title: Tiruppur

text: Special industrial parks have been developed to support the textile industry. Nethaji Apparel Park, Thirupur Export Knitwear Industrial Complex, SIDCO Industrial Estate and J.S.Apparel Park are a few that are operational. Nethaji Apparel Park has 53 companies manufacturing knitwear for exports. The NAP presently provides employment to 15,000 people and generates export revenue of ₹ 15 billion from the apparel produced in it. Tirupur Export Knitwear Industrial Complex was established in 1992 and has 189 sheds built over a 4200 square feet area. Some of the world's largest retailers including C&A, Nike, Walmart, Primark, Adidas, Switcher, Polo Ralph Lauren, Diesel, Tommy Hilfiger, M&S, FILA, H&M, and Reebok import textiles and clothing from Tiruppur.


title: Tiruppur

text: Apart from knitwear production units, Tiruppur is famous for the production of brass, copper, and aluminium utensils for kitchen and hotel needs. Anupparpalayam locality in Tiruppur has been involved in this business. Manufactured products are supplied throughout Tamil Nadu and the nearby states of Andhra Pradesh, Pondicherry, Karnataka and Kerala. Tiruppur is one of the fastest-growing cities in India, with a rate of 8.36 per year.


title: Tiruppur

text: Tiruppur has a good educational infrastructure. The city itself has only a few engineering colleges, but the proximal areas and nearby cities of Coimbatore and Erode augurs well. There are 7 government hospitals at the taluk level with a total number of 896 beds and a total of 43 primary health centers in the rural areas


title: Tiruppur

text: Tiruppur, like any other industrial town, faces its share of environmental pollution complaints. As per the directive of Madras High Court, zero liquid discharge (ZLD) should be strictly followed in Tiruppur knitwear cluster during the effluent treatment process. Failure to implement this order, led to a court ordered closure of all dyeing units and bleaching units. In turn, Tirupur Exporters Association made a representation to the Government that export revenues of 11 billion were lost and about 100,000 labourers lost their job due to a closure of dyeing units in Tirupur.


title: Tiruppur

text: As per a report by CRISIL, prepared in February 2011, ensuring Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD), will primarily affect the operational costs of dyeing and bleaching units, increasing it by 7% to 10%. Eventually, by complying with the above order, Tiruppur became the first textile cluster in India to achieve Zero Liquid Discharge in their units. Both the Common Effluent Treatment Plant and Individual Effluent Treatment Plant are in place to treat effluents. Farmers in Tiruppur and its hinterland, who have faced the brunt of the indiscriminate discharge of industrial effluents into the water bodies for the past many decades, are yet again becoming concerned. Untreated effluents, mostly containing dyes and chemicals in high concentration, are now seen let off clandestinely once again in large quantities through storm water drains into water bodies or into open areas with the discharge mostly happening during the early morning hours or during rain.


title: Tiruppur

text: Tiruppur is well connected by Moffusil bus services to all major towns and cities across Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The city has two major bus stands, viz., Old Bus stand and New Bus stand.


title: Tiruppur

text: The nearest airport is Coimbatore International Airport (45 km) which has regular flights from/to various domestic destinations like Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Bhubaneswar, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Tirupati, Kolkata, Kozhikode, Mumbai, Pune and international destinations such as Sharjah, Colombo and Singapore. The Tiruppur railway station falls on the fully electrified and double tracked Erode - Coimbatore broad gauge line and is well connected by trains.


title: Tiruppur

text: Major temples in Tiruppur were built during the reign of Cholas and Pandyas. Sukreeswarar Temple, is a tenth-century temple situated at the outskirts of Tiruppur is considered one of the four "Sirpa Sthalangal" in Kongu region. An epigraphic study conducted at the temple reported that though the temple was built by the Pandyas, the place was used by tribals to offer poojas to Shivalingam as early as the fifth century. Some of the popular tourist locations outside the city are Sivanmalai, Thirumoorthy Hills, Amaravathi Crocodile Farm, Orathuppalayam Dam, Nanjarayan Tank, Koolipalayam wetlands, Andipalayam lake, Thirumurugan poondi, Konganagiri hill hock temple, Tiruppur Thirupathi temple, Avinashilingeshwarar temple and Vazhai Thottathu Ayyankovil.


title: Tiruppur

text: The Town Hall, new railway over-bridge, Tiruppur Kumaran memorial, corporation memorial pillar are some of the landmarks in the Tiruppur city.


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: "Baby Come Back" is a song by the British-American rock band Player. It was released in late 1977 as the lead single from their 1977 self-titled debut album, and was the breakthrough single for the band, gaining them mainstream success, hitting #1 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and #10 on the R&B charts in 1978. Their biggest hit single, the song was written and performed by Peter Beckett and J.C. Crowley, the founders of Player.


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: As reported on the "American Top 40" replay broadcast of November 5, 1977, "Baby Come Back" was written after two of the band members had broken up with their girlfriends.


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: Lisa Stansfield, in 1997, released the song as a bonus track on the Japanese version of her self-titled album.


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: Alternative rock band Lazlo Bane, in 2007, covered the song for their covers album "Guilty Pleasures".


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: In 2018, Australian band Ocean Alley included it as part of the "Like a Version" segment on the Australian radio station Triple J. The cover reached #16 on Triple J's Hottest 100 of 2018 and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA).


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: In 2011, it was the source of a parody by Chicago artist, Magic 1, entitled "Cutty Come Back", which alludes to the Chicago Bears' woes without quarterback Jay Cutler.


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: The song is also used in the Michael Bay blockbuster "Transformers", when the Autobot Bumblebee communicates with its new owner Sam Witwicky through songs on the radio. In this case, after an incident with the girl he is attracted to, Mikaela, gets out of the car and Sam tries to persuade her to "come back". The lyrics of the song are expected to accomplish this desire, as laid out by the filmmakers, though it is unlikely given the context that she would actually come back anyway.


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: Actress/singer Vanessa Hudgens sampled the song for her 2006 debut single "Come Back to Me", from her debut album "V".


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: In "The Simpsons" episode "Homer Alone", when Homer calls the "Department of Missing Babies" after losing Maggie, the hold music is a newly recorded version of the song, by Peter Beckett and J.C. Crowley.


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: This song was sung by Hank Hill and Elroy "Lucky" Kleinschmidt in the Point After Lounge in the "Church Hopping" episode of "King of the Hill".


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: In a May 2014 episode of "General Hospital", precocious Spencer Cassadine attempted to woo back Emma Scorpio-Drake by hiring Player to perform the song at the Nurses Ball. Spencer's great-grandmother Lesley Webber was supposedly a groupie of the band in the 1970s.


title: Baby Come Back (Player song)

text: In 2016, Peter Beckett performed a parody "Brady Come Back" on "The Herd with Colin Cowherd" about the return of New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady from suspension.


title: Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk

text: Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk also known as Elizabeth Plantagenet (22 April 1444 – c. 1503) was the sixth child and third daughter of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York (a great-grandson of King Edward III) and Cecily Neville. She was thus a sister of King Edward IV and of King Richard III.


title: Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk

text: Sometime before February 1458, Elizabeth was married to John de la Pole. John was the eldest son of William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk and Alice Chaucer. His maternal grandparents were Thomas Chaucer and Maud Burghersh.


title: Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk

text: Her father-in-law had served as the principal power behind the throne for Henry VI of England from 1447 to 1450. His three years in this position saw the near-complete loss of the English possessions in northern France, towards the end of Hundred Years' War. Suffolk could not avoid taking the fall for the failure. He had been imprisoned in the Tower of London and had been attainted. Consequently, John had not succeeded to his titles when his father was executed on 2 May 1450.


title: Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk

text: Her older brother Edward IV of England restored his brother-in-law to the title of Duke of Suffolk in 1463. She remained the Duchess of Suffolk until his death in 1491/1492. They were settled in Wingfield Suffolk.


title: Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk

text: She survived her husband by almost a decade. She is last mentioned alive in January 1503. She was mentioned being deceased by May 1504. She is buried in the church in Wingfield, Suffolk.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The adoption of the Gregorian Calendar was an event in the early modern history of most cultures and societies, marking a change from their traditional (or "old style") dating system to the modern (or "new style") dating system the Gregorian calendar that is widely used around the world today. Some states adopted the new calendar from 1582, some did not do so before the early twentieth century, and others did so at various dates between. A number of jurisdictions continue to use a different civil calendar. For many the new style calendar is only used for civil purposes and the old style calendar remains used in religious contexts. Today, the Gregorian calendar is the world's most widely used civil calendar. During and for some time after the change between systems, it has been common to use the terms "Old Style" and "New Style" when giving dates, to indicate which calendar was used to reckon them.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Gregorian calendar was decreed in 1582 by the papal bull by Pope Gregory XIII, to correct an error in the Julian calendar that was causing erroneous calculation of the date of Easter. The Julian calendar had been based upon a year lasting 365.25 days, but this was slightly too long; in reality it is about 365.2422 days, and so over the centuries, the calendar was increasingly out of alignment with the earth's orbit. The average year in the Gregorian calendar is 365.2425 days.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Although Gregory's reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church, the bull had no authority beyond the Catholic Church and the Papal States. The changes he was proposing were changes to the civil calendar, over which he had no formal authority. They required adoption by the civil authorities in each country to have legal effect. The bull became the canon law of the Catholic Church in 1582, but it was not recognised by Protestant churches, Eastern Orthodox Churches, and a few others. Consequently, the days on which Easter (and related events in the Liturgical calendar) were celebrated by different Christian churches diverged.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Catholic states such as France, the Italian principalities, Poland–Lithuania, Spain (along with her European and overseas possessions), Portugal, and the Catholic states of the Holy Roman Empire were first to change to the Gregorian calendar. Thursday, 4 October 1582, was followed by Friday, 15 October 1582, with ten days skipped. Countries which did not change until the 18th century had by then observed an additional leap year (1700), necessitating the dropping of eleven days. Some countries did not change until the 19th or 20th century, necessitating one or two further days to be omitted from the calendar.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Philip II of Spain decreed the change from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, which affected much of Catholic Europe, as Philip was at the time ruler over Spain and Portugal as well as much of Italy. In these territories, as well as in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (ruled by Anna Jagiellon) and in the Papal States, the new calendar was implemented on the date specified by the bull, with Julian Thursday, 4 October 1582, being followed by Gregorian Friday, 15 October 1582; the Spanish and Portuguese colonies followed somewhat later "de facto" because of delay in communication.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Other Catholic countries soon followed. France adopted the new calendar with Sunday, 9 December 1582, being followed by Monday, 20 December 1582.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Dutch provinces of Brabant and Zeeland, and the States General adopted it on 25 December of that year; the provinces forming the Southern Netherlands (modern Belgium) except the Duchy of Brabant adopted it on 1 January 1583; the province of Holland adopted it on 12 January 1583. The seven Catholic Swiss cantons adopted the new calendar in January 1684 while Geneva and several Protestant cantons adopted it in January 1701 or at other dates throughout the 18th century. The two Swiss communes of Schiers and Grüsch were the last areas of Western and Central Europe to switch to the Gregorian calendar, in 1812.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Many Protestant countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic innovation; some Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold. In England, Queen Elizabeth I and her privy council had looked favourably to a Gregorian-like royal commission recommendation to drop 10 days from the calendar but the virulent opposition of the Anglican bishops, who argued that the Pope was undoubtedly the fourth great beast of Daniel, led the Queen to let the matter be quietly dropped. In the , Protestants resisted the calendar imposed by the Habsburg monarchy. In parts of Ireland, Catholic rebels (until their defeat in the Nine Years' War) kept the "new" Easter in defiance of the English-loyal authorities; later, Catholics practising in secret petitioned the Propaganda Fide for dispensation from observing the new calendar, as it signalled their disloyalty.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Lutheran Duchy of Prussia, until 1657 still a fiefdom of Catholic Poland, was the first Protestant state to adopt the Gregorian calendar. Under influence of its liege lord, the King of Poland, it agreed in 1611 to do so. So 22 August was followed by 2 September 1612. However, this calendar change did not apply for other territories of the Hohenzollern, such as Berlin-based Brandenburg, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: In 1700, through Ole Rømer's influence, Denmark–Norway adopted the solar portion of the Gregorian calendar simultaneously with the Brandenburg-Pomerania and other Protestant estates of the Holy Roman Empire. Sunday, 18 February 1700, was followed by Monday, 1 March 1700. None of these states adopted the lunar portion, instead calculating the date of Easter astronomically using the instant of the vernal equinox and the full moon according to Kepler's "Rudolphine Tables" of 1627; this combination was referred to by the Protestant estates as the "improved calendar" ("Verbesserte Kalender") and considered to be distinct from the Gregorian. They finally adopted the Gregorian calculation of Easter in 1774. The remaining provinces of the Dutch Republic adopted the Gregorian calendar on 12 July 1700 (Gelderland), 12 December 1700 (Overijssel and Utrecht), 12 January 1701 (Friesland and Groningen) and 12 May 1701 (Drenthe).


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Sweden's transition to the Gregorian calendar was difficult and protracted. Sweden started to make the change from the Julian calendar and towards the Gregorian calendar in 1700, but it was decided to make the (then 11-day) adjustment gradually by excluding the leap days (29 February) from each of 11 successive leap years, 1700 to 1740. Meanwhile, the Swedish calendar would be out of step with both the Julian calendar and the Gregorian calendar for 40 years; also, the difference would not be constant but would change every four years. This system had potential for confusion when working out the dates of Swedish events in this 40-year period. To add to the confusion, the system was poorly administered, and the leap days that should have been excluded in 1704 and 1708 were not excluded. The Swedish calendar (according to the transition plan) should have been 8 days behind the Gregorian but was 10 days behind. King Charles XII recognised that the gradual change to the new system was not working, and he abandoned it.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Rather than proceeding directly to the Gregorian calendar, it was decided to revert to the Julian calendar. This was achieved by introducing the unique date 30 February in 1712, adjusting the discrepancy in the calendars from 10 back to 11 days. Sweden finally adopted the solar portion of the Gregorian calendar in 1753, when Wednesday, 17 February, was followed by Thursday, 1 March. What became later Finland was an integral part of the Swedish kingdom at that time, hence it did the same. The Russian Empire's 1809 conquest of Finland did not revert this, since autonomy was granted, but government documents in Finland were dated in both the Julian and Gregorian styles. This practice ended when independence was gained in 1917.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Through enactment of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, Great Britain and its possessions (including parts of what is now the United States) adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752, by which time it was necessary to correct by 11 days. Wednesday, 2 September 1752, was followed by Thursday, 14 September 1752. In Great Britain, the term "New Style" was used for the calendar and the Act omits any acknowledgement of Pope Gregory: the Annexe to the Act established a computation for the date of Easter that achieved the same result as Gregory's rules, without actually referring to him.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: With the same Act, the Empire (except Scotland, which had already done so from 1600) changed the start of the civil year from 5 April to 1 January. Consequently, the custom of dual dating (giving a date in both old and new styles) can refer to the Julian/Gregorian calendar change, or to the start of year change, or to both.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The European colonies of the Americas adopted the change when their mother countries did. New France and New Spain had adopted the new calendar in 1582. The Gregorian calendar was applied in the British colonies in Canada and the future United States east of the Appalachian Mountains in 1752.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Alaska remained on the Julian calendar along with the rest of Russia until 1867, when it was sold to the United States. At noon on Saturday, 7 October 1867 (Julian), the date changed to Friday, 18 October 1867 (Gregorian). Although the Julian calendar was 12 days behind the Gregorian calendar, only 11 days were skipped because Alaska also moved from the European side of the International Date Line to the American side.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Many of the countries of eastern Europe were Eastern Orthodox or Islamic and adopted the Gregorian calendar much later than western Christian countries. Catholic countries such as the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth adopted the "new style" (N.S.) Gregorian calendar in 1582 (switched back in 1795 after Third Partition of Poland), but the switch to the Gregorian calendar for secular use occurred in Eastern Orthodox countries as late as the 20th century and some religious groups in some of these countries still use the "old style" (O.S.) Julian calendar for ecclesiastical purposes.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Kingdom of Bulgaria changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar in 1916 during the First World War. 31 March was followed by 14 April 1916.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Ottoman Empire's Rumi calendar, used for fiscal purposes, was realigned from a Julian to a Gregorian starting on 16 February / 1 March 1917. The beginning of the year was reset to 1 January starting in 1918. The numbering of the years, though, remained uniquely Turkish until the Gregorian calendar was introduced for general purposes on 1 January 1926.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: In Russia, the Gregorian calendar was accepted after the October Revolution. On 24 January 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree that Wednesday, 31 January 1918, was to be followed by Thursday, 14 February 1918, thus dropping 13 days from the calendar. With the change, the October Revolution itself, once converted, took place on 7 November. Articles about the October Revolution which mention this date difference tend to do a full conversion to the dates from Julian to the Gregorian calendar. For example, in the article "The October (November) Revolution" the "Encyclopædia Britannica" uses the format of "25 October (7 November, New Style)" to describe the date of the start of the revolution.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Other countries of eastern Europe, most notably Eastern Orthodox countries, adopted the Gregorian calendar in the 1910s or early 1920s. By the 20th century, the date on the Julian calendar was 13 days behind that on the Gregorian calendar. Romania adopted the Gregorian in 1919, with 31 March 1919 being followed by 14 April 1919. The last country of Eastern Orthodox Europe to adopt the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes was Greece, at the time under military administration following the 11 September 1922 Revolution, effective on 1 March 1923. Thus, on the Greek calendar, Wednesday 15 February 1923 was followed by Thursday 1 March 1923. Turkey adopted it on 1 January 1926. The Soviet decree expressly limited the reform to lay (i.e. non-religious) matters, as did the Greek decree. None of these reforms affected the dates of religious holidays. (See below.)


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: While the civil administrations of eastern European countries adopted the Gregorian calendar in the 1910s or early 1920s, none of the national Eastern Orthodox Churches have recognised the Gregorian calendar for church or religious purposes. Instead, a Revised Julian calendar was proposed in May 1923 at the . It uses a different leap year rule, modifying a proposal of 1785 in such a way as to maximise the time before its dates start to diverge from Gregorian. There will be no difference between the two calendars until 2800.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, Russian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church, Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church, Polish Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and the Greek Old Calendarists did not accept the Revised Julian calendar, and continue to celebrate Christmas on 25 December in the Julian calendar, which is 7 January in the Gregorian calendar until 2100.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: All of the other Eastern churches, the Oriental Orthodox churches (Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church, and Syriac Orthodox Church) continue to use their own calendars, which usually result in fixed dates being celebrated in accordance with the Julian calendar. This is most interesting in the case of the Syriac Orthodox Church, as one of its Patriarchs Ignatius Nemet Allah I was one of the nine scholars who devised the Gregorian calendar. The Indian Orthodox Church uses the Gregorian calendar along with their autonomous Syriac Orthodox counterparts in India, the Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Armenian Apostolic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1923, except in the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, where the old Julian calendar is still in use.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: They previously used lunisolar calendars. The Old Style and New Style dates in these countries usually mean the older lunisolar dates and the newer Gregorian calendar dates respectively. In these countries, the old style calendars were similar but not all the same. The Arabic numerals may be used for both calendar dates in modern Japanese and Korean languages, but not for Chinese old-style dates.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Japan decided to officially replace its traditional lunisolar calendar with the Gregorian calendar in 1872, so the day following as became , locally known as . (The Japanese rendering of the Western months is simply "ichi-gatsu" or "One-month" for January, "ni-gatsu" or "Two-month" for February, etc.) This brought Japan's calendar in alignment with that of the major Western powers (excluding Russia).


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: To this day, however, it is common to use reign names (nengō), especially for official documents; for instance, "Meiji" 1 for 1868, "Taishō" 1 for 1912, "Shōwa" 1 for 1926, "Heisei" 1 for 1989, "Reiwa" 1 for 2019, and so on. The months and days are those of the Gregorian calendar, but the year is either the "Western calendar" (西暦, "seireki") year number per the Common Era or Anno Domini system, or a year of the nengō of the emperor on the throne. Since 1873, an era and the first year of that era has begun on the day of the year that the emperor ascended the throne. The second year of that era began on the next 1 January even if the first year contained only a few days. All subsequent years of that era began on 1 January until that emperor died or abdicated. For example, the first year of the Showa Era, that of Emperor Hirohito, contained only the last six days of 1926, while Showa 64, his last year, contained only the first seven days of 1989. The current Gregorian year 2022 corresponds to Reiwa 4.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Replacing its years numbered from 1392, the founding of the Joseon dynasty, Korea started using the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1896, which was the 17th day of the 11th lunar month not only in Korea but also in China, which still used the lunisolar calendar. Yet Korean era names were used for its years through 1910; and between 1910 and 1945, when Korea was under Japanese rule, Japanese era names were used to count the years of the Gregorian calendar used in Korea.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: In South Korea, from 1945 until 1961, Gregorian calendar years were also counted from the foundation of Gojoseon in 2333 BC (regarded as year one), the date of the legendary founding of Korea by Dangun, hence these Dangi (단기) years were 4278 to 4294. This numbering was informally used with the Korean lunar calendar before 1945 but is only occasionally used today. Since 1997, North Korea officially counts years based on the Juche era, the first year of which is 1912, the year of Kim Il-Sung's birth, with Gregorian months and days. The current Gregorian year 2022 corresponds to Juche year 111.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Republic of China (ROC) government under Provisional President Sun Yat-sen abolished the lunisolar Chinese calendar and adopted the Gregorian calendar at its founding on . The public, however, resisted the change and continued to observe traditional holidays. President Yuan Shikai switched to a dual-calendar policy, under which the Gregorian calendar was to be used for most purposes except traditional holidays, which were to be timed according to the Chinese calendar, including the short-lived Empire of China. With the unification of China under the Kuomintang in October 1928, the Nationalist government decreed that effective the Gregorian calendar would be used. The Republic of China calendar would retain the Chinese traditions of numbering the months with a modified era system, determined according to the traditional custom of era names, but using the founding of the Republic of China government in 1912 as the start rather than the regnal year of an emperor. The current Gregorian year 2022 corresponds to the ROC year 111. This system is still in use in Taiwan where the ROC government retains control since 1945.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Upon its foundation in 1949, the People's Republic of China continued to use the Gregorian calendar with numbered months and adopted Western numbered years, but timed traditional holidays according to the Chinese calendar and abolished the ROC Era System. Today mainland China (including Hong Kong and Macau), Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore all observe traditional holidays based on the traditional calendar, such as Lunar New Year, while timing other holidays, especially national anniversaries, according to the Gregorian calendar. The adopted calendar in both mainland China and Taiwan are called the "Public Calendar" (), or "New Calendar" ().


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: In speaking, people generally call the date in the Gregorian calendar month "No. "dd"", for example, the Spring Festival of year 2017 is No. 28 of Month 1 () On the other hand, people never call dates on the Chinese calendar as "No. "dd".", which avoids any possible ambiguity.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: When referencing dates before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582, the official Chinese calendar may either inherit the issues with earlier calendars to be historically correct or follow the proleptic Gregorian calendar if so specified.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Gregorian calendar replaced the Burmese calendar in several mainland Southeast Asian kingdoms in the second half of the 19th century. This took place in Cambodia in 1863 and Laos in 1889. In 1889, Siam also switched to the Gregorian calendar as the official civil calendar, with the Rattanakosin Era (with 1782 as Year 1). The Thai lunar calendar remains in use for religious purposes. Since the British conquest of the Konbaung dynasty in 1886, the Gregorian calendar has been used alongside the Burmese calendar in Myanmar.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The Islamic calendar is a lunar one, so that there are twelve lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days, being 11 days shorter than a solar year. Consequently, holy days in Islam migrate around the solar year on a 32-year cycle. Some countries in the Islamic world use the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes, while retaining the Islamic calendar for religious purposes. For example, Saudi Arabia adopted the Gregorian calendar for the purpose of paying public sector staff effective 1 October 2016; private sector employers had already adopted the Gregorian calendar for pay purposes.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Today, the vast majority of countries use the Gregorian calendar as their sole civil calendar. The four countries which have not adopted the Gregorian calendar are Ethiopia (Ethiopian calendar), Nepal (Vikram Samvat and Nepal Sambat), Iran and Afghanistan (Solar Hijri calendar).


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Some countries use other calendars alongside the Gregorian calendar, including India (Indian national calendar), Bangladesh (Bengali calendar), Pakistan (Islamic calendar), Israel (Hebrew calendar) and Myanmar (Burmese calendar), and other countries use a modified version of the Gregorian calendar, including Thailand (Thai solar calendar), Japan (Japanese calendar), North Korea (North Korean calendar) and Taiwan (Minguo calendar).


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: While many religious organizations reckon their liturgical year by the Gregorian civil calendar, others have retained their own calendars. Alternative calendars are used in many regions of the world today to mark cycles of religious and astrological events.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: Use of different calendars had potential to cause confusion between contemporaries. For example, it is related that one of the contributory factors for Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Austerlitz was the confusion between the Russians, who were using the Julian calendar, and the Austrians, who were using the Gregorian calendar, over the date that their forces should combine. However, this tale is not supported in a contemporary account from a major-general of the Austrian Imperial and Royal Army, Karl Wilhelm von Stutterheim, who tells of a joint advance of the Russian and Austrian forces (in which he himself took part) five days before the battle, and it is explicitly rejected in Goetz's 2005 book-length study of the battle.


title: Adoption of the Gregorian calendar

text: The date when each country adopted the Gregorian calendar, or an equivalent, is marked against a horizontal time line. The vertical axis is used for expansion to show separate national names for ease in charting, but otherwise has no significance.


title: Hospital ship

text: A hospital ship is a ship designated for primary function as a floating medical treatment facility or hospital. Most are operated by the military forces (mostly navies) of various countries, as they are intended to be used in or near war zones. In the 19th century, redundant warships were used as moored hospitals for seamen.


title: Hospital ship

text: The Second Geneva Convention prohibits military attacks on hospital ships that meet specified requirements, though belligerent forces have right of inspection and may take patients, but not staff, as prisoners of war.


title: Hospital ship

text: Hospital ships possibly existed in ancient times. The Athenian Navy had a ship named "Therapia", and the Roman Navy had a ship named "Aesculapius", their names indicating that they may have been hospital ships.


title: Hospital ship

text: The earliest British hospital ship may have been the vessel "Goodwill", which accompanied a Royal Navy squadron in the Mediterranean in 1608 and was used to house the sick sent aboard from other ships. However this experiment in medical care was short-lived, with "Goodwill" assigned to other tasks within a year and her complement of convalescents simply left behind at the nearest port. It was not until the mid-seventeenth century that any Royal Navy vessels were formally designated as hospital ships, and then only two throughout the fleet. These were either hired merchant ships or elderly sixth rates, with the internal bulkheads removed to create more room, and additional ports cut through the deck and hull to increase internal ventilation.


title: Hospital ship

text: In addition to their sailing crew, these seventeenth century hospital ships were staffed by a surgeon and four surgeon's mates. The standard issue of medical supplies was bandages, soap, needles and bedpans. Patients were offered a bed or rug to rest upon, and given a clean pair of sheets. These early hospital ships were for the care of the sick rather than the wounded, with patients quartered according to their symptoms and infectious cases quarantined from the general population behind a sheet of canvas. The quality of food was very poor. In the 1690s the surgeon aboard "Siam" complained that the meat was in an advanced state of putrefaction, the biscuits were weevil-ridden and bitter, and the bread was so hard that it stripped the skin off patients’ mouths.


title: Hospital ship

text: Hospital ships were also used for the treatment of wounded soldiers fighting on land. An early example of this was during an English operation to evacuate English Tangier in 1683. An account of this evacuation was written by Samuel Pepys, an eyewitness. One of the main concerns was the evacuation of sick soldiers "and the many families and their effects to be brought off". The hospital ships "Unity" and "Welcome" sailed for England on 18 October 1683 with 114 invalid soldiers and 104 women and children, arriving at The Downs on 14 December 1683.


title: Hospital ship

text: The number of medical personnel aboard Royal Navy hospital ships was slowly increased, with regulations issued in 1703 requiring that each vessel also carry six landsmen to act as surgical assistants, and four washerwomen. A 1705 amendment provided for a further five male nurses, and requisitions from the era suggest the number of sheets per patient was increased from one to two pairs. On 8 December 1798, unfit for service as a warship, was ordered to be converted to a hospital ship to hold wounded French and Spanish prisoners of war. According to Edward Hasted in 1798, two large hospital ships (also called lazarettos), (which were the surviving hulks of forty-four gun ships) were moored in Halstow Creek in Kent. The creek is an inlet from the River Medway and the River Thames. The crew of these vessels watched over ships coming to England, which were forced to stay in the creek under quarantine to protect the country from infectious diseases including the plague.


title: Hospital ship

text: From 1821 to 1870 the Seamen's Hospital Society provided HMS "Grampus", HMS "Dreadnought" and HMS "Caledonia" (later renamed "Dreadnought") as successive hospital ships moored at Deptford in London. In 1866 HMS "Hamadryad" was moored in Cardiff as a seamen's hospital, replaced in 1905 by the Royal Hamadryad Seamen's Hospital. Other redundant warships were used as hospitals for convicts and prisoners of war.


title: Hospital ship

text: The Royal Navy institutionalised the use of hospital ships during the first half of the nineteenth century. Hospital ships were generally superior in their standard of service and sanitation to the medical provision available at the time for convalescent soldiers. The modern hospital ship began to emerge during the Crimean War in the 1850s. The only military hospital available to the British forces fighting on the Crimean Peninsula was at Scutari near the Bosphorus. During the Siege of Sevastopol almost 15,000 wounded troops were transported there from the port at Balaklava by a squadron of converted hospital ships.


title: Hospital ship

text: The first ships to be equipped with genuine medical facilities were the steamships HMS "Melbourne" and HMS "Mauritius", staffed by the Medical Staff Corps and providing services to the British expedition to China in 1860. The ships provided relatively spacious accommodation for the patients, and were equipped with an operating theatre. Another early hospital ship was in the 1860s, which aided the wounded soldiers of both sides during the American Civil War.


title: Hospital ship

text: During the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), the British Red Cross supplied a steel-hulled ship, equipped with modern surgery equipment including chloroform and other anaesthetics, and carbolic acid for antisepsis. Similar vessels accompanied the 1882 British invasion of Egypt and aided American personnel during the 1898 Spanish–American War.


title: Hospital ship

text: During a smallpox outbreak in London in 1883, the Metropolitan Asylum Board (MAB) chartered and later purchased from the Admiralty two ships, and , and a paddle-steamer, , which were moored in the Thames at Long Reach, near Dartford, and remained in service until 1903.


title: Hospital ship

text: Hospital ships were used by both sides in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. The sighting by the Japanese of the Russian hospital ship "Orel", illuminated in accordance with regulations for hospital ships, led to the decisive naval Battle of Tsushima. "Orel" was retained as a prize of war by the Japanese after the battle.


title: Hospital ship

text: During World War I and World War II, hospital ships were first used on a massive scale. Many passenger liners were converted for use as hospital ships. and were two famous examples of ships serving in this capacity. By the end of the First World War, the British Royal Navy had 77 such ships in service. During the Gallipoli Campaign, hospital ships were used to evacuate over 100,000 wounded personnel to Egypt.


title: Hospital ship

text: Canada operated hospital ships in both world wars. In World War I these included SS "Letitia" (I) and which was deliberately sunk by a German U-boat with great loss of life, despite the hospital ship's clearly marked status. In World War II, Canada operated the hospital ship and SS "Letitia (II).


title: Hospital ship

text: The first purpose-built hospital ship in the U.S. Navy was which was commissioned in 1921. During World War II both the United States Navy and Army operated hospital ships though with different purposes. Naval hospital ships were fully equipped hospitals designed to receive casualties direct from the battlefield and also supplied to provide logistical support to front line medical teams ashore. Army hospital ships were essentially hospital transports intended and equipped to evacuate patients from forward area Army hospitals to rear area hospitals or from those to the United States and were not equipped or staffed to handle large numbers of direct battle casualties. Three of the Navy hospital ships, , , and , were less elaborately equipped than other Navy hospital ships, medically staffed by Army medical personnel and similar in purpose to the Army model.


title: Hospital ship

text: The last British royal yacht, the post World War II , was constructed in a way as to be convertible to a hospital ship in wartime. After her decommissioning, Peter Hennessy discovered that her actual role would have been as Queen Elizabeth II's refuge from nuclear weapons, hiding amidst the lochs of western Scotland.


title: Hospital ship

text: A development of the Lun-class ekranoplan was planned for use as a mobile field hospital for rapid deployment to any ocean or coastal location at a speed of 297 knots (550 km/h, 341.8 mph). Work was 90% complete on this model, "Spasatel", but Soviet military funding ceased and it was never completed.


title: Hospital ship

text: Some hospital ships, such as and "Esperanza del Mar", belong to civilian agencies, and do not belong to a navy. Mercy Ships is an international non-governmental charity (or NGO).


title: Hospital ship

text: Hospital ships were covered under the Hague Convention X of 1907. Articles of the Hague Convention X specified the provisions for a hospital ship:


title: Hospital ship

text: According to the San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea, a hospital ship violating legal restrictions must be duly warned and given a reasonable time limit to comply. If a hospital ship persists in violating restrictions, a belligerent is legally entitled to capture it or take other means to enforce compliance. A non-complying hospital ship may only be fired on under the following conditions:


title: Hospital ship

text: Modern hospital ships display large Red Crosses or Red Crescents to signify their Geneva Convention protection under the laws of war. Even so, marked vessels have not been completely free from attack. Notable examples of hospital ships deliberately attacked during wartime are in 1915, the in 1941, and in 1943.


title: Hospital ship

text: While any ship can be designated and marked as a hospital ship, many ships are permanently dedicated to that function.


title: Hospital ship

text: It is common for naval ships, especially large ships such as aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships to have on-board hospitals. However, they are only one small part of the vessel's overall capability, and are used primarily for the ship's crew and its amphibious forces (and occasionally for relief missions). A warship with hospital facilities does not have the protected status of a hospital ship.


title: Hospital ship

text: A primary example of the varied military-based hospital services available at sea is found aboard several types of US naval ships;


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: Rahaf Mohammed (formerly Rahaf Mohammed Mutlaq al-Qunun Ash-Shimmiry; ) is a Saudi refugee who was detained by Thai authorities on 5 January 2019 while transiting through Bangkok airport, en route from Kuwait to Australia.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: She had intended to claim asylum in Australia and escape her family who she says abused her and threatened to kill her for, among other reasons, leaving Islam, an act that is a capital offence under Saudi law. After she had appealed for help on Twitter and gained significant attention, Thai authorities abandoned their plans to forcibly return her to Kuwait (from where she would be repatriated to Saudi Arabia), and she was taken under the protection of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and granted refugee status. On 11 January 2019 she was granted asylum in Canada and arrived in Toronto the next day.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: Rahaf was born on 11 March 2000. Her father is the town governor of al-Sulaimi in the Ha'il Region. She has nine siblings.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: She has claimed that her family had locked her up for months, subjecting her to physical and psychological abuse. Her father however denied abusing her. Rahaf also said that her cousin threatened to kill her because she no longer follows Islam. Apostasy in Islam is a crime punishable by death according to the Sharia law of Saudi Arabia.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: While Mohammed was on vacation with her family in Kuwait, she left them and boarded a flight to Bangkok, Thailand. She intended to continue on another flight to seek asylum in Australia. A tourist visa had been issued to her that permitted entry into Australia. Her family reportedly filed a missing person report after her escape from Kuwait. Upon arrival at Suvarnabhumi Airport in Bangkok, a man greeted her, not disclosing that he was a Saudi embassy official, and told her that he needed her passport so that he could help her obtain a Thai visa. He left with her passport and did not return. Mohammed never intended to leave the airport's transit area and therefore did not require a Thai visa.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: Mohammed opened an account on Twitter which spread rapidly because of the international lawyer Mahmoud Refaat's reactions on Twitter who changed the situation by his intervention and rescued Rahaf from potential deportation, and in a series of posts said that she had renounced Islam and was concerned that she could be murdered by her family if deported to Saudi Arabia. She also said she had barricaded herself in her hotel room, was refusing to exit until she met with UN representatives, claimed refugee status, and implored embassy officials of various Western nations to assist her in seeking asylum. This drew world-wide support, with more than half a million tweets using the "#SaveRahaf" hashtag. In one tweet, she shared a picture of her passport. Australian ABC journalist Sophie McNeill flew to Bangkok and snuck into her room and barricaded herself with Mohammed to protect her. While barricaded Mohammed also allowed a friend to tweet on her behalf.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: Lawyers in Thailand filed an injunction to prevent her forced deportation. The injunction was subsequently dismissed, though an appeal was planned. Thailand's chief of immigration at the Royal Thai Police Surachate Hakparn subsequently confirmed that authorities in the country had acted at the behest of Saudi Arabia.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: Mohammed was scheduled to be forcibly repatriated on a flight to Kuwait on 7 January 2019. She barricaded her room to block entry, while at times live streaming airport staff trying to get her to leave the room. She refused to leave. Upon intervention of the international prominent lawyer Mahmoud Refaat, the Thai government later released a statement saying that it would not deport her. François Zimeray, a lawyer chosen by the European Saudi Organisation for Human Rights to defend Mohammed in Bangkok against deportation back to Saudi Arabia, judged that Mohammed's tweets had played an overwhelming role in preventing her deportation. Zimeray stated that the Thai authorities' attitude changed "completely" in "a few minutes" when they realized the strength of international support for Mohammed. Mohammed revealed in a later interview that she wrote a goodbye letter and decided that she would end her life if she was to be forced back to Saudi Arabia.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: In an initial assessment on 5 January 2019, Human Rights Watch Asia deputy director Phil Robertson said "the Thai government... (was then) manufacturing a story that she tried to apply for a visa and it was denied... in fact, she had an onward ticket to go to Australia, she didn't want to enter Thailand in the first place." Two days later on 7 January 2019, after international pressure, the Thai official overseeing immigration in the case, Police General Surachate Hakparn, was seen walking beside Mohammed, and stated that "We will not send anyone to die. We will not do that. We will adhere to human rights under the rule of law." Subsequently, she was placed under the care of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), her passport, which had indeed included a valid Australian tourist visa, was returned to her, and formal arrangements for the establishment of her long-term asylum status began.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: Mohammed subsequently left the airport in the care of the agency, which later granted her refugee status and asked the Australian government to consider granting her asylum. Australian Home Affairs Minister Peter Dutton stated in a radio interview with journalists that Mohammed seemed to be safe in Thailand. With growing concerns over her safety and an unclear timeline how long Australia would take to process her application, the UNHCR referred her case to Canada and her application was processed within several hours.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: On 11 January 2019, Mohammed flew to Toronto via Seoul, having been granted asylum by Canada, as a "resettled refugee". The UNHCR said this had been arranged "on a fast-track 'emergency' basis". She was greeted at Toronto Pearson International Airport by Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs Chrystia Freeland.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: Mohammed's family released a statement disowning her: "We are the family of [Rahaf] Mohammed al-Qunun in Saudi Arabia. We disavow the so-called 'Rahaf al-Qunun' the mentally unstable daughter who has displayed insulting and disgraceful behavior." After learning about her family disavowing her, she decided to drop al-Qunun from her name and to be known as "Rahaf Mohammed." Abdul-Ilah al-Shuaibi, Saudi Arabia's chargé d'affaires in Bangkok, was quoted as saying, in a meeting with the Thai immigration office: "When [Rahaf] first arrived in Thailand, she opened a new [Twitter account] and the followers reached about 45,000 within one day... I wish you had taken her phone, it would have been better than [taking] her passport."


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: Mohammed's case has been compared to those of Dina Ali Lasloom and Hakeem al-Araibi. Stephen Kalin, writing for Reuters, described Mohammed's case as triggering a new phase in the Saudi anti male-guardianship campaign.


title: Rahaf Mohammed

text: After she was resettled in Canada, a smear campaign was launched against her in both Saudi mainstream media and social media, sometimes even containing conspiracy theories such as a "Canadian attempt at stirring up civil strife by inciting the Kingdom’s teenage girls to abandon social mores" in "Okaz". Saudi commentator Hani al-Dhaheri called her a drug addict and claimed that the fund raising campaign for her was fake and a failure and she would end up "waiting tables in a nightclub for drunkards and gangsters" despite the official fund raising campaign successfully exceeding the goal of $10,000. Further, the pro-government newspaper "Al Riyadh" used the incident to promote family oversight and state control of media in order to stop "hostile ideas" from infecting Saudi youth and to save children from "intellectual penetration".


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: Baroness Marie Alexandrine "Mary" von Vetsera (19 March 1871 – 30 January 1889) was an Austrian noblewoman and the mistress of Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria. Vetsera and the crown prince were found dead at his hunting lodge in Mayerling on 30 January 1889, following an apparent murder-suicide, which is known as the Mayerling incident.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: Marie Alexandrine "Mary" "Freiin" von Vetsera was born on 19 March 1871 as the third child and second daughter of Albin "Freiherr" von Vetsera (1825–1887), an Austrian diplomat from Pozsony, Kingdom of Hungary (present day Bratislava, Slovakia), and his wife, born Eleni "Hélène" Baltazzi (1847–1925), member of a wealthy family from Chios, Greece (then part of the Ottoman Empire). Albin Vetsera had been the guardian of the orphaned Baltazzi children and married the eldest daughter. He was raised to the rank of "Freiherr" in 1870 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Mary had three siblings, Ladislaus "Laci" (1865–1881), Johanna "Hanna" (1868–1901), and Franz Albin "Fery" (1872–1915).


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: "Freifrau" von Vetsera's main goal was to advance socially, for which she had the support of the imperial family, even though she did not have the right to visit the court. She wanted to break out from the "parvenu" status she had as the wife of a newly made noble, and for this, she needed her daughters to marry into the best possible families. Vetsera was thus raised in a strict household under the pressure of having to climb socially and fulfill the dreams of her mother. For education, she was sent to the Institute for Daughters of the Nobility. When she came of age, her mother threw parties and tried to be invited to court so that she could find the best husband for her daughters. It seems that Vetsera had a strained relationship with her mother, confiding in a friend that "Mamma has no love for me... Ever since I was a little girl she has treated me like something she means to dispose of to the best advantage".


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: During the winter of 1887, the Vetsera family travelled to Cairo, Khedivate of Egypt because of the illness of the father. While there, Vetsera supposedly had an affair with an English officer.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: Vetsera became infatuated with Crown Prince Rudolf (1858–1889), a married man 13 years her senior in 1888, after returning from Cairo following the death of her father. In November of that year, she managed to meet him and soon they began an affair. She was 17 and he was 30. Upon finding out, her family reacted negatively: her sister Hanna called her foolish, and her mother was enraged, accusing her of compromising herself and ruining the lives of all of her family members.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: Vetsera appears to have been deeply in love, maybe even thinking that she was a credible threat to her lover's wife, Crown Princess Stéphanie (1864–1945). Meanwhile, Rudolf was involved in a long-term relationship with actress Mizzi/Mitzi Kaspar (1864–1907). It was to Kaspar that Rudolf first proposed a suicide pact, to which she reacted with a laugh. Later, Kaspar went to the police, concerned for the safety of the heir to the throne, but she was dismissed and told not to interfere with imperial affairs.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: After Kaspar had refused to die with him, the crown prince proposed a suicide pact to Vetsera. While he probably just did not want to die alone, Vetsera seemingly perceived the plans as the dramatic union-in-death of star-crossed lovers. She wrote: "If I could give him my life I should be glad to do it, for what does life mean for me?” In her farewell note to her sister, she wrote "we are both going blissfully into the uncertain beyond."


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: On 29 January 1889, the imperial couple hosted a family dinner party before leaving for Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary. The crown prince excused himself and travelled to the hunting lodge in Mayerling, where he arranged for a day of shooting for 30 January. When his valet, Johann Loschek knocked on his door to wake him up early in the morning, he received no answer. Rudolf's hunting companion, Count Joseph von Hoyos-Stichstenstein joined him, and they tried to open the door.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: In the end, Loschek smashed in a door panel with a hammer and opened the door from the inside. In the dark room, he found the crown prince sitting motionless by the side of the bed, leaning forward and bleeding from the mouth. Vetsera's body lay on the bed, with rigor mortis already set in. Later it was determined that the crown prince first shot Vetsera, then himself.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: Vetsera's maternal uncles were quickly summoned to remove their niece's body and bury it as discreetly as possible. Even her mother was forbidden to attend the ceremony. The body was taken to the closest cemetery, the one at the Cistercian monastery in Heiligenkreuz. As her death was thought to be a suicide, her uncles had a hard time persuading the abbot to give permission for a Christian burial, eventually convincing him that she had only committed it because of momentary insanity.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: On 16 May 1889, Vetsera's mother had her daughter exhumed. Vetsera’s remains were transferred from the original wooden coffin to a copper one and reburied.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: The official story of murder-suicide was unchallenged until after the Second World War. After Soviet troops had disturbed Vetsera's grave, and when it was being repaired in 1955, the monks found a small skeleton inside the coffin, with no apparet bullet holes in its skull.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: In 1959, physician Gerd Holler and a member of the Vetsera family, accompanied by other specialists, inspected her remains. The bones were in disarray, but shoes and long black hair were found in the coffin. Upon careful examination, Holler found no sign of a bullet wound on the skeleton. The skull cavity showed signs of trauma, which could have been inflicted by the grave robbers, or could indicate that Vetsera had died from a blow to her skull and not by the hands of the crown prince.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: Holler claimed he petitioned the Holy See to inspect their archives of the incident, including records of the investigation by the an apostolic nuncio, Archbishop Luigi Galimberti, who had found that only one bullet was fired. Lacking forensic evidence of a second bullet, Holler advanced the theory that Vetsera died accidentally, probably as the result of an abortion, and that Rudolf then shot himself. Lucy Coatman, Mary's biographer, argues against this, citing a letter written by Mary shortly before the Mayerling incident. In it, Mary confirms that she lost her virginity to Rudolf on January 13, 1889. Coatman states that this proves Mary could not have died of a botched abortion, as a pregnancy would not have been evident at the time of their deaths. In 1991, Vetsera's remains were disturbed again, this time by Helmut Flatzelsteiner, a Linz furniture dealer obsessed with the Mayerling incident who removed them for a forensic examination at his expense, which took place in February 1993. Flatzelsteiner told the examiners that the remains belonged to a relative killed 100 years earlier who may have been shot in the head or stabbed. One expert thought that this might be possible, but since the skull was in a state of advanced decomposition, it could not be confirmed.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: When Flatzelsteiner approached a journalist to sell both the story and the skeleton, the police became involved. Flatzelsteiner confessed and surrendered Vetsera's remains, which were sent to the Legal Medical Institute in Vienna for further examination. Forensic experts found the bones were indeed 100 years old and those of a young woman aged around 20, but since part of the skull was missing, it could not be determined if there had ever been a bullet hole. Vetsera's bones were re-interred on 28 October 1993.


title: Baroness Mary Vetsera

text: On 31 July 2015, the Austrian National Library obtained copies of Vetsera's farewell letters to her mother and other family members which had been found in a bank safe deposit box, where they had been placed in 1926. Written in Mayerling shortly before the deaths, they state clearly that Vetsera was preparing to die alongside Rudolf out of love for him. They were made available to scholars and exhibited to the public in 2016.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The Peugeot RCZ is a 2+2 sports coupé designed and marketed by PSA Group under the Peugeot marque and assembled by Magna Steyr between 2009 and 2015. It debuted at the Frankfurt Auto Show in 2009.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The vehicle was showcased as the 308 RCZ concept car at the 2007 Frankfurt Auto Show. The RCZ was developed as a showcase concept car but after receiving considerable critical acclaim, Peugeot put the RCZ into production, retaining much from the concept. The RCZ has a double-bubble roof inspired by Zagato.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: Launched into production in April 2010 and available in almost 80 countries , the RCZ was formally introduced at the Frankfurt Auto Show in 2009. Petrol engines are based on Prince series while diesel is part of the HDi series. The RCZ was developed under code name "T75".


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The 30,000th RCZ was assembled in June 2011. The 50,000th RCZ was built on 14 February 2013 and was painted red. After a production period of almost six years, the last Peugeot RCZ was assembled in the Magna Steyr Graz plant in September 2015.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The RCZ offered optional electric heated and adjustable seating with driver's memory, leather seats and dashboard and hill assist function. Other options include 19-inch alloy wheels and a JBL sound system. An Elan or Sportif Kit option pack could be selected to change the colour finish of the roof, door mirrors and front grille. While the RCZ has rear seats, they are not large enough for adults to sit comfortably in.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The RCZ Hybrid4 concept was announced with a 2.0 L HDi FAP engine and a electric motor connected to a 6-speed electronically controlled gearbox. The predicted fuel consumption was in mixed cycle, emitting 95 g/km of .


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: In November 2012, Peugeot announced their intention of building a more powerful, performance oriented RCZ. In July 2013, the first official pictures of the car were released. The RCZ R has a turbocharged 1.6l engine capable of producing (making it the most powerful engine of this displacement in any production car) and of torque, allowing it a 0-62 mph (100 km/h) time of 5.9 seconds and a top speed limited to . It also features uprated 380mm Alcon brakes and suspension, a significantly reduced curb weight and a Torsen front differential, like that found on the mk2 Ford Focus RS, to reduce the inevitable torque steer faced by a front-wheel-drive car with this level of power output. The RCZ R went on sale in January 2014 at £31,995.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The RCZ Allure is a special edition of the 1.6 THP156 with 6-speed Tiptronic transmission and 18-inch wheels.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The Asphalt is limited edition (500 units) version of the RCZ. It includes 19-inch black and silver alloy wheels, black leather sport seats.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The RCZ Brownstone is a limited edition available exclusively in Germany in metallic brown paint with silver racing stripes. Inside, the special version is finished in brown, with Cohiba leather and Alcantara trim.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The RCZ Magnetic is available exclusively in the UK, with production limited to 170 units. Models are available in pearlescent black with Flame Red leather sports seats or white with black leather sports seats, with matte black roof arches and a black grille, brake calipers and door mirrors. They also feature a soft touch leather sports steering wheel and a short shift gear lever.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The RCZ Raidillon is available in Belgium and Luxembourg with production limited to 55 pieces. The stylish metal colour Guaranja Brown is unique to this version. Inside, the Cohiba Nappa leather and Alcantara upholstery has additional embroidery "Raidillon" lettering in the backrest.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: The Peugeot RCZ received the "Top Gear" '2010 Coupe of the Year award', three times in a row the "Auto Express" 'Best Coupé of the Year', the "Auto Express" readers 'Special Design Award 2010' and the 'Best of the Best' Red Dot Award for its design. From 2010 to 2014, the Peugeot RCZ has been awarded five successive times 'Best Sports Car' by "Diesel Car magazine". According to Ian Robertson, editor of DieselCar: 'The Peugeot RCZ offers a rewarding driving experience, agile handling and a well sorted ride, and frugal diesel power. It really is the icing on the cake for the sexily styled sports coupé'.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: "Autocar" magazine said of the RCZ R as 'things look pretty good when you compare it to its rivals, too. The Audi TT is dull to drive and quite aged now, while the Mini Coupé JCW 1.6 is nowhere near as finessed as the Peugeot.'


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: A modified version of the RCZ is used in the Peugeot RCZ Racing Cup Italy one make race. The car used is known as the RCZ Peugeot Sport, which features an increased power output from 200 to 250 bhp, uprated brakes and an adjustable rear spoiler amongst standard motorsport preparations such as weight reduction and a roll cage. Racing versions of the RCZ have also competed successfully in the 24 Hours of Nürburgring, claiming class victories with diesel based variants in 2010 and 2011 and with the RCZ Peugeot Sport in 2012.


title: Peugeot RCZ

text: As of 2021 Peugeot is considering to resurrect the RCZ as an all-electric version of their halo car with more details to be followed.


title: Murree

text: Murree (Punjabi, Urdu: مری) is a mountain resort city, located in the Galyat region of the Pir Panjal Range, within the Muree District of Punjab, Pakistan. It forms the outskirts of the Islamabad-Rawalpindi metropolitan area, and is about northeast of Islamabad. It has average altitude of . The British built this town during their rule to escape the scorching heat in the plains of Punjab during the summer.


title: Murree

text: Construction of the town was started in 1851 on the hill of Murree as a sanatorium for British troops. The permanent town of Murree was constructed in 1853 and the church was consecrated shortly thereafter. One main road was established, commonly referred to even in modern times, as the mall. Murree was the summer headquarters of the colonial Punjab Government until 1876 when it was moved to Shimla.


title: Murree

text: Murree became a popular tourist station for British citizens of the British Raj. Several prominent Britons were born here including Bruce Bairnsfather, Francis Younghusband, Reginald Dyer and Joanna Kelley. During the colonial era, access to commercial establishments was restricted for non-Europeans. Such establishments included Lawrence College, Murree.


title: Murree

text: Since the Independence of Pakistan in 1947, Murree has retained its position as a popular hill station, noted for its pleasant summer weather. Many tourists visit the town from the Islamabad-Rawalpindi area. The town also serves as a transit point for tourists visiting Azad Kashmir and Abbottabad. The town is noted for its Tudorbethan and neo-gothic architecture. The Government of Pakistan owns a summer retreat in Murree, where foreign dignitaries including heads of state often visit.


title: Murree

text: Murree, or "Marhee" as it was then called, was first identified as a potential hill station by Major James Abbott in 1847.


title: Murree

text: The town's early development was in 1851 by President of the Punjab Administrative Board, Sir Henry Lawrence. It was originally established as a sanatorium for British troops garrisoned on the Afghan frontier. Officially, the municipality was created in 1850.


title: Murree

text: The permanent town of Murree was constructed at Sunnybank in 1853. The church was sanctified in May 1857, and the main road, Jinnah Road, originally known as Mall Road and still commonly referred to as "The Mall"), was built. The most significant commercial establishments, the Post Office, general merchants with European goods, tailors and a millinery, were established opposite the church. Until 1947, access to Mall Road was restricted for "natives" (non-Europeans).


title: Murree

text: In the summer of 1857, a rebellion against the British broke out. The local tribes of Murree and Hazara, including the Dhund Abbasis and others, attacked the depleted British Army garrison in Murree; however, the tribes were ultimately overcome by the British and capitulated. From 1873 to 1875, Murree was the summer headquarters of the Punjab local government; after 1876 the headquarters were moved to Shimla.


title: Murree

text: The railway connection with Lahore, the capital of the Punjab Province, via Rawalpindi, made Murree a popular resort for Punjab officials, and the villas and other houses erected for the accommodation of English families gave it a European aspect. The houses crowned the summit and sides of an irregular ridge, the neighbouring hills were covered during the summer with encampments of British troops, while the station itself was filled with European visitors from the plains and travellers to Kashmir. It was connected with Rawalpindi by a service tangas.


title: Murree

text: The sanatorium of Murree lies in north latitude 33° 54′ 30″ and east longitude 73° 26′ 30″, at an elevation of above sea level, and contained a standing population of 1,768 inhabitants, which was, however, enormously increased during the [May–November] season by the influx of visitors and their attendant servants and shopkeepers. It is the most accessible hill station in the Punjab, being distant from Rawalpindi only a five hours' journey by tonga dak. Magnificent views are to be obtained in the spring and autumn of the snow crowned mountains of Kashmir; and gorgeous sunset and cloud effects seen daily during the rains [July–August]. Part of the station, especially the Kashmir end, are also well wooded and pretty.


title: Murree

text: In 1901, the permanent population of the town was 1,844; if summer visitors had been included this could have been as high as 10,000.


title: Murree

text: Murree features a monsoon influenced subtropical highland climate ("Cwb") under the Köppen climate classification. It is situated in the outer Himalayas, retaining high altitude. This type of area has cold, snowy winters, relatively cool summers with drastically escalated rain, in relation with lower altitudes, and frequent fog. Precipitation is received year round, with two maxima, first one during winter and second one at summer, July–August. Total mean precipitation annually is . Murree receives around of snow per year according to a 13-year data. Heavy snowfall starts in January and February.


title: Murree

text: Murree is the municipal capital of Murree Tehsil, an administrative division of the Rawalpindi District. As well as being tehsil headquarters, Murree is also a Union Council, bounded to the north by Darya Gali and Rawat, to the west by Ghora Gali and Tret, to the south by Numbal and Mussiari, and to the east by Ghel and Angoori.


title: Murree

text: For administrative purposes, the military areas of Murree are divided into two separate cantonments, Murree Gali Cantonment and Murree Hills Cantonment. Murree houses the headquarters of the 12th Infantry Division of the Pakistan Army, several educational and training institutions, and a combined military hospital established to serve Murree and adjoining garrisons.


title: Murree

text: The Pakistan Air Force also maintains a base at Lower Topa, near Patriata, with its own military boarding school for boys, PAF Public School Lower Topa.


title: Murree

text: During the British Raj, in the hot season Murree was the headquarters of the Lieutenant General of the Northern Command. The Commissioner of the Rawalpindi Division and the Deputy-Commissioner of Rawalpindi also resided here during part of the season, for which period an Assistant Commissioner was placed in charge of the subdivision consisting of Murree Tehsil. The site was selected in 1850 almost immediately after the annexation of the Province, and building operations commenced at once. In 1851 temporary accommodation was provided for a detachment of troops; and in 1853 permanent barracks were erected. The regular garrison generally consisted of two mountain batteries and one battalion of infantry.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Heavy cavalry was a class of cavalry intended to deliver a battlefield charge and also to act as a tactical reserve; they are also often termed "shock cavalry". Although their equipment differed greatly depending on the region and historical period, heavy cavalry were generally mounted on large powerful warhorses, wore body armor, and armed with either lances, swords, maces, flails (disputed), battle axes, or war hammers; their mounts may also have been protected by barding. They were distinct from light cavalry, who were intended for scouting, screening, and skirmishing.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Iranian tribes such as the Massagetae were believed to be the originator of the class of heavy cavalry known as cataphract. During the time of Achaemenid Persia cavalry was the elite arm of service (as was the case in most civilizations), and many Persian horsemen such as the bodyguard unit of Cyrus the Younger were rather heavily armoured by the standards of the era. By the time of Alexander's invasion cataphract units with both men and beasts being fully encased in armour were already in use by the Persians.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The Parthian Empire of Ancient Iran marks an early recorded utilization of armoured cavalry in warfare, and are specifically believed to have given rise to the tradition of very heavily armoured cataphract lancers. These had a distinct role from ordinary heavy cavalry and were primarily used as an elite assault force, to pummel infantry formations into submission, or even acted in a dual-purpose role as horse archers and cataphracts.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Ammianus Marcellinus, a Roman general and historian who served in the army of Constantius II in Gaul and Persia, fought against the Persians under Julian the Apostate and took part in the retreat of his successor, Jovian. He describes the Persian cataphract as:


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The Celts of western and central Europe are among the first peoples in the region known to have made use of heavy cavalry. It is generally accepted that the Celts were the originators of mail armour, the earliest find being from a Celtic burial in Ciumesti in modern-day Romania. Mail and occasionally bronze armour were restricted generally to the nobility and chieftains of Celtic society, and the additional cost of maintaining a horse trained for the din and chaos of battle ensured that those men who could afford a full panoply of mail and a good quality warhorse were highly motivated, not merely by their status but by the emphasis that Celtic society placed on personal success and courage. At the Battle of Carrhae, Gallic auxiliary cavalry met with the completely armoured Parthian cataphracts. Despite being outmatched the Gauls fought fiercely and well before being annihilated in a protracted melee.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The small size of Celtic horses meant that the Celtic heavy cavalry of north-western and central Europe appear to have been employed as heavy skirmisher cavalry, rather than the shock cavalry of the Middle East and North Africa, the heavy cavalry of Gaul and Celtiberia being widely regarded as some of the finest horsemen of the ancient world. The Gauls were known to be able to hurl their javelins while retreating, and to use a system whereby a cavalryman was supported by two other men with fresh horses who could resupply him with missiles. For close combat the main weapon was the spear, around in length with a leaf-bladed head, and a heavy wooden shield with an iron spindle-type boss. The most prestigious weapon was the sword, a blade ranging anywhere from in length. Celtic swords were typically of good quality, with some being of such quality that archeologists have classed them as being equal to modern, high-quality steel replicas.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The heavy cavalry of the Celtiberi, widely employed by the Carthaginians, included men who may have ridden on mail-armoured horses. Known to the Romans as "Lanciarii" (not to be confused with the spear-armed infantry of the Eastern Roman Empire), they are represented in several Iberian carvings of the period. They may have carried the "soliferrum", the all-iron javelin unique to Iberia, in addition to a spear and shield and a Celtic-style longsword or an Iberian falcata. Together with the Gallic nobles, it was likely these horsemen who at the Battle of Cannae charged and then broke the Roman and Italian cavalry.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The ancient Greeks called armoured cavalry "Kataphraktos" (pl. "Kataphraktoi") which translated means roughly "covered, protected" or "armoured". The term was later borrowed by the Romans (the Latin variant in the Roman Empire being "Cataphractarii") and until the Middle Ages in Europe, continued to be used to designate armoured cavalry. However, as with other types of cavalry, heavy cavalry was not employed in any significant capacity in wars between the Greek city states until later, mainly due to the prevalence of hoplite warfare as well as the mountainous terrain of Central Greece. The lack of suitable grassland and excess grain supply necessary for the production of good cavalry mounts was also crippling to the establishment of an effective cavalry force, the noted Greek mercenary and writer Xenophon once saying that a horse farm was the most expensive type of establishment to keep running.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The exception was in Northern Greece, where large flat areas of grassland made cavalry much more practical. Eventually, encounters with Persian cavalry led the Greeks to create their own cavalry arm, the Hippeis, composed mostly of upper-class citizens who could afford to maintain a horse. While cavalry played an increasingly greater part in Greek warfare, its roles were generally restricted to scouting, skirmishing and pursuit. However, by the end of the Peloponnesian War, heavy cavalry charges had started to play an increasingly important part in Ancient Greek warfare, with the Battle of Delium showing how their intervention could turn the tide of a battle. The city-state of Thebes was particularly famous for its cavalry, with the famed Theban commander Epaminondas using his heavy horse to great effect both at Leuctra as well as Mantineia to rout the Spartan cavalry, and in the process disrupting the legendary Spartan phalanx as well, helping his own hoplites win the battle.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The development of the saddle as well as increasingly larger horse breeds led to creation of the Macedonian Companion cavalry developed during the reign of Philip II of Macedon, likely based on the Theban model, as he had spent his youth in the house of Epaminondas as a hostage. This force was later used with great effect by his son, Alexander the Great. In both role and equipment, the Companions was the first cavalry force that was known to represent archetypal heavy cavalry. The Companion cavalry, or "Hetairoi", were the elite arm of the Macedonian army, and have been regarded as the best cavalry in the ancient world.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: In the aftermath of the Macedonian Empire, the Diadochi, successor states created by Alexander the Great's generals, continued the usage of heavy cavalry in their own forces. The Seleucids in particular introduced the use of cataphracts into Western warfare, having learned the practice of completely armouring both man and horse from Iranian tribes encountered during the wars of Alexander the Great.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The stirrup, which gives greater stability to a rider, has been described as one of the most significant inventions in the history of warfare, prior to gunpowder. As a tool allowing expanded use of horses in warfare, the stirrup is often called the third revolutionary step in equipment, after the chariot and the saddle. The basic tactics of mounted warfare were significantly altered by the stirrup. A rider supported by stirrups was less likely to fall off while fighting, and could deliver a blow with a weapon that more fully employed the weight and momentum of horse and rider. Among other advantages, stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider, which allowed the knight to use a sword more efficiently without falling, especially against infantry adversaries.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The metal stirrup was invented in 4th century China, and spread to Europe by the late 6th or early 7th century, primarily due to invaders from Central Asia, such as the Avars and Cumans. By the 8th century the stirrup was in widespread European use, and later helped stimulate the creation of early knightly classes in the Carolingian empire. It has controversially been argued that the stirrup was responsible for the development of feudalism, though this is not fully accepted.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Byzantine cataphracts were a much feared force in their heyday. The army of Emperor Nicephorus II, the 'Pale Death of the Saracens' himself, relied on its cataphracts as its nucleus, coupling cataphract archers with cataphract lancers to create a self-perpetuating 'hammer blow' tactic where the cataphract lancers would charge again and again until the enemy broke, all the while supported by cataphract archers.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Contemporary depictions however imply that they were not as completely armoured as earlier Roman and Sassanid types—horse armour is noticeably absent. Byzantine cataphracts of the 10th century were drawn from the ranks of the middle class landowners through the theme system, providing the Byzantine Empire with a motivated and professional force. An experimental type of cataphract was brought to the fore in the 10th and 11th centuries known as the "klibanaphoros", "bearer of klibanion"—named after the clibanarius and a throwback to the very heavily armoured cavalry of earlier days. However, the traditional view is that after the loss of prestige, men and material and the horse-rearing plains of Anatolia after they lost the decisive Battle of Manzikert to lighter Turk cavalry, they slowly dropped out of use.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: But according to J. Birkenmeier in "The development of the Komnenian army: 1081–1180", units of 'Kataphraktoi' (cataphracts) were still being used during the 12th century. The Komnenian restoration of the Byzantine Empire during that century created a new kind of Byzantine army, which is known as the Komnenian army. Yet it seems that the cataphract was eventually superseded by other types of armoured cavalry. The emperor Manuel I Komnenos, for example, re-equipped his elite cavalry in the style of western knights.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: It is difficult to determine when exactly the cataphract saw his final day. After all, cataphracts and knights both fulfilled a similar role on the medieval battlefield, and the armoured knight survived well into the modern age. The Byzantines called all heavy shock cavalry "kataphraktoi".


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The Byzantine army maintained units of heavily armoured cavalrymen up to its last years, while neighbouring Bulgars, Serbs, Russian states and other eastern European peoples emulated Byzantine military equipment.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: In the early Middle Ages the rank of knight was loosely defined. In late Carolingian France (10th century) persons occupying this role were known by the Latin term "miles" (plur. "milites"). This term designated a professional fighting man in the emerging feudal system. Many were as poor as the peasant class. However, over time, as this class of fighter became more prominent in post-Carolingian France, they became wealthier and began to hold and inherit land. Eventually fighting on horseback became synonymous with the elite warrior caste.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: From the 12th century on, the term became associated to cavalry and nobility in general, and thus to the earlier Roman equestrian class (see esquire) as well as the Greek Hippei class. As the expense of equipping and maintaining a knight's equipment was beyond the ability of the primitive medieval state to support, the feudal system became more important as a means of securing the loyalty of knights to the king.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Knighthood was a hereditary title, and was usually passed on by a father to his eldest son. All prospective knights were trained from childhood in the knightly traditions of chivalry as well as war. At the age of six, they first became a servant, or page, in another knight's or lord's household, where they learned etiquette as well as basic combat, and after a few years they became a squire, an apprentice and personal assistant to a fully fledged knight, responsible for maintaining the knight's horse and equipment, as well as arming him for battle. At this point he could choose to remain a squire or become a knight, though many remained a squire due to the restrictions and expense of becoming a knight. A squire was made a knight by his superior lord or king through a ceremony known as "dubbing", swearing allegiance to his feudal masters, charity, and protection of other Christians, as well as to respect the law of the land.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Muslim military advances in Sub-Saharan Africa relied heavily on armoured cavalry, playing a similar role to that in medieval Europe.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The Heavy cavalry of the Oyo Empire located in what are now Nigeria and Benin entailed cavalrymen armed with heavy thrusting spears and swords and protected by mail armor. Selected horses were larger imported horses from other neighbouring kingdoms.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: In China, heavy cavalry was developed during the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), with armoured lancers becoming widespread during the Western Han era. Armoured cavalry, with both soldier and steed clad in complete armour, were employed in the late Han dynasty, and became widespread in the 4th century AD, where it was the main striking force of the armies of the Northern dynasties of China (4th century to 6th century.) During the Tang dynasty (618 to 907) the importance of infantry and lighter-armed cavalry and infantry increased while that of the armoured cavalry decreased, with horse armour seldom used. However, armoured cavalry were again used by the Song dynasty (960–1279) and its enemies, including the Jin, Xi Xia, Mongols, and Khitans.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: In Korea, the earliest evidence of armoured cavalry is a mid-4th century AD mural of the Goguryeo era (37 BC–668 AD). Lamellar armour was used for both men and horses, with the soldiers carrying lances. Another Goguryeo-era mural shows an armoured cavalryman wielding his lance using both hands, unlike the couched-lance used by medieval European knights. During the Koryo dynasty (918–1392) barding (horse-armour) was still used, but the number of barded heavy cavalry remains unknown. By the early years of the Chosun dynasty (1392–1897) barding was no longer used, and the horseman's main weapon was the bow, with lances and other close-combat weapons seldom used. However, starting from the 17th century at least, the Korean cavalry began to carry two-handed flails along with bows.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Armoured cavalry, in the form of the gendarme, was at its highest as a proportion of the total number of combatants in many Renaissance armies, especially in France. Other Western European states also used heavy cavalry very often, such as Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in the Italian Wars.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: North-Central and Eastern Europe saw the emergence of winged hussars that proved a decisive factor in the territorial gains of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and in its wars with Sweden, Muscovy and the Ottoman Turks.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Later, the cuirassier was the main form of heavy cavalry, beginning in 1484 with the 100-man strong regiments of Austrian "kyrissers" for the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stratioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units. A 1551 Venetian document describes that part of the English cavalry was armed in the "Albanian fashion".


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Cuirassiers played a very large role in the Thirty Years' War and the related Eighty Years' War, particularly under the House of Orange and Duchy of Savoy. They represented the last gasp of full plate armour on the battlefield. They would have worn very distinctive plate armour, which typically featured very long and wide tassets, articulated leg protectors which would extend all the way from the breastplate down to the knees. The head would typically have been protected by a fully enclosed burgonet, of which the "Savoyard" style was one notable type. This rounded helmet, frequently featuring a stylized or grotesque face mask, was nicknamed "Totenkopf" or "Death's Head" by the German soldiers who encountered cuirassiers so equipped. The cuirassier's armour would have been exceptionally heavy and thick—sometimes up to thirty-six kilogrammes (eighty pounds)—and would be expected to stop a bullet. A regiment of cuirassiers killed the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus at the 1632 Battle of Lützen. The French introduced their own cuirassiers in 1666. However, the amount of armour worn by the cavalry of the European armies in battle had been substantially reduced, with even the cuirass often worn only to the front.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: By 1705, the Holy Roman Emperor's personal forces in Austria included twenty cuirassier regiments. Imperial Russia formed its own cuirassier regiments in 1732, including a Leib Guards regiment. The Russian cuirassier units took part in the Russo-Turkish War.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: Cuirassiers played a prominent role in the armies of Frederick the Great of Prussia and of Napoleon I of France. The latter increased the number of French cuirassier regiments to fourteen by the end of his reign, although they gradually declined in importance as the firepower and accuracy of the muskets and rifles of the infantrymen increased. The cavalry still remained battle-deciders though, with Napoleon maintaining several reserve cavalry corps to be employed at the decisive moment in battle to finally break the enemy formations with a devastating charge.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: From roughly 1650 to 1820, Spanish heavy cavalry fought Apache warriors in North America. Several small battles occurred; most of the time the Spanish lancers were outnumbered severely but still managed to defeat Apache armies, hundreds of men strong. The climax of these conflicts occurred in the region of present-day Tucson, Arizona, in the United States in the late 18th century in Spanish Arizona.


title: Heavy cavalry

text: The last time cavalry of both sides wore a cuirass in battle was during the Franco-Prussian War. The Imperial German and Russian cuirassiers subsequently discarded this armour for all but parade purposes, but the twelve regiments of French heavy cavalry still in existence in 1914 wore their cuirasses on active service during the opening stages of World War I. Although some heavy cavalry regiments have remained into the 21st century, their large mounts are today used solely for ceremonial duties, such as those of the Household Cavalry in the United Kingdom.


title: USS Constellation (FFG-62)

text: USS "Constellation" (FFG-62) will be the lead ship of the of guided-missile frigates and the fifth ship in the United States Navy bearing this name. She is named in honor of the first USS "Constellation", one of the original six frigates of the United States Navy, which was named for the constellation of stars on the flag of the United States. The ship will be sponsored by Melissa Braithwaite, the wife of Secretary of the Navy Kenneth Braithwaite.


title: USS Constellation (FFG-62)

text: Construction of "Constellation" began on August 31, 2022. The ship is expected to enter service in 2026.


title: Animal glue

text: Animal glue is an adhesive that is created by prolonged boiling of animal connective tissue in a process called rendering. In addition to being used as an adhesive it is used for coating and sizing, in decorative composition ornaments, and as a clarifying agent.


title: Animal glue

text: These protein colloid glues are formed through hydrolysis of the collagen from skins, bones, tendons, and other tissues, similar to gelatin. The word "collagen" itself derives from Greek (), meaning 'glue'. These proteins form a molecular bond with the glued object. Conventionally, keratin glues, while made from animal parts like horns and hooves, are not considered animal glues as they are not collagen glues.


title: Animal glue

text: Stereotypically, the animal in question is a horse, and horses that are put down are often said to have been "sent to the glue factory". However, other animals are also used, including cattle, rabbits and fish.


title: Animal glue

text: Animal glue has existed since ancient times, although its usage was not widespread. Glue deriving from horse tooth can be dated back nearly 6000 years, but no written records from these times can prove that they were fully or extensively used.


title: Animal glue

text: The first known written procedures of making animal glue were written about 2000 BC. Between 1500 and 1000 BC, it was used for wood furnishings and mural paintings, found even on the caskets of Egyptian Pharaohs. Evidence is in the form of stone carvings depicting glue preparation and use, primarily used for the pharaoh's tomb furniture. Egyptian records tell that animal glue would be made by melting it over a fire and then applied with a brush.


title: Animal glue

text: Ancient Greeks and Romans later used animal and fish glue to develop veneering and marquetry, the bonding of thin sections or layers of wood. Animal glue, known as () in Greek and in Latin, were made from the skins of bulls in antiquity. Broken pottery might also be repaired with the use of animal glues, filling the cracks to hide imperfections.


title: Animal glue

text: About 906–618 BC, fish, ox horns and stag horns were used to produce adhesives and binders for pigments in China. Animal glues were employed as binders in paint media during the Tang Dynasty. They were similarly used on the Terracotta Army figures. Records indicate that one of the essential components of lampblack ink was proteinaceous glue. Ox glue and stag-horn glues bound particles of pigments together, acting as a preservative by forming a film over the surface as the ink dried. The Chinese, such as Kao Gong Ji, also researched glue for medicinal purposes.


title: Animal glue

text: The use of animal glue, as well as some other types of glues, largely vanished in Europe after the decline of the Western Roman Empire until the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, when wooden furniture started to surge as a major craft. During the medieval ages, fish glue remained a source for painting and illuminating manuscripts. Since the 16th century, hide glue has been used in the construction of violins.


title: Animal glue

text: Native Americans would use hoof glue primarily as a binder and as a water-resistant coating by boiling it down from leftover animal parts and applying it to exposed surfaces. They occasionally used hide glue as paint to achieve patterns after applying pigments and tanning to hides. Hoof glue would be used for purposes aside from hides, such as a hair preservative. The Assiniboins preferred longer hair, so they would plaster the strands with a mixture of red earth and hoof glue. It would also be used to bind feathers and equipment together.


title: Animal glue

text: The first commercial glue factory opened in Holland circa 1700, manufacturing animal glue from hides. The United States’ first glue factory opened in 1899, established by the Milwaukee Tanning Industry. The L.D. Davis company thrived producing animal glue during the Great Depression after shifting its focus from stenciling, selling to local box makers and other users; L.D. Davis' animal glue formula for bookbinding remains in production. During the 18th and 19th centuries, ranchers disposed of old animals – horses in particular – to glue factories. The advent of synthetic adhesives heralded the collapse of the animal glue industry.


title: Animal glue

text: Today, animal glues are sparsely industrialized, but still used for making and restoring violin family instruments, paintings, illuminated parchment manuscripts, and other artifacts. Gelatin, a form of animal glue, is found in many contemporary products, such as gelatin desserts, marshmallows, pharmaceutical capsules, and photographic film and is used to reinforce sinew wrappings, wood, leather, bark, and paper. Hide glue is also preferred by many luthiers over synthetic glues for its reversibility, creep-resistance and tendency to pull joints closed as it cures.