in the Republic of China (ROC or Taiwan). Aside from a 1945 to 1972 period of administration by the United States as part of the Ryukyu Islands, the archipelago has been controlled by Japan since 1895. According to Lee Seokwoo, the People's Republic of China (PRC) started taking up the question of sovereignty over the islands in the latter half of 1970 when evidence relating to the existence of oil reserves surfaced. Taiwan (the Republic of China; ROC) also claims the islands. The territory is close to key shipping lanes and rich fishing grounds, and there may be oil reserves in the area.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Japan argues that it surveyed the islands in the late 19th century and found them to be "terra nullius" (Latin: land belonging to no one); subsequently, China acquiesced to Japanese sovereignty until the 1970s. The PRC and the ROC argue that documentary evidence prior to the First Sino-Japanese War indicates Chinese possession and that the territory is accordingly a Japanese seizure that should be returned as the rest of Imperial Japan's conquests were returned in 1945.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The islands are included within the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, meaning that a defense of the islands by Japan would require the United States to come to Japan's aid.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In September 2012, the Japanese government purchased three of the disputed islands from their private owner, prompting large-scale protests in China. As of early February 2013, the situation has been regarded as "the most serious for Sino-Japanese relations in the post-war period in terms of the risk of militarised conflict."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 23 November 2013, the PRC set up the "East China Sea Air Defense Identification Zone" which includes the Senkaku Islands, and announced that it would require all aircraft entering the zone to file a flight plan and submit radio frequency or transponder information.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The Senkaku Islands are located in the East China Sea between Japan, the People's Republic of China, and the Republic of China (Taiwan). The archipelago contains five uninhabited islands and three barren rocks, ranging in size from 800 m to 4.32 km.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The issue of sovereignty has been carefully circumvented in bilateral fishing agreements. In the 1997 fishing agreement, the Senkaku Islands were officially excluded from China's exclusive economic zone, but in a letter of intent Japan explained that Japan would not prevent Chinese boats from fishing there. Some Chinese sources have subsequently argued that this letter constitutes a waiver of Japan's claim to exclusive fishing rights.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Following the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government formally annexed what was known as the Ryukyu Kingdom as Okinawa Prefecture in 1879. The Senkaku Islands, which lay between the Ryukyu Kingdom and the Qing empire, became the Sino-Japanese boundary for the first time.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In 1885, the Japanese Governor of Okinawa Prefecture, Nishimura Sutezo, petitioned the Meiji government, asking that it take formal control of the islands. However, Inoue Kaoru, the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs, commented that the islands lay near to the border area with the Qing empire and that they had been given Chinese names. He also cited an article in a Chinese newspaper that had previously claimed that Japan was occupying islands off China's coast. Inoue was concerned that if Japan proceeded to erect a landmark stating its claim to the islands, it would make the Qing empire suspicious. Following Inoue's advice, Yamagata Aritomo, the Minister of the Interior, turned down the request to incorporate the islands, insisting that this matter should not be "revealed to the news media".


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 14 January 1895, during the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan incorporated the islands under the administration of Okinawa, stating that it had conducted surveys since 1884 and that the islands were "terra nullius", with there being no evidence to suggest that they had been under the Qing empire's control.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: After China lost the war, both countries signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in April 1895 that stipulated, among other things, that China would cede to Japan "the island of Formosa together with all islands appertaining or belonging to said island of Formosa (Taiwan)", but yet the treaty does not clearly define the geographical limits of the island of Formosa and the islands appertaining or belonging to Formosa ceded to Japan. The treaty was superseded by the Treaty of San Francisco, which was signed between Japan and part of the Allied Powers in 1951 after Japan lost the Second World War.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In the treaty of San Francisco, Japan explicitly relinquished the control of Taiwan/Formosa together with all islands appertaining or belonging to it. There is a disagreement between the Japanese, PRC and ROC governments as to whether the islands are implied to be part of the "islands appertaining or belonging to said island of Formosa" in the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Mainland China and Taiwan both dispute the Japanese claim by citing Yamagata Aritomo's reasons and decisions to turn down the request to incorporate the islands in 1885.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Both PRC and ROC asserted sovereignty over the islands. Japan points out that the islands were placed under the administration of the United States of America as part of the Ryukyu Islands, in accordance with Article III of the said treaty and China expressed no objection to the status of the Islands being under the administration of the United States under Article III of the San Francisco Peace Treaty. The Japanese government points out that "the Treaty of Shimonoseki does not clearly define the geographical limits of the island of Formosa and the islands appertaining or belonging to Formosa ceded to Japan by the Qing Dynasty of China, nothing in the negotiation history (or otherwise) supports the interpretation that the Senkaku Islands are included in the island of Formosa and the islands appertaining or belonging to it in Article 2b of the Treaty," and had "incorporated the Senkaku Islands into Okinawa Prefecture before the treaty was signed."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In 1972, the United States ended its occupation of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Island chain, which included the Senkaku Islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Korean academic Lee Seokwoo notes that "The significance of subsequent acts and behaviour of the interested parties is dependent upon the determination of the applicable critical date, which is defined as 'the date by reference to which a territorial dispute must be deemed to have crystallized,' since the outcome of this dispute will be fundamentally different depending on whether the critical date is January 1895, as claimed by Chinese side, when Japan incorporated Senkaku Islands into Japanese territory, or February 1971 in the case of Taiwan, or December 1971 in the case of China, when Japan made known its official standpoint with the signing of the Okinawa Reversion Treaty, as claimed by Japan."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: He concluded ""... Accordingly, and having regard to the various factual and legal issues explored above, one is inclined to conclude that Japan has a stronger claim to the disputed islands. In other words, the critical date in this case should be February 1971 (in the case of Taiwan) and December 1971 (in the case of China), as claimed by Japan. This is the more so that historical evidence relating to territorial disputes does not have its own value as history alone, but should be evaluated within the framework of international law on territorial acquisition and loss.""


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Prior to the 1970s, neither the PRC nor ROC government made any official statements claiming sovereignty over the Senkaku Islands or disputing the sovereignty claims of other countries over it. Several maps, newspaper articles, and government documents from both countries after 1945 refer to the islands by their Japanese name, and some even explicitly recognize their status as Japanese territory. It was only the early 1970s that Chinese documents began to name them collectively as the Diaoyu Islands and as Chinese territory.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The "People's Daily", the organ of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), referred to the Senkaku Islands by the Japanese name ""Senkaku Shotō"" and described the islands were a part of (then) U.S.-occupied Ryukyu Islands. The article published on 8 January 1953 titled ""Battle of people in the Ryukyu Islands against the U.S. occupation"" wrote "The Ryukyu Islands lie scattered on the sea between the Northeast of Taiwan of China and the Southwest of Kyushu, Japan. They consist of 7 groups of islands; the Senkaku Islands, the Sakishima Islands, the Daitō Islands, the Okinawa Islands, the Oshima Islands, the Tokara Islands and the Ōsumi Islands."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: A Chinese diplomatic draft written by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of PRC on 15 May 1950 referred to the Senkaku Islands by the Japanese names ""Senkaku shotō"" and ""Sentō Shosho"" and indicated Chinese recognition of the islands as part of the Ryukyu Islands. The 10-page document titled ""Draft outline on issues and arguments on parts concerning territories in the peace treaty with Japan"" says the Ryukyus "consist of three parts—northern, central, and southern. The central part comprises the Okinawa Islands, whereas the southern part comprises the Miyako Islands and the Yaeyama Islands (Sentō Shosho)." The parentheses appear in the original. It also says "It should be studied whether the Senkaku Islands should be incorporated into Taiwan due to an extremely close distance," suggesting that the Chinese government did not consider the islands to be part of Taiwan. The passages leave no doubt that Beijing regarded the Senkaku Islands as part of the Ryukyu Islands as of 1950.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: There are many official maps published by both Chinas after 1945 that support they did not recognize their sovereignty over the islands and they recognized the islands as Japanese territory. The PRC has been cracking down on "erroneous" maps in both print and digital forms, and government agencies have handled 1,800 cases involving map irregularities and confiscated 750,000 maps since 2005. The National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation said "as China is involved in several disputes with neighboring countries, it is vital to raise public awareness of the country's due territory."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Although Chinese authorities did not assert claims to the islands while they were under US administration, formal claims were announced in 1971 when the US was preparing to end its administration. A 1968 academic survey undertaken by United Nations Economic Council for Asia and the Far East found possible oil reserves in the area, which many believe explains the emergence of Chinese claims, a suggestion confirmed by statements made on the diplomatic records of the Japan-China Summit Meeting by Premier Zhou Enlai in 1972. However, supporters of China's claim that the sovereignty dispute is a legacy of Japanese imperialism and that China's failure to secure the territory following Japan's military defeat in 1945 was due to the complexities of the Chinese Civil War in which the Kuomintang (KMT) were forced off the mainland to Taiwan in 1949 by the Chinese Communist Party. Both the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) respectively separately claim sovereignty based on arguments that include the following points:


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: According to Chinese claims, the islands were known to China since at least 1372, had been repeatedly referred to as part of Chinese territory since 1534, and were later controlled by the Qing dynasty along with Taiwan. The earliest written record of "Diaoyutai" dates back to 1403 in a Chinese book "Voyage with the Tail Wind" (), which recorded the names of the islands that voyagers had passed on a trip from Fujian to the Ryukyu Kingdom.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: By 1534, all the major islets of the island group were identified and named in the book "Record of the Imperial Envoy's Visit to Ryukyu " (使琉球錄). and were the Ming dynasty's (16th-century) sea-defense frontier. One of the islands, Chihweiyu, marked the boundary of the Ryukyu Islands. This is viewed by the PRC and ROC as meaning that these islands did not belong to the Ryukyu Islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The First Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1894 and after the Qing dynasty of China lost the war, both countries signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki on 17 April 1895. In Article 2(b) the Treaty stated that "the island of Formosa, together with all islands appertaining or belonging to the said island of Formosa" should be ceded to Japan. Although the Treaty did not specifically name every ceded island, the PRC and ROC argue that Japan did not include the islands as part of Okinawa Prefecture prior to 1894, and that the eventual inclusion occurred only as a consequence of China's cession of Taiwan and the Pescadores to Japan after the Sino-Japanese War.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The Japanese government argues that the islands were not ceded by this treaty. In 1884, issues relating to the islands had been officially discussed by the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs Inoue Kaoru and the Minister of the Interior Yamagata Aritomo before incorporating them in 1895. shortly before Japan's victory in the Sino-Japanese War. It is also claimed that Japanese references to these islands did not appear in governmental documents before 1884.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The PRC and ROC governments claim that during negotiations with China over the Ryukyu Islands after the First Sino-Japanese War, the islands were not mentioned at all in a partition plan suggested by US ex-President Ulysses S. Grant. The lease of the islands in 1896 and subsequent purchase in 1930 by the Koga family were merely domestic arrangements made by the Japanese government which had no bearing on the legal status of the islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: According to PRC, Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek failed to protest American decisions with regard to the disposition of the islands because he depended on the US for support.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In April 2012, Taiwan declined an invitation from the PRC to work together to resolve the territorial dispute with Japan. Mainland Affairs Council (MAC) Minister Lai Shin-yuan said, "The ROC and Mainland China will not deal with the [Tiaoyutai Islands] disputes together. Mainland China said the two sides should solve these issues together, but that is not the approach we are taking because [Taiwan and Mainland China] already have sovereignty disputes. We insist on our sovereignty."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Regarding Japan's argument about the 1953 People's Daily, Jin Canrong, a professor at Renmin University of China thinks that the article, which is anonymous, implies that Ryukyu Islands should be a sovereign state, also independent from Japan. Other Chinese commentators, including a government research institution run by a retired People's Armed Police general, extend the Chinese claim to the entire Ryukyu chain, including Okinawa. In June 2013, "The New York Times" described the Chinese campaign "to question Japanese rule of [Okinawa and the Ryukyu] islands" as "semiofficial", noting that "almost all the voices in China pressing the Okinawa issue are affiliated in some way with the government."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The stance given by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs is that the Senkaku Islands are clearly an inherent territory of Japan in light of historical facts and based upon international law, and the Senkaku Islands are under the valid control of Japan. They also state "there exists no issue of territorial sovereignty to be resolved concerning the Senkaku Islands."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: After the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government surveyed the islands in 1885, which found that the islands were "terra nullius" and that there was no evidence to suggest that they had ever been under Chinese control. At the time of this survey, however, Yamagata Aritomo, the minister of interior of the Meiji government, took a cautious approach and put off the request to incorporate the islands. The Government of Japan made a Cabinet Decision on 14 January 1895, to erect markers on the islands to formally incorporate the Senkaku Islands into the territory of Japan through the surveys conducted by the Government of Japan, it was confirmed that the Senkaku Islands had been not only uninhabited but also showed no trace of having been under the control of the Qing Dynasty of China.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Japan claims that neither China nor Ryukyu had recognized sovereignty over the uninhabited islands. Therefore, they claim that Chinese documents only prove that Kumejima, the first inhabited island reached by the Chinese, belonged to Okinawa. Kentaro Serita (芹田 健太郎) of Kobe University points out that the official history book of the Ming Dynasty compiled during the Qing Dynasty, called the "History of Ming" (明史), describes Taiwan in its "Biographies of Foreign Countries" (外国列传) section. Thus, China did not control the Senkaku Islands or Taiwan during the Ming Dynasty.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: A record in August 1617 of Ming Shilu, the annals of Ming dynasty emperors, shows that China did not control the Senkaku Islands. According to the record, the head of the Chinese coast guard mentioned the names of islands, including one on the eastern edge of the Dongyin, Lienchiang, about 40 kilometers off the Chinese mainland, that was controlled by the Ming and said the ocean beyond the islands was free for China and any other nation to navigate. The Senkaku Islands are about 330 kilometers from the Chinese coast. This contradicts Beijing's claim that China have controlled Senkaku Islands since the Ming dynasty about 600 years ago and underlines Japan's position that they are an inherent part of this country's territory. An expert in international law, says "We know the Ming had effective control only of the coastal area from other historical sources. What is remarkable about this finding is that a Chinese official made a clear statement along these lines to a Japanese envoy. This proves the Senkaku Islands were not controlled by the Ming."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: After a number of Chinese were rescued from a shipwreck in 1920, an official letter authored by the Chinese Consul Feng Mien (冯冕/馮冕) in Nagasaki on behalf of the Republic of China (中華民國) on 20 May 1921, made reference to "Senkaku Islands, Yaeyama District, Okinawa Prefecture, the Empire of Japan". The letter is on exhibition at Yaeyama museum.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: During a private visit 9 years after stepping down from office, former President of Republic of China, Lee Teng-hui, once said that the islands are part of Okinawa. During the 2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations, on 13 September 2012, Lee remarked, "The Senkaku Islands, no matter whether in the past, for now or in the future, certainly belong to Japan." In 2002, he also stated, "The Senkaku Islands are the territory of Japan."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 25 December 1953, U.S. Civil Administration of the Ryukyus Proclamation 27 (USCAR 27) set geographical boundaries of the Ryukyu Islands that included the Senkaku Islands. Moreover, during U.S. administration of the islands, the U.S. Navy built firing ranges on them and paid annual rent of $11,000 to Jinji Koga, son of the first Japanese settler of the islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: During the San Francisco Peace Treaty discussions, John Foster Dulles, chief U.S. delegate to the peace conference, set forth the concept that Japan had "residual sovereignty" over the Ryukyu Islands. According to an official analysis prepared by the U.S. Army, "residual Sovereignty" meant that "the United States will not transfer its sovereign powers over the Ryukyu Islands to any nation other than Japan." In June 1957, President Eisenhower confirmed this at the U.S.-Japan summit meeting, telling Japanese Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi that "residual sovereignty" over the Ryukyus meant that "the United States would exercise its rights for a period and that the sovereignty would then return to Japan." In March 1962, President John F. Kennedy stated in an Executive Order for the Ryukyus, "I recognize the Ryukyus to be a part of the Japanese homeland and look forward to the day when the security interests of the Free World will permit their restoration to full Japanese sovereignty." Since there was no U.S. action to separate the Senkaku Islands from the Ryukyu, these applications of "residual sovereignty" appeared to include the Senkaku Islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In the first quarter of 1971 U.S. officials became aware of and successfully opposed a Japanese proposal to set up a weather station on the islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In May 1971, a report compiled by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency said "[t]he Japanese claim to sovereignty over the Senkakus is strong, and the burden of proof of ownership would seem to fall on the Chinese". The CIA also said in related documents that any dispute between Japan, China, and Taiwan over the islands would not have arisen, had it not been for the discovery around 1968 of potential oil reserves on the nearby continental shelf.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 7 June 1971, President Richard M. Nixon confirmed Japan's "residual sovereignty" over the Senkaku Islands just before a deal to return Okinawa Prefecture to Japan in a conversation with his national security adviser Henry Kissinger. Kissinger also told Nixon that "these [Senkaku] islands stayed with Okinawa" when Japan returned Taiwan to China after the end of World War II in 1945.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The Nixon Administration removed the Senkakus from its inclusion in the concept of Japanese "residual sovereignty" in presenting the Okinawa Reversion Treaty to the U.S. Senate for ratification. On 20 October 1971, U.S. Secretary of State William Rogers sent a letter to U.S Congress. In his letter, Acting Assistant Legal Adviser Robert Starr stated "The United States believes that a return of administrative rights over those islands to Japan, from which the rights were received, can in no way prejudice any underlying claims. The United States cannot add to the legal rights Japan possessed before it transferred administration of the islands to us, nor can the United States, by giving back what it received, diminish the rights of other claimants... The United States has made no claim to the Senkaku Islands and considers that any conflicting claims to the islands are a matter for resolution by the parties concerned." Several experts have attributed this Nixon Administration policy shift as having been influenced by White House overtures to China during 1971–1972, culminating in the Nixon visit to China.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In June 1978, the United States Navy stopped using the Sekibi-Sho firing range off the coast of Taisho Island to avoid any potential confrontation between China and Japan, according to declassified government documents. The next year the federal government denied a military request to resume operations in the Senkakus.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Top US government officials have declared in 2004, 2010, and September 2012 that as Japan maintains effective administrative control on the islands, the islands fall under the 1960 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan which requires the US to assist Japan in defending the islands if anyone, including China, attacks or attempts to occupy or control them.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 29 November 2012, the U.S. Senate unanimously approved an amendment to National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013 stating the Japanese-administered Senkaku Islands fall under the scope of a Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan and that the U.S. would defend Japan in the event of armed attacks.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In May 2013, the U.S. Department of Defense criticized the Chinese territorial claim in a report titled "Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China 2013."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 30 July 2013, the Senate unanimously approved a resolution condemning China's action over the Senkaku Islands. The Resolution titled ""Senate Resolution 167—Reaffirming the Strong Support of the United States for the Peaceful Resolution of Territorial, Sovereignty, and Jurisdictional Disputes in the Asia-Pacific Maritime Domains"", referring to the recent Chinese provocations near the Senkaku Islands, condemns "the use of coercion, threats, or force by naval, maritime security, or fishing vessels and military or civilian aircraft in the South China Sea and the East China Sea to assert disputed maritime or territorial claims or alter the status quo."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In 2014, United States Pacific Commander Samuel J. Locklear said that he did not have sufficient resources to carry out a successful amphibious warfare campaign should the dispute lead to a war. In April 2014, the United States will begin Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk patrols of the seas around the islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 23–25 April 2014, U.S. President Barack Obama made a state visit to Japan and held a summit meeting with Prime Minister Shinzo Abe. President Obama repeated that the commitments of Article 5 of Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan covered all territories under Japan's administration, including the Senkaku Islands, in a joint press conference and reiterated in a U.S.-Japan Joint Statement. Barack Obama is the first president of the United States to have mentioned that the Senkaku Islands are covered under Article 5 of Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In November 2020, during a conversation with Prime Minister Suga, Joe Biden declared that US security guarantees for Japan include the Senkaku Islands. Suga said "President-elect Biden gave me a commitment that Article 5 of the US-Japan security treaty applies to the Senkaku Islands".


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 24 January 2021, U.S. Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin reaffirmed America's commitment to defend the Senkaku Islands and that it's covered by Article 5 of the U.S.-Japan security treaty. The USA also opposes any unilateral attempts to change the status quo in the East China Sea.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: When PRC-Japan diplomatic relations were established in 1972, found reasons to set aside this territorial dispute. According to negotiator Deng Xiaoping, "It does not matter if this question is shelved for some time, say, 10 years. Our generation is not wise enough to find common language on this question. Our next generation will certainly be wiser. They will certainly find a solution acceptable to all."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In 1969, the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) identified potential oil and gas reserves in the vicinity of the Senkaku Islands. During subsequent decades, several rounds of bilateral talks considered joint-development of sub-seabed resources in disputed territorial waters. Such efforts to develop a cooperative strategy were unsuccessful.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In 2008, a preliminary agreement on joint development of resources was reached but the agreement only includes the area far from these islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In 2009, a hotline was agreed to (and in 2010 a military-to-military hotline), neither of which have been implemented.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Explanations of the manifold causes of the intensified conflict involving the Senkaku Islands vary. For example, some use the term "territorial dispute"; however, the Japanese government has consistently rejected this framing since the early 1970s. An analysis of incidents and issues require distinguishing between disputes which are primarily over territory and those which merely have a territorial component.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: , news organizations of various nations were monitoring developments and attempting to explain the causes of the crisis, e.g.,


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The historical record is a backdrop for each new incident in the unfolding chronology of these islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: While Taiwan and China first publicly claimed the islands in 1971 (in February and December, respectively), there were no major incidents between the three states regarding the islands until the 1990s. Since 2004, however, several events, including naval encounters, scrambled fighter jets, diplomatic efforts, and massive public protests, have heightened the dispute.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In 1996 the Hong Kong-based activist David Chan Yuk-cheung drowned while attempting to swim to one of the islands. Since 2006, vessels from China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong have entered waters that Japan claims as part of its exclusive economic zone connected with the islands on a number of occasions. In some cases, the incursions have been carried out by Chinese and Taiwanese protesters, such as in 2006 when a group of activists from the Action Committee for Defending the Diaoyu Islands approached the islands; the group was stopped by the Japanese Coast Guard prior to landing. In June 2008 activists from Taiwan, accompanied by Chinese Coast Guard vessels, approached within of the main island, from which position they circumnavigated the island in an assertion of sovereignty of the islands. In 2011, a fishing boat carrying some activists navigated to within 23 nautical miles of the islands. Japan sent coast guard vessels to block the ship and a helicopter to monitor its actions, subsequent to which the Coast Guard Agency Keelung office of Taiwan sent five patrol vessels. After a short standoff between the two groups of vessels, the Taiwanese fleet returned to their own territory. In July 2012, Coastguard vessels from Taiwan and Japan collided while the Taiwanese vessel was escorting activists to the area. In August 2012, activists from Hong Kong were able to swim ashore after their boat was stopped by the Japan Coast Guard. The activists were detained and then deported two days later. In January 2013, a boat carrying activists from Taiwan was intercepted by Japanese patrols and diverted from an attempted landing on the islands through the use of water cannons.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In addition, a number of incidents have occurred due to the presence of Chinese or Taiwanese fishing vessels in sea zones claimed by Japan. In some cases, these incidents have resulted in a collision between boats. The first major event occurred in 2008, when a Taiwanese fishing boat and a Japanese patrol vessel collided. The passengers were released, but the captain was detained for three days. Later in June, after releasing video taken by the Taiwanese boat, Japan apologized for the incident and agreed to pay NT$10 million (US$311,000) as compensation to the owner of the boat. On 7 September 2010, a Chinese fishing trawler collided with two Japanese Coast Guard patrol boats in disputed waters near the islands. The collisions occurred after the Japanese Coast Guard ordered the trawler to leave the area. After the collisions, Japanese sailors boarded the Chinese vessel and arrested the captain Zhan Qixiong.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: While Japanese government vessels regularly patrol the ocean surrounding the islands, Japanese civilians have also entered the area. In July 2010, nine Japanese boats fished in the area. A spokesman from Ganbare Nippon, which owned one of the vessels, stated it was done specifically to assert Japanese sovereignty over the islands. In August 2012, Ganbare Nippon organized a group of four vessels carrying Japanese activists travelling to the islands, carrying about 150 Japanese activists. The Japanese government denied the groups the right to land, after which a number swam to shore and raised a Japanese flag.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On some occasions, ships and planes from various Chinese and Taiwanese government and military agencies have entered the disputed area. In addition to the cases where they escorted fishing and activist vessels as described above, there have been other incursions. In an eight-month period in 2012, over forty maritime incursions and 160 aerial incursions occurred. For example, in July 2012, three Chinese patrol vessels entered the disputed waters around the islands. On 13 December 2012, a Chinese government aircraft entered Japanese-controlled airspace for the first time since records began in 1958, following months of incursions by Chinese surface vessels. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force scrambled eight F-15 fighters and an airborne early warning aircraft in response to the Chinese flight. The Japanese government made a formal diplomatic protest to China.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The most direct confrontation to date between the countries' official vessels occurred in September 2012. Seventy five Taiwanese fishing vessels were escorted by ten Taiwanese Coast Guard vessels to the area, and the Taiwanese Coast Guard ships clashed with Japanese Coast Guard ships. Both sides fired water cannons at each other and used LED lights and loudspeakers to announce their respective claims to the islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Military escalation continued in 2013. The two sides sent fighter airplanes to monitor ships and other planes in the area. In February, Japanese Defense Minister Itsunori Onodera revealed that a Chinese frigate had locked weapons-targeting radar onto a Japanese destroyer and helicopter on two occasions in January. The Chinese Jiangwei II class frigate and the Japanese destroyer were three kilometers apart, and the crew of the latter went to battle stations. The Chinese state media responded that their frigates had been engaged in routine training at the time. In late February 2013, U.S. intelligence detected China moving road-mobile ballistic missiles closer to the coast near the disputed islands, this included DF-16s. In May 2013, a warship flotilla from North Sea Fleet deployed from Qingdao for training exercises western North Pacific Ocean. In October 2013 the Chinese Ministry of Defense responded to reports that if Chinese drones entered what Japan considered its territory Japan might shoot them down by declaring that China would consider such an action an "act of war." State-controlled media in China warned that "a war looms following Japan's radical provocation" while expressing confidence that "China's comprehensive military power... is stronger than Japan's."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: USN Captain James Fanell has claimed that Mission Action 2013 was a dress rehearsal for a PLA seizure of the islands.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In April 2014, a "Washington Post" blog reported that since October 2013, patrols by the Chinese Coast Guard in the territorial waters of the Senkaku Islands have greatly decreased.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The Japanese Coast Guard announced in June 2020 that Chinese government ships had been spotted for a record number of consecutive days in the territorial waters of the Senkaku Islands. As of 19 June 2020, the number of consecutive days is 67.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On June 4, 2022, Chinese-Russian military activity was spotted in the area of the Senkaku Islands. A Russian frigate sailed inside the “contiguous zone” of the Senkaku Islands for over 1 hour and thereafter a Chinese frigate sailed inside it for 40 minutes. The incursion by a Chinese warship was the fourth time since June 2016.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: The various governments have lodged protests and criticisms of each other in response to the unfolding situation in and around the islands. For example, the Taiwanese government recalled its highest representative to Japan in the wake of the 2008 collision. Similarly, the Chinese government protested the 2012 Ganbare Nippon incident. The 2010 collision incident resulted in a significant increase in tensions between the two countries, both during the event as they argued over the release of the fishing boat crew, and after, as both said they would seek compensation from the other for damages.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: In 2012, President of Taiwan Ma Ying-Jeou proposed the East China Sea Peace Initiative, which called for the sharing of the region's resources, including the Senkaku Islands, mediated by peaceful negotiations, international law, and international consensus. The proposal received responses from Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs Kōichirō Genba, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, and Japanese scholars.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: There have been a number of public protests in all three countries, often triggered by the specific incidents noted above. The first major set of protests revolved around the 2010 boat collision, with protests being held in Japan, China, and Taiwan. In 2012, major protests began in August 2012 after reports that the Japanese government was considering purchasing the islands. The protests continued after the formal purchase into the middle of September. At the height of the protests, there were demonstrations in as many as 85 Chinese cities, along with Hong Kong and the United States. In many cases, these protests included anti-Japanese violence, vandalism, and arson.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: China decided to implement an "Air Defense Identification Zone" around the islands and the broader region in order to "guard against potential air threats," according to the defence ministry. Japan reacted to the news by calling the move "very dangerous." On 23 November 2013, China then sent air force jets, including fighter planes, to carry out a patrol mission. According to "CNN", most of the zone was north of the islands. On 26 November 2013, declaring the area international waters and airspace, the United States flew two B-52 bomber aircraft through the zone without incident. A spokesman for the United States military stated that "The U.S. military will continue conducting flight operations in the region, including with our allies and partners... We will not register a flight plan, we will not identify our transponder, our radio frequency and logo."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: Since the imposition, U.S. B-52 aircraft and South Korean and Japanese military aircraft have violated it. The U.S. also warned its commercial airlines to be cautious about the area. China then sent fighter jets on patrol duty in the area as a "defensive measure."


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: According to a 2012 poll jointly conducted by mainland-based "Global Times" and Taiwan-based "China Times", residents of Taiwan differ from their mainland counterparts in terms of willingness to ultimately resort to military means, with 91% of mainland residents saying warfare should not be ruled out versus only 41% on the island.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: To assist in the intruders detection in Senkaku Islands region, since 28 March 2016, Japan has operated a radar station at Yonaguni island, resulting in a furious Chinese response.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On February 1, 2021, the People's Republic of China passed a new law that authorized the Chinese Coast Guard to use lethal force in response to violations of "national sovereignty, sovereign rights, and jurisdiction". The law received condemnation from Japan and the United States and generated tensions because it would apply to disputed waters claimed by China, including around the Senkaku Islands. Coast guards from some other countries also operate under similar policies, and the Chinese Coast Guard had already been using force prior to the law. Rand Corporation researcher Timothy Heath indicated that the law could help prevent misunderstandings by providing "some degree of clarification and standardization of procedures," but also noted that the law could embolden military officers by clearly and officially approving the use of force. On February 6, 2021, Chinese Coast Guard vessels entered Japanese-administered waters near the Senkaku Islands for the first time after the law was passed.


title: Senkaku Islands dispute

text: On 30 June 2022, the Japan Ministry of Defense announced the construction of 12 offshore patrol vessel (OPV) by Japan Marine United Corporation (JMU) for the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) at a cost of ¥ 9 billion ($66 million USD) per ship. The purpose of this OPV program is to provide enhanced maritime security, particularly around the southwestern Ryukyu Islands, including the dispute|disputed Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands in the East China Sea, by boosting JMSDF patrol activities in the region. These vessels are highly automated and configurable to meet a wide range of missions involving “enhanced steady-state intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) in the waters around Japan.” Under the contract, JMU is charged with delivering the 12 vessels to the JMSDF from fiscal year 2023, which starts on April 1, 2023.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: Prisons in Russia consist of four types of facilities: pre-trial institutions; educative or juvenile colonies; corrective colonies; and prisons.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: The corrective colony is the most common, with 705 institutions (excluding 7 corrective colonies for convicts imprisoned for life) in 2019 across the administrative divisions of Russia. There were also 8 prisons, 23 juvenile facilities, and 211 pre-trial facilities in 2019.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: Prisons in Russia are administered by the Federal Penitentiary Service (FSIN). The FSIN’s main responsibilities are to ensure the completion of criminal penalties by convicted persons as well as hold detainees accused of crimes. The FSIN is also responsible for the prisoners’ physical well-being and rights under the Russian government.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: In March 2019 the FSIN has a total prisoner population of 558,778, which included all pretrial detainees. This number makes up 0.4% of the population. Only 8% of prisoners are female, and juveniles make up 0.2%. The incarceration rate in 2018 was 416 per 100,000 people. There were 947 total institutions that operated under the FSIN in 2015 with a total capacity that could reach 812,804. Only 79% of this capacity was in use that year. Notably, from 2000 to 2018, the prison population has dropped substantially by 458,228.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: Until 1998, the corrections system in Russia was controlled and operated by the Ministry of the Internal Affairs. During this time of operation, it left many aspects of the prisons dismal at best. The equipment, properties, communications systems, and weapons that were owned and used for the sole purpose of corrections were neither maintained nor updated. This was due to the drastic underfinancing of the corrections systems. The prison management felt the worst of this treatment during this period under the authority of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. It was reported to have never received more than 60% of its actual required funds throughout that time of oversight. Funds dropped to nothing in the three months prior to the Russian Federation’s Ministry of Justice taking over responsibility of the corrections system.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: Corrective colony regimes are categorized as very strict/special, strict, general, and open. The detachment ( or "") is the basic unit of the prison. When not in the detachment, prisoners are required to participate in penal labour, which is in the form of work brigades in colony production zones where prisoners earn a wage of which most is paid to the colony for their upkeep.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: In 2011, under the presidency of Dimitri Medvedev the reform of criminal law was implemented which reduced minimal prison terms for significant number of crimes to two months.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: In 2013 the Pussy Riot activist Nadezhda Tolokonnikova wrote a public letter which drew international attention to prison conditions in Russia. Ilya Shablinsky, a member of the presidential human-rights council who audited her prison, found conditions close to those of "slave labour". Auditors found women prisoners working 14 hours a day with one day off a month.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: Prisons were divided into the "red" (run by prison authorities) and the "black" (administered by inmates). According to "The Economist" (2013) change would demand a deeper reform of the police and the courts.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: Tuberculosis has been an ever-present concern within the Russian prison system, and recently a new infectious threat has emerged: multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Infectious disease researchers Nachega & Chaisson estimate that of the 10% of Russian prisoners with active TB (roughly 100,000 people), 40% of new cases are multi-drug resistant. This prevalence has alarmed public health experts, as have studies such as public health surveyors Bobrik et al.’s report that in 1997, approximately 50% of all Russian prison deaths were caused by TB. Although both MDR-TB and non-resistant TB are treatable, infectious disease experts like Paul Farmer note that the second-line drugs used in MDR-TB therapy are more expensive than the standard TB regimen, which can limit a MDR-TB patient’s access to care.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: There are several factors within the Russian prison system that contribute to the severity and spread of MDR-TB. Overcrowding in prisons is especially conducive to the spread of tuberculosis; according to Bobrik et al., inmates in a prison hospital have 3 meters of personal space, and inmates in correctional colonies have 2 meters. Specialized hospitals and treatment facilities within the prison system, known as TB colonies, are intended to isolate infected prisoners to prevent transmission; however, as Ruddy et al. demonstrate, there are not enough colonies and isolation facilities to sufficiently protect staff and other inmates. Furthermore, in an International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease article, Kimerling et al. point out that arrested Russians cannot be transferred to TB colonies unless they are convicted, which allows them to potentially infect fellow cellmates before release or prosecution. Researchers Fry et al. note that even within the St. Petersberg prison system, which contains 8 TB colonies, prisons facilities are in need of further isolation systems as well as diagnostic and laboratory equipment. In addition to overcrowded and inadequately isolated conditions, many prisons lack sufficient ventilation, which increases likelihood of transmission. In Stern’s report on prison health, she notes that within Russian prisons, heavy shutters of wood or steel “keep out most of the air and most of the light…[and] a wise policy would be to remove them.” Bobrik et al. have also noted food shortages within prisons, which deprive inmates of the nutrition necessary for healthy functioning.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: In addition to the physical conditions within Russian prisons, research by Nachega & Chaisson and Shin et al. show that co-morbidity of HIV and increased abuse of alcohol and drugs within prisoner populations contribute to worsened outcomes for TB patients. Non-compliance with treatment regimens has also been highlighted as contributing increasing drug resistance. In Fry et al.’s study on TB outcomes within St. Petersburg prisons, they estimated that 74% of infected prisoners did not report visiting a TB treatment facility upon release from a correctional facility. Public health researchers Gelmanova et al. note that while non-adherence does not directly increase drug resistance, the heightened bacterial load of non-compliant and untreated patients does increase the chances that the bacteria will mutate into a drug-resistant strain.


title: Prisons in Russia

text: In Kimerling’s article within the International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, he notes that the rise of TB and MDR-TB within Russia is a recent phenomenon. Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, "tuberculosis rates were substantially lower [in Russia] than they are today". The previous TB control program was marked by actions such as annual chest radiographies to screen the Russian population, an emphasis on isolation of patients within long-term hospital settings, and mandatory BCG vaccination. However, this system dissolved with the Soviet Union, as Russia's faltering economy failed to provide the industry necessary for production and purchase of adequate TB medication, healthcare workers, labs and diagnostic tests, and a sufficiently coordinated TB control system. Additionally, Kimerling discusses that a disconnect between Russian ideals of proper TB management and the internationally prescribed standard TB therapy (DOTS therapy) has dampened control efforts. He notes that (with regard to short term standard therapy solutions) "the term 'short' has a negative association and is not felt appropriate [by Russian TB protocol]", and that "the term 'standard' can be interpreted or translated as rule or regulation in the Russian language, resulting in negative connotations by limiting a physician's right to take an individual approach to patient care".


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) and port-mapped I/O (PMIO) are two complementary methods of performing input/output (I/O) between the central processing unit (CPU) and peripheral devices in a computer. An alternative approach is using dedicated I/O processors, commonly known as channels on mainframe computers, which execute their own instructions.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Memory-mapped I/O uses the same address space to address both main memory and I/O devices. The memory and registers of the I/O devices are mapped to (associated with) address values. So a memory address may refer to either a portion of physical RAM, or instead to memory and registers of the I/O device. Thus, the CPU instructions used to access the memory can also be used for accessing devices. Each I/O device monitors the CPU's address bus and responds to any CPU access of an address assigned to that device, connecting the data bus to the desired device's hardware register. To accommodate the I/O devices, some areas of the address bus used by the CPU must be reserved for I/O and must not be available for normal physical memory. The reservation may be permanent, or temporary (as achieved via bank switching). An example of the latter is found in the Commodore 64, which uses a form of memory mapping to cause RAM or I/O hardware to appear in the codice_1 range.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Port-mapped I/O often uses a special class of CPU instructions designed specifically for performing I/O, such as the codice_2 and codice_3 instructions found on microprocessors based on the x86 and x86-64 architectures. Different forms of these two instructions can copy one, two or four bytes (codice_4, codice_5 and codice_6, respectively) between the EAX register or one of that register's subdivisions on the CPU and a specified I/O port which is assigned to an I/O device. I/O devices have a separate address space from general memory, either accomplished by an extra "I/O" pin on the CPU's physical interface, or an entire bus dedicated to I/O. Because the address space for I/O is isolated from that for main memory, this is sometimes referred to as isolated I/O.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Different CPU-to-device communication methods, such as memory mapping, do not affect the direct memory access (DMA) for a device, because, by definition, DMA is a memory-to-device communication method that bypasses the CPU.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Hardware interrupts are another communication method between the CPU and peripheral devices, however, for a number of reasons, interrupts are always treated separately. An interrupt is device-initiated, as opposed to the methods mentioned above, which are CPU-initiated. It is also unidirectional, as information flows only from device to CPU. Lastly, each interrupt line carries only one bit of information with a fixed meaning, namely "an event that requires attention has occurred in a device on this interrupt line".


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: I/O operations can slow memory access if the address and data buses are shared. This is because the peripheral device is usually much slower than main memory. In some architectures, port-mapped I/O operates via a dedicated I/O bus, alleviating the problem.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: One merit of memory-mapped I/O is that, by discarding the extra complexity that port I/O brings, a CPU requires less internal logic and is thus cheaper, faster, easier to build, consumes less power and can be physically smaller; this follows the basic tenets of reduced instruction set computing, and is also advantageous in embedded systems. The other advantage is that, because regular memory instructions are used to address devices, all of the CPU's addressing modes are available for the I/O as well as the memory, and instructions that perform an ALU operation directly on a memory operand (loading an operand from a memory location, storing the result to a memory location, or both) can be used with I/O device registers as well. In contrast, port-mapped I/O instructions are often very limited, often providing only for simple load-and-store operations between CPU registers and I/O ports, so that, for example, to add a constant to a port-mapped device register would require three instructions: read the port to a CPU register, add the constant to the CPU register, and write the result back to the port.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: As 16-bit processors have become obsolete and replaced with 32-bit and 64-bit in general use, reserving ranges of memory address space for I/O is less of a problem, as the memory address space of the processor is usually much larger than the required space for all memory and I/O devices in a system. Therefore, it has become more frequently practical to take advantage of the benefits of memory-mapped I/O. However, even with address space being no longer a major concern, neither I/O mapping method is universally superior to the other, and there will be cases where using port-mapped I/O is still preferable.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Memory-mapped I/O is preferred in x86-based architectures because the instructions that perform port-based I/O are limited to one register: EAX, AX, and AL are the only registers that data can be moved into or out of, and either a byte-sized immediate value in the instruction or a value in register DX determines which port is the source or destination port of the transfer. Since any general-purpose register can send or receive data to or from memory and memory-mapped I/O devices, memory-mapped I/O uses fewer instructions and can run faster than port I/O. AMD did not extend the port I/O instructions when defining the x86-64 architecture to support 64-bit ports, so 64-bit transfers cannot be performed using port I/O.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Since the caches mediate accesses to memory addresses, data written to different addresses may reach the peripherals' memory or registers out of the program order, i.e. if software writes data to an address and then writes data to another address, the cache write buffer does not guarantee that the data will reach the peripherals in that order. Any program that does not include cache-flushing instructions after each write in the sequence may see unintended IO effects if a cache system optimizes the write order. Writes to memory can often be reordered to reduce redundancy or to make better use of memory access cycles without changing the final state of what got stored; whereas, the same optimizations might completely change the meaning and effect of writes to memory-mapped I/O regions.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Lack of foresight in the choice of memory-mapped I/O regions led to many of the RAM-capacity barriers in older generations of computers. Designers rarely expected machines to grow to make full use of an architecture's theoretical RAM capacity, and thus often used some of the high-order bits of the address-space as selectors for memory-mapped I/O functions. For example, the 640 KB barrier in the IBM PC and derivatives is due to reserving the region between 640 and 1024 KB (64k segments 10 through 16) for the Upper Memory Area. This choice initially made little impact, but it eventually limited the total amount of RAM available within the 20-bit available address space. The 3 GB barrier and PCI hole are similar manifestations of this with 32-bit address spaces, exacerbated by details of the x86 boot process and MMU design. 64-bit architectures often technically have similar issues, but these only rarely have practical consequences.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: A simple system built around an 8-bit microprocessor might provide 16-bit address lines, allowing it to address up to 64 kibibytes (KiB) of memory. On such a system, the first 32 KiB of address space may be allotted to random access memory (RAM), another 16 KiB to read-only memory (ROM) and the remainder to a variety of other devices such as timers, counters, video display chips, sound generating devices, etc.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: The hardware of the system is arranged so that devices on the address bus will only respond to particular addresses which are intended for them, while all other addresses are ignored. This is the job of the address decoding circuitry, and that establishes the memory map of the system. As a result, system's memory map may look like in the table on the right. This memory map contains gaps, which is also quite common in actual system architectures.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Assuming the fourth register of the video controller sets the background colour of the screen, the CPU can set this colour by writing a value to the memory location A003 using its standard memory write instruction. Using the same method, graphs can be displayed on a screen by writing character values into a special area of RAM within the video controller. Prior to cheap RAM that enabled bit-mapped displays, this character cell method was a popular technique for computer video displays (see Text user interface).


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Address decoding types, in which a device may decode addresses completely or incompletely, include the following:


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: In Windows-based computers, memory can also be accessed via specific drivers such as DOLLx8KD which gives I/O access in 8-, 16- and 32-bit on most Windows platforms starting from Windows 95 up to Windows 7. Installing I/O port drivers will ensure memory access by activating the drivers with simple DLL calls allowing port I/O and when not needed, the driver can be closed to prevent unauthorized access to the I/O ports.


title: Memory-mapped I/O

text: Linux provides the utility to allow reading from and writing to MMIO addresses. The Linux kernel also allows tracing MMIO access from kernel modules (drivers) using the kernel's "mmiotrace" debug facility. To enable this, the Linux kernel should be compiled with the corresponding option enabled. "mmiotrace" is used for debugging closed-source device drivers.


title: Dissociation constant

text: In chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology, a dissociation constant (formula_1) is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate (dissociate) reversibly into smaller components, as when a complex falls apart into its component molecules, or when a salt splits up into its component ions. The dissociation constant is the inverse of the association constant. In the special case of salts, the dissociation constant can also be called an ionization constant.


title: Dissociation constant

text: in which a complex formula_2 breaks down into "x" A subunits and "y" B subunits, the dissociation constant is defined as


title: Dissociation constant

text: where [A], [B], and [A B] are the equilibrium concentrations of A, B, and the complex A B, respectively.


title: Dissociation constant

text: One reason for the popularity of the dissociation constant in biochemistry and pharmacology is that in the frequently encountered case where "x" = "y" = 1, K has a simple physical interpretation: when formula_4, then formula_5 or equivalently formula_6


title: Dissociation constant

text: The concentration of water, [HO], is omitted by convention, which means that the value of "K" differs from the value of "K" that would be computed using that concentration.


title: Dissociation constant

text: The value of "K" varies with temperature, as shown in the table below. This variation must be taken into account when making precise measurements of quantities such as pH.


title: Associative array

text: In computer science, an associative array, map, symbol table, or dictionary is an abstract data type that stores a collection of (key, value) pairs, such that each possible key appears at most once in the collection. In mathematical terms an associative array is a function with "finite" domain. It supports 'lookup', 'remove', and 'insert' operations.