title: Individualist anarchism

text: French individualist anarchists grouped behind Émile Armand, published "L'Unique" after World War II. "L'Unique" went from 1945 to 1956 with a total of 110 numbers. Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers was a French writer, art critic, pacifist and anarchist. Lacaze-Duthiers, an art critic for the Symbolist review journal "La Plume", was influenced by Oscar Wilde, Friedrich Nietzsche and Max Stirner. His (1906) "L'Ideal Humain de l'Art" helped found the "artistocracy movement"a movement advocating life in the service of art. His ideal was an anti-elitist aestheticism: "All men should be artists". Together with André Colomer and Manuel Devaldes, in 1913 he founded "L'Action d'Art", an anarchist literary journal. After World War II, he contributed to the journal "L'Unique". Within the synthesist anarchist organization, the Fédération Anarchiste, there existed an individualist anarchist tendency alongside anarcho-communist and anarchosyndicalist currents. Individualist anarchists participating inside the Fédération Anarchiste included Charles-Auguste Bontemps, Georges Vincey and André Arru. The new base principles of the francophone Anarchist Federation were written by the individualist anarchist Charles-Auguste Bontemps and the anarcho-communist Maurice Joyeux which established an organization with a plurality of tendencies and autonomy of federated groups organized around synthesist principles. Charles-Auguste Bontemps was a prolific author mainly in the anarchist, freethinking, pacifist and naturist press of the time. His view on anarchism was based around his concept of "Social Individualism" on which he wrote extensively. He defended an anarchist perspective which consisted on "a collectivism of things and an individualism of persons".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In 2002, Libertad organized a new version of the "L'EnDehors", collaborating with "Green Anarchy" and including several contributors, such as Lawrence Jarach, Patrick Mignard, Thierry Lodé, Ron Sakolsky and Thomas Slut. Numerous articles about capitalism, human rights, free love and social fights were published. "The EnDehors" continues now as a website, EnDehors.org.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: The prolific contemporary French philosopher Michel Onfray has been writing from an individualist anarchist perspective influenced by Nietzsche, French post-structuralists thinkers such as Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze; and Greek classical schools of philosophy such as the Cynics and Cyrenaics. Among the books which best expose Onfray's individualist anarchist perspective include "La sculpture de soi : la morale esthétique" ("The Sculpture of Oneself: Aesthetic Morality"), "La philosophie féroce : exercices anarchistes", "La puissance d'exister" and "Physiologie de Georges Palante, portrait d'un nietzchéen de gauche" which focuses on French individualist philosopher Georges Palante.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Illegalism is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner's individualist anarchism. Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of "might" rather than "right"; and for the most part, illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal, although some committed crimes as a form of propaganda of the deed. The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda of the deed.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Influenced by theorist Max Stirner's egoism as well as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (his view that "property is theft!"), Clément Duval and Marius Jacob proposed the theory of la "reprise individuelle" (individual reclamation) which justified robbery on the rich and personal direct action against exploiters and the system.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Illegalism first rose to prominence among a generation of Europeans inspired by the unrest of the 1890s, during which Ravachol, Émile Henry, Auguste Vaillant and Sante Geronimo Caserio committed daring crimes in the name of anarchism in what is known as propaganda of the deed. France's Bonnot Gang was the most famous group to embrace illegalism.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In Germany, the Scottish-German John Henry Mackay became the most important propagandist for individualist anarchist ideas. He fused Stirnerist egoism with the positions of Benjamin Tucker and actually translated Tucker into German. Two semi-fictional writings of his own, "Die Anarchisten" and "Der Freiheitsucher", contributed to individualist theory through an updating of egoist themes within a consideration of the anarchist movement. English translations of these works arrived in the United Kingdom and in individualist American circles led by Tucker. Mackay is also known as an important European early activist for gay rights. Using the pseudonym Sagitta, Mackay wrote a series of works for pederastic emancipation, titled "Die Buecher der namenlosen Liebe" ("Books of the Nameless Love"). This series was conceived in 1905 and completed in 1913 and included the "Fenny Skaller", a story of a pederast. Under the same pseudonym, he also published fiction, such as "Holland" (1924) and a pederastic novel of the Berlin boy-bars, "Der Puppenjunge" ("The Hustler") (1926).


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Adolf Brand was a German writer, Stirnerist anarchist and pioneering campaigner for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality. In 1896, Brand published a German homosexual periodical, "Der Eigene". This was the first ongoing homosexual publication in the world. The name was taken from writings of egoist philosopher Max Stirner (who had greatly influenced the young Brand) and refers to Stirner's concept of "self-ownership" of the individual. "Der Eigene" concentrated on cultural and scholarly material and may have had an average of around 1,500 subscribers per issue during its lifetime, although the exact numbers are uncertain. Contributors included Erich Mühsam, Kurt Hiller, John Henry Mackay (under the pseudonym Sagitta) and artists Wilhelm von Gloeden, Fidus and Sascha Schneider. Brand contributed many poems and articles himself. Benjamin Tucker followed this journal from the United States.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: "Der Einzige" was a German individualist anarchist magazine. It appeared in 1919 as a weekly, then sporadically until 1925 and was edited by cousins Anselm Ruest (pseudonym for Ernst Samuel) and Mynona (pseudonym for Salomo Friedlaender). Its title was adopted from the book "Der Einzige und sein Eigentum" ("The Ego and Its Own") by Max Stirner. Another influence was the thought of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. The publication was connected to the local expressionist artistic current and the transition from it towards Dada.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In Italy, individualist anarchism had a strong tendency towards illegalism and violent propaganda by the deed similar to French individualist anarchism, but perhaps more extreme and which emphazised criticism of organization be it anarchist or of other type. In this respect, we can consider notorious magnicides carried out or attempted by individualists Giovanni Passannante, Sante Caserio, Michele Angiolillo, Luigi Lucheni and Gaetano Bresci who murdered King Umberto I. Caserio lived in France and coexisted within French illegalism and later assassinated French President Sadi Carnot. The theoretical seeds of current insurrectionary anarchism were already laid out at the end of 19th century Italy in a combination of individualist anarchism criticism of permanent groups and organization with a socialist class struggle worldview. During the rise of fascism, this thought also motivated Gino Lucetti, Michele Schirru and Angelo Sbardellotto in attempting the assassination of Benito Mussolini.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: During the early 20th century, the intellectual work of individualist anarchist Renzo Novatore came to importance and he was influenced by Max Stirner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Georges Palante, Oscar Wilde, Henrik Ibsen, Arthur Schopenhauer and Charles Baudelaire. He collaborated in numerous anarchist journals and participated in futurism avant-garde currents. In his thought, he adhered to Stirnerist disrespect for private property, only recognizing property of one's own spirit. Novatore collaborated in the individualist anarchist journal "Iconoclasta!" alongside the young Stirnerist illegalist Bruno Filippi.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: The individualist philosopher and poet Renzo Novatore belonged to the leftist section of the avant-garde movement of futurism alongside other individualist anarcho-futurists such as Dante Carnesecchi, Leda Rafanelli, Auro d'Arcola and Giovanni Governato. There was also Pietro Bruzzi who published the journal "L'Individualista" in the 1920s alongside Ugo Fedeli and Francesco Ghezzi, but who fell to fascist forces later. Bruzzi also collaborated with the Italian American individualist anarchist publication "Eresia" of New York City edited by Enrico Arrigoni.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: During the Founding Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation in 1945, there was a group of individualist anarchists led by Cesare Zaccaria who was an important anarchist of the time. Later during the IX Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation in Carrara in 1965, a group decided to split off from this organization and created the "Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica". In the 1970s, it was mostly composed of "veteran individualist anarchists with an of pacifism orientation, naturism".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In the famous Italian insurrectionary anarchist essay written by an anonymous writer, "At Daggers Drawn with the Existent, its Defenders and its False Critics", there reads how "[t]he workers who, during a wildcat strike, carried a banner saying, 'We are not asking for anything' understood that the defeat is in the claim itself ('the claim against the enemy is eternal'). There is no alternative but to take everything. As Stirner said: 'No matter how much you give them, they will always ask for more, because what they want is no less than the end of every concession'". The contemporary imprisoned Italian insurrectionary anarchist philosopher writes from an explicit individualist anarchist perspective in such essays as "Critica individualista anarchica alla modernità" ("Individualist Anarchist Critique of Modernity"). Horst Fantazzini (1939–2001) was an Italian-German individualist anarchist who pursued an illegalist lifestyle and practice until his death in 2001. He gained media notoriety mainly due to his many bank robberies through Italy and other countries. In 1999, the film "Ormai è fatta!" appeared based on his life.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Individualist anarchism was one of the three categories of anarchism in Russia, along with the more prominent anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism. The ranks of the Russian individualist anarchists were predominantly drawn from the intelligentsia and the working class. For anarchist historian Paul Avrich, "[t]he two leading exponents of individualist anarchism, both based in Moscow, were Aleksei Alekseevich Borovoi and Lev Chernyi (born Pavel Dmitrievich Turchaninov). From Nietzsche, they inherited the desire for a complete overturn of all values accepted by bourgeois society political, moral, and cultural. Furthermore, strongly influenced by Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker, the German and American theorists of individualist anarchism, they demanded the total liberation of the human personality from the fetters of organized society".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Some Russian individualists anarchists "found the ultimate expression of their social alienation in violence and crime, others attached themselves to avant-garde literary and artistic circles, but the majority remained "philosophical" anarchists who conducted animated parlor discussions and elaborated their individualist theories in ponderous journals and books".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Lev Chernyi was an important individualist anarchist involved in resistance against the rise to power of the Bolshevik Party as he adhered mainly to Stirner and the ideas of Tucker. In 1907, he published a book entitled "Associational Anarchism" in which he advocated the "free association of independent individuals". On his return from Siberia in 1917, he enjoyed great popularity among Moscow workers as a lecturer. Chernyi was also Secretary of the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups, which was formed in March 1917. He was an advocate "for the seizure of private homes", which was an activity seen by the anarchists after the October Revolution as direct expropriation on the bourgoise. He died after being accused of participation in an episode in which this group bombed the headquarters of the Moscow Committee of the Communist Party. Although most likely not being really involved in the bombing, he might have died of torture.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Chernyi advocated a Nietzschean overthrow of the values of bourgeois Russian society, and rejected the voluntary communes of anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin as a threat to the freedom of the individual. Scholars including Avrich and Allan Antliff have interpreted this vision of society to have been greatly influenced by the individualist anarchists Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker. Subsequent to the book's publication, Chernyi was imprisoned in Siberia under the Russian Czarist regime for his revolutionary activities.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: On the other hand, Alexei Borovoi was a professor of philosophy at Moscow University, "a gifted orator and the author of numerous books, pamphlets, and articles which attempted to reconcile individualist anarchism with the doctrines of syndicallism". He wrote among other theoretical works "Anarkhizm" in 1918, just after the October Revolution; and "Anarchism and Law". For him, "the chief importance is given not to Anarchism as the aim but to Anarchy as the continuous quest for the aim". He manifests there that "[n]o social ideal, from the point of view of anarchism, could be referred to as absolute in a sense that supposes it's the crown of human wisdom, the end of social and ethical quest of man".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: While Spain was influenced by American individualist anarchism, it was more closely related to the French currents. Around the start of the 20th century, individualism in Spain gathered force through the efforts of people such as Dorado Montero, Ricardo Mella, Federico Urales, Miguel Giménez Igualada, Mariano Gallardo and J. Elizalde who translated French and American individualists. Important in this respect were also magazines such as "La Idea Libre", "La Revista Blanca", "Etica", "Iniciales", "Al margen", "Estudios" and "Nosotros". The most influential thinkers there were Max Stirner, Émile Armand and Han Ryner. Just as in France, the spread of Esperanto and anationalism had importance just as naturism and free love currents. Later, Armand and Ryner themselves started writing in the Spanish individualist press. Armand's concept of amorous camaraderie had an important role in motivating polyamory as realization of the individual.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Catalan historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press was widely read by members of anarcho-communist groups and by members of the anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT. There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as Federico Urales and Miguel Giménez Igualada who were members of the CNT and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the Iberian Anarchist Federation (IAF).


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Spanish individualist anarchist Miguel Giménez Igualada wrote the lengthy theory book called "Anarchism" espousing his individualist anarchism. Between October 1937 and February 1938, he was editor of the individualist anarchist magazine "Nosotros" in which many works of Armand and Ryner appeared. He also participated in the publishing of another individualist anarchist maganize "Al Margen: Publicación quincenal individualista". In his youth, he engaged in illegalist activities. His thought was deeply influenced by Max Stirner, of which he was the main popularizer in Spain through his own writings. He published and wrote the preface to the fourth edition in Spanish of "The Ego and Its Own" from 1900. He proposed the creation of a "Union of egoists" to be a federation of individualist anarchists in Spain, but it did not succeed. In 1956, he published an extensive treatise on Stirner, dedicated to fellow individualist anarchist Émile Armand. Afterwards, he traveled and lived in Argentina, Uruguay and Mexico.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Federico Urales was an important individualist anarchist who edited "La Revista Blanca". The individualist anarchism of Urales was influenced by Auguste Comte and Charles Darwin. He saw science and reason as a defense against blind servitude to authority. He was critical of influential individualist thinkers such as Nietzsche and Stirner for promoting an asocial egoist individualism and instead promoted an individualism with solidarity seen as a way to guarantee social equality and harmony. He was highly critical of anarcho-syndicalism, which he viewed as plagued by excessive bureaucracy; and he thought that it tended towards reformism. Instead, he favored small groups based on ideological alignment. He supported and participated in the establishment of the IAF in 1927.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In 1956, Miguel Giménez Igualadaon exile escaping from Franco's dictatorshippublished an extensive treatise on Stirner which he dedicated to fellow individualist anarchist Émile Armand. On the subject of individualist anarchist theory, he publisheds "Anarchism" in 1968 during his exile in Mexico from Franco's dictatorship in Spain. He was present in the First Congress of the Mexican Anarchist Federation in 1945.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In 2000, Ateneo Libertario Ricardo Mella, Ateneo Libertario Al Margen, Ateneu Enciclopèdic Popular, Ateneo Libertario de Sant Boi and Ateneu Llibertari Poble Sec y Fundació D'Estudis Llibertaris i Anarcosindicalistes republished Émile Armand's writings on free love and individualist anarchism in a compilation titled "Individualist anarchism and Amorous camaraderie". Recently, Spanish historian Xavier Diez has dedicated extensive research on Spanish individualist anarchism as can be seen in his books "El anarquismo individualista en España: 1923–1938" and "Utopia sexual a la premsa anarquista de Catalunya. La revista Ética-Iniciales (1927–1937)" which deals with free love thought as present in the Spanish individualist anarchist magazine "Iniciales".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: The English Enlightenment political theorist William Godwin was an important influence as mentioned before. The Irish anarchist writer of the Decadent Movement Oscar Wilde influenced individualist anarchists such as Renzo Novatore and gained the admiration of Benjamin Tucker. In his important essay "The Soul of Man under Socialism" from 1891, Wilde defended socialism as the way to guarantee individualism and so he saw that "[w]ith the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all". For anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Wilde's aim in "The Soul of Man under Socialism" is to seek the society most favorable to the artist [...] for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated [...] Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete". Woodcock finds that "[t]he most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde "The Soul of Man under Socialism"" and finds that it is influenced mainly by the thought of William Godwin.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In the late 19th century in the United Kingdom, there existed individualist anarchists such as Wordsworth Donisthorpe, Joseph Hiam Levy, Joseph Greevz Fisher, John Badcock Jr., Albert Tarn and Henry Albert Seymour who were close to the United States group around Benjamin Tucker's magazine "Liberty". In the mid-1880s, Seymour published a journal called "The Anarchist" and also later took a special interest in free love as he participated in the journal "The Adult: A Journal for the Advancement of Freedom in Sexual Relationships". "The Serpent", issued from London, was the most prominent English-language egoist journal and published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle "A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology". Henry Meulen was another British anarchist who was notable for his support of free banking.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In the United Kingdom, Herbert Read was influenced highly by egoism as he later approached existentialism (see existentialist anarchism). Albert Camus devoted a section of "The Rebel" to Stirner. Although throughout his book Camus is concerned to present "the rebel" as a preferred alternative to "the revolutionary", he nowhere acknowledges that this distinction is taken from the one that Stirner makes between "the revolutionary" and "the insurrectionist". Sidney Parker is a British egoist individualist anarchist who wrote articles and edited anarchist journals from 1963 to 1993 such as "Minus One", "Egoist", and "Ego". Donald Rooum is an English anarchist cartoonist and writer with a long association with Freedom Press. Rooum stated that for his thought, "[t]he most influential source is Max Stirner. I am happy to be called a Stirnerite anarchist, provided 'Stirnerite' means one who agrees with Stirner's general drift, not one who agrees with Stirner's every word". "An Anarchist FAQ" reports: "From meeting anarchists in Glasgow during the Second World War, long-time anarchist activist and artist Donald Rooum likewise combined Stirner and anarcho-communism".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: In the hybrid of post-structuralism and anarchism called post-anarchism, Saul Newman has written a lot on Stirner and his similarities to post-structuralism. He writes:


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Max Stirner's impact on contemporary political theory is often neglected. However in Stirner's political thinking there can be found a surprising convergence with poststructuralist theory, particularly with regard to the function of power. Andrew Koch, for instance, sees Stirner as a thinker who transcends the Hegelian tradition he is usually placed in, arguing that his work is a precursor poststructuralist ideas about the foundations of knowledge and truth.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Newman has published several essays on Stirner. "War on the State: Stirner and Deleuze's Anarchism" and "Empiricism, Pluralism, and Politics in Deleuze and Stirner" discusses what he sees are similarities between Stirner's thought and that of Gilles Deleuze. In "Spectres of Stirner: A Contemporary Critique of Ideology", he discusses the conception of ideology in Stirner. In "Stirner and Foucault: Toward a Post-Kantian Freedom", similarities between Stirner and Michel Foucault. He also wrote "Politics of the Ego: Stirner's Critique of Liberalism".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Argentine anarchist historian Ángel Cappelletti reports that in Argentina "[a]mong the workers that came from Europe in the 2 first decades of the century, there was curiously some stirnerian individualists influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche, that saw syndicalism as a potential enemy of anarchist ideology. They established [...] affinity groups that in 1912 came to, according to Max Nettlau, to the number of 20. In 1911 there appeared, in Colón, the periodical "El Único", that defined itself as 'Publicación individualista'".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Vicente Rojas Lizcano, whose pseudonym was Biófilo Panclasta, was a Colombian individualist anarchist writer and activist. In 1904, he began using the name Biofilo Panclasta. "Biofilo" in Spanish stands for "lover of life" and "Panclasta" for "enemy of all". He visited more than fifty countries propagandizing for anarchism which in his case was highly influenced by the thought of Stirner and Nietszche. Among his written works there are "Siete años enterrado vivo en una de las mazmorras de Gomezuela: Horripilante relato de un resucitado"(1932) and "Mis prisiones, mis destierros y mi vida" (1929) which talk about his many adventures while living his life as an adventurer, activist and vagabond as well as his thought and the many times he was imprisoned in different countries.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Maria Lacerda de Moura was a Brazilian teacher, journalist, anarcha-feminist and individualist anarchist. Her ideas regarding education were largely influenced by Francisco Ferrer. She later moved to São Paulo and became involved in journalism for the anarchist and labor press. There she also lectured on topics including education, women's rights, free love and antimilitarism. Her writings and essays garnered her attention not only in Brazil, but also in Argentina and Uruguay. In February 1923, she launched "Renascença", a periodical linked with the anarchist, progressive and freethinking circles of the period. Her thought was mainly influenced by individualist anarchists such as Han Ryner and Émile Armand. She maintained contact with Spanish individualist anarchist circles.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Horst Matthai Quelle was a Spanish language German anarchist philosopher influenced by Max Stirner. In 1938, at the beginning of the German economic crisis and the rise of Nazism and fascism in Europe, Quelle moved to Mexico. Quelle earned his undergraduate degree, master's and doctorate in philosophy at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where he returned as a professor of philosophy in the 1980s. He argued that since the individual gives form to the world, he is those objects, the others and the whole universe. One of his main views was a "theory of infinite worlds" which for him was developed by pre-Socratic philosophers.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: During the 1990s in Argentina, there appeared a Stirnerist publication called "El Único: publicacion periódica de pensamiento individualista".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchism for its opposition to democracy and its embrace of "lifestylism" at the expense of anti-capitalism and class struggle. Bookchin claimed that individualist anarchism supports only negative liberty and rejects the idea of positive liberty. Albert Meltzer proposed that individualist anarchism differs radically from revolutionary anarchism and that it "is sometimes too readily conceded 'that this is, after all, anarchism'". Meltzer claimed that Benjamin Tucker's acceptance of the use of a private police force (including to break up violent strikes to protect the "employer's 'freedom'") is contradictory to the definition of anarchism as "no government". Meltzer opposed anarcho-capitalism for similar reasons, arguing that it actually supports a "limited State" and that "it is only possible to conceive of Anarchism which is free, communistic and offering no economic necessity for repression of countering it". Tucker's views of strikes and trade unions evolved from skepticism, believing that strikes should be organized by free workers rather than by bureaucratic union officials and organizations, to sympathize with those involved in the Haymarket massacre.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: George Bernard Shaw initially had flirtations with individualist anarchism before coming to the conclusion that it was "the negation of socialism, and is, in fact, unsocialism carried as near to its logical conclusion as any sane man dare carry it". Shaw's argument was that even if wealth was initially distributed equally, the degree of "laissez-faire" advocated by Tucker would result in the distribution of wealth becoming unequal because it would permit private appropriation and accumulation. According to Carlotta Anderson, American individualist anarchists accept that free competition results in unequal wealth distribution, but they "do not see that as an injustice". Tucker explained that "[i]f I go through life free and rich, I shall not cry because my neighbor, equally free, is richer. Liberty will ultimately make all men rich; it will not make all men equally rich. Authority may (and may not) make all men equally rich in purse; it certainly will make them equally poor in all that makes life best worth living". Nonetheless, Peter Marshall states that "the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists" such as Tucker and Lysander Spooner have been overlooked.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Collectivist and social anarchists dispute the individualist anarchist claim that free competition and markets would yield the libertarian-egalitarian anarchist society that individualist anarchists share with them. In their views, "state intervention merely props up a system of class exploitation and gives capitalism a human face".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: The authors of "An Anarchist FAQ" argue that individualist anarchists did not advocate free competition and markets as normative claims and merely thought those were better means than the ones proposed by anarcho-communists for the development of an anarchist society. Individualist anarchists such as Tucker thought interests, profits, rents and usury would disappear, something that both anarcho-capitalists such as Murray Rothbard and social anarchists did not think was true or believe would not happen. In a free market, people would be paid in proportion to how much labor they exerted and that exploitation or usury was taking place if they were not. The theory was that unregulated banking would cause more money to be available and that this would allow proliferation of new businesses which would in turn raise demand for labor. This led Tucker to believe that the labor theory of value would be vindicated and equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay. Later in his life, Tucker grew skeptical that free competition could remove concentrated capital.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: While anarcho-capitalism is sometimes described as a form of individualist anarchism, scholars have criticized those, including some Marxists and right-libertarians, for taking it at face value. Other scholars such as Benjamin Franks, who considers anarcho-capitalism part of individualist anarchism and hence excludes those forms of individualist anarchism that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms from the anarchist camp, have been criticized by those who include individualist anarchism as part of the anarchist and socialist traditions whilst excluding anarcho-capitalism, including the authors of "An Anarchist FAQ". Some anarchist scholars criticized those, especially in Anglo-American philosophy, who define anarchism only in terms of opposition to the state, when anarchism, including both individualist and social traditions, is much more than that. Anarchists, including both individualist and social anarchists, also criticized some Marxists and other socialists for excluding anarchism from the socialist camp. In "European Socialism: A History of Ideas and Movements", Carl Landauer summarized the difference between communist and individualist anarchists by stating that "the communist anarchists also do not acknowledge any right to society to force the individual. They differ from the anarchistic individualists in their belief that men, if freed from coercion, will enter into voluntary associations of a communistic type, while the other wing believes that the free person will prefer a high degree of isolation".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Without the labor theory of value, some argue that 19th-century individualist anarchists approximate the modern movement of anarcho-capitalism, although this has been contested or rejected. As economic theory changed, the popularity of the labor theory of classical economics was superseded by the subjective theory of value of neoclassical economics and Murray Rothbard, a student of Ludwig von Mises, combined Mises' Austrian School of economics with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Tucker and Spooner. In the mid-1950s, Rothbard was concerned with differentiating himself from communist and socialistic economic views of other anarchists, including the individualist anarchists of the 19th century, arguing that "we are not anarchists [...] but not archists either [...]. Perhaps, then, we could call ourselves by a new name: nonarchist". Joe Peacott, an American individualist in the mutualist tradition, criticizes anarcho-capitalists for trying to hegemonize the individualist anarchism label and make appear as if all individualist anarchists are in favor of capitalism. Peacott states that "individualists, both past and present, agree with the communist anarchists that present-day capitalism is based on economic coercion, not on voluntary contract. Rent and interest are mainstays of modern capitalism, and are protected and enforced by the state. Without these two unjust institutions, capitalism could not exist".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: There is a strong current within anarchism including anarchist activists and scholars which rejects that anarcho-capitalism can be considered a part of the anarchist movement because anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and anarchists see it as incompatible with capitalist forms. Although some regard anarcho-capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism, many others disagree with this and contest the idea that there is a socialist–individualist divide as individualist anarchism is largely socialistic. Rothbard argued that individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism and other capitalist theories due to the individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist economics. Similarly, many writers deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism and that capitalism is compatible with anarchism.


title: Individualist anarchism

text: "The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism" writes that "[a]s Benjamin Franks rightly points out, individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economic-power relations of anarcho-capitalism are incompatible with practices of social anarchism based on developing immanent goods which contest such as inequalities". Laurence Davis cautiosly asks "[I]s anarcho-capitalism really a form of anarchism or instead a wholly different ideological paradigm whose adherents have attempted to expropriate the language of anarchism for their own anti-anarchist ends?" Davis cites Iain McKay, "whom Franks cites as an authority to support his contention that 'academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarcho-capitalism has anything to do with social anarchism'", as arguing "quite emphatically on the very pages cited by Franks that anarcho-capitalism is by no means a type of anarchism". McKay writes that "[i]t is important to stress that anarchist opposition to the so-called capitalist 'anarchists' does "not" reflect some kind of debate within anarchism, as many of these types like to pretend, but a debate between anarchism and its old enemy capitalism. [...] Equally, given that anarchists and 'anarcho'-capitalists have fundamentally "different" analyses and goals it is hardly 'sectarian' to point this out".


title: Individualist anarchism

text: Davis writes that "Franks asserts without supporting evidence that most major forms of individualist anarchism have been largely anarcho-capitalist in content, and concludes from this premise that most forms of individualism are incompatible with anarchism". Davis argues that "the conclusion is unsuistainable because the premise is false, depending as it does for any validity it might have on the further assumption that anarcho-capitalism is indeed a form of anarchism. If we reject this view, then we must also reject the individual anarchist versus the communal anarchist 'chasm' style of argument that follows from it". Davis maintains that "the ideological core of anarchism is the belief that society can and should be organised without hierarchy and domination. Historically, anarchists have struggles against a wide range of regimes of domination, from capitalism, the state system, patriarchy, heterosexism, and the domination of nature to colonialism, the war system, slavery, fascism, white supremacy, and certain forms of organised religion". According to Davis, "[w]hile these visions range from the predominantly individualistic to the predominantly communitarian, features common to virtually all include an emphasis on self-management and self-regulatory methods of organisation, voluntary association, decentralised society, based on the principle of free association, in which people will manage and govern themselves". Finally, Davis includes a footnote stating that "[i]ndividualist anarchism may plausibly be re regarded as a form of both socialism and anarchism. Whether the individualist anarchists were "consistent" anarchists (and socialists) is another question entirely. [...] McKay comments as follows: 'any individualist anarchism which support wage labour is "inconsistent" anarchism. It "can" easily be made "consistent" anarchism by applying its own principles . In contrast 'anarcho'-capitalism rejects so many of the basic, underlying, principles of anarchism [...] that it cannot be made consistent with the ideals of anarchism'".


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto represented Japan at the 2018 Winter Olympics, finishing sixth. Earlier in her career, she won the bronze medal at the 2017 World Junior Championships and the 2016-17 Junior Grand Prix Final.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Kaori Sakamoto was born on 9 April 2000 in Kobe, Hyogo prefecture, in Japan. The decision for Sakamoto to become a figure skater was made as a family decision at an early age. In 2022 she was attending Kobe Gakuin University while continuing to compete in ice skating. Her hobbies are swimming and completing Jigsaw puzzles. Her coaches since childhood have included Sonoko Nakano, Mitsuko Graham, and Sei Kawahara. Her choreographer is Benoit Richaud.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto began learning to skate in 2004 in Kobe. She won the gold medal at the 2012–13 Japan Novice Championships and placed 9th at the Japan Junior Championships in the same year. She was invited to skate in the gala at the 2013 World Team Trophy.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: During the 2013–2014 season, Sakamoto debuted on the ISU Junior Grand Prix (JGP) circuit, placing sixth in Ostrava, Czech Republic. She finished eighth at the Japan Junior Championships.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto started her season by finishing seventh at her JGP event in Aichi, Japan. She went on to win the Japanese national silver medal on the junior level before placing sixth on the senior level at the 2014–15 Japan Championships. Those results gave her a spot to compete at the 2015 World Junior Championships, where she placed fourth in the short program and 6th in the free skate to place sixth overall.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto began her season by winning the silver medal at her JGP event in Riga, Latvia, and finishing fourth at her JGP event in Toruń, Poland. Due to a stress fracture in her right shinbone, she stayed off the ice in October and resumed skating without jumps in November. At the Japanese Championships, she placed fifth competing in the junior event and thirteenth on the senior level. Sakamoto was selected to compete at the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics. She placed fifth in the short program and sixth in the free skate to finish sixth overall.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto received medals at both of her 2016–17 JGP assignments – silver in France and gold in Japan – and then won the Japanese junior title. In December, she took the bronze medal at the Junior Grand Prix Final in Marseille, France, and placed seventh competing on the senior level at the Japan Championships. She was assigned to replace the injured Satoko Miyahara at the 2017 Asian Winter Games but withdrew due to the flu. She went on to win bronze at the 2017 World Junior Championships. She was invited to skate in the gala at the 2017 World Team Trophy as the junior world bronze medalist.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto started her first full senior season at the 2017 Asian Figure Skating Trophy, placing first in both segments to take the gold. At the 2017 U.S Classic, she placed fifth in the short program and 4th in the free skate to place fourth overall, behind compatriot and gold medalist Marin Honda. Making her senior Grand Prix debut, she finished 5th at the 2017 Rostelecom Cup after placing fourth in the short program and fifth in the free skate. At the 2017 Skate America, she scored new personal best scores for both segments of the competition; she placed second in both the short program and free skate and won the silver medal overall behind teammate Satoko Miyahara.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: At the 2017–18 Japan Figure Skating Championships, Sakamoto won the short program. In the free skate, she placed fourth and won the silver medal, her first senior national medal. Following the competition, the Japan Skating Federation named Sakamoto in Japan's team to the 2018 Winter Olympics, alongside Satoko Miyahara. Sakamoto was named in Japan's team to the 2018 Four Continents Championships with Miyahara and training-mate Mai Mihara. She was also selected as the first alternate for the 2018 World Championships, behind Miyahara and Wakaba Higuchi.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: At the 2018 Four Continents Championships, Sakamoto placed second in the short program with a new personal best score, behind teammate Satoko Miyahara. Sakamoto won the free skate with another personal best score, and won the championship, leading a Japanese sweep of the podium.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto competed in the ladies' free skating portion of the Team Event at the 2018 Winter Olympics. She placed fifth individually, and fifth overall within Team Japan. In the ladies' singles competition, Sakamoto skated a new personal best short program and was fifth going into the free skate. In the free skate, Sakamoto made minor mistakes, but still was able to post the sixth highest free skating score of the event, and ended in sixth place overall.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Post-Olympics, Sakamoto competed at the 2018 Coupe du Printemps. In the short program, she placed first. In the free skate, she fell on the second jump of a planned double axel-triple toe loop-double toe loop combination, and doubled a planned triple loop to place second in the segment. She ended the competition second overall behind compatriot Mai Mihara.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto began the season at the 2018 CS Lombardia Trophy, where a disastrous short program left her in ninth place going into the free skate. She placed second in the free skate, rebounding to fourth place overall. Subsequently, Sakamoto indicated that she felt she had not had enough practice time before the event. Competing at the 2018 Skate America, she repeated as the silver medalist, again finishing behind compatriot Miyahara. She pronounced herself "satisfied" with the results. At her second event, the 2018 Grand Prix of Helsinki, Sakamoto fell twice in the short program, ending up in seventh place. She came second in the free skate, to place third overall, and remarked: "I gave it everything I had that was the only chance I would have to make it to the podium today. I forgot about yesterday's program, and I just gave my best today."


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: At the 2018–19 Grand Prix Final, Sakamoto placed fourth in both segments, narrowly missing the podium after falling on the last part of her three-jump combination. She expressed happiness at the score she had achieved even with the error.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Competing in the 2018 Japan Championships, Sakamoto placed second in the short program, slightly over a point behind Miyahara, the four-time defending champion. In the free skate, she again placed second, behind Rika Kihira, but placed ahead of Kihira in the overall points total to win the gold medal. In doing so, she became the first skater to place ahead of Kihira in senior competition. She was named to the Japanese teams for the 2019 Four Continents Championships and the 2019 World Championships.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: At Four Continents, Sakamoto placed second in the short program with a new personal best, 0.55 points behind Bradie Tennell. In the free skate, she missed her three-jump combination when she popped the opening double Axel, and despite adding a double toe loop to her final jump, she lost several points as a result, and placed fourth in the free. She missed the podium overall by 0.33 points. She expressed frustration at the end, saying "I was very nervous and I missed some elements. It was such a disappointment, but I learned from this failure. I want to be stronger. At the World Championships, I want to put out the performance, both short and free, that is sharp and clean."


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: At the World Championships in Saitama, Sakamoto placed second in the short program, winning a silver small medal. In the free skate, a popped triple flip caused her to fall to fifth place overall. Sakamoto commented: "I still cannot figure out why I always cannot perform a perfect program, a performance without any mistakes." Sakamoto concluded the season at the 2019 World Team Trophy, where she won the silver medal as part of Team Japan.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto began the season at the 2019 CS Ondrej Nepela Memorial, where she won the silver medal, her first Challenger medal.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Beginning on the Grand Prix at 2019 Skate America, Sakamoto placed second in the short program and fourth in the free skate after popping two of her jumps and finished the event fourth overall. Her second Grand-Prix event was the 2019 Internationaux de France, where she placed sixth in the short program after falling on a double Axel and putting a foot down on her triple loop. Sakamoto was fourth in the free skate, despite several underrotations, rising to fourth place overall.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: On the 2019–20 Japanese Championships, Sakamoto was third in the short program despite underrotating the back half of her jump combination, and was narrowly behind second-place Satoko Miyahara. She struggled in the free skate, underrotating or downgrading five jumps, and falling once, placing seventh in that segment and dropping to sixth place overall. Commenting on her disappointing results afterward, she attributed much of her difficulty this season to the absence of her friend and longtime training partner Mai Mihara, who was sidelined from training due to illness: "But this year I could not fight by myself. I’m old enough now that I should be able to rely on myself."


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Despite her sixth-place finish at the national championships, Sakamoto was assigned to compete at the 2020 Four Continents Championships, where she was fourth in the short program despite turning out of the landing on her triple loop. In the free skate, Sakamoto attempted a quad toe loop in competition for the first time, but fell and had the jump deemed downgraded. Making several other errors, she dropped to fifth place overall. Speaking afterward, she said "I couldn't fully trust myself. I'm glad I can use this experience and results as a learning experience for next season and future competitions."


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Sakamoto won both the Kinki Regional Championship and Western Sectionals to qualify for a spot at the national championships. Sakamoto began the international season at the 2020 NHK Trophy, which, to minimize international travel, was attending almost exclusively by Japanese skaters (the exception being You Young of South Korea) She won the short program, introducing the triple Lutz into that segment for the first time in five years. Skating a clean free skate, she won that segment by over twenty points, taking the gold medal by almost thirty. This was her first Grand Prix gold medal. Sakamoto attributed her improvement over the previous season in part to increased strength training facilitated by being off-ice during the pandemic.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: At the 2020–21 Japan Championships, Sakamoto entered with the perceived momentum from her NHK Trophy win, but faced the returning Rika Kihira, who had been scheduled to compete elsewhere on the Grand Prix that season. Sakamoto made an error in her short program, performing only a double toe loop instead of a planned triple as part of her jump combination, but ended up in second place, 7.48 points behind Kihira. Skating cleanly in the free, she remained in second behind Kihira, who successfully performed a quadruple Salchow.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto was assigned to the Japanese team for the 2021 World Championships in Stockholm. Sakamoto placed sixth in the short program and fifth in the free skate finishing in the sixth place overall. Her placement combined with Kihira's seventh place qualified three Japanese ladies' berths at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing. Subsequently, she was announced as part of the Japanese team for the 2021 World Team Trophy. She placed third in the short program and second in the free skate at the Trophy, while Team Japan won the bronze medal.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto began the season at the Olympic test event, the 2021 CS Asian Open, where she won the silver medal. On the Grand Prix she was once again assigned to Skate America, where she was fourth in the short program after doubling her planned triple flip jump. She was third in the free skate with no issues other than an edge call on her triple Lutz, but remained in fourth place overall, 1.04 points behind bronze medalist You Young. Sakamoto's second assignment was Japan's home event 2021 NHK Trophy, which she entered as the frontrunner due to injury-related withdrawals from both Alexandra Trusova and Daria Usacheva. She won both segments of the competition, her only flaws being edge calls on her triple Lutzes and an underrotated triple toe loop. She won her second consecutive gold at the NHK Trophy. Sakamoto's results qualified her to the Grand Prix Final, but it was subsequently cancelled due to restrictions prompted by the Omicron variant.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: With Rika Kihira absent due to injury, Sakamoto entered the 2021–22 Japan Championships as the favourite for the national title. She skated cleanly to win both segments of the competition and her second gold medal, 12.28 points ahead of silver medalist Wakaba Higuchi. As a result of her victory, she was named to her second Japanese Olympic team.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto began the 2022 Winter Olympics as the Japanese entry for the women's free skate segment of the Olympic team event. Skating cleanly, she placed second in the segment, albeit 30 points behind first place Kamila Valieva, taking nine points for Team Japan. Japan would win the bronze medal, making the team event podium for the first time, and earning Sakamoto her first Olympic medal. In the women's event, Sakamoto skated a clean short program and earned a new personal best of 79.84, ranking third in the segment behind Valieva and Anna Shcherbakova. She said she was "quite satisfied" with the result, and contrasted her prior Olympic experience at age 17 with "a lot of ups and downs in these four years" since. Despite placing third in the short program, it was widely assumed going into the free skate that Sakamoto would be passed by fourth-place Trusova, whose technical content greatly exceeded hers. This occurred, despite a clean skate from Sakamoto that produced a new personal best score of 153.29. However, controversial frontrunner Valieva faltered in the free skate and dropped to fourth place, resulting in Sakamoto winning the bronze medal. She was the fourth Japanese women's singles skater to win a medal at the Olympics, and the first in twelve years since Mao Asada in 2010. Speaking afterward, she thanked her coaches for helping her through the previous "very challenging and struggling years."


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Following the Olympics, Vladimir Putin's invasion of Ukraine led to the International Skating Union banning Russian and Belarusian skaters from competing at the 2022 World Championships, which had particularly pronounced impact on the women's field, dominated by Russian skaters for most of the preceding eight years. As a result, Sakamoto entered the championships as the heavy favourite to take the gold medal. Skating cleanly, she won the short program with a new personal best score of 80.32, 5.32 points clear of second-place Loena Hendrickx of Belgium. She went on to win the free skate as well, setting new personal bests in that segment (155.77) and in total score (236.09), the latter nearly twenty points clear of silver medalist Hendrickx. She was the first Japanese women's World champion since Asada in 2014. Sakamoto observed afterward that "four years ago, I didn't compete at the Worlds after the Olympic Games because I felt burned out. It wasn't easy to get ready for this just a month after the Games, but I'm glad I did. It was all worth it."


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto began the season at the 2022 CS Lombardia Trophy. She finished first in the short program but second in the free skate due to multiple errors, dropping to second place overall behind teammate Rinka Watanabe. At the 2022 Japan Open, she finished first in the women's free skate, helping Team Japan to the gold medal.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: She opened the Grand Prix series at her fifth Skate America competition. Narrowly first in the short program after performing only a triple-double combination, she won the free skate decisively over American Isabeau Levito to take the gold medal, a result she said left her "filled with joy." Her Janet Jackson medley short program earned praise from Jackson herself.


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto entered the NHK Trophy as the two-time and reigning champion and the favorite for the title. She placed second in the short program, behind South Korea's Kim Ye-lim, after the technical panel deemed one jump as underrotated, another as a quarter short of rotation, and her Lutz edge unclear. She finished first in the free skate, despite two jumps being called a quarter short of rotation and popping her usually reliable triple loop jump into a single, but remained in second place overall behind Kim. Both women subsequently qualified for the Grand Prix Final. Reflecting on her disappointing result, Sakamoto remarked, "coming into this season, I really wanted to do my best. Inside myself there were an angel and a devil fighting each other. I want to overcome the devil. It tells me: 'you gave your best last year, this season you can relax.'"


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Sakamoto entered the Final as a contender for the title, winning the short program by 1.28 points over longtime friend and training partner Mai Mihara. She successfully landed a triple-triple combination in the short program for the first time in the season, commenting: "I understand that no matter how my short program goes, I have to do well at the free skate. So finishing my short program perfectly after a long time, although I'm relieved, tomorrow's here soon." The free skate saw most participants struggle, with Sakamoto making several critical jump errors, finishing sixth in the segment and dropping to fifth overall. She spoke afterward, saying that she had struggled in her practice sessions and felt mentally strained, concluding: "In any case, I have no other choice but to accept this result."


title: Kaori Sakamoto

text: Small medals for short and free programs awarded only at ISU Championships. At team events, medals awarded for team results only. ISU Personal bests in bold.


title: United States cable news

text: Cable news channels are television networks devoted to television news broadcasts, with the name deriving from the proliferation of such networks during the 1980s with the advent of cable television.


title: United States cable news

text: In the United States, the first nationwide cable TV news channel to launch was CNN in 1980, followed by Financial News Network (FNN) in 1981 and CNN2 (now HLN) in 1982. CNBC was created in 1989, taking control of FNN in 1991. Through the 1990s and beyond, the cable news industry continued to grow, with the establishment of several other networks, including, Fox News Channel, MSNBC, and specialty channels such as Bloomberg Television, Fox Business Network, and ESPN News. More recent additions to the cable news business have been CBSN, Newsmax TV, TheBlaze, NewsNation, part-time news network RFD-TV, and the now defunct Al Jazeera America and Black News Channel.


title: United States cable news

text: As some of the most widely available channels, Fox, CNN, and MSNBC are often referred to as the "big three" with Fox having the highest viewership and ratings. While the networks are usually referred to as 24-hour news networks, reruns of news programs and analysis or opinion programming are played throughout the night, with the exception of breaking news.


title: United States cable news

text: Regional 24-hour cable news television channels that are primarily concerned with local programming and cover some statewide interest have included Spectrum News (a brand used for multiple networks including in upstate New York, North Carolina, Florida and Texas), NY1 (which operates from New York City), News 12 Networks, FiOS1, and the former Northwest Cable News (NWCN) (which operated from Seattle). New England Cable News covers the six-state region of New England.


title: United States cable news

text: Fox News Channel (FNC) launched on October 7, 1996, and was formed under the ownership of News Corporation (founded by Australian-born media mogul Rupert Murdoch), the fifth largest media company in the United States behind Sony, the original Viacom (now Paramount Global), Time Warner (now Warner Bros. Discovery), The Walt Disney Company, Seagram (now NBCUniversal) and MGM. The network is headed by chief executive officer Rupert Murdoch. The network began broadcasting its programming in high definition in May 2008.


title: United States cable news

text: Since the network's launch, FNC has gradually grown to become the highest-rated cable network until January 2021 when MSNBC surpassed Fox News briefly, before returning to the number one position, in February 2021. FNC's former prime time lineup included programs such as "The O'Reilly Factor," hosted by Bill O'Reilly, which had been a top rated program since the early 2000s when considered among major cable news channels. The channel's longtime slogans are "Fair and Balanced" and "We Report. You Decide" and their current slogans are "Most Watched. Most Trusted.", "Real News. Real Honest Opinion" and "America's Watching".


title: United States cable news

text: Fox News is known for holding and promoting conservative views, supporting Donald Trump's presidency, and criticizing the Democratic party.


title: United States cable news

text: MSNBC launched on July 15, 1996, as a partnership between NBC News and Microsoft (Microsoft's stake in the channel was gradually bought out by NBC until the latter's parent NBCUniversal bought out the remaining minority stake held by Microsoft in 2011). When the network was launched, its leading hosts included Jodi Applegate, John Gibson, Tim Russert and Brian Williams. For over a decade, the network's ratings were consistently in last place among the cable news channels until February 2021 when MSNBC became the highest watched news channel.


title: United States cable news

text: After Phil Griffin became president of MSNBC in mid-2008, the channel began shifting towards an increasingly politically liberal ideology in its analysis programming, particularly in its prime-time lineup. MSNBC launched a high definition simulcast feed on June 29, 2009.


title: United States cable news

text: Notable personalities on the network include "Morning Joe" co-hosts Joe Scarborough and Mika Brzezinski, daytime anchors Chuck Todd and Andrea Mitchell, and evening commentators Chris Hayes and Rachel Maddow. The network was noted in the mid-2000s for its harsh criticism of then-President George W. Bush, most notably the "special comment" segment of former anchor Keith Olbermann's show, "Countdown". This, combined with accusations of support for then-President Barack Obama, have led to MSNBC being criticized for a liberal bias, a reputation it has increasingly embraced with its "Lean Forward" slogan (which it adopted in 2011) and open promotion of progressive and liberal ideas. This has led to MSNBC increasingly shifting towards centrism and establishment politics, displaying (subtly or otherwise) acts of hostility towards progressive politicians e.g. Sen. Bernard Sanders (a frontrunner in the 2020 democratic nominations). The channel had a spin-off called Shift. Established in 2014, it was an online-only channel through its website MSNBC.com. The programming schedule was less focused on politics than the main channel, built to be a divergence from it and is more tailored to a younger audience. Shift ceased operations without notice some time before 2018.


title: United States cable news

text: Cable News Network (CNN) launched on June 1, 1980, as the first cable channel devoted to news programming. The Persian Gulf War in 1991 catapulted CNN into the spotlight, largely because the channel was the only news outlet with the ability to communicate from inside Iraq during the initial hours of the American bombing campaign, with live reports from the al-Rashid Hotel in Baghdad by reporters Bernard Shaw, John Holliman and Peter Arnett. Throughout the 1990s, CNN (which was at the time the only major cable news channel) became very influential, an influence later coined as the CNN effect.


title: United States cable news

text: CNN was the first cable news network to begin broadcasting in high definition in September 2007. Today, CNN's television personalities include Wolf Blitzer, Erin Burnett, Anderson Cooper and Jake Tapper.


title: United States cable news

text: In 1982, the Turner Broadcasting System (which would merge with Time Warner in 1996) created a spin-off of CNN called CNN2, which was originally formatted to show the top news stories of the day on a 30-minute "wheel" schedule. The channel rebranded as CNN Headline News in 1983, before the network abandoned the CNN branding and changed its name to the orphaned initialism HLN in 2008, following a shift from news programming towards a mix of news during the day and discussion programs and documentary series at night that began two years earlier.


title: United States cable news

text: Turner founded CNN International in 1985, with a straight focus on international news stories compared to CNN, which featured an equal emphasis on U.S. and world news. CNN launched a special service on January 20, 1992, called CNN Airport Network which was available exclusively in United States airports; the service simulcast programs from CNN and HLN, but with inserts of information of interest to air travelers. CNN Airport Network shut down in 2020. CNN also operates a Spanish language service, CNN en Español.


title: United States cable news

text: Turner Broadcasting also established two, now defunct networks. CNNfn, launched at the end of 1995, attempting to challenge CNBC. It ceased operations after nine years on the air in December 2004. CNNSI, a partnership between CNN and Sports Illustrated, attempted to counter the rising success of ESPNews in covering sports news. While the network was shut down, CNN and Sports Illustrated continue to maintain their partnership, with Sports Illustrated operating a sports section on CNN's website. An online offshoot, CNN+, operated for one month in April 2022 before it was aborted due to poor uptake.


title: United States cable news

text: FNC has been number one among cable news audiences since supplanting CNN in 2002. Until the start of 2002, CNN was the number one cable news network in the ratings.


title: United States cable news

text: Starting in 2013, a major ratings decline at MSNBC has pushed that network to fourth place in March 2015.


title: United States cable news

text: FNC marked its 15th year as the highest-rated cable news channel in the same demographic, posting 2.8 million average total viewers in January 2017. MSNBC beat CNN in total primetime viewers, ranking sixth among all cable networks in January. CNN beat MSNBC, but trailed to the first place Fox News Channel, in total daytime viewers.


title: United States cable news

text: Newsmax TV debuted June 15, 2014 as a television arm of Newsmax Media, a media company better known for its magazine and website. The channel runs a mix of rolling news coverage in the afternoons, video simulcasts of conservative talk radio programs, talk shows, and reruns of documentaries. Talent on the network includes Howie Carr, Wayne Allyn Root, Joe Pagliarulo and Bill O'Reilly. Until mid-2016, it was distributed on both Dish Network and DirecTV. The channel does have numerous local broadcasting affiliates. A live stream of the channel is also available for free online at NewsmaxTV.com, as well as YouTube. Newsmax TV is explicitly conservative in its lean, broadcasting many programs hosted by conservative media personalities including those largely abandoned by Fox News; it is positioned further to the right of Fox's editorial stance but not as far to the fringe as One America News Network.


title: United States cable news

text: The network saw noticeable gains following the 2020 United States presidential election, beating out the business news networks, as conservatives showed increasing dissatisfaction with Fox News coverage of the election.


title: United States cable news

text: Nexstar Media Group's "NewsNation" is a news channel that replaced general entertainment channel WGN America (itself the successor to the superstation feed of WGN-TV in Chicago) on March 1, 2021. The "NewsNation" brand was introduced for a prime time news block on WGN on September 1, 2020, six months before the scheduled rebranding of the channel as a whole. NewsNation's focus intends to be non-ideological, using its extensive network of local newsrooms from television stations Nexstar owns and/or operates across the United States. Talent on the network includes Dan Abrams, Ashleigh Banfield and Chris Cuomo. While Nexstar Media Group's CEO has stated the goal is to transition NewsNation into a 24-hour news and talk channel by 2023, news programming is currently limited to the evening and early overnight hours, as well as special coverage during the day, due to syndication contracts dating to its time as WGN that must be exhausted.


title: United States cable news

text: Blaze TV is a news and opinion network operated by Blaze Media, a joint venture between Conservative Review and Glenn Beck's Mercury Radio Arts. It began September 12, 2012 as GBTV, initially controlled solely by Beck, and formed the joint venture December 3, 2018, taking on the programming of CRTV, Conservative Review's subscription video service that had launched in October 2016. Blaze TV is explicitly conservative in perspective, with popular hosts on the network including Beck, Mark Levin, Pat Gray, Steve Deace, Steven Crowder and Phil Robertson. Blaze TV is available via Dish Network and Verizon FiOS, various smaller cable providers, and through subscription Internet television.


title: United States cable news

text: Free Speech TV (FSTV) is a national, independent, progressive news network that reaches more than 40 million television households in the United States. The network brands itself as "the alternative to television networks owned by billionaires, governments and corporations." It was launched in 1995 and is owned and operated by Public Communicators Incorporated, a 501(c)3 non-profit, tax-exempt organization founded in 1974. Distributed principally by Dish Network, DirecTV, and the network's live stream at freespeech.org and on Roku, Free Speech TV has run commercial free since 1995 with support from viewers and foundations. The network claims to "amplify underrepresented voices and those working on the front lines of social, economic and environmental justice," bringing viewers an array of daily news programs, independent documentaries and special events coverage. In practice, the network's political leanings represent a left-wing perspective, with several progressive talk radio hosts having time slots on the network and the network simulcasting "Democracy Now!" with longtime progressive radio network Pacifica.


title: United States cable news

text: RFD-TV (Rural Free Delivery Television) is a rural-oriented television network independently owned and operated by Patrick Gottsch, through his company Rural Media Group. The majority of its daytime weekday programming is devoted to news coverage, including outside-produced newscasts such as "U.S. Farm Report", "AgDay" and "This Week in Agribusiness", the network's nightly "Rural Evening News", and a five-hour rolling news coverage block centered on agricultural commodities coverage with news and weather. RFD-TV is available through both national satellite providers, on some cable outlets, and through a paywalled Internet stream.


title: United States cable news

text: NewsNet is based in Cadillac, Michigan at WMNN-LD, a local all-news television outlet, and is majority owned by Manoj Bhargava, the creator of 5-hour Energy shots. The network launched nationally on 18 affiliates with test programming in late December 2018, with the full launch took place on January 1, 2019. NewsNet follows a traditional rolling news clock with no opinion programming. It is available, in addition to its terrestrial affiliate base, as a free channel on streaming platforms.


title: United States cable news

text: Newsy began in 2008 as a syndication service providing news videos to mobile and Web users. It was acquired by The E. W. Scripps Company, an owner of local television stations, in 2014 and transformed into its current form, a linear channel devoted to rolling news coverage and short-form videos. Originally distributed solely via over-the-top platforms, Newsy was offered to cable outlets in late 2017.


title: United States cable news

text: One America News Network (OANN) was launched in the summer of 2013 by Herring Networks, initially under the cooperation of "The Washington Times". In 2019, OAN said that it reached 35 million homes. Its primary outlet was through DirecTV, which distributed the channel through its namesake satellite service and U-verse fiber-optic system; DirecTV provided an estimated 90% of the network's revenue until the company announced its intent to drop OANN in April 2022. Verizon Fios, the largest carrier outside of DirecTV to carry the network, followed suit in dropping OANN in July. Its primary method of distribution since the Fios discontinuation has been through its free platform, OAN Plus, made available through digital subchannels.


title: United States cable news

text: The channel targets a conservative audience. Initially offering a combination of conservative opinion content and non-ideologically driven news content from its launch until 2016, the channel shifted to shilling for Donald Trump during and after his presidency. Its prime time political talk shows have a conservative perspective, and the channel regularly features pro-Trump stories. The channel described itself as one of the "greatest supporters" of Trump. The channel has been noted for promoting falsehoods and conspiracy theories.


title: United States cable news

text: InfoWars began its existence in 1999 as the online outlet for conspiracy theorist and radio host Alex Jones. It began carrying a live video feed of Jones's show in the 2010s and expanded to hire other hosts in the same era. InfoWars originally was positioned as an extreme libertarian ideology and associated itself with alt-right figures in the 2010s. (during the 2000s Jones frequently accused the George W. Bush Administration of numerous conspiracy theories including accusations that they had orchestrated the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and in 2008 was a backer of Ron Paul's presidential campaign; it backed Donald Trump in 2016.) Its hosts and contributors include Jones, Paul Joseph Watson, Mike Cernovich, Roger Stone, and Jerome Corsi.


title: United States cable news

text: Most satellite and cable providers have refused to carry InfoWars, and most social media outlets blacklisted and deplatformed the outlet in 2018. The video feed is available through the InfoWars web site and a limited number of terrestrial affiliates.


title: United States cable news

text: Al Jazeera English (AJE) is Al Jazeera Media Network's English language international news channel. It was the first English-language news channel to be headquartered in the Middle East. Instead of being run centrally, news management rotates between broadcasting centres in Doha and London.


title: United States cable news

text: The channel, however, has poor penetration in the American market, where it has been carried by only one satellite service and a small number of cable networks. Al Jazeera English later began a campaign to enter the North American market, including a dedicated website. It became available to some cable subscribers in New York in August 2011, having previously been available as an option for some viewers in Washington, D.C., Ohio and Los Angeles. The channel primarily reaches the United States via its live online streaming. It is readily available on most major Canadian television providers including Rogers and Bell Satellite TV after the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission approved the channel for distribution in Canada on 26 November 2009. In 2013, Al Aazeera Media Network bought Current TV and created Al Jazeera America which was based out of New York City and aimed directly at the American market. The channel while having decent carriage on American satellite and cable services was closed in 2017 after sustaining large financial losses for the network.


title: United States cable news

text: The channel may also be viewed online. It recommends online viewing at its own website or at its channel on YouTube.


title: United States cable news

text: BBC World News is the BBC's international news and current affairs television channel. While the channel does not specifically target the U.S., the BBC has a bureau in Washington, D.C., and produces two programs that cover U.S. news and politics: "BBC World News America" and "BBC News with Katty and Christian". These shows are also broadcast on public television stations, as well as half-hour "BBC World News" bulletins. BBC World News has covered both U.S. presidential and midterm elections results. The BBC produces weather forecasts for the U.S. and Canada and runs advertisements on the U.S. feed, as foreign broadcasts are not covered by the United Kingdom television license. The channel is carried on Cablevision, Comcast, Spectrum, Verizon FiOS, DirecTV, and AT&T U-Verse, as well as internet TV providers YouTube TV and Sling TV. A 2018 survey for Research Intelligencer by Brand Keys found that the BBC was the most trusted TV news brand among American viewers, beating out Fox News and PBS.


title: United States cable news

text: CGTN America is the American division of China Global Television Network, the English-language news channel run by Chinese state broadcaster China Central Television. It is based in Washington, D.C. and manages bureaus across North and South America. The service launched in 2012 as CCTV America and employs a mix of American, international and Chinese journalists and produces Americas-based programming with a focus on Asia for CGTN. The channel is carried on DirecTV, Dish Network, AT&T U-Verse and smaller carriers and live streams via its website and Livestream. CGTN has been registered as a foreign agent since 2018 and designated a foreign mission since 2020, which restricts the service's operations in the United States.


title: United States cable news

text: CNC World is an English-language network majority owned by Xinhua, the Chinese state news agency. It has a more explicit propaganda aim than CGTN and is closely intertwined with the Chinese Communist Party. Its U.S. operations are based in New York City. The channel is available through digital subchannels and a live stream on the Internet. CNC World has been registered as a foreign agent since 2018 and designated a foreign mission since 2020, which restricts the service's operations in the United States.


title: United States cable news

text: i24NEWS is an English language international news television channel that is owned by Altice USA. It is the English version of i24NEWS, a news service based in Israel and operated as a joint venture by Israel's two most prominent commercial broadcasters. The network began broadcasting in the US on February 13, 2017. It is live from 6-10 p.m. Eastern Time and at other times broadcasts from Israel. Live programming is broadcast from Times Square in New York with an additional bureau in Washington, D.C. The channel uses resources from i24's main Jaffa headquarters. Talent includes David Shuster who is also the managing editor, Michelle Makori, and Dan Raviv. The channel acquired many of its debut behind-the-scenes talent from the former Al Jazeera America. The channel is carried on Altice USA-owned Optimum and Suddenlink cable systems and Charter Spectrum. The channel live streams via its website.


title: United States cable news

text: NTD is the English language arm of New Tang Dynasty Television, a media outlet with ties to the Falun Gong, a Chinese expatriate new religious movement also responsible for "The Epoch Times" newspaper. Its American operations are based in New York City, with production in English, Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese, Korean and Russian languages. In contrast to the state-backed CGTN and CNC World, NTD's editorial stance is explicitly anti-Communist, critical of the ruling clique in the People's Republic of China, and supportive of right-wing policies. It is available on select cable outlets, on free-to-air C band satellite, and through a live stream on the Internet.


title: United States cable news

text: Russia Today (branded on air as RT) is an official arm of the Russian Federation, launched in 2007. RT has been registered as a foreign agent since November 2017. From 2010 until 2022, the service had an American cut in channel called RT America (also branded on air as RT) which broadcast content from both the international and United Kingdom editions of RT in addition to original programming from its American studios. RT's American programming took an alternative and purposely contrarian approach compared to most American news outlets, intended to sow "chaos <nowiki>[</nowiki>that the Kremlin<nowiki>]</nowiki> can exploit." Talent on the network included hosts Larry King, Ed Schultz, Dennis Miller, Lee Camp, Jesse Ventura, Alex Salmond and Mike Papantonio. It was available nationally on Dish Network and DirecTV and regionally on Charter Spectrum and other cable providers, and through a limited number of terrestrial affiliates that carried RT on digital subchannels. Additionally, RT America was made available through several streaming apps across many different platforms such as Roku and Android TV as well as several Blu-ray players and smart TVs. The channel's live stream was also available free on RT's website. In 2022, the network was removed from cable providers as well as DirecTV in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine with production on the network suspended and live programing on both RT America and RT UK ceased by March 3, 2022.


title: United States cable news

text: CNBC (originally an abbreviation for the Consumer News and Business Channel) was launched by NBC in 1989 after the purchase of Satellite Program Network, and merged with competitor Financial News Network that same year. It is owned by the NBCUniversal News Group, a unit of the NBCUniversal Television Group division of NBCUniversal. CNBC is the widest distributed of the business channels with about 84.27% of carriage. The channel has many international spin-offs.


title: United States cable news

text: CNBC gained a competitor in the financial news genre with Bloomberg Television, which was created in 1994 by Bloomberg L.P., led by former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg. It is distributed worldwide through cable, satellite and internet providers, and is headquartered in New York. Bloomberg Television was unusual in that its Internet stream, one of the few television networks to continuously offer a video feed over the Internet since the 1990s, was free to the public; the feed was placed behind a soft paywall along with the rest of Bloomberg's Internet ventures in May 2018.


title: United States cable news

text: FBN is the sister business network to Fox News Channel. In October 2007, News Corporation launched its own financial news network called Fox Business Network (FBN); News Corporation CEO Rupert Murdoch stated his reason for launching the channel was that CNBC is too "negative towards business", and had promised to make FBN more "business friendly".


title: United States cable news

text: Cheddar was established in 2017 as an initially online-only channel that operated on a freemium model with some content free and others paywalled. It was acquired by Altice USA in 2019 and, after a two-year run in which several low-powered stations owned by DTV America carried the slot, began transitioning to cable systems that year. Cheddar targets a younger audience than the other business news channels.


title: United States cable news

text: FBN's ratings were initially too low to be registered beyond Nielsen's margin of error; its highest viewership was estimated to be 202,000 viewers, during the 7:00 a.m. Eastern Time hour of "Imus in the Morning's" debut broadcast on the network in 2009. By October 2016, FBN had surpassed CNBC, as roughly a third of CNBC's viewership migrated to FBN over the course of a year, with both netting approximately 170,000 viewers. Bloomberg also does not subscribe to Nielsen and its ratings are assumed to be very low (however, its viewership was higher than CNBC's when Bloomberg's programming was simulcast on E! in the early morning hours, an arrangement that began in 2004 after USA Network ended its simulcast of the channel after ten years, and was discontinued altogether under E! in 2007). Currently, CNBC usually has between 200,000 and 400,000 viewers during the day. In 2000, CNBC had higher ratings than CNN during market hours. The viewership of business newscasts may be underestimated in part because much of its viewership comes from communal areas, most of which cannot be accurately measured by Nielsen and are thus not counted; for this reason, CNBC dropped its subscription to Nielsen in 2015. RFD-TV's average viewership, including for its financial market coverage as well as its non-news programming, is approximately 136,000 viewers.


title: United States cable news

text: ESPN launched a 24-hour sports news channel named ESPNews on November 1, 1996, which is carried by most cable and satellite providers, although usually only on dedicated sports and information tiers. It airs news, highlights, press conferences and commentary by analysts all in relation to sports. ESPNews was also syndicated to regional sports networks as daytime filler programming and also often appears as blackout filler on ESPN or ESPN2 when those channels air a program unavailable in a certain geographic area.


title: United States cable news

text: ESPNews scaled back its news-only format in 2013, after several years of ESPN expanding its flagship newscast, "SportsCenter", throughout the daytime hours on the main channel. ESPNews newscasts are now branded under the "SportsCenter" brand, while replays of ESPN2 talk programs typically air when "SportsCenter" airs on ESPN's main channel.


title: United States cable news

text: At least one of the ESPN networks is usually carrying a "SportsCenter" broadcast at any given time, with the lone exceptions being particularly busy sports days in which all three networks (ESPN, ESPN2 and ESPNEWS) are carrying sporting events and the network's multi-channel coverage of major sports events.


title: United States cable news

text: Fox Entertainment Group re-branded Speed Channel as FS1, a sports channel carrying both analysis shows and live sports events, on August 13, 2013. The studio programs are usually pushed to its sister station, FS2, when live sports are occurring during the broadcast. FS2 acts primarily as an overflow network for FS1, airing their studio programs when they cannot air on FS1 due to schedule conflicts, and also airs reruns of FS1 programming. However, FS2 does air live sports as well, most often from outside the United States.


title: United States cable news

text: Fox Sports has, three times in its history, attempted to launch a national sportscast. The first two aired on Fox Sports Net: the "National Sports Report" from 1996 to 2002, and "Final Score" from 2006 to 2011. The third, "Fox Sports Live", aired on FS1 from the network's launch until 2017.


title: United States cable news

text: CBS Sports Network was founded as "College Sports TV". It still maintains a primary focus on college sports, but has since been broadened to include general studio discussion shows, simulcasts of CBS Sports Radio talk shows, and some lower-end professional sports.


title: United States cable news

text: On February 26, 2018, CBS Sports launched CBS Sports HQ, an Internet-only channel that serves as a 24-hour channel for sports news, highlights and discussion programs, without any live sports.


title: United States cable news

text: ESPNU is a 24-hour sports news network dedicated to college sports. ESPN airs a customized version of SportsCenter, SportsCenter U, covering college sports, as well as documentaries about college teams and players.


title: United States cable news

text: The Big Ten Network, whose origins can be traced back to '03, airs a large amount of original sports programming, including a program similar to SportsCenter called Big Ten Tonight, as well as live sports. Unlike other college sports channels, such as ESPNU or BTN's sister station Fox College Sports, BTN covers the Big Ten Conference exclusively.


title: United States cable news

text: Fox College Sports (FCS) airs an extremely large amount of live sports. Because Fox Sports has so many rights to so many college sporting events, FCS networks are split by region, similar to Fox Sports.


title: United States cable news

text: Launched in 2011 as a joint venture between ESPN & the Texas Longhorns, the Longhorn Network airs over 20 different live sports, as well as sports news & analysis.


title: United States cable news

text: Three years after the launch of the Longhorn Network, ESPN entered a similard joint venture with the Southeastern Conference, also known as the SEC. While it does broadcast over 20 different SEC sports, it also airs analysis of upcoming games as well as a sports talk show. Some SEC Network football games are simulcast on WDCW.


title: United States cable news

text: The Pac-12 Network covers every sport in the PAC-12 as well as every team in the conference, airing nearly 900 live events a year. With the vast number of events in the PAC-12, the Pac-12 Network has been split into six separate regional channels.


title: United States cable news

text: The ACC Network covers every sport in the ACC as well as every team in the conference. The network features films and mini documentaries on the ACC sports teams. The ACC Network also airs games from the ACC schools.


title: United States cable news

text: The Weather Channel is the market leader in news regarding weather forecasting and the most widely distributed cable network in the United States. It was launched in August 1982, under the ownership of Landmark Communications (which sold the network to a joint venture of NBCUniversal, Blackstone Group and Bain Capital in 2008; these parties, in turn, split the channel, with the non-broadcast assets going to IBM in 2016 and the channel itself going to Byron Allen's Entertainment Studios in 2018).


title: United States cable news

text: Originally, the channel was devoted entirely to weather forecasts and news coverage (with computer-generated local forecasts inserted through each individual cable provider every ten minutes, and previously at randomized time intervals, ten times an hour), but since 2001, the network has increasingly cut back its weather coverage in favor of reality television and documentary series (this reliance on such programs has led to carriage disputes between Dish Network and DirecTV in the early 2010s, the latter resulting in the channel's first provider defection, citing subscriber complaints regarding The Weather Channel's shift away from forecast programs). Most of the channel's morning and at least part of its afternoon lineup remains devoted to weather news coverage and national forecasts.


title: United States cable news

text: Since the 2000s, there have been several other attempts to launch weather-centric television channels.


title: United States cable news

text: The Local AccuWeather Channel was distributed mainly as a digital subchannel on various terrestrial television outlets. Content on local versions of The Local AccuWeather Channel vary widely, ranging from a mix of local and national AccuWeather content (such as WFAA) to all-local, automated outlets (such as WFMZ-TV). Now largely deprecated, it is unknown as of January 2020 (when WFAA dropped its affiliation) whether any affiliates still carry the national AccuWeather Channel over the air. In 2021, the service was quietly discontinued in favor of AccuWeather Now, which is also provided free-to-consumer, but through advertising-supported over-the-top providers instead of individual terrestrial affiliates.


title: United States cable news

text: AccuWeather Network is a national version of the AccuWeather channel. The network broadcasts pre-recorded national and regional weather forecasts, analysis of ongoing weather events, and weather-related news, along with local weather segments for mostly the Northeastern United States. It is currently on Verizon FIOS and DirecTV.


title: United States cable news

text: WeatherNation TV, originally known as The Weather Cast, also uses this model (having taken the place of The Local AccuWeather Channel as the affiliation of certain stations' weather channels since 2013), although it also provides a feed directly to cable providers and directly to consumers through mobile and smart-TV apps. A national feed is available on Dish Network.


title: United States cable news

text: Fox Weather, a subsidiary of Fox Corporation, launched in late 2021 as an Internet feed, with intent to launch as a digital subchannel on Fox owned-and-operated stations in early 2022.


title: United States cable news

text: Before NBC and its partners acquired The Weather Channel, NBCUniversal operated NBC Weather Plus, a digital multicast service that operated from 2004 to 2008 (continuing thereafter as a locally programmed service using Weather Plus' graphics system called NBC Plus).


title: College-preparatory school

text: A college-preparatory school (usually shortened to preparatory school or prep school) is a type of secondary school. The term refers to public, private independent or parochial schools primarily designed to prepare students for higher education.


title: College-preparatory school

text: In the United States, there are public, private, and charter college preparatory schools that can be either parochial or secular. Admission is sometimes based on specific selection criteria, usually academic, but some schools have open enrollment. In 2017, 5.7 million students were enrolled in US private elementary or secondary schools, constituting 10% of total school enrollment. Of those, 1.4 million students were enrolled in a secular (nonsectarian) school.


title: College-preparatory school

text: Public and charter college preparatory schools are typically connected to a local school district and draw from the entire district instead of the closest school zone. Some offer specialized courses or curricula that prepare students for a specific field of study. In contrast, others use the label as a promotional tool without offering programs different from a conventional high school.


title: College-preparatory school

text: Preparatory schools began before the Civil War, when there were no public schools above the grammar school or elementary level anywhere in the US. Their graduates were not ready for college study, so many colleges set up "preparatory academies" to prepare them for college study. The preparatory division could dwarf the college enrollment, as at New York Central College. There were also preparatory schools unaffiliated with colleges, especially for girls, such as the Columbia Female Academy. At the time, men and women did not study together at any level, and there were no women's colleges. Some of the female preparatory schools became women's colleges after the Civil War.


title: College-preparatory school

text: Free high school level education for all became available in the later 19th and early 20th centuries. Since then, the surviving "prep schools" in the US are primarily private, elite institutions that have very selective admission criteria and high tuition fees, catering to students in the 13–18 age range. Little financial aid other than loans is available. Prep schools can be day schools, boarding schools, or both, and may be co-educational or single-sex. Currently, day schools are more common than boarding, and since the 1970s, co-educational schools have been more common than single-sex. Unlike the public schools which are free, they charge tuition ($10,000 to 40,000+ a year in 2014). Some prep schools are affiliated with a particular religious denomination. Unlike parochial (Catholic) schools, independent preparatory schools are not governed by a religious organization, and students are usually not required to receive instruction in one particular religion. While independent prep schools in the United States are not subject to government oversight or regulation, many are accredited by one of the six regional accreditation agencies for educational institutions.


title: College-preparatory school

text: In Japan, college-prep schools are called , which means a school used to progress into another school. Prep schools in Japan are usually considered prestigious and are often difficult to get into. However, there are many tiers of prep schools, the entry into which depends on the university that the school leads into.


title: College-preparatory school

text: Japanese prep schools started as , secondary schools for boys, which were founded after the secondary school law in 1886. Later, , secondary school for girls (1891), and , vocational schools (1924), were included among and were legally regarded as schools on the same level as a school for boys. However, graduates from those two types of schools had more requirements for college entrance. In the modern period, many Japanese secondary schools were five-year schools, except for during a short term from 1943 to 1946.


title: College-preparatory school

text: The social status of , or , secondary schools for boys under the old system, did not disappear even after the new system (6-3-3) took effect in 1947. Plenty of are six-year schools in modern times, and many of them have their origins in and , or ones attached to universities. Japanese pupils who aspire to a prep school education take written examinations in sixth grade in each prep school.


title: College-preparatory school

text: Unlike six-year prep schools, the top municipal senior high school (three-year schools) in each school zone and some high-ranked private senior high schools (ditto) are also regarded as . In the 21st century, some trial cases connecting public junior and senior high schools are seen in each region, too, broadening the education for college entrance. As the Japanese government provides grant-in-aid to private schools, the tuition is 5,000–10,000 US dollars per year, even if it is a private school.


title: Dakota Goyo

text: Dakota Avery Goyo (born August 22, 1999) is a Canadian former actor. He is best known for playing Max Kenton in the film "Real Steel" (2011) and Jesse Barrett in the film "Dark Skies" (2013). He also voices Jamie Bennett in the DreamWorks Animation film "Rise of the Guardians" (2012).


title: Dakota Goyo

text: Goyo was born to Debra, a former model and singer who manages his career, and David Goyo. He has two older brothers, Devon and Dallas.


title: Dakota Goyo

text: Goyo appeared in his first commercial as an infant, after which he landed various roles in television and animation series. His featured television work includes Disney's "JoJo's Circus" in 2005, "Ultra" in 2006, "Super Why!" in 2008, "Murdoch Mysteries" in 2008, "The Listener" in 2009, "My Neighbor's Secret" in 2009, "Happy Town" in 2010 and a recurring role as Timmy Tibble on the children's television series "Arthur" in 2010.


title: Dakota Goyo

text: Goyo completed a series lead role in the ABC pilot "Solving Charlie" in 2009, playing Charlie, an orphaned child who has an IQ of 190 and helps his long-lost brother, an aspiring detective, to solve crimes. Goyo played Teddy, the son of Josh Hartnett's character, in the 2007 film "Resurrecting the Champ" and played Timmy, grandson of Susan Sarandon's character, in the 2007 film "Emotional Arithmetic".