title: Late Roman army

text: A Comes rei militaris (lit. "Companion for Military Affairs") was generally in command of a smaller diocesan "comitatus" (typically ca. 10,000 strong). By the time of the "Notitia", "comites" were mainly found in the West, because of the fragmentation of the western "comitatus" into a number of smaller groups. In the East, there were 2 "comites rei militaris", in command of Egypt and Isauria. Exceptionally, these men were in command of "limitanei" regiments only. Their title may be due to the fact that they reported, at the time to the Notitia, to the emperor direct (later they reported to the "magister militum per Orientem"). A "comes rei militaris" also had command over the border "duces" in his diocese.


title: Late Roman army

text: A Magister militum (lit. "Master of Soldiers") commanded the larger diocesan "comitatus" (normally over 20,000-strong). A "magister militum" was also in command of the "duces" in the diocese where his "comitatus" was deployed.


title: Late Roman army

text: The highest rank of Magister militum praesentalis (lit. "Master of Soldiers in the Presence [of the Emperor]") was accorded to the commanders of imperial escort armies (typically 20-30,000 strong). The title was equivalent in rank to "Magister utriusque militiae" ("Master of Both Services"), "Magister equitum" ("Master of Cavalry") and "Magister peditum" ("Master of Infantry").


title: Late Roman army

text: It is unknown what proportion of the corps commanders had risen from the ranks, but it is likely to have been small as most rankers would be nearing retirement age by the time they were given command of a regiment and would be promoted no further. In contrast, directly commissioned "protectores" and "tribuni" dominated the higher echelons, as they were usually young men when they started. For such men, promotion to corps command could be swift e.g. the future emperor Theodosius I was a "dux" at age 28. It was also possible for rungs on the rank-ladder to be skipped. Commanders of "scholae", who enjoyed direct access to the emperor, often reached the highest rank of "magister militum": e.g. the barbarian-born officer Agilo was promoted direct to "magister militum" from "tribunus" of a "schola" in 360, skipping the "dux" stage.


title: Late Roman army

text: The basic equipment of a 4th-century foot soldier was essentially the same as in the 2nd century: metal armour cuirass, metal helmet, shield and sword. Some evolution took place during the 3rd century. Trends included the adoption of warmer clothing; the disappearance of distinctive legionary armour and weapons; the adoption by the infantry of equipment used by the cavalry in the earlier period; and the greater use of heavily armoured cavalry called cataphracts.


title: Late Roman army

text: In the 1st and 2nd centuries, a Roman soldier's clothes consisted of a single-piece, short-sleeved tunic the hem of which reached the knees and special hobnailed sandals ("caligae"). This attire, which left the arms and legs bare, had evolved in a Mediterranean climate and was not suitable for northern Europe in cold weather. In northern Europe, long-sleeved tunics, trousers ("bracae"), socks (worn inside the "caligae") and laced boots were commonly worn in winter from the 1st century. During the 3rd century, these items of clothing became much more widespread, apparently common in Mediterranean provinces also. However, it is likely that in warmer weather, trousers were dispensed with and "caligae" worn instead of socks and boots. Late Roman clothing was often highly decorated, with woven or embroidered strips, "clavi," circular roundels, "orbiculi," or square panels, "tabulae," added to tunics and cloaks. These colourful decorative elements usually consisted of geometrical patterns and stylised plant motifs, but could include human or animal figures. A distinctive part of a soldier's costume, though it seems to have also been worn by non-military bureaucrats, was a type of round, brimless hat known as the pannonian cap ("pileus pannonicus").


title: Late Roman army

text: Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries had use of the "lorica segmentata", or laminated-strip cuirass, as well as mail ("lorica hamata") and scale armour ("lorica squamata"). Testing of modern copies have demonstrated that "segmentata" was impenetrable to most direct and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable: reenactors have discovered that chafing renders it painful to wear for longer than a few hours at a time, and it was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain. In the 3rd century, the "segmentata" appears to have fallen out of use and troops were depicted wearing mail or scale.


title: Late Roman army

text: It is possible that Vegetius' statements about the abandonment of armour were a misinterpretation by him of sources mentioning Roman soldiers fighting without armour in more open formations during the Gothic wars of the 370s. Evidence that armour continued to be worn by Roman soldiers, including infantry, throughout the period is widespread.


title: Late Roman army

text: The artistic record shows most late Roman soldiers wearing metal armour. For example, illustrations in the "Notitia Dignitatum", compiled after the reign of Gratian, indicate that the army's "fabricae" (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. The Vatican Virgil manuscript, early 5th century, and the Column of Arcadius, reigned 395 to 408, both show armoured soldiers. Actual examples of quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier (with a section of scale), Independența, and Weiler-la-Tour, within a late 4th-century context. Officers and some soldiers may have worn muscle cuirasses, together with decorative "pteruges". In contrast to the earlier "segmentata" plate armour, which afforded no protection for the arms or below the hips, some pictorial and sculptural representations of Late Roman soldiers show mail or scale armours giving more extensive protection. These armours had full-length sleeves and were long enough to protect the thighs.


title: Late Roman army

text: The "catafractarii" and "clibanarii" cavalry, from limited pictorial evidence and especially from the description of these troops by Ammianus, may have worn specialised forms of armour. In particular their limbs were protected by laminated defences, made up of curved and overlapping metal segments: ""Laminarum circuli tenues apti corporis flexibus ambiebant per omnia membra diducti"" (Thin circles of iron plates, fitted to the curves of their bodies, completely covered their limbs). Such laminated defences are attested by a fragment of "manica" found at Bowes Moor, dating to the late 4th century.


title: Late Roman army

text: In general, Roman cavalry helmets had enhanced protection, in the form of wider cheek-guards and deeper neck-guards, for the sides and back of the head than infantry helmets. Infantry were less vulnerable in those parts due to their tighter formation when fighting. During the 3rd century, infantry helmets tended to adopt the more protective features of Principate cavalry helmets. Cheek-guards could often be fastened together over the chin to protect the face, and covered the ears save for a slit to permit hearing e.g. the "Auxiliary E" type or its Niederbieber variant. Cavalry helmets became even more enclosed e.g. the "Heddernheim" type, which is close to the medieval great helm, but at the cost much reduced vision and hearing.


title: Late Roman army

text: In the late 3rd century a complete break in Roman helmet design occurred. Previous Roman helmet types, based ultimately on Celtic designs, were replaced by new forms derived from helmets developed in the Sassanid Empire. The new helmet types were characterised by a skull constructed from multiple elements united by a medial ridge, and are referred to as ridge helmets. They are divided into two sub-groups, the "Intercisa" and "Berkasovo" types. The "Intercisa" design had a two-piece skull, it left the face unobstructed and had ear-holes in the join between the small cheek-guards and bowl to allow good hearing. It was simpler and cheaper to manufacture, and therefore probably by far the most common type, but structurally weaker and therefore offered less effective protection. The "Berkasovo" type was a more sturdy and protective ridge helmet. This type of helmet usually has 4 to 6 skull elements (and the characteristic median ridge), a nasal (nose-guard), a deep brow piece riveted inside the skull elements and large cheekpieces. Unusually the helmet discovered at Burgh Castle, in England, is of the Berkasovo method of construction, but has cheekpieces with earholes. Face-guards of mail or in the form of metal 'anthropomorphic masks' with eye-holes were often added to the helmets of the heaviest forms of cavalry, especially "catafractarii" or "clibanarii".


title: Late Roman army

text: Despite the apparent cheapness of manufacture of their basic components, many surviving examples of Late Roman helmets, including the Intercisa type, show evidence of expensive decoration in the form of silver or silver-gilt sheathing. A possible explanation is that most of the surviving exemplars may have belonged to officers and that silver- or gold-plating denoted rank; and, in the case of mounted gemstones, high rank. Other academics, in contrast, consider that silver-sheathed helmets may have been widely worn by "comitatenses" soldiers, given as a form of pay or reward. Roman law indicates that all helmets of this construction were supposed to be sheathed in a specific amount of gold or silver.


title: Late Roman army

text: The classic legionary "scutum", a convex rectangular shield, also disappeared during the 3rd century. All troops except archers adopted large, wide, usually dished, ovoid (or sometimes round) shields. These shields were still called "Scuta" or "Clipei", despite the difference in shape. Shields, from examples found at Dura Europos and Nydam, were of vertical plank construction, the planks glued, and mostly faced inside and out with painted leather. The edges of the shield were bound with stitched rawhide, which shrank as it dried, improving structural cohesion.


title: Late Roman army

text: The "gladius", a short (median length: 460 mm/18 inches) stabbing-sword that was designed for close-quarters fighting, and was standard for the infantry of the Principate (both legionary and auxiliary), also was phased out during the 3rd century. The infantry adopted the "spatha", a longer (median length: 760 mm/30 in) sword that during the earlier centuries was used by the cavalry only. In addition, Vegetius mentions the use of a shorter-bladed sword termed a "semispatha." At the same time, infantry acquired a thrusting-spear (""hasta"") which became the main close order combat weapon to replace the "gladius." These trends imply a greater emphasis on fighting the enemy "at arm's length". In the 4th century, there is no archaeological or artistic evidence of the "pugio" (Roman military dagger), which is attested until the 3rd century. 4th-century graves have yielded short, single-edged knives in conjunction with military belt fittings.


title: Late Roman army

text: In addition to his thrusting-spear, a late foot soldier might carry a "spiculum", a kind of "pilum", similar to an angon. Alternatively, he may have been armed with short javelins ("verruta" or "lanceae"). Late Roman infantrymen often carried half a dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called "plumbatae" (from "plumbum" = "lead"), with an effective range of c. , well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield or in a quiver. The late foot soldier thus had greater missile capability than his predecessor from the Principate, who was often limited to just two "pila". Late Roman archers continued to use the recurved composite bow as their principal weapon. This was a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon, suitable for mounted and foot archers alike. A small number of archers may have been armed with crossbows ("manuballistae").


title: Late Roman army

text: A critical advantage enjoyed by the late army over all its foreign enemies except the Persians was a highly sophisticated organisation to ensure that the army was properly equipped and supplied on campaign. Like their enemies, the late army could rely on foraging for supplies when campaigning on enemy soil. But this was obviously undesirable on Roman territory and impractical in winter, or in spring before the harvest. The empire's complex supply organisation enabled the army to campaign in all seasons and in areas where the enemy employed a "scorched earth" policy.


title: Late Roman army

text: The responsibility for supplying the army rested with the "praefectus praetorio" of the operational sector. He in turn controlled a hierarchy of civilian authorities (diocesan "vicarii" and provincial governors), whose agents collected, stored and delivered supplies to the troops directly or to predetermined fortified points. The quantities involved were enormous and would require lengthy and elaborate planning for major campaigns. A late legion of 1,000 men would require a minimum of 2.3 tonnes of grain-equivalent "every day". An imperial escort army of 25,000 men would thus require around 5,000 tonnes of grain-equivalent for three months' campaigning (plus fodder for the horses and pack animals).


title: Late Roman army

text: Such vast cargoes would be carried by boat as far as possible, by sea and/or river, and only the shortest possible distance overland. That is because transport on water was far more economical than on land (as it remains today, although the differential is smaller).


title: Late Roman army

text: Land transport of military supplies on the "cursus publicus" (imperial transport service) was typically by wagons ("angariae"), with a maximum legal load of 1,500 lbs (680 kg), drawn by two pairs of oxen. The payload capacity of most Roman freighter-ships of the period was in the range of 10,000–20,000 "modii" (70–140 tonnes) although many of the grain freighters supplying Rome were much larger up 350 tonnes and a few giants which could load 1200 like the Isis which Lucian saw in Athens circa 180 A.D. Thus, a vessel of median capacity of 100 tonnes, with a 20-man crew, could carry the same load as c. 150 wagons (which required 150 drivers and 600 oxen, plus pay for the former and fodder for the animals). A merchant ship would also, with a favourable wind, typically travel three times faster than the typical achieved by the wagons and for as long as there was daylight, whereas oxen could only haul for at most 5 hours per day. Thus freighters could easily cover per day, compared to c. by the wagons. Against this must be set the fact that most freighters of this capacity were propelled by square sails only (and no oars). They could only progress if there was a following wind, and could spend many days in port waiting for one. (However, smaller coastal and fluvial freighters called "actuariae" combined oars with sail and had more flexibility). Maritime transport was also completely suspended for at least four months in the winter (as stormy weather made it too hazardous) and even during the rest of the year, shipwrecks were common. Nevertheless, the surviving shipping-rates show that it was cheaper to transport a cargo of grain by sea from Syria to Lusitania (i.e. the entire length of the Mediterranean – and a ways beyond – c. 5,000 km) than just overland.


title: Late Roman army

text: On rivers, "actuariae" could operate year-round, except during periods when the rivers were ice-bound or of high water (after heavy rains or thaw), when the river-current was dangerously strong. It is likely that the establishment of the empire's frontier on the Rhine-Danube line was dictated by the logistical need for large rivers to accommodate supply ships more than by defensibility. These rivers were dotted with purpose-built military docks ("portus exceptionales"). The protection of supply convoys on the rivers was the responsibility of the fluvial flotillas ("classes") under the command of the riverine "duces". The "Notitia" gives no information about the Rhine flotillas (as the Rhine frontier had collapsed by the time the Western section was compiled), but mentions 4 "classes Histricae" (Danube flotillas) and 8 other "classes" in tributaries of the Danube. Each flotilla was commanded by a "praefectus classis" who reported to the local "dux". It appears that each "dux" on the Danube disposed of at least one flotilla (one, the "dux Pannoniae", controlled three).


title: Late Roman army

text: In the 4th century, the production of weapons and equipment was highly centralised (and presumably standardised) in a number of major state-run arms factories, or "fabricae", documented in the "Notitia". It is unknown when these were first established, but they certainly existed by the time of Diocletian. In the 2nd century, there is evidence of "fabricae" inside legionary bases and even in the much smaller auxiliary forts, staffed by the soldiers themselves. But there is no evidence, literary or archaeological, of "fabricae" outside military bases and staffed by civilians during the Principate (although their existence cannot be excluded, as no archaeological evidence has been found for the late "fabricae" either). Late "fabricae" were located in border provinces and dioceses. Some were general manufacturers producing both armour and weapons ("fabrica scutaria et armorum") or just one of the two. Others were specialised in one or more of the following: "fabrica spatharia" (sword manufacture), "lanciaria" (spears), "arcuaria" (bows), "sagittaria" (arrows), "loricaria" (body armour), "clibanaria" (cataphract armour), and "ballistaria" (catapults).


title: Late Roman army

text: Compared to the 1st and 2nd centuries, the 3rd and 4th centuries saw much greater fortification activity, with many new forts built. Later Roman fortifications, both new and upgraded old ones, contained much stronger defensive features than their earlier counterparts. In addition, the late 3rd/4th centuries saw the fortification of many towns and cities including the City of Rome itself and its eastern sister, Constantinople.


title: Late Roman army

text: According to Luttwak, Roman forts of the 1st/2nd centuries, whether "castra legionaria" (inaccurately translated as legionary "fortresses") or auxiliary forts, were clearly residential bases that were not designed to withstand assault. The typical rectangular "playing-card" shape, the long, thin and low walls and shallow ditch and the unfortified gates were not defensible features and their purpose was delimitation and keeping out individual intruders. This view is too extreme, as all the evidence suggests that such forts, even the more rudimentary earlier type based on the design of marching-camps (ditch, earth rampart and wooden palisade), afforded a significant level of protection. The latter is exemplified by the siege of the legionary camp at "Castra Vetera" (Xanten) during the revolt of the Batavi in 69–70 AD. 5,000 legionaries succeeded in holding out for several months against vastly superior numbers of rebel Batavi and their allies under the renegade auxiliary officer Civilis, despite the latter disposing of c. 8,000 Roman-trained and equipped auxiliary troops and deploying Roman-style siege engines. (The Romans were eventually forced to surrender the fort by starvation).


title: Late Roman army

text: Nevertheless, later forts were undoubtedly built to much higher defensive specifications than their 2nd-century predecessors, including the following features:


title: Late Roman army

text: More numerous than new-build forts were old forts upgraded to higher defensive specifications. Thus the two parallel ditches common around earlier forts could be joined by excavating the ground between them. Projecting towers were added. Gates were either rebuilt with projecting towers or sealed off by constructing a large rectangular bastion. The walls were strengthened by doubling the old thickness. Upgraded forts were generally much larger than new-build. New forts were rarely over one hectare in size and were normally placed to fill gaps between old forts and towns. However, not all of the old forts that continued to be used in the 4th century were upgraded e.g. the forts on Hadrian's Wall and some other forts in Britannia were not significantly modified.


title: Late Roman army

text: The main features of late Roman fortification clearly presage those of medieval castles. But the defensibility of late Roman forts must not be exaggerated. Late Roman forts were not always located on defensible sites, such as hilltops and they were not designed as independent logistic facilities where the garrison could survive for years on internal supplies (water in cisterns or from wells and stored food). They remained bases for troops that would sally out and engage the enemy in the field.


title: Late Roman army

text: Nevertheless, the benefits of more defensible forts are evident: they could act as temporary refuges for overwhelmed local troops during barbarian incursions, while they waited for reinforcements. The forts were difficult for the barbarians to take by assault, as they generally lacked the necessary equipment. The forts could store sufficient supplies to enable the defenders to hold out for a few weeks, and to supply relieving troops. They could also act as bases from which defenders could make sorties against isolated groups of barbarians and to cooperate with relieving forces.


title: Late Roman army

text: The question arises as to why the 4th-century army needed forts with enhanced defensive features whereas the 2nd-century army apparently did not. Luttwak argues that defensible forts were an integral feature of a 4th-century defence-in-depth "grand strategy", while in the 2nd century "preclusive defence" rendered such forts unnecessary . But the existence of such a "strategy" is strongly disputed by several scholars, as many elements of the late Roman army's posture were consistent with continued forward defence. An alternative explanation is that preclusive defence was still in effect but was not working as well as previously and barbarian raids were penetrating the empire more frequently.(see Strategy, below)


title: Late Roman army

text: Edward Luttwak's "Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire" (1976) re-launched the thesis of Theodor Mommsen that in the 3rd and early 4th centuries, the empire's defence strategy mutated from "forward defence" (or "preclusive defence") in the Principate to "defence-in-depth" in the 4th century. According to Luttwak, the army of the Principate had relied on neutralising imminent barbarian incursions before they reached the imperial borders. This was achieved by stationing units (both legions and auxiliary regiments) right on the border and establishing and garrisoning strategic salients beyond the borders. The response to any threat would thus be a pincer movement into barbarian territory: large infantry and cavalry forces from the border bases would immediately cross the border to intercept the coalescing enemy army.


title: Late Roman army

text: According to Luttwak, the forward defence system was always vulnerable to unusually large barbarian concentrations of forces, as the Roman army was too thinly spread along the enormous borders to deal with such threats. In addition, the lack of any reserves to the rear of the border entailed that a barbarian force that successfully penetrated the perimeter defences would have unchallenged ability to rampage deep into the empire before Roman reinforcements from other border garrisons could arrive to intercept them.


title: Late Roman army

text: The essential feature of defence-in-depth, according to Luttwak, was an acceptance that the Roman frontier provinces themselves would become the main combat-zone in operations against barbarian threats, rather than the barbarian lands across the border. Under this strategy, border-forces ("limitanei") would not attempt to repel a large incursion. Instead, they would retreat into fortified strongholds and wait for mobile forces ("comitatenses") to arrive and intercept the invaders. Border-forces would be substantially weaker than under forward defence, but their reduction in numbers (and quality) would be compensated by the establishment of much stronger fortifications to protect themselves.


title: Late Roman army

text: But the validity of Luttwak's thesis has been strongly contested by a number of scholars, especially in a powerful critique by B. Isaac, the author of a leading study of the Roman army in the East (1992). Isaac claims that the empire did not have the intelligence capacity or centralised military planning to sustain a grand strategy e.g. there was no equivalent to a modern army's general staff. In any case, claims Isaac, the empire was not interested in "defence" at all: it was fundamentally aggressive both in ideology and military posture, up to and including the 4th century.


title: Late Roman army

text: Furthermore, there is a lack of substantial archaeological or literary evidence to support the defence-in-depth theory. J.C. Mann points out that there is no evidence, either in the "Notitia Dignitatum" or in the archaeological record, that units along the Rhine or Danube were stationed in the border hinterlands. On the contrary, virtually all forts identified as built or occupied in the 4th century on the Danube lay on, very near or even beyond the river, strikingly similar to the 2nd-century distribution.


title: Late Roman army

text: Another supposed element of "defence-in-depth" were the "comitatus praesentales" (imperial escort-armies) stationed in the interior of the empire. A traditional view is that the escort-armies' role was precisely as a strategic reserve of last resort that could intercept really large barbarian invasions that succeeded in penetrating deep into the empire (such as the invasions of the late 3rd century). But these large "comitatus" were not established before 312, by which time there had not been a successful barbarian invasion for c. 40 years. Also Luttwak himself admits that they were too distant from the frontier to be of much value in intercepting barbarian incursions. Their arrival in theatre could take weeks, if not months. Although the "comitatus praesentales" are often described as "mobile field-armies", in this context "immobile" would be a more accurate description. Hence the mainstream modern view that the central role of "comitatus praesentales" was to provide emperors with insurance against usurpers.


title: Late Roman army

text: Luttwak terminates his analysis at the end of Constantine's reign, before the establishment of the diocesan "comitatus". Unlike the imperial escort-armies, these were close enough to the theatre of operations to succour the border troops. But their stationing may have differed little from the location of legions in the 2nd century, even though they apparently wintered inside cities, rather than in purpose-built legionary bases. For example, the two "comitatus" of Illyricum (East and West) are documented as wintering in Sirmium, which was the site of a major legionary base in the Principate.


title: Late Roman army

text: Furthermore, the late empire maintained a central feature of the forward defence of the Principate: a system of treaties of mutual assistance with tribes living on the imperial frontiers. The Romans would promise to defend the ally from attack by its neighbours. In return, the ally would promise to refrain from raiding imperial territory, and prevent neighbouring tribes from doing the same. Although the allies would officially be denoted "tributarii" (i.e. subject to paying tribute to Rome, in cash or in kind), in practice the loyalty of the ally was often secured by gifts or regular subsidies from Rome. This practice was applied on all the frontiers. The Romans continued to assist the client tribes to defend themselves in the 4th century. For example, Constantine I's army constructed two massive lines of defensive earthworks, 100–250 km beyond the Danube, totalling c. in length, the Devil's Dykes in Hungary/Romania and the Brazda lui Novac de Nord in Romania. Garrisoned by a mix of Roman and native troops, their purpose was to protect Dacian and Sarmatian tributary tribes of the Tisza and Wallachian plains against Gothic incursions. This created a Transdanubian buffer zone, extending from "Aquincum" (Budapest) all the way to the Danube delta, obviously contradicting the proposition that the empire's Danubian border provinces were themselves envisaged as buffer zones. This was especially unlikely in the case of these regions, as the Illyrian emperors and officer class that dominated the late army would hardly relish seeing their native provinces reduced to combat zones.


title: Late Roman army

text: Late Roman emperors continued major and frequent offensive operations beyond the imperial borders throughout the 4th century. These were strikingly similar to the pincer movements described by Luttwak as being characteristic of forward defence in the early Principate. For example, Valentinian I's campaign against the Quadi in 375. Julian in 356–60 and Valentinian I in 368–74 carried out several operations across the Rhine and Danube designed to force the submission of local tribes and their acceptance of "tributarii" status.


title: Late Roman army

text: The late army's "defence" posture thus contains many elements that are similar to that of the army of the Principate, raising the question of whether defence-in-depth was ever in reality contemplated (or implemented) as a strategy. But the debate about defence-in-depth is still very much alive in academic circles.


title: Late Roman army

text: A traditional thesis is that cavalry assumed a much greater importance in the 4th-century army than it enjoyed in the 2nd century. According to this view, cavalry increased significantly as a proportion of the total forces and took over the leading tactical role from the infantry. It also enjoyed much higher status than in the 2nd century. At the same time, the infantry declined in efficiency and value in operations, leaving the cavalry as the effective arm. In fact, there is no good evidence to support this view, and plenty of evidence against it.


title: Late Roman army

text: As regards numbers, the mid-2nd-century army contained c. 80,000 cavalry out of c. 385,000 total effectives i.e. cavalry constituted c. 21% of the total forces. For the late army, about one third of the army units in the "Notitia" are cavalry, but in numbers cavalry were a smaller proportion of the total because cavalry units were on average smaller than infantry units. For example, in the "comitatus", cavalry "vexillationes" were probably half the size of infantry "legiones". Overall, the available evidence suggests that the proportion of cavalry was much the same as in the 2nd century. Examples: in 478, a "comitatus" of 38,000 men contained 8,000 cavalry (21%). In 357, the "comitatus" of Gaul, 13–15,000 strong, contained an estimated 3,000 cavalry (20–23%).


title: Late Roman army

text: As a consequence, most battles in the 4th century were, as in previous centuries, primarily infantry encounters, with cavalry playing a supporting role. The main qualification is that on the Eastern frontier, cavalry played a more prominent role, due to the Persian reliance on cavalry as their main arm. This obliged the Romans to strengthen their own cavalry element, in particular by increasing the number of "cataphracti".


title: Late Roman army

text: The supposedly higher status of cavalry in the 4th century is also open to doubt. This view is largely based on underestimating the importance of cavalry in the 2nd century. Cavalry always had higher status than infantry in the Principate: in the time of Domitian (r. 81–96), auxiliary cavalry was paid 20–40% more than auxiliary infantry.


title: Late Roman army

text: The view of some modern scholars that the 4th-century cavalry was a more efficient service than the infantry was certainly not shared by Ammianus and his contemporaries. Ammianus describes three major battles which were actually or nearly lost due to the incompetence or cowardice of the Roman cavalry. (1) The Battle of Strasbourg (357), where the cavalry, including cataphracts, were routed by their German counterparts at an early stage, leaving the Roman infantry right wing dangerously exposed. After fleeing behind the infantry lines, it took the personal intervention of Julian to rally them and persuade them to return to the fight. (The cataphracts were later ordered to wear female clothes by Julian as punishment). (2) During his Persian campaign (363), Julian was obliged to sanction two cavalry units for fleeing when caught by surprise attacks (one unit was decimated, the other dismounted). Later, the "Tertiaci" cavalry regiment was ordered to march with the camp followers for deserting the field just as the infantry was on the point of breaking the Persian line. (3) At the Battle of Adrianople (378), the Roman cavalry was largely responsible for the catastrophic defeat. "Scholae" units started the battle by an unauthorised attack on the enemy wagon circle, at a moment when their emperor Valens was still trying to negotiate a truce with the Goths. The attack failed, and when the Gothic cavalry appeared, the Roman cavalry fled, leaving the Roman infantry left wing exposed. The Gothic cavalry then routed the Roman left wing, and the battle was as good as lost.


title: Late Roman army

text: In contrast, the excellent performance of the infantry, both "comitatenses" and "limitanei", is a recurrent feature of Ammianus' history. At the Persian siege of Amida, Ammianus' eye-witness account describes the city's defence by "limitanei" units as skilful and tenacious, if ultimately unsuccessful. At Strasbourg (357), the infantry showed remarkable skill, discipline and resilience throughout, saving the day at two critical moments.(see Battle of Strasbourg for a detailed account). Even at the disaster of Adrianople, the Roman infantry fought on, despite being abandoned by their cavalry and surrounded on three sides by overwhelmingly superior numbers of Goths.


title: Late Roman army

text: Just as the armour and weapons of the late army were fundamentally similar to those of earlier eras, so the army's tactics were based on traditional principles. The key elements of systematic scouting, marching formation, battle array, fortified camping, and siegecraft were all followed intact in the late period. This section examines aspects of late tactics that differed significantly from tactics of the Principate.


title: Late Roman army

text: One striking difference was that late army doctrine (and practice) aimed at avoiding open battle with the enemy if possible, unlike the early doctrine from the Principate of seeking to bring the enemy to battle as often and as quickly as possible. The main motivation was likely not a reduced ability to win such encounters. The late army continued to win the great majority of its battles with barbarians. Rather, the primary concern seemed to be the need to minimise casualties. Pitched battles generally resulted in heavy losses of high-grade "comitatenses" troops, which could not be easily replaced. This in turn supports the hypothesis that the late army had greater difficulty than the Principate in finding sufficient recruits, and especially high-quality recruits. The late army preferred to attack the enemy by stealth or stratagem: ambushes, surprise attacks, harassment and manoeuvres to corner the enemy in zones where they could not access supplies and from which they could not escape (e.g. by blocking mountain passes or river crossings).


title: Late Roman army

text: Where battle could not be avoided, the late army broadly followed traditional practice as regards array. Heavy infantry would be drawn up in a main line, normally straight and several ranks deep. Mounted archers were stationed, together with light-armed slingers, in front of the main infantry line. Cavalry would be posted on the wings (light cavalry on the outside). Foot archers would form the rear rank(s) of the main infantry line. There would be a reserve line of infantry and cavalry of variable strength, to the rear of the main line, in order to deal with breaches in the main line and to exploit opportunities. At a distance of a mile or so to the rear of the army, its fortified camp of the previous night would contain its assistants and baggage, guarded by a small garrison. The camp could act as a refuge if the army was put to flight. Roman armies in the field never camped overnight without constructing defences. A ditch would be dug around the perimeter of the camp, and the spoil used to erect a rampart, which would then be topped with a palisade of sharpened wooden stakes arranged cross-hatched to form an impenetrable screen. Such defences, systematically patrolled, effectively precluded surprise attacks and enabled the troops to get a good night's sleep.


title: Late Roman army

text: Where the late army appears to have evolved to some extent is in battle tactics. The older army of the Principate had relied on a barrage of heavy javelins ("pila") followed by an infantry charge, which was often sufficient to shatter, or at least disorganise, the barbarian line. After that, legionaries were trained to engage in aggressive hand-to-hand combat, using the "gladius" short-sword to execute quick thrusts at the abdomen of their enemies, in a similar manner to more recent bayonet drill. In close combat, the Romans had the crucial advantage of superior armour, and such tactics very often resulted in the rout of the less well-equipped and trained barbarian foe. The mounted archers, and slingers on foot, in front of the main infantry line would loose their missiles on the enemy before the infantry lines engaged and then withdraw behind their own infantry line. Along with the foot archers already there, they would continue to rain arrows and sling projectiles on the enemy foot by shooting over the heads of their own infantry. The cavalry's task on each wing was to scatter the enemy cavalry facing them and then, if possible, to encircle the main body of enemy infantry and attack them from the flanks and rear.


title: Late Roman army

text: In the late army, while the role of archers and cavalry remained similar, the infantry's tactics were less aggressive, relying less on the charge and often waiting for the enemy to charge. During the battle, the Roman line would exert steady pressure in close formation. The thrusting-spear (2–2.5 m long) had replaced the "gladius" (just long) as the primary mêlée weapon. The extended reach of the thrusting-spear, combined with the adoption of oval or round shields, permitted a battle array where shields were interlocked to form a "shield wall", with spears protruding through the 'V' shaped gaps formed between overlapping shields. The late army also relied more heavily on missiles, replacing the single volley of "pila" with a more prolonged discharge of javelins and darts.


title: Late Roman army

text: This kind of combat was consistent with the aim of minimising casualties and its efficacy is illustrated by the Battle of Strasbourg. The battle was primarily a struggle of attrition where steady pressure on the barbarians resulted in their eventual rout. Despite a long and hard-fought struggle, Roman casualties were negligible in comparison to the losses sustained by the defeated army.


title: Late Roman army

text: The barbarisation theory, ultimately derived from Edward Gibbon's 18th-century "magnum opus", "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", contains two propositions. (1) That the late army recruited much greater numbers of barbarian-born troops than the army of the Principate; and (2) that the greater number of barbarian recruits resulted in a major decline of the army's effectiveness and was a leading factor in the collapse of the Western Roman empire. As discussed above, proposition (1) is probably correct, although it should be borne in mind that probably about three-quarters of the late army's recruits remained Roman-born. This section considers proposition (2).


title: Late Roman army

text: According to this view, the barbarian officers and men recruited by the late army, coming from tribes that were traditional enemies of Rome, had no real loyalty to Rome and often betrayed her interests, colluding with invading barbarian tribes, especially if those tribes were their own. At the same time, the spread of barbarian customs and culture led to a decline in traditional military discipline, and internal army disunity due to friction between Romans and barbarians. Ultimately, the army degenerated into just a collection of foreign mercenary bands that were incapable of defending the empire effectively.


title: Late Roman army

text: According to the historian A.D. Lee, there is little evidence to support this view and compelling reasons to reject it. Firstly, the late army clearly was not, and did not become, ineffective. The regular army in the West remained a formidable force until the political disintegration of the West in mid-5th century and continued to win most of its major encounters with barbarian forces e.g. the defeat of Radagaisus in 405. In any case, the Eastern empire did not collapse, even though its army probably contained at least the same proportion of barbarians as the West, if not greater. An analysis of the ethnicity of Roman army officers named in the sources shows that in the period 350–99, 23% were probably barbarian-born. The same figure for period 449–76 officers, virtually all Easterners (as the Western army had largely dissolved) was 31%. In the "Notitia", 55 Eastern regiments carry barbarian names, compared with 25 in the Western army.


title: Late Roman army

text: There is a tendency by some modern scholars to ascribe to ancient barbarians a degree of ethnic solidarity that did not exist, according to A.H.M. Jones. Germanic tribes were constantly fighting each other and even within such tribal confederations as the Franks or Alamanni there were bitter feuds between the constituent tribes and clans. Indeed, a primary reason why many tribal sub-groups surrendered to the Roman authorities ("dediticii") and sought to settle in the empire as "laeti" was in order to escape pressure from their neighbours. The few known conflicts of loyalty only arose when the Roman army was campaigning against a barbarian-born soldier's own specific clan. Ammianus himself never characterises barbarian-born troops as unreliable. On the contrary, his evidence is that barbarian soldiers were as loyal, and fought as hard, as Roman ones.


title: Late Roman army

text: An indication of the army's high esteem for barbarian-born troops is that they appear to have been preferentially recruited to the elite units of the late imperial era's armies. In the "auxilia palatina" infantry regiments, the proportion of barbarians in the ranks appears to have numbered anywhere between a third and a half of effectives (compared to a quarter in the army as a whole). From the late 3rd century onwards, barbarian recruitment became crucial to the army's continued existence, by providing a much-needed source of first-rate recruits.


title: Late Roman army

text: The former Oxford University historian Adrian Goldsworthy has argued that the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West should not be blamed on barbarization of the late Roman Army, but on its recurrent civil wars, which seriously weakened its ability to repel or defeat invasions from outside its frontiers. The East Roman or Byzantine empire on the other hand had fewer civil wars to contend with in the years from 383-432 A.D.


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator (TABS) is a ragdoll physics battle simulation fighting video game developed and published by Landfall Games. It is a parody of the battle simulator genre. An alpha version of the game was initially released in 2016 to a small audience. The game was released in early access on Steam on 1 April 2019, for Microsoft Windows and macOS, and in December 2019 for Xbox One. It has since received numerous free title updates that have added new content, such as maps and units, in addition to fixing bugs and improving the performance. The game was released in full on 1 April 2021 for Microsoft Windows and macOS and on 5 October 2021 for Xbox players. A Nintendo Switch port was released in November 2022. Versions for Android and iOS are currently in development.


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: "Totally Accurate Battle Simulator" is a ragdoll physics battle simulator. The game encompasses two main modes: Campaign and Sandbox. In the former, players are given a limited amount of in-game money to build an army in order to defeat an enemy force. In the latter, there is no monetary limit and players build both armies. The two opposing armies can be placed on either opposite sides of the map, or one can surround the other. As soon as the player clicks "Start", the battle begins and the two armies rush forward to attack each other. Once either army has been defeated, the battle freezes and the player is informed of who the victor is. While armies typically win by defeating all enemy units, a May 2020 update added new winning conditions, such as surviving for a given amount of time, or killing a specific enemy unit. During ongoing battles, players can move the camera around the map to get a better view of the fight, and can slow down or freeze time themselves. With the addition of a May 2019 update, players are also able to "possess" units—controlling them manually from a third- or first-person perspective.


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: The game has over 130 units across fourteen factions, which are mostly themed around different cultures and eras of human history. Some of these units are hidden on various maps and must be found by the player before they are unlocked. Many units have special abilities that are unique to them or they share with a few others, such as flight, projectile deflection, and teleportation. The maps in the game are centered around the same themes as the factions and differ in size and geography. The game features twenty maps in total, with twenty-two additional "Simulation" maps.


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: Players can create their own battle scenarios, choosing from any of the available units, maps, and winning conditions. A December 2020 update added the Unit Creator, where players can create their own units, giving them abilities, clothing, and weapons from the already existing "TABS" units, as well as the spin-offs "Totally Accurate Battlegrounds" and "Totally Accurate Battle Zombielator". Both custom battles and units can be shared with other players via the in-game workshop. The full release of the game in April 2021 added both online and local multiplayer modes, and achievements.


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: The game was made during a week-long game jam in a Swedish castle. The game was developed using the Unity game engine. Landfall Games released the download for people who signed up to their website in July 2016. The game was released in open alpha in November 2016, while the closed alpha was released in December 2016. The full version of the game was released in early access on Steam on 1 April 2019 for Microsoft Windows and macOS.


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: On 9 June 2019 at the E3 convention, Xbox announced via their Indie Developers program that "TABS" would be coming to Xbox One in the Xbox Game Pass later that year. It was released via Xbox Game Preview on December 20, 2019. On 1 April 2020, free downloadable content (DLC) for the game, entitled the "Bug DLC", was released; for a limited time, players could buy the DLC, with half the money raised being donated to Doctors Without Borders.


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: The game exited early access for Windows and Mac on 1 April 2021. The Xbox One version was released in full on October 5, 2021. A Nintendo Switch port of the game is slated for launch in Q3 2022. A port for iOS and Android is currently being developed by Landfall Games in collaboration with XD.


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: The game received generally positive reviews. It has been referred to as a "vibrant and goofy take on chaotic combat", and its "silly graphics and kind of wonky body physics" were told to be part of the "charming appeal of an otherwise realistic simulator". The game has also been described as "brilliant in its simplicity" and "outstanding".


title: Totally Accurate Battle Simulator

text: Two spin-offs, "Totally Accurate Battle Zombielator", which is a parody of the survival horror genre, and "Totally Accurate Battlegrounds", a parody of the battle royale genre, were released on 1 April 2017 and 5 June 2018, respectively.


title: Stewart Brand

text: Stewart Brand (born December 14, 1938) is an American writer, best known as editor of the "Whole Earth Catalog". He founded a number of organizations, including The WELL, the Global Business Network, and the Long Now Foundation. He is the author of several books, most recently "Whole Earth Discipline: An Ecopragmatist Manifesto".


title: Stewart Brand

text: Brand was born in Rockford, Illinois, and attended Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire. He studied biology at Stanford University, graduating in 1960. As a soldier in the U.S. Army, he was a parachutist and taught infantry skills; he later expressed the view that his experience in the military had fostered his competence in organizing. A civilian again in 1962, he studied design at San Francisco Art Institute, photography at San Francisco State College, and participated in a legitimate scientific study of then-legal LSD, in Menlo Park, California. In 1966, he married mathematician Lois Jennings, an Ottawa Native American.


title: Stewart Brand

text: Brand has lived in California since the 1960s. He and his second wife live on "Mirene", a -long working tugboat. Built in 1912, the boat is moored in a former shipyard in Sausalito, California. He works in "Mary Heartline", a grounded fishing boat about 100 yards (90 metres) away. One of his favorite items is a table on which Otis Redding is said to have written "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay". (Brand acquired it from an antiques dealer in Sausalito.)


title: Stewart Brand

text: By the mid-1960s, Brand became associated with New York multimedia group USCO and Bay Area author Ken Kesey and his "Merry Pranksters". Brand co-produced the Trips Festival, an early effort involving rock music and light shows, in San Francisco with Kesey and Ramón Sender Barayón. This was one of the first venues at which the Grateful Dead performed in San Francisco. About 10,000 hippies attended, and Haight-Ashbury soon emerged as a community. Tom Wolfe describes Brand in his 1968 book, "The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test".


title: Stewart Brand

text: In 1966, while on an LSD trip on the roof of his house in North Beach, San Francisco, Brand became convinced that seeing an image of the whole Earth would change how we think about the planet and ourselves. He then campaigned to have NASA release the then-rumored satellite image of the entire Earth as seen from space. He sold and distributed buttons for 25 cents each asking, "Why haven't we seen a photograph of the whole Earth yet?". During this campaign, Brand met Richard Buckminster Fuller, who offered to help Brand with his projects. In 1967, a satellite, ATS-3, took the photo. Brand thought the image of our planet would be a powerful symbol. It adorned the first (Fall 1968) edition of the Whole Earth Catalog. Later in 1968, NASA astronaut Bill Anders took an Earth photo, "Earthrise", from Moon orbit, which became the front image of the spring 1969 edition of the "Catalog". 1970 saw the first celebration of Earth Day. During a 2003 interview, Brand explained that the image "gave the sense that Earth's an island, surrounded by a lot of inhospitable space. And it's so graphic, this little blue, white, green and brown jewel-like icon amongst a quite featureless black vacuum."


title: Stewart Brand

text: In late 1968, Brand assisted electrical engineer Douglas Engelbart with The Mother of All Demos, a famous presentation of many revolutionary computer technologies (including hypertext, email, and the mouse) to the Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco.


title: Stewart Brand

text: Brand surmised that given the necessary consciousness, information, and tools, human beings could reshape the world they had made (and were making) for themselves into something environmentally and socially sustainable.


title: Stewart Brand

text: During the late 1960s and early 1970s about 10 million Americans were involved in living communally. In 1968, using the most basic approaches to typesetting and page-layout, Brand and his colleagues created issue number one of "The Whole Earth Catalog", employing the significant subtitle, "access to tools". Brand and his wife Lois travelled to communes in a 1963 Dodge truck known as the "Whole Earth Truck Store", which moved to a storefront in Menlo Park, California. That first oversize "Catalog", and its successors in the 1970s and later, reckoned a wide assortment of things could serve as useful "tools": books, maps, garden implements, specialized clothing, carpenters' and masons' tools, forestry gear, tents, welding equipment, professional journals, early synthesizers, and personal computers. Brand invited "reviews" (written in the form of a letter to a friend) of the best of these items from experts in specific fields. The information also described where these things could be located or purchased. The "Catalog"s publication coincided with the great wave of social and cultural experimentation, convention-breaking, and "do it yourself" attitude associated with the "counterculture".


title: Stewart Brand

text: The influence of these "Whole Earth Catalog"s on the rural back-to-the-land movement of the 1970s, and the communities movement within many cities, was widespread throughout the United States, Canada, and Australia. A 1972 edition sold 1.5 million copies, winning the first U.S. National Book Award in category Contemporary Affairs.


title: Stewart Brand

text: Steve Jobs ended his 2005 Stanford University commencement address by acknowledging both Stewart Brand and the "Whole Earth Catalog", quoting from the latter's final issue, "Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish."


title: Stewart Brand

text: To continue this work and also to publish full-length articles on specific topics in the natural sciences and invention, in numerous areas of the arts and the social sciences, and on the contemporary scene in general, Brand founded the "CoEvolution Quarterly" (CQ) during 1974, aimed primarily at educated laypersons. Brand never better revealed his opinions and reason for hope than when he ran, in "CoEvolution Quarterly" #4, a transcription of technology historian Lewis Mumford's talk "The Next Transformation of Man", in which he stated that "man has still within him sufficient resources to alter the direction of modern civilization, for we then need no longer regard man as the passive victim of his own irreversible technological development."


title: Stewart Brand

text: The content of "CoEvolution Quarterly" often included futurism or risqué topics. Besides giving space to unknown writers with something valuable to say, Brand presented articles by many respected authors and thinkers, including Lewis Mumford, Howard T. Odum, Witold Rybczynski, Karl Hess, Orville Schell, Ivan Illich, Wendell Berry, Ursula K. Le Guin, Gregory Bateson, Amory Lovins, Hazel Henderson, Gary Snyder, Lynn Margulis, Eric Drexler, Gerard K. O'Neill, Peter Calthorpe, Sim Van der Ryn, Paul Hawken, John Todd, Kevin Kelly, and Donella Meadows. During ensuing years, Brand authored and edited a number of books on topics as diverse as computer-based media, the life history of buildings, and ideas about space colonies.


title: Stewart Brand

text: He founded the "Whole Earth Software Review," a supplement to the "Whole Earth Software Catalog," in 1984. It merged with "CoEvolution Quarterly" to form the "Whole Earth Review" in 1985.


title: Stewart Brand

text: From 1977 to 1979, Brand served as "special advisor" to the administration of California Governor Jerry Brown.


title: Stewart Brand

text: In 1985, Brand and Larry Brilliant founded The WELL ("Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link"), a prototypical, wide-ranging online community for intelligent, informed participants the world over. The WELL won the 1990 Best Online Publication Award from the Computer Press Association. Almost certainly the ideas behind the WELL were greatly inspired by Douglas Engelbart's work at SRI International; Brand was acknowledged by Engelbart in "The Mother of All Demos" in 1968 when the computer mouse and video conferencing were introduced.


title: Stewart Brand

text: In 2000, Brand helped to launch the All Species Foundation, which aimed to catalog all species of life on Earth until its closure in 2007.


title: Stewart Brand

text: During 1986, Brand was a visiting scientist at the MIT Media Lab. Soon after, he became a private-conference organizer for such corporations as Royal Dutch/Shell, Volvo, and AT&T Corporation. In 1988, he became a co‑founder of the Global Business Network, which explores global futures and business strategies informed by the sorts of values and information which Brand has always found vital. The GBN has become involved with the evolution and application of scenario thinking, planning, and complementary strategic tools. For fourteen years, Brand was on the board of the Santa Fe Institute (founded in 1984), an organization devoted to "fostering a multidisciplinary scientific research community pursuing frontier science." He has also continued to promote the preservation of tracts of wilderness.


title: Stewart Brand

text: The "Whole Earth Catalog" implied an ideal of human progress that depended on decentralized, personal, and liberating technological development—so‑called "soft technology". However, during 2005 he criticized aspects of the international environmental ideology he had helped to develop. He wrote an article called "Environmental Heresies" in the May 2005 issue of the MIT "Technology Review", in which he describes what he considers necessary changes to environmentalism. He suggested among other things that environmentalists embrace nuclear power and genetically modified organisms as technologies with more promise than risk.


title: Stewart Brand

text: Brand later developed these ideas into a book and published the "Whole Earth Discipline: An Ecopragmatist Manifesto" in 2009. The book examines how urbanization, nuclear power, genetic engineering, geoengineering, and wildlife restoration can be used as powerful tools in humanity's ongoing fight against global warming.


title: Stewart Brand

text: In a 2019 interview, Brand described his perspective as "post-libertarian", indicating that at the time when the Whole Earth Catalog was being written, he did not fully understand the significance of the role of government in the development of technology and engineering. In his environmental position he self-describes as an "Eco-pragmatist".


title: Stewart Brand

text: Brand is co‑chair and President of the Board of Directors of the Long Now Foundation. Brand chairs the foundation's Seminars About Long-term Thinking (SALT). This series on long-term thinking has presented a large range of different speakers including: Brian Eno, Neal Stephenson, Vernor Vinge, Philip Rosedale, Jimmy Wales, Kevin Kelly, Clay Shirky, Ray Kurzweil, Bruce Sterling, Cory Doctorow, and many others.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry (born Chembolu Seetharama Sastry; 20 May 1955 – 30 November 2021) was an Indian poet and lyricist known for his works in Telugu cinema and Telugu theatre. He acquired the stage name Sirivennela after writing the lyrics for K. Viswanath's directorial film of the same name in 1986. Sastry has garnered several awards including eleven state Nandi Awards and four Filmfare Awards South for his work. He has penned lyrics for over 3000 songs until 2020. In 2019, he was awarded the Padma Shri, the fourth-highest civilian award in India, for his contributions towards the field of arts and aesthetics.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: A particular highlight of the movie is the song "Vidhata Thalapuna", sung by S. P. Balasubrahmanyam and P. Susheela. The song is about Aum, the most sacred syllable in Hinduism, from which the Veda traditions originated. Other notable songs include "Adibhikshuvu Vadinedi Koredhi" and "Ee gali Ee Nela". The songs and their lyrics became hugely popular with Sastry subsequently winning his first Nandi Award for Best Lyricist for the song "Aadi Bhikshuvu". He won the Nandi Award for his first film.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: He then wrote lyrics for many songs in films such as "Swayam Krushi", "Swarna Kamalam", "Samsaram Oka Chadarangam", "Shrutilayalu", and "Pelli Chesi Choodu". The lyrics for these songs met with positive reception. He won his second Nandi Award for Best Lyricist for the song "Telavardemo Swamy" from the film "Shrutilayalu" and his third Nandi Award for Best Lyricist for the song "Andela Ravamidi Padamuladaa" from the film "Swarna Kamalam" in 1988. He is the first person to have won Nandi Awards in three consecutive years in 1986, 1987 and 1988.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: He then wrote the lyrics to many songs from the films such as "Swarakalpana", "Anna Thammudu", "Indrudu Chandrudu", "Alludugaru", and "Antam" with all songs garnering positive reception. His lyrics for the film "Gaayam" were particularly well received, and Sastry was awarded his fourth Nandi Award for Best Lyricist for the song "Surajyamavaleni" in 1993.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: He then wrote lyrics for many songs for films such as "Kshana Kshanam", "Swati Kiranam", "Money", "Govinda Govinda", "Criminal", "Gulabi", "Love Birds" (Telugu Version), "Taraka Ramudu", "Shubhalagnam", "Srikaram" and "Little Soldiers". He won his fifth and sixth Nandi Award for Best Lyricist for the films "Shubhalagnam" and "Srikaram" respectively.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: He followed up with lyrics for songs in films such as "Shubha Muhurtam", "Priya Raagaalu", "Aahaa..!", "Pelli Kanuka", "Sindhooram", "Aavida Maa Aavide", "Chandralekha", "Wife of V. Varaprasad", "Seetharama Raju", "Prema Katha" etc. His lyrics received positive reception and won him his seventh and eighth Nandi Award for Best Lyricist for the songs "Ardha Shatabdapu" ("Sindhooram") and "Devudu Karunistadani" ("Prema Katha").


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: He started 2000s by writing lyrics for films such as "Murari", "Oh Chinadana", "Okkadu", "Nuvve Kavali", "Nuvvu Naaku Nachav", "Manmadhudu", "Ela Cheppanu", "Varsham", "Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana", "Chakram", and "Happy". Among these songs, "Hare Rama" ("Okkadu"), "Ekkada Unna" ("Nuvve Kavali"), "Aakasam Thakela" ("Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana") and "Jagamantha Kutumbam" ("Chakram") got positive reception with "Aakasam Thakela" winning him his first Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu and "Jagamantha Kutumbam" winning him his ninth Nandi Award for Best Lyricist.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: He followed up by writing lyrics for many songs from films such as "Bommarillu", "Aadavari Matalaku Ardhalu Verule", "Gamyam", "Sasirekha Parinayam", "Jalsa", "Parugu", "Kotha Bangaru Lokam", "Mahatma" etc. "Entha Varaku" from "Gamyam" is often described as one of his best works and won him his tenth Nandi Award for Best Lyricist and second Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu is for "Inthavaraku" from "Gamyam", the third Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu is for "Konthamandi Sontha Peru" from "Mahatma" & the fourth Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu is for "Raa Mundaduguveddham" from "Kanche".


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: In 2011, he wrote lyrics for "Badulu Thochani" ("Mr. Perfect") with rave reviews for its lyrical content. He also wrote lyrics for many songs from the films such as "Oh My Friend", "Oosaravelli", "Tuneega Tuneega", "Onamalu", "Krishnam Vande Jagadgurum", "Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu", "Greeku Veerudu", "Paisa", "Om 3D", "Balupu", "Anthaka Mundu Aa Tarvatha", "Adavi Kaachina Vennela".


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: He is considered one of the greatest lyricists in Telugu Film Industry along with Veturi and Aatreya. Most of the younger lyricists like Chandra Bose, Ananth Sreeram and Rama Jogayya Sastri consider him as their guru. He has written over 3000 songs and was felicitated for this achievement in the Audio function of 2014 movie Mukunda. His lyrics for 2015 song "Mental Madhilo" from "OK Bangaram" have received praise. His lyrics for "OK Bangaram" have been considered very apt for a dubbed version. He was the speaker at the Telugu Association of North America's celebrations held in Chicago Illinois, U.S. 2–4 July 2009. In 2014, he was also felicitated by the Bay Area Telugu association.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: Seetharama Sastry is known to have a long time association with banners Annapurna Studios and Sumanth Art Productions and directors K. Viswanath, Ram Gopal Varma, Krishna Vamsi and Trivikram Srinivas.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: For Annapurna Studios he has written lyrics for most of the songs from films such as "Sisindri", "Ninne Pelladata" (involving Krishna Vamsi), "Little Soldiers", "Chandralekha" (involving Krishna Vamsi), "Yuvakudu", ""Sri Sita Ramula Kalyanam Chutamu Rarandi"", "Prema Katha" (involving Ram Gopal Varma), "Aahaa..!", "Manmadhudu". Among them, for most films he was the single card lyricist (lyrics for all songs written by a single lyricist).


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: For Sumanth Art Productions, he contributed lyrics for films such as "Manasantha Nuvve", "Okkadu", "Nee Sneham", "Varsham", "Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana", "Pournami", "Vaana" and "Aata" and for most of the films he was the single card lyricist.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: With Ram Gopal Varma, he has worked on many films, contributing lyrics, such as "Siva", "Antam", "Kshana Kshanam", "Gaayam", "Govinda Govinda", "Rangeli (Telugu dubbed version of Rangeela)", "Anaganaga Oka Roju", "50-50" (Telugu dubbed version of "Daud"), "Satya" (Telugu dubbed version), "Prema Katha" and for many production ventures by Ram Gopal Varma such as "Money", "Gulabi" etc. And for most of them, he was the single card lyricist.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: With K. Viswanath, he has worked on many films including his debut venture "Sirivennela", "Sruthilayalu", "Swayamkrushi", "Swarna Kamalam", "Aapadbandhavudu", "Swati Kiranam", "Subha Sankalpam" etc. K. Viswanath is also known to have introduced Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: Krishna Vamsi is known to be a big fan of Sitarama Sastry. The films for which Sitarama Sastry wrote lyrics, which were directed by Krishna Vamsi include "Ninne Pelladatha", "Gulabi", "Sindhooram", "Chandralekha", "Murari", "Khadgam", "Chakram", "Mahatma" etc. and more recently "Paisa".


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: Trivikram Srinivas is a relative of Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry. Sitarama Sastry wrote lyrics to films directed by Trivikram such as "Nuvve Nuvve", "Athadu", "Jalsa" , "Khaleja", "Son of Satyamurthy", "Agnyaathavaasi" and "Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo"


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: Seetharama Sastry's lyrics are known to have extreme optimistic value. Through his lyrics, he has time and again conveyed the essence of life by giving simple yet powerful examples and motivated people into living a happy, meaningful life irrespective of the hurdles one encounters. Some examples of this kind of song include "Aakasam Thakela" ("Nuvvostanantey Nenoddantana", Prabhu Deva's directorial debut), "Entha Varaku" ("Gamyam"). Some of his songs also have rebellious tendencies, criticizing the shortcomings and social evils of society in songs like "Niggadeesi Adugu" ("Gaayam"), "Ardha Satabdhapu" ("Sindhooram"). He also wrote songs which have humour like "Vaareva Emi Face uu" (Money).


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: He was often considered the most versatile Telugu film lyricist working because he has contributed lyrics for songs comprising all kinds of genres like duets, hero introduction, romantic, devotional, thought provoking, lighter vein.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: Seetharama Sastry was a celebrity actor for "Subhagruha", a real estate firm. His interpretation of his Lyrics & Poetry has been published as a book named "Sirivennela Tarangalu".


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: Sitarama Sastry attended Loksatta Party on 3 March 2014 in a public event in Tirupati. In summer of 2014 along with singers Parthasaradhi (Parthu) and Sahithi, he toured many cities in United States presenting the concept behind the lyrics called "Sirivennela Antharangaalu".


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: Seetharama Sastry died on 30 November 2021 at Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences, Secunderabad, Telangana due to lung cancer. On 24 November 2021, he was admitted to KIMS hospital with pneumonia and was put on ECMO (extracorporeal membrane oxygenation) treatment for supporting his lungs.


title: Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry

text: This is a listing of the songs and tracks Sastry has contributed as a lyricist in the chronological order of films.


title: What Happens to My Family?

text: What Happens to My Family? () is a 2014–2015 South Korean television series starring Yoo Dong-geun, Kim Hyun-joo, Yoon Park and Park Hyung-sik. It aired on KBS2 on Saturdays and Sundays at 19:55 (KST) time slot from August 16, 2014, to February 15, 2015.


title: What Happens to My Family?

text: Cha Soon-bong (Yoo Dong-geun) is a widower who has devoted his life to his three children. His eldest daughter Kang-shim (Kim Hyun-joo), after a failed relationship, has resigned herself to never marry and a lifetime of being alone; his eldest son Kang-jae (Yoon Park), a brilliant oncologist, is resentful of his humble origins; and his youngest son, Dal-bong (Park Hyung-sik).


title: What Happens to My Family?

text: In 2015, a Turkish television series with the title The Baba Candir, based on the drama was released. There is a Mexican adaptation called Que le pasa a mi Familia? which was released on 2021.


title: Passive transport

text: Passive transport is a type of membrane transport that does not require energy to move substances across cell membranes. Instead of using cellular energy, like active transport, passive transport relies on the second law of thermodynamics to drive the movement of substances across cell membranes. Fundamentally, substances follow Fick's first law, and move from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration because this movement increases the entropy of the overall system. The rate of passive transport depends on the permeability of the cell membrane, which, in turn, depends on the organization and characteristics of the membrane lipids and proteins. The four main kinds of passive transport are simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration, and/or osmosis.


title: Passive transport

text: Diffusion is the net movement of material from an area of high concentration to an area with lower concentration. The difference of concentration between the two areas is often termed as the "concentration gradient", and diffusion will continue until this gradient has been eliminated. Since diffusion moves materials from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, it is described as moving solutes "down the concentration gradient" (compared with active transport, which often moves material from area of low concentration to area of higher concentration, and therefore referred to as moving the material "against the concentration gradient").


title: Passive transport

text: However, in many cases (e.g. passive drug transport) the driving force of passive transport can not be simplified to the concentration gradient. If there are different solutions at the two sides of the membrane with different equilibrium solubility of the drug, the difference in the degree of saturation is the driving force of passive membrane transport. It is also true for supersaturated solutions which are more and more important owing to the spreading of the application of amorphous solid dispersions for drug bioavailability enhancement.


title: Passive transport

text: Simple diffusion and osmosis are in some ways similar. Simple diffusion is the passive movement of solute from a high concentration to a lower concentration until the concentration of the solute is uniform throughout and reaches equilibrium. Osmosis is much like simple diffusion but it specifically describes the movement of water (not the solute) across a selectively permeable membrane until there is an equal concentration of water and solute on both sides of the membrane. Simple diffusion and osmosis are both forms of passive transport and require none of the cell's ATP energy.


title: Passive transport

text: A biological example of diffusion is the gas exchange that occurs during respiration within the human body. Upon inhalation, oxygen is brought into the lungs and quickly diffuses across the membrane of alveoli and enters the circulatory system by diffusing across the membrane of the pulmonary capillaries. Simultaneously, carbon dioxide moves in the opposite direction, diffusing across the membrane of the capillaries and entering into the alveoli, where it can be exhaled. The process of moving oxygen into the cells, and carbon dioxide out, occurs because of the concentration gradient of these substances, each moving away from their respective areas of higher concentration toward areas of lower concentration. Cellular respiration is the cause of the low concentration of oxygen and high concentration of carbon dioxide within the blood which creates the concentration gradient. Because the gasses are small and uncharged, they are able to pass directly through the cell membrane without any special membrane proteins. No energy is required because the movement of the gasses follows Fick's first law and the second law of thermodynamics.


title: Passive transport

text: Facilitated diffusion, also called carrier-mediated osmosis, is the movement of molecules across the cell membrane via special transport proteins that are embedded in the plasma membrane by actively taking up or excluding ions. Active transport of protons by H ATPases alters membrane potential allowing for facilitated passive transport of particular ions such as potassium down their charge gradient through high affinity transporters and channels.


title: Passive transport

text: An example of facilitated diffusion is when glucose is absorbed into cells through Glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) in the human body. There are many other types of glucose transport proteins, some that do require energy, and are therefore not examples of passive transport. Since glucose is a large molecule, it requires a specific channel to facilitate its entry across plasma membranes and into cells. When diffusing into a cell through GLUT2, the driving force that moves glucose into the cell is still the concentration gradient. The main difference between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion is that facilitated diffusion requires a transport protein to 'facilitate' or assist the substance through the membrane. After a meal, the cell is signaled to move GLUT2 into membranes of the cells lining the intestines called enterocytes. With GLUT2 in place after a meal and the relative high concentration of glucose outside of these cells as compared to within them, the concentration gradient drives glucose across the cell membrane through GLUT2.


title: Passive transport

text: Filtration is movement of water and solute molecules across the cell membrane due to hydrostatic pressure generated by the cardiovascular system. Depending on the size of the membrane pores, only solutes of a certain size may pass through it. For example, the membrane pores of the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys are very small, and only albumins, the smallest of the proteins, have any chance of being filtered through. On the other hand, the membrane pores of liver cells are extremely large, but not forgetting cells are extremely small to allow a variety of solutes to pass through and be metabolized.


title: Passive transport

text: Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. The net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a solution of high water potential to an area of low water potential. A cell with a less negative water potential will draw in water but this depends on other factors as well such as solute potential (pressure in the cell e.g. solute molecules) and pressure potential (external pressure e.g. cell wall). There are three types of Osmosis solutions: the isotonic solution, hypotonic solution, and hypertonic solution. Isotonic solution is when the extracellular solute concentration is balanced with the concentration inside the cell. In the Isotonic solution, the water molecules still moves between the solutions, but the rates are the same from both directions, thus the water movement is balanced between the inside of the cell as well as the outside of the cell. A hypotonic solution is when the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than the concentration inside the cell. In hypotonic solutions, the water moves into the cell, down its concentration gradient (from higher to lower water concentrations). That can cause the cell to swell. Cells that don't have a cell wall, such as animal cells, could burst in this solution. A hypertonic solution is when the solute concentration is higher (think of hyper - as high) than the concentration inside the cell. In hypertonic solution, the water will move out, causing the cell to shrink.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: Everything I Never Told You is the 2014 debut novel by Celeste Ng. The novel topped Amazon's Best Books of the Year list for 2014. The novel is about a mixed-race Chinese-American family whose middle daughter Lydia is found drowned in a nearby lake. Ng spent six years writing the novel, going through four different full drafts.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: On May 3, 1977, Lydia Lee, the middle child of the Lee family, is missing. After several days, her body is dredged out of the town lake. Lydia's parents, James and Marilyn, are horrified by their daughter's death. As the police investigate, her parents discover that, contrary to their belief that Lydia was popular and doing well in school, she was actually very lonely with almost no friends and that her grades had severely slipped.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: The death of Lydia leads James and Marilyn to reflect on their lives. James, the academically gifted child of Chinese immigrants, spent his life yearning to belong. He met Marilyn in 1957 when he was a doctoral candidate at Harvard teaching a class on American culture in which she was a student. After graduation, James failed to secure a faculty position at Harvard, so he accepted an offer from the fictional Middlewood College in Ohio. Marilyn grew up disgusted by her homemaker mother (who taught home economics at her high school) and longed to become a doctor. When she met James and recognized the racist treatment he had been enduring, Marilyn felt a kinship with him and the two began a relationship. Discovering she was pregnant, Marilyn arranged for a quick marriage to James and was angry when her mother tried to stop the wedding after seeing that James was of Asian descent.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: Marilyn intended to resume her studies to become a doctor after her son, Nathan, was born, but after her second pregnancy, with Lydia, she remained a homemaker for eight years. Upon receiving news of her estranged mother's death, Marilyn returns to her childhood home in Virginia to deal with her mother's possessions. While doing so, she realizes that she became a homemaker, as her mother had always desired. Marilyn then abandons her family to pursue her academic studies. James believes that she has left because he and the children are Asian, and that she no longer wants to deal with the societal pressure of being outsiders.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: Marilyn's absence lasts nine weeks, during which time she discovers that she is pregnant with a third child, Hannah. She returns home and realizes that she will never have the will to abandon her children and pursue a career again. Instead, Marilyn encourages Lydia to become a doctor, aggressively training her in math and science. During Marilyn's absence, James began favoring Lydia and bullying Nathan, whom James perceives to be as friendless as James was in childhood. Because of this, Nathan becomes jealous of Lydia and one day pushes her into the lake even though she cannot swim. However, the ease with which she falls causes Nathan to realize that Lydia is drowning under the weight of her parents' expectations. He rescues her and then the two become close.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: By the time they are teenagers, Lydia begins buckling under the weight of her mother's expectations and cannot keep up with the advanced math and science courses her mother encourages her to take. She also is tired of pretending that she has friends in order to assuage her father. Lydia begins to hang out with Jack, a next door neighbor whom Nathan hates, and who has a reputation for deflowering town girls.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: Meanwhile, Nathan, who has spent the past few years being ignored by his parents, is accepted into Harvard. Lydia is scared of being abandoned by Nathan and hides his acceptance letter. When she is caught, a rift develops between the siblings. Lydia goes to Jack, hoping to have sex with him, but Jack confesses that he is in love with Nathan, and that his reputation as a Lothario is a pretense. Returning home, Lydia is determined to reveal her shortcomings to her father and mother. Tracing her unhappiness to the time her brother pushed her into the lake, Lydia goes there late at night intending to jump into the water and swim back to shore. However, Lydia drowns instead; it is suggested that her death was not a suicide as posited previously, but probably an accidental death.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: In the present, Marilyn discovers that after Lydia's death, James has begun an affair with one of his graduate students, Louisa Chen, who is also of Chinese descent. Marilyn learns that James believes that she resents their marriage because he and the children are not white. James leaves Marilyn. However, James and Marilyn slowly begin to reconnect when he returns.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: Nathan, who still believes that Jack is responsible for Lydia's death, confronts him by the lake, punching him twice before Hannah, who has realized that Jack is in love with Nathan, stops him. Nathan falls into the lake, where he realizes that he will never understand Lydia's death and achieves a modicum of closure. He is helped out of the lake by Jack.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: The novel won the "Amazon Book of the Year Award" in 2014, beating out works by Stephen King and Hilary Mantel. It also received the 2015 Massachusetts Book Award, the American Library Association's 2015 Alex Award, the Asian/Pacific Librarians Association Award for Literature (Adult Fiction), and the Medici Book Club Prize, and was a finalist for the Ohioana Book Awards, The John Creasy/New Blood Dagger Award. and the VCU/Cabell First Novelist Award.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: According to the review aggregator website Bookmarks "Everything I Never Told You" received rave reviews. Writing for "The New York Times", Alexander Chee described the novel as "a deep, heartfelt portrait of a family struggling with its place in history, and a young woman hoping to be the fulfillment of that struggle." Similarly Mark Lawson of "The Guardian" praised the author's debut novel, writing "Ng brilliantly depicts the destruction that parents can inflict on their children and on each other." The review concludes with Lawson noting, ""Everything I Never Told You" ranks with acute novels of family psycho-pathology such as Jane Hamilton's "A Map of the World" and Laura Lippman's "What the Dead Know"." "Kirkus Reviews" noted "Ng's emotionally complex debut novel sucks you in like a strong current and holds you fast until its final secrets surface."


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: The book's rights were optioned by LD Entertainment. Oscar-nominated producer Michael De Luca was attached to produce with Julia Cox attached to adapt the screenplay. In December 2018, Julia Roberts was attached to play the lead female role by the book's author.


title: Everything I Never Told You

text: In May 2020, LD Entertainment's option had expired. Annapurna TV bought the rights to Ng's debut novel and is planning to produce alongside A-Major and will produce it as a limited series instead. Megan Ellison, Sue Naegle, Patrick Chu, and Ali Krug will executive produce the project for Annapurna while Mary Lee will executive produce for A-Major.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: Duke of Hamilton is a title in the Peerage of Scotland, created in April 1643. It is the senior dukedom in that peerage (except for the Dukedom of Rothesay held by the Sovereign's eldest son), and as such its holder is the premier peer of Scotland, as well as being head of both the House of Hamilton and the House of Douglas. The title, the town of Hamilton in Lanarkshire, and many places around the world are named after members of the Hamilton family. The ducal family's surname, originally "Hamilton", is now "Douglas-Hamilton". Since 1711, the Dukedom has been held together with the Dukedom of Brandon in the Peerage of Great Britain, and the Dukes since that time have been styled Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, along with several other subsidiary titles.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon is Hereditary Keeper of the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the official royal residence in Scotland, where he maintains large private quarters. He is also, as Lord Abernethy and in this respect successor to the Gaelic Earls of Fife, the Hereditary Bearer of the Crown of Scotland, a role which the 15th Duke performed at the inauguration of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, as did the 16th Duke at the State Opening of Parliament, 30 June 2011. Traditionally, the Duke of Hamilton enjoys the exclusive right to remove the Scottish Crown Jewels from the City of Edinburgh. He also regularly attends sittings in the Court of Lord Lyon as an hereditary assessor, sitting on the bench beside Lord Lyon.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The courtesy titles used by heirs apparent are "Marquess of Douglas and Clydesdale" (the eldest son of the Duke) and "Earl of Angus" (the eldest son of a Marquess of Douglas and Clydesdale). No Duke has had a great-grandson in direct line to the titles, but it is likely that such an heir would be styled "Lord Abernethy" (the Lordship of Abernethy and Jedburgh Forest being the most senior available title).


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: Before the Dukes succeeded to the Marquessate of Douglas and its subsidiary titles, the heirs apparent were styled initially "Earl of Arran" (which had previously been used as a courtesy title by the Marquesses of Hamilton) and later "Marquess of Clydesdale" (the former style then being adopted for a grandson in direct line). The heir apparent to the Earldom of Lanark (before that title merged with the Dukedom) was styled "Lord Polmont".


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon is one of only five British peers to hold more than one dukedom, the others being:


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: Historically, several other peers have held multiple dukedoms, including the Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne and Newcastle-under-Lyne, the Duke of Argyll and Greenwich, the Duke of Monmouth and Buccleuch and the two Dukes of Queensberry and Dover and some other mainly Royal Dukes.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: Gilbert de Hameldun is recorded as witnessing a charter confirming the gift of the church at Cragyn to the Abbey of Paisley in 1271. His ancestry is uncertain but he may have been the son of William de Hamilton (third son of Robert de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester) and Mary of Strathearn. Gilbert de Hameldun married Isabella Randolph, daughter of Thomas Randolph of Strathdon, Chamberlain of Scotland. His heir was Walter fitz Gilbert. He was governor of Bothwell Castle for the English Crown during the First War of Scottish Independence. Following the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, he gave refuge to the Earl of Hertford and other escapees, only to deliver them and Bothwell up to Edward Bruce. He then became a Bruce partisan. Sometime between 1315 and 1329, Robert the Bruce knighted him and granted him lands in Renfrewshire and the Lothians and Cadzow (present day Hamilton in Lanarkshire), including Cadzow Castle. The lands had previously belonged to John Comyn, who was murdered by Robert the Bruce.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The 1st laird of Cadzow was succeeded as 2nd laird by his son Sir David fitz Walter. He was a supporter of King David II and fought at the Battle of Neville's Cross (Battle of Durham) where he was captured along with the King. His son David Hamilton, the 3rd laird, was the first to establish Hamilton as the family name. David Hamilton's son Sir John Hamilton became the 4th laird and was in turn succeeded as 5th laird by his son James Hamilton.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The 5th laird was succeeded as 6th laird by his son, Sir James Hamilton, who was created a Lord of Parliament as Lord Hamilton on 3 July 1445. In early 1474, he married Princess Mary, Countess of Arran, daughter of King James II and widow of Thomas Boyd, 1st Earl of Arran. He was succeeded by his only legitimate son, James, 2nd Lord Hamilton. In 1490, then aged 15, he married the 13-year-old Elizabeth, Lady Hay, daughter of Alexander Home, 2nd Lord Home and widow of Sir Thomas Hay, Master of Yester, son and heir of John Hay, 1st Lord Hay of Yester. However, it was later discovered that Sir Thomas Hay was still alive and the marriage was annulled. The 2nd Lord married secondly Janet, Lady Livingstone, daughter of Sir David Beaton of Creich and widow of Sir Robert Livingstone of Easter Wemyss and Drumry. He became a Privy Counsellor to King James IV, and helped to arrange his marriage to Princess Margaret, daughter of King Henry VII of England. As a reward he was created Earl of Arran on 8 August 1503. He was succeeded by his elder son from his second marriage, James, 2nd Earl of Arran. He was Regent of Scotland between 1542 and 1554, and guardian of the young Mary, Queen of Scots. He was created Duc de Châtellerault in the Peerage of France in 1548 for his part in arranging the marriage of Queen Mary to Francis, Dauphin of France. This French Dukedom was forfeit when he switched allegiances in 1559. Emperor Napoleon III "confirmed" this title for the 12th Duke of Hamilton in the 19th century, but although the 12th Duke was heir male of the 2nd Earl, the legal effect of this "confirmation" is doubtful.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The 2nd Earl was succeeded by his eldest son, James, 3rd Earl of Arran, who had been proposed as a husband to Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1561. In 1562 he was declared insane, and in 1581 he resigned the Earldom to James Stewart of Bothwellhaugh. However, in 1586 his resignation was ruled by the Court of Session to be the act of a madman and his honours were restored.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The 3rd Earl's younger brother John Hamilton (who was styled Lord Hamilton as is traditional for the younger sons of Earls) was appointed to administer his brother's estates. He was created Marquess of Hamilton, Earl of Arran and Lord Aven on 17 April 1599. His son, James, 2nd Marquess of Hamilton (who had been created Lord Aberbrothwick (or Arbroath) on 5 May 1608, before he succeeded) moved to England with King James VI, and invested into the Somers Isles Company, an offshoot of the Virginia Company, buying the shares of Lucy Russell, Countess of Bedford. The Parish of Hamilton in the Somers Isles (now Bermuda) is named for him. Upon the death of his uncle in 1609 he succeeded as 4th Earl of Arran (of the 1503 creation) and 5th Lord Hamilton. He was also created Earl of Cambridge and Baron Innerdale in the Peerage of England on 16 June 1619.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: His son, James, 3rd Marquess of Hamilton, was created Duke of Hamilton, Marquess of Clydesdale, Earl of Arran and Cambridge and Lord Aven and Innerdale on 12 April 1643, with a special remainder allowing succession through the female line should his and his brother's heirs male fail. His son, Charles, Earl of Arran, died young and the 1st Duke's titles passed to his younger brother, William, 2nd Duke of Hamilton, who had already been created Earl of Lanark and Lord Machanshire and Polmont on 31 March 1639. A surrender and regrant in 1650 allowed these also to be inherited by the 1st Duke's elder daughter. Upon his death in 1651, with no further heirs in the immediate male line, the Dukedom (and the titles created with it), as well as the Earldom of Lanark (and the title created with it), passed to that daughter, Anne, 3rd Duchess of Hamilton. The 1503 Earldom of Arran and the Lordship of Hamilton became dormant, and all the other titles (the Marquessate of Hamilton, the 1599 Earldom of Arran and the Lordships of Hamilton, Aven and Aberbrothwick in the Peerage of Scotland, and the Earldom of Cambridge and the Barony of Innerdale in the Peerage of England) became extinct.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: In 1656, the 3rd Duchess married William Douglas, 1st Earl of Selkirk, third son of William Douglas, 1st Marquess of Douglas. He had been created Earl of Selkirk and Lord Daer and Shortcleuch on 4 August 1646. He changed his surname to "Hamilton", and on 20 September 1660 was created Duke of Hamilton, Marquess of Clydesdale, Earl of Arran, Lanark and Selkirk and Lord Aven, Machanshire, Polmont and Daer for life. In 1688, he resigned the Earldom of Selkirk and the Lordship of Daer and Shortcleuch, and those titles were regranted to his second son, with a special remainder designed to prevent them becoming merged with the Dukedom. (See Earl of Selkirk for the subsequent history of those titles, which were eventually inherited by the 12th Duke of Hamilton, becoming separated again from the Dukedom on the death of the 13th Duke in 1940).


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: On 9 July 1698, the 3rd Duchess resigned all her titles in favour of her eldest son, James, Earl of Arran, who thereby succeeded as 4th Duke in his mother's lifetime (his father had died in 1694). During the lead up to the Acts of Union 1707, the 4th Duke was the leader of the anti-union party. He was created Duke of Brandon, in the County of Suffolk, and Baron Dutton, in the County of Chester, in the Peerage of Great Britain on 10 September 1711, but was wrongfully refused a summons to the Parliament of Great Britain under that title (although he continued to sit as a representative peer). He was killed in a celebrated duel with Charles Mohun, 4th Baron Mohun (who also died) in Hyde Park in London on 15 November 1712.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The 4th Duke's son James, 5th Duke of Hamilton was succeeded by his son James, 6th Duke of Hamilton and he by his son James, 7th Duke of Hamilton. In 1761, the 7th Duke's second cousin twice removed, Archibald Douglas, 1st Duke of Douglas, died without an heir. As the Duke of Hamilton, though still using the surname "Hamilton", was patrilineally a "Douglas" (through the 3rd Duchess's husband), the 7th Duke became heir male of the House of Douglas and inherited the Duke of Douglas's subsidiary titles (although not the Dukedom), succeeding as 4th Marquess of Douglas, 14th and 4th Earl of Angus and 4th Lord Abernethy and Jedburgh Forest. He died without issue and was succeeded by his brother Douglas, 8th Duke of Hamilton. He left no sons and the title passed back to his uncle, the 6th Duke's brother, Archibald, 9th Duke of Hamilton. He was succeeded by his son Alexander, 10th Duke of Hamilton and then by his son William, 11th Duke of Hamilton. The 11th Duke's son William, 12th Duke of Hamilton (who changed his surname to "Hamilton Douglas") died without a male heir and the Dukedom passed to his fourth cousin Alfred, 13th Duke of Hamilton, who was descended from the 4th Duke of Hamilton and whose line of the family had adopted the surname "Douglas-Hamilton". His son was Douglas, 14th Duke of Hamilton, who was succeeded by his son Angus, 15th Duke of Hamilton. He died in 2010, and was succeeded by his son, the current Duke, Alexander, 16th Duke of Hamilton.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: The letters patent that created the Dukedom of Hamilton contained a special remainder. It stipulated that the Dukedom should descend to:


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: As the first Duke and his brother (the second Duke) both died without surviving sons, the succession has since 1651 been governed by the third rule given, with the dukedom going to the grantee's daughter (the third Duchess) and her heirs male.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: George Douglas, an illegitimate son of William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas, was created Earl of Angus on 9 April 1389.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: His descendant, William, 11th Earl of Angus, was created Marquess of Douglas, Earl of Angus and Lord Abernethy and Jedburgh Forest on 14 June 1633.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: His great-grandson, Archibald, 3rd Marquess of Douglas, was created Duke of Douglas, Marquess of Angus and Abernethy, Viscount of Jedburgh Forest and Lord Douglas of Bonkill, Prestoun and Robertoun on 10 April 1703.


title: Duke of Hamilton

text: He died, married but childless, in 1761, at which point the Dukedom of Douglas (and the titles created with it) became extinct, but the Marquessate of Douglas, both Earldoms of Angus and the Lordship of Abernethy and Jedburgh Forest passed to his second cousin twice removed and heir male, James Hamilton, 7th Duke of Hamilton.